Rice in the Tropics

IADS DEVELOPMENT-ORIENTED
LITERATUTRE SERIES

Rice in the Tropics

was prepared under the auspices of the
International Agricultural Development Service
and the
International Rice Research Institute
with additional funding from the
German Agency for Technical Cooperation
(Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit)
 Rice in the Tropics:
A Guide to the Development
of National Programs
Robert F. Chandler, Jr.

Westview Press / Boulder, Colorado

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording. or
any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publisher.

Copyright © 1979 by International Agricultural Development Service

Published in 1979 in the United States of America by

Westview Press, Inc.
5500 Central Avenue
Boulder, Colorado 80301
Frederick A. Praeger, Publisher

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Chandler, Robert Flint, 1907-
Rice in the tropics.
(IADS development-oriented literature series)
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Rice. 2. Agriculture and state. 3. Rice-Tropics.I. Title II. Series: United States.
International Agricultural Development Service. IADS development-oriented
literature series.
SB191.R5C523 358.1'8 78-19704
ISHN 0-89158-56-0
ISBN 0-89158-362-9 pbk.

Printed and hound in the United States of America

 Contents

List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Foreword, by Sterling Wortman ............................ xiii
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

1. T h e Importance of Rice as a World Crop, and

Its Principal Characteristics ......................... 1
Area, Yield, and Production of Rice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Rice as a Staple Food ............................ 9
Types of Rice .................................. 12
Quality Preferences among National Groups . . . . . . 15
Rice as a Unique Food Crop ..................... 17
Kinds of Rice Culture ........................... 18
Future Supplies of Rice ......................... 21

2. The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology:

Greater Potentials for Rice Production
in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
T h e Modern Tropical Rice Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Response of Modern Varieties to Fertilizer . . . . . . . . . 38
Water Management in Lowland Rice . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Chemical Changes in Flooded Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Solar Radiation and Rice Yields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

u
vi Contents

Plant Protection ...................................................... 46

Mechanization for the Small Farmer ..................... 56
The New Technology and Farm Incomes .............. 61

3 . Problems of Postharvest Technology ..................... 65

Harvesting and Threshing .......................................... 66
Cleaning and Drying ............................................... 68
Handling and Transportation .................................... 74
Storage ......................................................................... 75
Rice Processing ...................................................... 79
Rice Distribution and Quality Control ................... 86
The Systems Approach ............................................. 87

4. Rice Marketing ............................................................ 91

Local Marketing ................................................... 92
Self-sufficiency as a Goal ................................... 94
Export Marketing: Problems in Marketing
Surplus Rice ....................................................... 96

5. Some Successful Rice Production Programs ........ 101

Taiwan ................................................................ 103
South Korea ............................................................ 113
The Philippines .................................................... 123
Colombia ............................................................. 129
Other Countries That Have Made Rapid
Progress ............................................................. 139
Comparing the Programs ....................................... 142

6. Promising Rice Research ............................................ 145

Varietal Improvement .......................... 145
Supplying Nitrogen to the Rice Plant ........... 153
Improved Insect Control at Low Cost ............ 157
Better Weed Control Methods for Rainfed Rice ... 158
Fundamental Causes of Low Rice Yields ......... 159
Cropping Systems Involving Rice ............... 160
Continuous Rice Production .................... 162
Contents vii

7. Elements of a Successful Accelerated Rice

Production Program ................................................... 165
Analyzing the Natural Resources .............................. 167
The Essential Elements ......................................... 171

8. A National Rice Program: Putting the

Ingredients Together ........................................................ 189
Organizing the Rural Structure ................................. 190
Deciding Where To Put the Emphasis .................... 193
Prospects for Increasing Rice Yields in the
Tropics .................................................................... 202
Maintaining the Pace Once It Is Set .................. 204

Appendix: Where and How To Get Assistance .................. 207

Glossary ................................................................................ 225
Annotated Bibliography ........................................................ 229
Index ................................................................................... 249
 Tables

1. Average annual area, yield, and production of

rice by region and country, 1961 -65 and
1971-75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2. Apparent average annual per capita rice
consumption in selected countries, 1971-75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
3. Estimated maximum farm yields for 11 Asian
countries, and the area of major types of rice
land of varying yield potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4. Area, yield, and production of paddy rice in
11 Asian countries in 1976, the weighted
average of the calculated on-farm maximum
yields (from Table 3) and the estimated amount
of rice that could be produced in each country . . . . . . . . .28
5. Comparative labor requirements and costs of
land preparation by power tillers and by water
buffaloes in the Philippines in 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
6. A comparison of the investment and operational
costs of 6000-ton bag and bulk storage facilities . . . . . . . . . .77
7. Average recovery efficiencies of three types
of rice mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8. Energy value and cost of four sources of
energy in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9. The economics of three sizes of milling
operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

ix
X Tables

10. Government contributions and the total

value of the completed projects in the New Village
Movement in South Korea from 1971 to 1976 . . . . . . .120
11. Average incomes of urban and rural families
in South Korea from 1970 to 1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
12. Area, production, and yield of rice in Colombia
from 1966 to 1976 (by sectors), and the
percentage of the rice area under irrigation. . . . . . . . . 133
13. Proportion of rice area under lowland conditions,
national rice yields, and yields of lowland and
upland rice in 10 countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
 Figures

1. Production, population, and per capita output

of rice in the less developed countries, 1956-74 . . . . . . .22
2. Resistance ratings of IRRI rice varieties in the
Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3. Effect of levels of nitrogen on grain yield of IR8,
IR20, and Peta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4. Changes in pH of six soils after submergence . . . . . . . . 44
5. Grain yield of rice in relation to solar radiation
during the 45-day period prior to harvest in 1968 . . . .45
6. The impact of insecticide placement on yield of
transplanted rice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
7. Yield response to low levels of nitrogen, with
and without weed control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
8. The relationship between the moisture content
of paddy (IR8) at harvest to total field yield, the
percentage milling yield, and percentage head
rice yield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
9. Chart showing the movement of paddy through
a modern continuous-flow drying plant . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
10. Basic design of a modern rice mill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
11. Sequence of postharvest operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
12. Export price of rice (Thai, 5 percent broken)
FOB Bangkok, 1964-77 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
13. Indices of agricultural production, rice
production, and population in Taiwan from
1950 to 1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

xi
xii Figures

14. Yield of rice (paddy) in Taiwan, 1938 to 1975 . . . . . . . 103

15. Yield of rice (paddy) in South Korea, 1956 to 1976 . . . 114
16. Fertilizer consumption (NPK) in South Korea,
1955 to 1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
17. Yield of rice (paddy) in the Philippines,
1966 to 1976, compared with the 1961 -65 average . . . 123
18. Yield of rice (paddy) in Colombia, 1966 to 1976,
compared with the 1961-65 average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
19. Average paddy yields in Colombia under irrigated
and under upland conditions, 1955 to 1975. . . . . . . . . 134
20. Average national yield of rice in Colombia in
relation to percentage of rice land irrigated . . . . . . . . . 135
 Foreword

