UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF LEGAL STUDIES
PANJAB UNIVERSITY, CHANDIGARH
Project Report of Environmental Law on “History of Cement”
SUBMITTED TO: Prof.Jatinder Maan
SUBMITTED BY: Vishavjit Singh
Class- B.A. LLB (8th Sem)
Section- C
Roll no.- 148/20
Acknowledgement
This is to acknowledge that I, Vishavjit Singh a bonafide student of UILS, PUNJAB
UNIVERSITY has made this project with the support few people who deserve a word of
appreciation for their contribution in the making of this project; firstly, I would like to express
my heartfelt gratitude to Professor Dr. Shruti Bedi, UILS for her never ending trust in the
students. Thereafter I would like to thank Prof. Jatinder Maan for the unnerving efforts he puts
into his teachings. I am thankful to him for giving this opportunity to research on such an
informative topic. Lastly, I would express my heartiest gratitude towards my family and friends
for their constant support.
Vishavjit Singh
B.A. LLB
Section: - C
Roll No: - 148/20
Contents
Acknowledgement...........................................................................................................................2
Introduction- ‘CEMENT’................................................................................................................4
History of Concrete: The Evolution.................................................................................................5
Early Use of Concrete..................................................................................................................5
Egypt........................................................................................................................................6
China........................................................................................................................................6
Rome........................................................................................................................................6
Technological Milestones............................................................................................................7
India And Cement............................................................................................................................8
Introduction..................................................................................................................................8
History.............................................................................................................................................9
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................10
China and Cement..........................................................................................................................11
Belt and Road Initiative (Reviving Silk Route).........................................................................11
Effect On Environment..................................................................................................................13
Introduction................................................................................................................................13
CO2 emissions.....................................................................................................................13
CO2 Absorption.....................................................................................................................14
Heavy metal emissions in the air...........................................................................................15
BIBLIOGRAPHY..........................................................................................................................16
“If the cement industry were a country it would rank as the world’s third largest
GHG emitter.”
Introduction- ‘CEMENT’
A cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres
to other materials to bind them together. Cement mixed with fine aggregate produces mortar for
masonry, or with sand and gravel, produces concrete. Concrete is the most widely used material
in existence and is behind only water as the planet's most-consumed resource.
Cements used in construction are usually inorganic, often lime or calcium silicate based, which
can be characterized as hydraulic or the less common non-hydraulic, depending on the ability
of the cement to set in the presence of water.
Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) set and become adhesive through a chemical
reaction between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical process for hydraulic cement was
found by ancient Romans who used volcanic ash (pozzolana) with added lime (calcium oxide).
Non-hydraulic cement (less common) does not set in wet conditions or under water. Rather, it
sets as it dries and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It is resistant to attack by chemicals after
setting.
The word "cement" can be traced back to the Ancient Roman term opus caementicium, used to
describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime
as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that were added to the burnt lime,
to obtain a hydraulic binder, were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment, and cement.
In modern times, organic polymers are sometimes used as cements in concrete.
World production of cement is about 4.4 billion tonnes per year (2021, estimation), of which
about half is made in China, followed by India and Vietnam.
The cement production process is responsible for nearly 8% of global CO 2 emissions, which
includes heating raw materials in a cement kiln by fuel combustion and resulting release of
CO2 stored in the calcium carbonate (calcination process).
History of Concrete: The Evolution
Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement is from twelve million years ago. A deposit of
cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned
by natural causes. These ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s.
6500BC – UAE: The earliest recordings of concrete structures date back to 6500BC by the
Nabataea traders in regions of Syria and Jordan. They created concrete floors, housing
structures, and underground cisterns.
3000 BC – Egypt and China: Egyptians used mud mixed with straw to bind dried bricks. They
also used gypsum mortars and mortars of lime in the pyramids. The Great Pyramids at Giza
used about 500,000 tons of mortar. A form of cement was also used to build the Great Wall of
China around this time.
600 BC – Rome: Although the Ancient Romans weren’t the first to create concrete, they were
the first to utilize this material widespread. By 200 BC, the Romans successfully implemented
the use of concrete in the majority of their construction. They used a mixture of volcanic ash,
lime, and seawater to form the mix. They then packed the mix into wooden forms, and once
hardened, stacked the blocks like brick. After more than 2,000 years, Roman concrete structures
stand tall due to their ingredients colliding with Earth’s natural chemistry.
Early Use of Concrete
The first concrete-like structures were built by the Nabataea traders or Bedouins who occupied
and controlled a series of oases and developed a small empire in the regions of southern Syria
and northern Jordan in around 6500 BC. They later discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime
-- that is, cement that hardens underwater -- and by 700 BC, they were building kilns to supply
mortar for the construction of rubble-wall houses, concrete floors, and underground waterproof
cisterns. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to
thrive in the desert.