This book is of unusual significance. It is the first IADS-

sponsored volume on a commodity written especially for
authorities, nonagricultural as well as agricultural, in
developing countries and for the assistance agencies which
cooperate with them. To our knowledge, it is the first such
volume on any food crop.
Its origins may be of interest.
In early 1976, representatives of IADS were invited by the
government of a small Caribbean country to discuss ways to
overcome low agricultural productivity and to alleviate the
widespread poverty among its rural people. Food production
was static. The population was increasing at high rates, as it
had been for several decades. Demand for food was going up
even more rapidly. And projections indicated that imports
would escalate to levels dangerous for the country.
Rice was of particular interest: the planning unit of the
ministry of agriculture had determined that national average
yields of this basic commodity would need to be doubled within
10 years. Otherwise, massive imports requiring large outlays of
scarce foreign exchange would be necessary. An effective
research program had been under way for several years. It was
clear that at least some of the technology necessary for a
production push was available; the balance could be developed
within a few years. We all agreed that a serious rice production
campaign should be launched, with the goal of doubling

xiii
xiv Foreword

national rice yields, from about 2.5 to 5.0 tons per hectare, in 10
years. Most of the increases would have to occur on rice farms
that were a few hectares or less in size.
Recognition of the need for rapid increases in rice output was
not difficult, for the planners had done their job well. The
problem was to establish a plan for a nationwide rice program
that political authorities of the country could understand and
to present convincing evidence that the program could provide
the necessary increases at reasonable cost. Government leaders
were for the most part nonscientists and even nonagricultur-
ists; their backgrounds were in law, business, education, or the
military.
Unfortunately, we had no publication to give these
authorities that would explain in clear language the techno-
logical basis for creating a national rice program tailored
specifically to that country’s needs. There was no shortage of
scientific and technical literature. In fact, one could quite
quickly get a computer printout of literally tens of thousands
of articles on rice. But such arrays, important as they may be to
scientists, are of little value to authorities in developing
countries who need to know quickly the essential features of a
commodity such as rice; what the essential components of a
production campaign are; what successes or failures other
countries have had, and with what approaches; what kinds of
scientific and technical help are available from international
centers and other countries or agencies; and what the world
production and price situation is, or is likely to be. There was
not a single publication we could recommend to the national
authorities as the basis for design of an effective national rice
program. This made discussions extremely difficult, even
frustrating, for all concerned.
In scores of countries, rice is an important part of the
economy. And in each country there are scores of individuals
whose separate decisions can affect success or failure of
national rice efforts. Consequently, IADS, in cooperation with
the International Rice Research Institute, set out to produce a
volume on rice that would marshal existing information on
this crop, leaving out unnecessary detail, and present it in a
form easily understandable to authorities in national govern-
Foreword xv

ments or assistance agencies. The book was also to provide

references to key items in the literature for those needing
information in greater detail.
We turned, quite naturally, to Dr. Robert F. Chandler, Jr.,
the director of the International Rice Research Institute during
its first 12 years. Probably no other individual has served as
advisor to so many governments on the organization of
national rice systems. Certainly no other individual has been
decorated or otherwise honored by so many developing country
institutions for contributions to their rice improvement
programs. He has worked with the government of India on the
establishment of its successful High Yielding Varieties
Programme, and with the Philippines in laying the basis for
the Masagana 99 rice production campaign. He has served as a
consultant to the West African Rice Development Association,
to the international banks, and to numerous other countries.
His knowledge is both broad and deep. He has credibility.
During the course of the project, we found an ally in
Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ)
of the Federal Republic of Germany. Their leaders, particu-
larly Dr. Klaus Lampe, felt as we do that, given the tens of mil-
lions of dollars going into rice research annually, it is
important that information be assembled and made available
to developing countries in a form immediately useful to their
authorities. We gratefully acknowledge the GTZ, The Rocke-
feller Foundation, and the Lilly Endowment for financial
support and for encouragement.
Most developing nations have too few experienced agricul-
tural leaders. Many of the individuals determining agricultural
policy or managing agricultural programs have little knowl-
edge about the crops and the agricultural production and
marketing systems with which they must deal. Many want to be
better informed. Most agricultural literature, however, is not
suited for the nonexperts. Much of it is written in academic
language by and for specialists. It is in fragments, scatteredover
a wide range of journals and other publications. One cannot
obtain a comprehensive view without resorting to the study of
many narrow articles in numerous publications. Moreover,
much of the information is relevant primarily to temperate-
xvi Foreword

climate regions, rather than to the tropics, where most

developing countries are.
There are scores of commodities and problem areas for
which comprehensive presentations of available information
are needed, written in language understandable to both
scientists and nonscientists. IADS is attempting to stimulate
the production of publications on a wide range of subjects
relative to agricultural development. They must be compre-
hensive, credible, and easily read. It is our hope that such books
and reports will help officials of developing countries step up
the pace of agricultural development, and point out where they
can obtain additional sources of information and technical
help.

Sterling Wortman, President

International Agricultural Development Service
New York City
 Preface

Much has been written on the subject of agricultural

development, on how to get agriculture moving, on the
program required to persuade the small, subsistence farmer in
the less developed countries to shift from traditional to modern
methods of crop production. Yet, heretofore, that type of
information as applied to a single major food crop has not been
available in one publication.
Rice is by far the most important food crop in Asia, which
contains over half the world’s still expanding population.
Thus it is through increased rice production that a large
segment of mankind will continue to be nourished. Further-
more, it is on the rice industry and on the human employment
it generates that much of Asia’s rural economy depends. Rice,
therefore, is likely to continue to play a primary role in the
improvement of that economy. In Latin America and Africa,
rice is important in a number of countries and promises to
become more so as world demand for it increases.
Rice output must be doubled in the next 25 to 30 years simply
to keep pace with predicted population growth. This can be
achieved only by mounting accelerated production programs
in those major rice-growing countries in which yields are now
below 4 metric tons per hectare. Key people in starting and
supporting such movements are the agricultural officials and
the government planners and developers. It is for such busy
administrators, who may not have time to read through

xvii
xviii Preface

numerous publications for the information they seek, that this

book is primarily written.
Chapter 1 conveys the importance of rice as a world food crop
and describes some of its unique qualities. In chapters 2 and 6
an effort is made to set forth the current stage of rice research
and technology and to identify some of the more promising
research projects that merit continuing attention. Chapters 3
and 4 treat postharvest problems, including ways of handling
surplus rice production. Chapter 5 describes in some detail four
national rice production efforts that achieved positive results.
Chapter 7 contains a discussion of the more important
elements of a successful rice production program, many of
which are common to programs for the increased production of
other crops. Chapter 8 is devoted to the subject of putting the
elements discussed in chapter 7 into a workable scheme. The
appendix describes the more important international agencies
offering technical and financial assistance for agricultural
development programs. Following the appendix are an
annotated bibliography, arranged in the order of chapter
content, and a glossary of terms.
I am grateful to the International Agricultural Development
Service for inviting me to write this book and for providing
financial support. Within that organization I am especially
indebted to Francis C. Byrnes, who rendered helpful guidance
while the manuscript was being written, and to Steven A.
Breth, who provided much valuable advice during the review
and revision stage of the writing and who expertly edited the
final version of the manuscript.
The International Rice Research Institute generously
supplied most of the photographs and made the final drawings
of graphs and charts, many of which came from its own
publications. The facilities of the excellent IRRI library were
made available to me, and IRRI’s director general and staff
provided advice and services unstintingly.
The original draft of chapter 3 was written by James E.
Wimberly and that of chapter 4 was prepared by J. Norman
Efferson. Although the two chapters were revised somewhat, I
attempted to retain the chief points made by each author. I am
indebted to them both for their valuable contributions.
Preface xix

The original manuscript was reviewed by the following

persons: M. S. Swaminathan, director general, Indian Council
of Agricultural Research; Delane E. Welsch, professor of
agricultural economics, University of Minnesota; Lloyd T.
Evans, Division of Plant Industry, Commonwealth Scientific
and Industrial Research Organization, Australia; Yujiro
Hayami, professor of agricultural economics, University of
Tokyo; T. T. Chang, geneticist, IRRI; S. K. De Datta,
agronomist, IRRI; and Randolph Barker, agricultural econo-
mist, IRRI.
The comments of the reviewers were carefully considered and
most of their suggestions were incorporated into the revised
manuscript. I am obliged to each of them for his valuable ideas
but assume full responsibility for any errors or omissions.
I am especially grateful to my wife, Muriel Boyd Chandler,
who cheerfully and capably did the original editing and
typing. Her suggestions and unflagging moral support were
invaluable in preparing the book.