Egypt
Around 3000 BC, the ancient Egyptians used mud mixed with straw to form bricks. Mud with
straw is more similar to adobe than concrete. However, they also used gypsum and lime mortars
in building the pyramids. The Great Pyramid at Giza required about 500,000 tons of mortar,
which was used as a bedding material for the casing stones that formed the visible surface of the
finished pyramid. This allowed stone masons to carve and set casing stones with joints open no
wider than 1/50-inch.
China
About this same time, the northern Chinese used a form of cement in boat-building and in
building the Great Wall. Spectrometer testing has confirmed that a key ingredient in the mortar
used in the Great Wall and other ancient Chinese structures was glutenous, sticky rice. Some of
these structures have withstood the test of time and have resisted even modern efforts at
demolition.
Rome
By 600 BC, the Greeks had discovered a natural pozzolan material that developed hydraulic
properties when mixed with lime, but the Greeks were nowhere near as prolific in building with
concrete as the Romans. By 200 BC, the Romans were building very successfully using concrete,
but it wasn’t like the concrete we use today. It was not a plastic, flowing material poured into
forms, but more like cemented rubble. The Romans built most of their structures by stacking
stones of different sizes and hand-filling the spaces between the stones with mortar. Above
ground, walls were clad both inside and out with clay bricks that also served as forms for the
concrete. The brick had little or no structural value and their use was mainly cosmetic. Before
this time, and in most places at that time (including 95% of Rome), the mortars commonly used
were a simple limestone cement that hardened slowly from reacting with airborne carbon
dioxide. True chemical hydration did not take place. These mortars were weak.
Technological Milestones
During the Middle Ages, the history of concrete crept backward. After the fall of the Roman
Empire in 476 AD, the technique for making pozzolan cement was lost until the discovery of
manuscripts describing it was found in 1414. This rekindled the interest in building with
concrete.
It wasn’t until 1793 that the technology took a big leap forward when John Smeaton discovered
a more modern method for producing hydraulic lime for cement. He used limestone containing
clay that was fired until it turned into clinker, which was then ground into powder. He used this
material in the historic rebuilding of the Eddystone Lighthouse in Cornwall, England.
In 1824 Joseph Aspdin invented Portland cement by burning finely ground chalk and clay until
the carbon dioxide was removed. Aspdin named the cement after the high-quality building
stones quarried in Portland, England.
In the 19th Century concrete was used mainly for industrial buildings. The first widespread use
of Portland cement in home construction was in England and France between 1850 and 1880 by
Francois Coignet, who added steel rods to prevent exterior walls from spreading.
India And Cement
Introduction
Since independence in the year 1947, cement in India remained a controlled commodity for
nearly four decades. The price and distribution of cement were controlled by the Government. In
the controlled era, prices fixed were not attractive enough to reinvest in the cement industry, to
modernize plant and machinery and to create new capacities; hence there was a gap between
demand and supply and cement shortages continued all along the control period. As a result,
both, the cement industry and the consumers suffered.
As a part of liberalization policy, the Government of India started gradual " decontrol " of cement
in 1977 which then gave 12% post tax return on net worth on new capacity creation. It provided
the initial boost to cement industry followed by partial decontrol in 1982 and finally cement
became a 'free commodity' in the year 1989. These policy decisions made a positive impact both
on the quality as well as the economy of the cement industry. This has helped in reversing the
situation of cement shortages to cement surplus. Cement is now available off-the-shelf.
The cement industry has made phenomenal progress in terms of volume, technology and product
upgradation. The quality of Indian cement is at par with the best produced anywhere in the
world. Today India is world's second largest cement producing country. The Indian cement
industry has evolved significantly in the last two decades, going through all the phases of typical
cyclical growth process. After a period of over-supply and a phase of massive capacity additions,
the industry is currently in a consolidation phase. With sound economic growth and
infrastructure development, the demand for cement is on an upward trend.
India is the second largest producer of cement, after China. With a capacity of 160 m.t. in 2007,
it produced 142 m.t. in 2006. The per capita consumption of cement in India is 125 kg which is
only about a third of the world average. It indicates the growth potential for this industry. The
demand for cement mainly depends on the level of development and the rate of growth of the
economy.
History
First Cement Factory of India India entered into the Cement Era in 1914, when the Indian
Cement Company Ltd. started manufacturing Cement in Porbundar in Gujarat. However, even
before that a small cement factory was established in Madras in 1904 by a company named
South India Industrial Ltd. Indian Cement Company Ltd produced only one type of cement
which was designed by the British standard committee as “Artificial Portland Cement”. This
company marketed its product in Mumbai, Karachi, Madras and other parts and became a
financial success.
At that time India had to import cement from England. The price of the imported cement was
higher. Some other factors such as increase in domestic demand, reduction in supply from abroad
(due to war), availability of Indian Capital, ample raw material, Cheap labour, support of the
government etc. made it a leading industry in India in a short period of time.
In January 1915, a cement unit was started at Katni in Madhya Pradesh
In December 1916, another unit at Lakheri in Rajasthan was started.
During the First World War period, cement production in these three important factories was
taken under control of the government and later the control was lifted once the war was over.
After the war, 6 more units were launched in India. In 1924, India’s cement production was
267000 tons.
However, initially this increased production could not reduce the imports and the industry
suffered a rate war. This led to closure of many indigenous units. The Indian companies which
were away from ports or commercial centers faced the locational disadvantage.
The above incidents led to the industry stakeholder approach to the government for some kind of
protection. The British government constituted a Tariff board, which recommended protection of
the indigenous industry against the dumping of the imported cement. It recommended raising of
the customs duty to 41% which was around 15% at that time, but this recommendation was not
accepted by the government.
Key Other Landmarks in History of Cement
In 1925, first association of the cement manufacturers was formed as “Cement Manufacturers
Association.”
It was followed by “Concrete Association of India” in 1927.
In 1930 “Cement Marketing Company of India” was started and this was followed by a quota
system on the basis of installed capacity of the factories.
In 1936, all the cement companies except one i.e. Sone valley Portland Cement Company
agreed and formed Associated Cement Companies Ltd.(ACC).This was the most important even
in the history of cement industry in India. Many more companies were established in the
following years.
Before partition India had 24 factories, out of which India retained 19 factories, which annual
production of 2.1 million tons. Pakistan faced a problem at the supply side as it had problem of
disposal of the cement produced and India faced a problem in demand side as production fell to
2.1 million tons from 2.7 million tons.
After Independence, the partition of the country had a bad impact on the cement industry.
Conclusion
In India The first cement factory was installed in Tamil Nadu in 1904 by South India Industry
Limited and then onwards a number of factories manufacturing cement were started. Cement is a
key infrastructure industry. In our country, it has been decontrolled from price and distribution on
1st March, 1989 and de-licensed on July 25th, 1991. However, the performance of the industry
and prices of cement are monitored regularly. India is the world’s second largest producer of
cement after China. 95% of the production is consumed domestically and only 5% is exported.
Demand is growing at more than 10% per annum. More than 90% of production comes from
large cement plants. The Indian cement industry comprises of 132 large cement plants with an
installed capacity of 148.28 Million Tonnes and more than 365 small cement manufacturing
plants with an estimated capacity of 11.10 Million Tonnes per annum.
China and Cement
China has witnessed a construction boom and thus an enormous amount of cement use in the past
decades. At the same time, cement manufacturing technology has been upgraded rapidly. The
novel suspension preheater rotary kilns account for approximately 99% of cement production in
China in 2021. Climate change and fossil depletion are identified as the key environmental
burdens of cement manufacturing, whereas the reduction in particulate matter emissions appears
to be the most prominent benefit of the new technology. By 2021, technology upgrades had led
to a mitigation of pollution from cement manufacturing by 25% to 53%.
Belt and Road Initiative (Reviving Silk Route)
On a windswept step in southwestern Kazakhstan, the new Chinese-backed cement plant
on the outskirts of the village of Shieli stands as a gleaming symbol to some of the Central
Asian country's industrialization.
Built jointly by Gezhouba Group and Kazakh firm Corporation DANAKE, the plant is an
illustration of how China is using its "Belt and Road" initiative to redraw its manufacturing
footprint well beyond its own borders, reshaping industries in the process.
But amid increased scrutiny of Belt and Road - a sprawling infrastructure plan meant to foster
trade along a new "Silk Road" linking Asia with Europe, the Middle East and beyond - others
say China is using the initiative to export industrial overcapacity, especially in heavy polluting
industries.
While the drive has encouraged China's corporate giants to seek overseas business, some worry
the trend could distort regional economies and increase their dependency on Chinese money.
Hundreds of cement plants have been shuttered in China under the pollution crackdown,
according to state media, and the China Cement Association says that the country aims to
eliminate about 400 million tonnes of capacity - about one-tenth of the total - by 2020.
Chinese majors such Gezhouba, Anhui Conch Cement and Shangfeng Cement in 2018
announced investments in at least 18 plants across Africa, Asia and South America with total
annual capacity of more than 20 million tonnes - larger than the output of most European
countries - according to industry publication Global Cement. They are also building more plants
on behalf of Western cement makers such as LafargeHolcim and HeidelbergCement, said David
Perilli, an editor at Global Cement.