Robert F. Chandler, Jr.

Templeton, Massachusetts
 1
The Importance of Rice as a World
Crop, and Its Principal
Characteristics

Rice is an ancient grain, the beginnings of its culture

seemingly lost in prehistory. It is the staple food of
approximately half of mankind. So dependent upon rice are
the Asian countries that throughout history a failure of that
crop has caused widespread famine and death.
Although the global production of wheat is greater than that
of rice, about one-fourth of the wheat crop is used for nonfood
purposes compared with only 7 percent of the rice crop.
Furthermore, rice is far more important than wheat in the less
developed countries of Asia, where over half of the world’s
population lives. In China, with its 900 million inhabitants,
for instance, the consumption of rice is 2.5 times that of wheat,
the second most important food crop of that country. A similar
example is India, where a population of over 600 million
persons consumes more than twice as much rice as wheat.
Except of course for Antarctica, every continent on the planet
produces rice. It is grown from the equator to latitudes of 53
degrees north (in China) and 35 to 40 degrees south and to
elevations (in tropical regions) as high as 2400 meters above sea
level. Its importance as a food crop expands as man’s numbers
increase - the crucial problem at this stage being whether rice
production can manage to keep pace with population growth
until the latter comes to a long overdue halt. Meanwhile, the
need intensifies for maximum knowledge of this vital plant.

Area, Yield, and Production of Rice

In Table 1, statistics for unhulled rice, called rough rice or

1
2 Importance of Rice as a World Crop

paddy, are given for two contrasting periods. One is the 5-year
base period 1961-65, when yields were rather constant and
before the popularly termed “Green Revolution” had begun.
The other is 1971-75, which includes the drought year of 1972 as
well as the generally good years 1973 and 1975. The data for
1971-75 reflect the progress that followed the introduction of
modern rice varieties on a large scale and the increased use of
fertilizer and other inputs. To convey the changes that took
place in the first 10 years after modern rice varieties were
introduced into the tropics and subtropics, the table also gives
increases in area, yield, and production expressed in per-
centages.

Asia
Table 1 shows that Asia produces over 90 percent of all the
rice grown. For that reason, the average rice yields for the world
and for Asia are essentially the same, as are the percentage
increases in rice area, yield, and production. The average
percentage of increase in yield in Asia during the 10-year period
was about double that of the increase in land area devoted to
rice. In most Asian countries, a large proportion of the land
suitable for the cultivation of rice is already being used for that
purpose. In contrast, in Africa and South America, where vast
tracts of arable land still remain uncultivated, there has been
little change in yield. Production increases have been due
almost entirely to expansion in the area planted to rice.
The 20 Asian countries that plant over 200,000 hectares of
land to rice can be divided into three broad categories:

1. Countries obtaining high average yields (over 3 t/ha)

and having a potential for at least moderate yield
increases; this group includes China, Iran, Japan, North
Korea (Democratic People’s Republic of Korea), South
Korea (Republic of Korea), and Taiwan
2. Countries with low to medium yields (1.5 to 2.5 t/ha) but
showing consistent yield increases from year to year
(above 15 percent between 1961-65 and 1971-75): Paki-
stan, Indonesia, Philippines, Afghanistan, Malaysia,
and India
Importance of Rice as a World Crop 3

3. Countries with low yields (less than 2 t/ha) or showing

low levels (less than 15 percent) of increase from year to
year; in this category are Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Laos
(included here, in spite of its rapid increase in yields, for
reasons later explained), Kampuchea, Burma, Bangla-
desh, Thailand, and Nepal

Within each category the countries are similar in the

proportion of rice land being irrigated and the amount of
chemical fertilizer being used. For the countries in category 1
over 95 percent of the rice crop is irrigated. The corresponding
figure for the nations in category 2 is 40 percent, and for those
in category 3, 25 percent. Actually, the statistics exaggerate the
amount of rice land being irrigated for categories 2 and 3,
because they include not only the areas with irrigation systems
that permit year-round cropping, but also land that has
irrigation only as a rainy season supplement. For example, the
Philippines is listed in Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) reports as growing 40 percent of its rice crop under
irrigated conditions, but in fact only 15 percent of the crop is
grown in fields supplied with sufficient water to provide for a
second crop during the dry season.
Unfortunately, there are no accurate data on the amount of
fertilizer applied to the rice crop alone. However, a fair
indication can be obtained by examining the quantity of
fertilizer used per hectare of arable land. In 1973-74, the
countries in category 1 used 275 kg/ha of nutrients (nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium), while countries in category 2
used only 31 kg/ha, and those in category 3, only 20 kg/ha.
Of course, irrigation and fertilizer use are not the only
influences on yield levels and the rate of annual progress in
improving them. War conditions and political disturbances,
for instance, definitely have hindered progress in Laos,
Kampuchea, and Vietnam.
All six countries in category 2 (those maintaining more than
a 15 percent gain in yield) have mounted strong rice production
efforts. As a result, percentage increases in both yield and total
production for those nations are greater than the average for all
of Asia.
TABLE 1. AVERAGE ANNUAL AREA, YIELD, AND PRODUCTION OF RICE BY REGION AND COUNTRY,a
1961-65 AND 1971-75

1961-65 1971-75 Change (%)

Region or Area Yield Production Area Yield Production
Country (thousand ha) (t/ha) (million tons) (thousand ha) (t/ha) (million tons) Area Yield Production

ASIA
Afghanistan 2 14 1.60 0.34 204 1.97 0.40 -4.6 22.7 17.2
Bangladesh 895 5 1.68 15.03 9737 1.71 16.96 8.7 2.0 12.8
Burma 4741 1.64 7.79 4840 1.73 8.40 2.1 5.6 7.9
China 30,180 2.75 83.10 34,137 3.17 108.34 13.1 15.2 30.4
India 35,626 1.48 52.73 3 7,460 1.72 64.11 5.1 16.3 21.5
Indonesia 7036 2.04 14.38 8326 2.54 21.17 18.3 24.4 47.2
Iran 2 76 3.08 0.85 371 3.28 1.23 34.4 6.4 44.6
Japan 3281 5.01 16.44 2690 5.83 15.67 -18.0 16.3 -4.6
Kampuchea 2284 1.08 2.46 1054 1.20 1.40 -5 3.8 11.1 -43.2
Korea (DPK) 622 3.99 2.48 701 4.6 3 3.26 12.7 16.1 31.5
Korea (Rep.) 1169 4.1 1 4.81 1207 4.89 5.90 3.2 18.8 22.7
Laos 728 0.84 0.61 672 1.29 0.87 -7.6 53.9 42.2
Malaysia 535 2.13 1.14 760 2.57 1.95 42.0 20.6 71.4
Nepal 1099 1.95 2.15 1256 1.95 2.45 14.3 0.0 14.3
Pakistan 1287 1.42 1.82 1553 2.31 3.58 20.6 62.9 96.5
(Table 1 cont.)

Philippines 3147 1.26 3.96 3451 1.59 5.48 9.6 26.3 38.5
Sri Lanka 505 1.91 0.97 635 2.13 1.36 25.7 11.4 40.1
Taiwan 773 3.80 2.94 757 4.28 3.24 -2.0 12.7 10.3
Thailand 6026 1.72 10.38 7467 1.87 13.95 23.9 8.8 34.8
Vietnam 481 3 2.00 9.63 4921 2.23 10.99 2.2 11.7 14.1
Other countries 342 1.85 0.63 433 1.74 0.75 26.6 -6.1 18.8
Total 11 3,639 2.06 2 34.62 122,632 2.38 291.49 7.9 15.1 24.2
AFRICA
Egypt 348 5.30 1.84 456 5.26 2.40 31.0 -0.7 30.1
Guinea 2 77 1.00 0.28 41 1 0.89 0.37 48.4 -1 1.0 32.0
Ivory Coast 249 0.89 0.22 307 1.25 0.38 23.3 40.5 74.1
Madagascar 843 1.85 1.56 1026 1.77 1.82 21.7 -4.6 16.2
Nigeria 180 1.14 0.21 337 1.19 0.34 87.2 4.1 61.4
Sierra Leone 273 1.23 0.34 361 1.35 0.49 23.1 10.1 45.5
Zaire 72 0.86 0.06 275 0.77 0.21 281.9 -10.6 240.3
Other countries 958 1.02 0.98 1024 0.99 1.01 6.9 -3.5 3.2
Total 3 200 1.72 5.49 4161 1.69 7.02 30.0 -1.7 27.8
SOUTH AMERICA
Brazil 3809 1.61 6.12 4743 1.46 6.91 24.5 -9.4 12.8
Colombia 293 1.56 0.58 309 3.97 1.23 5.5 153.9 113.1
Other countries 548 2.46 1.35 686 2.86 1.96 25.2 16.1 45.4
Total 4650 1.73 8.05 57 38 1.76 10.10 23.3 1.7 25.5
(Table 1 cont.)
1961-65 1971-75 Change (%)
Region or Area Yield Production Area Yield Production
Country (thousand ha) (t/ha) (million tons) (thousand ha) (t/ha) (million tons) Area Yield Production

NORTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA

United States 705 4.37 3.08 902 5.07 4.57 27.9 15.9 48.2
Other countries 565 1.72 0.97 721 2.29 1.65 27.6 33.7 70.5
Total 1270 3.19 4.05 1623 3.84 6.22 27.8 20.1 53.5
OTHER
Europe 326 4.66 1.52 395 4.57 1.81 21.2 -1.4 19.4
USSR 158 2.46 0.39 454 3.86 1.75 187.3 56.7 348.9
Oceania 35 4.57 0.16 62 5.63 0.35 77.1 23.2 119.5

World Total 123,278 2.06 254.27 135,065 2.36 318.74 9.5 14.4 25.4

a
Data for individual countries are given only for those planting over 200,000 hectares of rice annually.
Sources: FAO, published data, except for Thailand, Indonesia, and Taiwan. For Thailand, data for 1961-65 are from Y. Gaesuwan, A. Siamwalla,
and D. E. Welsch, 1974, Thai Rice Production and Consumption Data, 1947-1970, Department of Agricultural Economics, Kasetsart University,
Bangkok. The authors of this article found the production data of the Rice Department, Ministry of Agriculture, to be underestimated, so they
increased the figures by 16.29 percent. For Thailand for 1971-75, data are from Bank of Thailand Monthly Bulletin 17, no. 9 (September 1977).
For Indonesia, data are from Central Bureau of Statistics, Indonesia. The data for dry stalk paddy were converted to paddy, using the factor of 76.47
percent. The production data for 1961-65 were adjusted by dividing by the factor of 0.86725. The Taiwan data were taken from published statis-
tics of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Importance of Rice as a World Crop 7

The countries in category 3 have the potential for increasing

yields, but to do so they must intensify their efforts to overcome
prevailing problems of water control and poor cultivation
techniques. The data in Table 1 would place Laos in category
2, but because no significant increases in yield have been
achieved in that troubled country since 1972, it is included in
category 3. In contrast, the Philippines has shown a steady
yield increase in the same period: 1.48 t ha in 1972, 1.74 t ha in
1975, and an estimated 1.81 t /ha in 1976.

Africa
In Africa, Egypt and Madagascar alone accounted for 60
percent of the rice production during the 1971-75 period. The
only African country to show a large increase in average yield
was the Ivory Coast, and even there the yield in that 5-year
period averaged only 1.25 t/ha. Zaire and Nigeria exhibited a
sizable increase in area planted to rice. With their abundant
river water resources for irrigation, those countries could
become major African rice producers if they choose to make the
effort.

South America
In South America the relatively low average yield is
accounted for largely by the fact that Brazil, which plants
immense expanses to rainfed upland rice with consequent low
and undependable yields, contains 82 percent of the land
planted to rice on the continent. The data for Colombia, on the
other hand, show the progress that can be made through the
widespread introduction, on irrigated land, of the modern rice
varieties and the new technology. (Colombia's achievement,
along with that of several other countries that have been
unusually successful in developing rice production programs,
is reviewed in detail in chapter 5.)

Other Areas
In the United States, Europe, and Australia (which accounts
for most of Oceania's rice production), 100 percent of the rice
crop is irrigated, adequate quantities of fertilizer are applied,
and good farming practices prevail. The high yields (over
8 Importance of Rice as a World Crop

TABLE 2. APPARENT AVERAGE ANNUAL PER CAPITA RICE

CONSUMPTION IN SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1971-75

Per capita
consumption
Country (kg)

Vietnam 239
Thailand 20 3
Laos 202
Burma 174
Bangladesh 141
Kampuchea 137
South Korea 136
Indonesia 121
Malaysia 113
Japan 107
Nepal 104
Philippines 89
India 73
China 72

Source: U.S.D.A. Foreign Agricultural Service, Foreign Agriculture Circular FR

1-76, May 1976, Washington, D.C.

5 t/ha) reflect the response to good management and to the low

incidence of insects and diseases. Consequently, any further
increases in rice production in those areas undoubtedly will
have to come largely from an expansion in land devoted to the
crop. As it is, yield estimates for 1975, 1976, and 1977 exhibit no
significant increase over those for 1974.
The Soviet Union appears to have the fastest moving rice
production in the world. Between 1961-65 and 1971-75 its rice-
growing area increased by 187 percent, its yield level by 57
percent, and its total production by 349 percent. For 1976, the
U.S. Department of Agriculture placed the Soviet rice crop at
2.2 million tons and the area sown to rice at 522,000 hectares.
This brings the average yield to 4.2 t/ha. In spite of record rice
production, the Soviet Union imported 250,000 tons in 1976, an
indication of its high demand for rice. The tenth Soviet 5-year
plan calls for further expansion, and it is estimated that by 1980
Importance of Rice as a World Crop 9

the Soviet Union will be producing 3 million tons of rice

annually.