Chinese companies say the plants they are building abroad use the latest technology, are
equipped with essential filters, and comply with local environment regulations. However,
environmental groups say the export of the pollution problems that dogged China's rapid
industrialization is a concern. "Most countries targeted by Chinese firms for industrial
investments have very weak emissions and environmental standards and enforcement.
Kazakhstan has no unified national pollution standards like those in place in the European Union
and China, according to local campaign group the Association of Practicing Ecologists, and does
not track mercury emissions from cement kilns. Given those differences in pollution standards in
China and Kazakhstan, it might be profitable for China to shift cement plants - under the Belt
and Road project - to Kazakhstan which has rich deposits of carbonates and silica used as cement
feedstock.
While analysts said a number of central Asian countries were eager to ramp up cement
production to create jobs and reduce reliance on imports as they seek to grow their
manufacturing industries, there is a limit to how much new capacity their markets can absorb.
Effect On Environment
Introduction
Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages of the process. These include
emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration when operating
machinery and during blasting in quarries, and damage to countryside from quarrying.
Equipment to reduce dust emissions during quarrying and manufacture of cement is widely used,
and equipment to trap and separate exhaust gases are coming into increased use. Environmental
protection also includes the re-integration of quarries into the countryside after they have been
closed down by returning them to nature or re-cultivating them.
CO emissions
2
Carbon concentration in cement spans
from 5% in cement structures to 8% in the
case of roads in cement.
Cement manufacturing releases CO2 in the
atmosphere both directly when calcium
carbonate is heated,
producing lime and carbon dioxide, and
also indirectly through the use of energy if
its production involves the emission of
CO2.
The cement industry produces about 10% of global human-made CO2 emissions, of which 60%
is from the chemical process, and 40% from burning fuel. A Chatham House study from 2018
estimates that the 4 billion tonnes of cement produced annually account for 8% of worldwide
CO2 emissions.
Nearly 900 kg of CO2 are emitted for every 1000 kg of Portland cement produced. Globally,
40% of global final energy use and energy- and process-related greenhouse gas emissions are
caused by buildings and construction activities in which cement is an essential ingredient . With
the rapid growth in urbanization and modernization, the consumption and production of cement
in building construction have increased remarkably. Since 1985, China has become the largest
producer of cement and consumed more cement in 3 years (i.e., from 2010 to 2012) than the U.S.
consumed in the entire 20th century. In 2018, China’s cement production accounted for 56% of
global cement production.
The majority of carbon dioxide emissions in the manufacture of Portland cement (approximately
60%) are produced from the chemical decomposition of limestone to lime, an ingredient in
Portland cement clinker. Owing to rapid advances in cement manufacturing technology (CMT),
China has utilized three major cement kilns in recent decades, including shaft kilns, other rotary
kilns (e.g., wet-process rotary kilns, dry hollow kilns, vertical preheater kilns), and new
suspension preheater (NSP) rotary kilns. Before 2000, shaft kilns were the dominant CMT due to
the high cost of imported equipment (i.e., NSP rotary kilns). The market share of NSP rotary
kilns, the most advanced technology with large-scale production capacity and stable product
quality, was very limited during this period, far less than the market share of shaft kilns.
However, with the booming economy, NSP rotary kilns started to gain popularity in the cement
manufacturing market after 2000 and became dominant after 2010.
CO2 Absorption
Hydrated products of Portland cement, such as concrete and mortars, slowly reabsorb
atmospheric CO2 gas, which has been released during calcination in a kiln. This natural process,
reversed to calcination, is called carbonation. As it depends on CO2 diffusion into the bulk of
concrete, its rate depends on many parameters, such as environmental conditions and surface
area exposed to the atmosphere. Carbonation is particularly significant at the latter stages of the
concrete life - after demolition and crushing of the debris. It was estimated that during the whole
life-cycle of cement products, it can be reabsorbed nearly 30% of atmospheric CO2 generated by
cement production.
Carbonation process is considered as a mechanism of concrete degradation. It reduces pH of
concrete that promotes reinforsment steel corrosion.
There are proposals to reduce carbon footprint of hydraulic cement by adopting non-hydraulic
cement, lime mortar, for certain applications. It reabsorbs some of the CO 2 during hardening, and
has a lower energy requirement in production than Portland cement.
A few other attempts to increase absorption of carbon dioxide include cements based on
magnesium (Sorel cement).
Heavy metal emissions in the air
In some circumstances, mainly depending on the origin and the composition of the raw materials
used, the high-temperature calcination process of limestone and clay minerals can release in the
atmosphere gases and dust rich in volatile heavy metals, e.g. thallium, cadmium and mercury are
the most toxic. Heavy metals (Tl, Cd, Hg, ...) and also selenium are often found as trace elements
in common metal sulfides present as secondary minerals in most of the raw materials.
Environmental regulations exist in many countries to limit these emissions.
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