Rice as a Staple Food

Per Capita Consumption
In all Asian countries, from India and Bangladesh eastward
and from Japan and South Korea southward, rice is by far the
most important food crop. The apparent average annual
consumption of rice for the principal rice-consuming coun-
tries of Asia is mostly over 100 kilograms a person (Table 2).
The main reason for the low consumption in such countries
as the Philippines, India, and China is that crops other than
rice feed a significant segment of the population. Many
Filipinos, for instance, eat maize instead of rice. In India,
wheat, sorghum, and maize are widely grown. The Chinese
have a diversified diet. FAO figures for the food con-
sumption of Chinese indicate that rice furnishes 698 cal-
ories per day; wheat, 267 calories; maize, 208 calories; and
millet and sorghum combined, 145 calories. In the United
States, by way of contrast, the average per capita consumption
of rice is only 6 kilograms a year. That level is typical on the
whole for most Europeans as well-with significant regional
variations.

Nutritional Value
The chemical composition of the rice grain varies consider-
ably depending upon the genetic factor of plant variety and
upon such environmental influences as location and season in
which grown, fertilizer treatment, degree of milling, and
conditions of storage. On the average, however, a sample of
milled rice grain will contain about 80 percent starch, 7.5
percent protein, 0.5 percent ash, and 12 percent water.
The starch, as in most other cereals, is a mixture of amylose
and amylopectin. The proportion of these two starches has
much to do with the cooking and eating qualities but does not
affect nutritional value. The higher the proportion of amylose,
the drier and more separated the grains are after cooking. True
glutinous rices, on the other hand, are essentially 100 percent
10 Importance of Rice as a World Crop

amylopectin. The grains of japonica varieties (see below) have

nearly equal proportions of the two kinds of starch.
Although rice is primarily a source of carbohydrates, because
of the large quantities consumed in countries that grow no
other important food crop it also constitutes the principal
source of protein for millions of Asians. Those who eat more
than 150 kilograms of rice annually may be obtaining from 40
to 70 percent of their protein from that source alone. In fact,
many nutritionists now say that adult rice-eating populations
in Asia are not suffering so much from protein deficiency as
from an insufficiency of total caloric intake. Children,
however, from the time they are weaned until they are about 6
years of age, suffer severely from protein deficiency if fed
principally on rice. Thereason is that the protein requirements
of growing children are high, and their stomachs cannot hold
enough rice to meet their daily protein needs.
Even though the protein content of polished rice is
somewhat lower than that of wheat, maize, and sorghum, the
quality of the protein is considerably higher. Lysine, the most
important limiting essential amino acid, constitutes about 4
percent of the protein of rice, twice the level in white flour or
hulled maize. Furthermore, the percentages of threonine and
methionine, two other essential amino acids, are considerably
higher in rice protein than in the protein of maize, wheat, or
sorghum. Thus, because of the superior quality of the protein,
rice-eating peoples are able to maintain reasonably adequate
protein levels in their diets. Nevertheless, rice protein does not
contain enough lysine, threonine, or methionine. Conse-
quently, for proper protein nutrition, supplementary foods
such as grain legumes, meat, and fish should be part of the diets
of those who consume large amounts of rice.
Like other cereals, rice is lacking in vitamins A, D, and C. It
does contain small amounts of thiamine, riboflavin, and
niacin. The levels of these latter vitamins are considerably
higher in brown rice than in polished rice, because the B-
complex vitamins are concentrated largely in the bran and
germ, which are removed by milling. Home-pounding, which
is still a common way poor rural people in many countries
remove rice hulls and bran, leaves the grain higher in the B-
Importance of Rice as a World Crop 11

complex vitamins than milled rice, however, because bran and

germ are not completely removed. Polished rice that is
parboiled (see chapter 3) also tends to provide larger amounts
of these vitamins than are available in the nonparboiled grain.
Nutritionists recommend eating brown rice. But it is not
consumed in large quantities in the tropics and subtropics,
because in storage, after the rice is dehulled, the oil in the bran
tends to become rancid. Furthermore., in many rice-eating
societies there is even a social stigma attached to eating brown
rice, probably because it is rougher and cheaper than the
refined type. In addition, there is some evidence that the
continual eating of brown rice can cause digestive distur-
bances.
The nutritional disadvantages of rice in its polished form
can be overcome through enrichment. For example, beri-beri,
resulting from a diet high in polished rice, can be eliminated by
fortifying the rice with B-complex vitamins. As indicated
earlier, similar benefits can come from eating parboiled rice.
Although low in protein, vitamins, and minerals, rice
nevertheless has several distinct advantages as a food. Its
carbohydrates are easily digested, which appears to explain
why its marginal protein content has proved to be so nearly
adequate. for rice-eating peoples. Evidence exists that easily
digestible carbohydrates improve protein efficiency: the net
protein utilization value for rice is 63, compared with 49 for
wheat and 36 for maize.
Rice is relatively nonallergenic, which means that cases of
hypersensitivity to it are rare. For this reason, patients with
food allergy symptoms of unknown cause are often put on a
diet exclusively of rice, to which other foods are added, one by
one, until the allergenic source is identified. Because of its low,
sodium content, a rice. diet is commonly prescribed, also, for
patients suffering from hypertension (high blood pressure).
An additional advantage of rice is its enduring palatability.
Most consumees tan eat it daily, often at consecutive meals, for
a lifetime without tiring of it. So acceptable is rice that even in
regions where over the ages the traditional food crops have been
roots (such as cassava, yams, and sweet potatoes), any upturn in
the economy soon results in a growing popular demand for rice
12 Importance of Rice as a World Crop

as a staple food. In West Africa, for instance, nearly all

countries are now making a concerted effort to become self-
sufficient in rice production to satisfy increasing demand, and
to save scarce foreign exchange by avoiding excessive imports
of rice.
It seems likely that rice, in spite of deficiencies as a complete
food, will continue to be consumed in large quantities by
millions of people, and that its worldwide popularity will
increase during the years ahead. Consequently, planners,
administrators, and project agents involved in rural improve-
ment in rice-producing countries have the twofold task of
seeking opportunities to enrich national diets through crop
diversification and, at the same time, of working unrelentingly
to increase the yield and the total production of rice, the crop
that for the foreseeable future will continue to be the major
source of calories in so much of the developing world.

Types of Rice
Although there are at least 20 species of the genus Oryza,
most cultivated rice is Oryza sativa L. In fact, the only other
species of rice grown for food is O. glaberrima Steud., found
solely in parts of West Africa. Its importance, however, is
decreasing as it is replaced by modern varieties of 0. sativa.
O. sativa varieties have been separated into three types: indi-
ca, japonica, and bulu. Their origin appears to be the result of
selection by man in the process of domestication and selection
of the wild rices under different environments, for no such
natural differentiation occurs in O. nivara, which is considered
by most authorities to be the most likely progenitor of O. sativa.
Although 40 years ago indica and japonica rices were
thought by most rice scientists to be subspecies of O. sativa,
they are now considered to be ecogeographic races. As
hybridization between the two groups continues, probably
even that distinction will disappear, because any of the
identifying japonica and indica characteristics can be trans-
ferred in either direction through crossing and selection.

The Indica Type

The traditional indica rice varieties, widely grown through-
Importance of Rice as a World Crop 13

out the tropics, are tall and heavy tillering (tillers are secondary
stems) with long droopy light-green leaves. They exhibit little
tolerance to cold temperatures and respond in grain yield only
to low applications of fertilizer. However, unlike japonica
varieties, many indicas possess considerable drought tolerance
and resistance to insect and disease attack. In general, the grains
of the indicas are medium-long to long, and the amylose
content of the starch is medium to high, causing the cooked rice
to be dry and fluffy and to show little disintegration.
Commonly, when indica and japonica types are crossed,
there is a high degree of sterility in the F1 generation. This
sterility originally led taxonomists and breeders to decide that
the japonicas and indicas belonged in separate subspecies. It is
now known, however, that the sterility can be bred out of the
progeny in a few generations.
Recent breeding work has produced short-statured, heavy-
tillering indica rice varieties that respond to fertilizer and
produce yields as high as those of japonicas. (An account of the
development of modern indica rice varieties is given in chapter
2.)
The Japonica Type
The japonica varieties have greener, more erect leaves and a
lower tillering capacity than the indica varieties. They are
resistant to lodging and are more nitrogen responsive in their
yield. Disease and insect resistance, on the average, is lower
than in the indica varieties. Generally, the grain is shorter and
wider. The amylose content of the starch is lower, so the cooked
rice is stickier and glossier, and the grains tend to disintegrate if
boiled too long.
Essentially all of the rice varieties in countries with
temperate climates, such as Japan, Portugal, Spain, USSR,
Italy, and France, are of the japonica type. The japonica race
originated in China, and the Chinese term keng has been used
to designate it since the first century A.D.
Both indicas and japonicas are grown in Egypt, China,
Taiwan, the United States, and Australia. Recently, Korea
developed new rice varieties that were japonica-indica hybrids,
which, benefiting from an extensive promotion campaign,
markedly increased average national yields. (This achievement
14 Importance of Rice as a World Crop

is described in chapter 5 as an example of a successful national

rice production program.)

The Bulu Type

In Indonesia two types of rice are widely grown: the indica
type (called cere there) and the bulu type. The bulu rices are
morphologically similar to the japonicas, but have wider and
more pubescent (hairy) leaves. In addition, the grain frequently
has hairlike awns (the name bulu means “bearded”; an
awnless bulu is called gundil in Indonesian). Like the
japonicas, the bulus are low tillering, have stiff straw and are
relatively insensitive to photoperiod (day length).
Varieties belonging to the bulu type are grown only in Java
and Bali, in the rice terraces of the Philippines, and in the
mountainous areas of Madagascar, which suggests that there
was communication between the peoples of those regions in
ancient times. Probably bulu rices will gradually disappear
from Indonesia, since the modern indicas are now spreading
rather rapidly among the farmers of that country.

Oryza Glaberrima
Oryza glaberrima is grown as a food crop only in West Africa.
It probably originated along the Niger River in Mali. Evidence
exists that O. glaberrima may have been eaten there as early as
3500 years ago. Its characteristics are smooth hairless glumes,
red grains, short ligules with roundish tips, high seed
dormancy, and stiff upright panicles with few or no secondary
branches.
Most rice specialists consider O. glaberrima to be inferior to
O. sativa in yielding ability and in disease resistance. Like the
indica rices, there is a tremendous range in the ecological
conditions under which the glaberrimas are produced.
Although they can be found growing under rainfed upland
conditions, their most common environment is in deep-water
areas. In fact, some glaberrimas outyield indica floating and
deepwater varieties.
Recently, both the International Rice Research Institute
(IRRI) in the Philippines and the upland rice research station
at Bouake, Ivory Coast (staffed and partly funded by the Institut
Importance of Rice as a World Crop 15

des Recherches Agronomiques Tropicales, Paris), have as-

sembled collections of over 1000 varieties of O. glaberrima.
Now that it is possible for plant breeders to grow and observe
large numbers of glaberrima varieties together, there is renewed
interest in hybridizing glaberrimas and indicas. The consider-
able variation among the glaberrimas with respect to plant
type, tillering capacity, stem thickness, and insect and disease
resistance has become appreciated only recently. Because of the
wide genetic gap between the two kinds of rice, problems of
sterility arise when crosses are made. But by making many
crosses and selecting the few that are successful, the sterility can
be bred out of the progeny in a few generations.

Quality Preferences among National Groups

Rice is unique among the cereal grains in that the entire
polished grain is eaten. Consumer preferences regarding, and
prejudices about, the cooking and eating quality of rice vary
considerably from region to region. In addition to environ-
mental suitability, consumer preferences have much to do with
which rice varieties are grown in a given area.
The cooking and eating qualities of rice are determined
largely by the starch composition of the grain. The two starch
fractions, amylose and amylopectin, are distinguished by the
arrangement of their glucose units. In amylose, the glucose
units are arranged linearly, while in amylopectin they are
branched. The higher the proportion of amylose (and
consequently the lower the proportion of amylopectin), the
greater the tendency of the rice to cook dry and fluffy, and the
greater the resistance of the grain to disintegration even after
prolonged cooking. Low amylose rices tend to be stickier,
glossier, more tender, and more likely to disintegrate if
overcooked. Other factors-particularly variations in the
tendency of cooked rice to harden when it cools - influence the
cooking and eating qualities of rice, but by far the most
important is the ratio of amylose to amylopectin. In
“glutinous” or “waxy” rices, the starch is essentially 100
percent amylopectin. The amylose content of nonwaxy milled
rice is classified as low (below 20 percent), medium (20 to 25
16 Importance of Rice as a World Crop

percent), and high (above 25 percent).

In general, rice eaters in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
Malaysia, Sri Lanka, southern China, and most Latin
American countries consume high amylose rice. However, they
prefer those varieties that have a soft gel consistency, meaning
that the cooked grains do not harden excessively when they
cool.
In the Philippines and Indonesia, there is a definite
preference for medium amylose varieties that are not as hard
and dry-cooking as those of India, but not as sticky and glossy
as those favored in Japan. In spite of this preference, quite a few
high amylose varieties are grown in both the Philippines and
Indonesia.
The japonica varieties grown in Japan, in central and
northern China, and in other countries mentioned earlier, are
all low amylose in character, containing 12 to 18 percent of that
component.
The people of Laos and of most of north and northeast
Thailand use the true glutinous rice for their staple food. Most
countries, in fact, grow some glutinous rice for special uses in
cakes, confections, and similar dishes.
The basmati rice varieties of northern India and of Pakistan
have long, slender grains that elongate greatly when cooked (to
about double their raw size) and are strongly aromatic. These
varieties command an excellent price on the Mideastern and
European markets and provide valuable export earnings for the
countries producing them. In addition, they have a market
among the more affluent local families. Scientists have not yet
discovered the cause for the extraordinary elongation of the
grains during cooking. It is related neither to amylose content
nor (consistently) to any other characteristic that has been
measured.
In addition to the inherent cooking and eating qualities of
rice varieties, a process called parboiling (see chapter 3)
produces distinctive characteristics that are preferred by many
consumers in India, Sri Lanka, and Nigeria, for example. In
many other countries, parboiled rice is not acceptable to the
mass of consumers.
Importance of Rice as a World Crop 17

Rice as a Unique Food Crop

Vast areas of flat, low-lying tropical soils in Asia are flooded
annually during the rainy monsoon season. With the exception
of taro, rice is the only major food crop that can be grown in
standing water. Wheat, maize, sorghum, yams, sweet potatoes,
white potatoes, and cassava, to mention some of the world’s
most important food crops, would die in the continuously
submerged soil in which rice not only survives but thrives. Rice
is uniquely adapted for growth in submerged soils because it
possesses tubes in its leaves, stems, and roots that permit air to
move from the leaves to the root surfaces, thus supplying the
submerged roots with sufficient oxygen for normal respiration
and nutrient absorption. This semiaquatic nature of the plant
allows it to be grown in the many great river basins and deltas
of tropical and subtropical Asia, where it provides the
principal food for the multitudes who dwell there. Were it not
for rice, those areas would undoubtedly be unable to support
even one-quarter of their present populations.
Although the highest yields of rice are obtained with
controlled water depths of less than 15 centimeters, rice can be
grown under upland conditions with no flooding, and some
varieties can tolerate water depths up to several meters.
Rice is one of the few crop plants that can be grown on the
same land year after year without serious problems developing.
The high silicon content of rice hulls and, to a lesser degree,
of the leaves and stems enhances the plant’s ability to resist the
attack of certain insects and diseases.
Rice grows under a wide range of soil acidity and alkalinity.
To a large extent its “tolerance” to variations in the soil pH
stems from the ability of rice to grow in submerged soil and the
fact that, under water, the pH of acid soils increases and that of
alkaline soils decreases. (The chemistry of flooded soil is
discussed briefly in chapter 2.)
Through natural selection by farmers over the ages and by
rice scientists more recently, some varieties of rice are quite
tolerant to soil salinity and to such other adverse soil
conditions as phosphorus and zinc deficiency and iron toxicity.
18 Importance of Rice as a World Crop

Rice breeders today are working with soil scientists to breedrice

for tolerance to adverse soil conditions.
Although cultivated rice appears to have originated in the
tropics, varieties have been developed in the past half-century
that produce high yields in cool areas, such as Hokkaido,
Japan, and northern China. Some cold-tolerant varieties can be
grown at elevations of 2400 meters in the tropics. However, rice
is not an important crop under such conditions.
No other leading food crop is so adaptable to such a broad
range of climatic and soil conditions.

Kinds of Rice Culture

As already stated, rice is produced under lowland and upland
conditions as well as in water depths up to several meters. The
following brief descriptions of the growing of rice under four
different conditions are obviously explanatory in purpose and
are not at all intended as instructions in rice management.

Irrigated Low land Rice

Rice grown in bunded (diked) fields in which irrigation
systems fed from wells or rivers control the depth of water is
called irrigated lowland rice. In Asia, most rice grown under
such conditions is transplanted, fertilizer is usually applied,
and yields, on the average, are higher than those under any
other system of rice growing. Nearly all rice in the high-yield
countries such as Japan, South Korea, and China is grown
under irrigation and with provision for drainage where needed,
thus ensuring a controlled water supply.
In Asia, the recommended procedure for managing irrigated
rice is to flood the paddies, to plow and harrow (and level the
land if necessary), to apply fertilizer before the last harrowing,
and then to transplant the rice seedlings, which should not be
over 21 days old. In the tropics controlled year-round irrigation
facilities permit the growing of two or more rice crops a year, or
one or two of rice as well as other crops (that is, multiple or
relay cropping).

Rainfed Paddy
The most common system of growing rice in South and
Importance of Rice as a World Crop 19

Southeast Asia is called rainfed paddy. The paddies are bunded

(diked), and after the monsoon rains come and water
accumulates on the soil surface, the land is plowed and
harrowed. The subsequent management of the crop is similar
to that for irrigated rice.
If rainfall is adequate and evenly distributed, rice yields can
be as high on rainfed paddies as on irrigated fields during the
monsoon season. However, too often poor rainfall depresses
yields. For that reason, farmers and governments have installed
supplemental irrigation facilities for many areas of rainfed
paddy rice. But in other areas rainfall may be excessive and
drainage facilities may be needed. Rice yields on rainfed paddy
fields also tend to be lower, because farmers are less likely to
spend money on such inputs as fertilizers and pesticides when
there is uncertainty about the amount and distribution of
rainfall.
In some tropical regions it is possible to direct-seed the first
crop of rice as soon as the soil is wet enough to be plowed and
harrowed, but before there is enough water in the paddy to
flood it. As this first crop is approaching harvest, a seedling
nursery is planted and after the harvest of the direct-seeded
crop, a second crop is transplanted. This method requires the
use of herbicides on the direct-seeded rice and also, of course,
the use of early maturing varieties. Although it has proven suc-
cessful in some areas, more research and testing are needed be-
fore the method can be recommended generally to farmers.

Upland Rice
Rice grown in fields like any other cereal is called upland
rice. Under this system of rice growing, the land is tilled before
the rainy season arrives, and the rice seed is broadcast. Little
fertilizer is applied. There is no bunding, so water cannot be
held on the land surface. Weed control is difficult, and yields on
farmers’ fields average less than 2 t/ha. In bad years they may
average less than a ton.
By seeding in rows, cultivating the rice in the early stages for
better weed control (or by using herbicides), and by using
fertilizers and pesticides, yield levels can be raised substantially.
However, because of erratic rainfall patterns, poor weed
control, low fertilizer use, and high disease incidence, yields
20 Importance of Rice as a World Crop

normally remain low. Many authorities recommend that

upland areas that cannot be economically bunded, or that have
sandy soil types, be converted to the growing of crops such as
maize, sorghum, soybeans, or sweet potatoes that have much
more drought tolerance than rice. Rice breeders are attempting
to develop upland varieties with higher levels of drought
tolerance or a higher base yield than are found in present
varieties. It is too soon to tell how successful this effort will be.

Deep-water or Floating Rice

Rice grown in areas where water depths reach 1 to 5 meters is
called deep-water or floating rice. Widespread sections of
Bangladesh, Thailand, India, Vietnam, and Indonesia flood to
such depths every year. West Africa has extensive areas of deep-
flooded land on which no other crop but rice can be grown.
Varieties that are planted for deep-water conditions have
special genetic characteristics that enable them to survive and
grow. Their internodes are able to elongate (as much as 10
centimeters per day) as flood waters rise. The varieties have the
ability to produce adventitious roots at the upper nodes. And
their photoperiod sensitivity keeps them from reaching
maturity before the flood waters recede.
The usual system of culture is to prepare the soil when it is
dry or just after the first rains. The rice seed is then scattered by
broadcasting. If the rains fall regularly and the rice plants
become well established, reasonably good stands are obtained.
If drought occurs or if the floodwaters are late, poor stands may
result from drought or from weed competition. Normally,
deep-water rice is not fertilized.
The term “floating rice” is used, because at times the plants
may be uprooted by strong winds and heavy currents and
actually float away. However, while moving they continue to
draw nutrients from the flood waters through their adventi-
tious roots; and, as the flood subsides, the plants become
reestablished in the soil and may even put out a new set of
tillers.
Under farm conditions, the yields of deepwater rice, like
those of upland rice, seldom exceed 2 t/ha. Nevertheless, no
food crop other than deepwater rice can be grown in such
Importance of Rice as a World Crop 21

flooded areas. (Chapter 6 discusses the potential for developing

new rice varieties that have greater tolerance to deep-water
conditions.)

Future Supplies of Rice

Many studies have been conducted by the FAO, by govern-
ments, by privately supported organizations, by university
teams, and by individual social scientists in an effort to predict
future production of food, including rice. Generally, such
studies have made estimates extending either to 1985 or to the
year 2000. Because of the uncertainty of future population
growth rates and of economic development, some surveys have
made as many as four predictions of the future supply and
demand for food. Rather than an effort to describe here the
numerous detailed studies on the subject, there follows a
description of several factors influencing such forecasts of the
human food situation, plus a kind of “average” conclusion
that could be made.
Naturally, predictions must be based largely on past
performances and, more particularly, on recent trends. Because
nearly 90 percent of the world’s rice is produced and consumed
in low-income countries, the most reliable evidence for future
forecasts can be found by examining recent trends in rice
production and in population growth in the less developed
countries.
Figure 1 shows that rice production has gained only slightly
on population growth since 1950-52. Thus the output per
capita has remained rather constant. Of course as economic
advance occurs, there is a tendency (as in Japan) for the
consumption of rice to decrease and for that of higher protein
food to increase. A comparable graph for the developed
countries would show that food production, including that of
rice, has increased more rapidly than has population.
In simple terms, the future per capita production of rice will
depend on the land area devoted to the crop, the intensity of
multiple cropping, the average yields obtained, and the rates of
population growth. Per capita demand would also affect the
outcome. However, the various studies of the demand for rice
22 Importance of Rice us a World Crop

Figure 1. Production, population, and per capita output of rice in the

less developed countries, 1956-74.

have revealed no indication that per capita rice consumption

will decline. In fact, a modest increase is forecast through the
year 2000.
During the first half of the twentieth century, many Asian
countries exported rice. Today, however, although per capita
consumption has shown little change, only a few countries in
Asia-principally ‘Thailand, Burma and Pakistan-have
exportable surpluses. Thailand alone has been able to
maintain its rice exports at a fairly high level (about a million
tons a year). As its population continues to grow, however, the
domestic demand for rice likewise will increase, and Thailand
ultimately may be without an exportable rice surplus. China is
a large exporter of rice, but it simultaneously purchases even
larger amounts of wheat, because wheat prices on the world
market are lower than those for rice. Consequently, it can
purchase more calories in wheat than it loses in the rice it sells.
Most Asian countries today are struggling to attain self-
sufficiency in rice. Although recently the Philippines and
Importance of Rice as a World Crop 23

India have achieved rice self-sufficiency, it is doubtful that this

represents more than temporary surpluses.
Until the 1950s, yield levels of rice were rather constant and
increases in production came from gains in the land area
planted to the crop. Inevitably,, the dependence on higher yield
rather than on expansion in area will increase as time goes on.
In fact, most of the recent increases in land area can be
attributed to double cropping-that is, the growing of two
crops of rice a year on the same land on which only one crop
was grown before. (The FAO counts such land twice, so that
yields refer to a single crop, though two crops were grown in a
single year on the same land.)
It is clear that future production increases in Asia will come
largely from improving yields on land already growing rice
and from expansion of double cropping of the grain.
Fortunately, current yields in many Asian countries are so low
that there is considerable room for improvement. Countries
that are producing less than 2 t ha of paddy rice conceivably
can double their production by the time their populations
double. On the other hand, Japan and South Korea, with 1976
yield estimates well over 5.3 t, ha, cannot be expected to
increase their yields much beyond those high levels. Even if
they succeed in doing so, their harvests are likely to satisfy only
their domestic demands.
China, with an average yield of over 3.2 t/ha obtained on 34
million hectares, had little increase in yield between 1974 and
1976 according to FAO statistics. However, rice scientists who
have recently visited China believe that, at full operating
capacity, the country's new fertilizer plants could increase
average rice yields by about 1.2 t/ha. Japan went through a
similar static period in the 1920s and 1930s, and its rice yields
moved upward again when chemical fertilizers began to be
used in addition to organic manures.
The only Asian countries to have brought large new areas
into rice production recently are Thailand and Indonesia.
According to the FAO, during 197-1-76 Thailand added over 1
million hectares of land to its rice-groxving areas, most of
which was rainfed paddy. Indonesia is developing rice lands on
its less populated islands, since Java, Madura, and Bali are
24 I m p o r t a n c e of Rice as a World C r o p

greatly overcrowded and essentially all of the suitable rice land

on those islands is already planted to the crop. Even Thailand
is unlikely to bring much new rice land into cultivation in the
years ahead. Instead it will continue to develop its irrigation
systems and to depend upon double cropping and the use of
modern technology to increase its rice production. This, of
course, will be true for all Asian rice-growing countries except
the few that already irrigate all of their rice crop.
Many analysts predict that in future years Asia will reduce its
upland rice area, substituting more drought-resistant crops for
rice on those lands. They foresee, also, yields on lowland
areas-both irrigated and rainfed-rising considerably as
better varieties are planted and as improved methods of weed
control, fertilizer use, and pest control are more widely
practiced.
Rice production undoubtedly will increase in Latin America
and in Africa, with the early gains coming mainly from
expansion in land area devoted to rice. In the long run,
however, as new irrigation systems are built, yields also will
increase. Colombia has already achieved remarkable yield
improvements on its irrigated rice land. In spite of these
prospective increases in production in Latin America and
Africa, the evidence indicates that for well into the twenty-first
century the large preponderance of the world’s rice will
continue to be produced in Asia, where so much of the rice-
eating population will still be found.
To sum up, it can be said that all studies have predicted a
food deficit in the developing countries as a whole by the year
2000 unless huge investments are made in agricultural
improvement and unless population growth rates decrease
considerably. The estimates for rice production by the end of
this century are somewhat more optimistic, indicating that
with expanded irrigation systems, new varieties, increased
fertilizer use, and the necessary infrastructure, rice supply may
continue to follow the traditional trend and just keep pace with
population growth. This is not a favorable outlook, however,
for it means that present low-nutrition standards are unlikely
to be improved.
The United Nations estimates that global population will
Importance of Rice as a World Crop 25

reach 6000 million by the year 2000, as compared with just over
4000 million in 1976. If their predictions materialize, India will
have a population of over 1000 million by that time.
In looking ahead, it is useful to examine the practical rice
production potential of the Asian countries that are now
growing much of the world’s rice. For reasons already
mentioned, it seems likely that South Korea, Japan, and China
will have difficulty in keeping up with their domestic needs
after a decade or two. The other Asian countries, however, can
produce considerably more rice, because their current yields are
so low.
The best effort to assess future production potentials has
been made by economists at the International Rice Research
Institute in the Philippines. In their study, the actual yields of
trials on farmers’ fields were used as a gauge of what could be
accomplished if modern varieties and improved technology
were employed. Such yield levels, of course, are lower than
those obtained on experimental fields where environmental
conditions are highly controlled.
Because levels of yield vary considerably under the different
kinds of rice culture, the IRRI investigators separated the land
area of each of 11 rice-gowing countries into four categories
for which they then estimated the potential yield on farmers’
fields: (1) dry-season irrigated (100 percent irrigated); (2) wet-
season irrigated (supplemental irrigation in the wet season
only); (3) rainfed paddy (bunded but with no supplemental
irrigation); and (4) deep-water and upland rice (these two
classes were thrown together only because the yield potentials
appear to be similar).
From the results of the tests on farmers’ fields and the
knowledge of the approximate area of each class of rice land in
each of the 11 countries, it was possible to obtain a weighted
average of the maximum yield that appears to be possible under
farm conditions. The researchers’ estimates of area in each of
the four categories and their weighted averages for each of the
11 countries are shown in Table 3.
For all countries listed the potential yield on dry-season
irrigated land is higher than it is under any other condition.
This points out the combined benefits of irrigation and solar
TABLE 3. ESTIMATED MAXIMUM FARM YIELDS FOR 11 ASIAN COUNTRIES, AND THE AREA OF MAJOR TYPESa
OF RICE LAND OF VARYING YIELD POTENTIAL

Weighted
Country Area b (thousand hectares) Maximum yield c (t/ha) average
DS WS UD RF DS WS UD RF (t/ha)

Philippines 480 1430 3 80 1200 5.9 4.6 2.0 3.5 4.1

India 1890 13,120 3770 18,880 6.8 5.4 2.0 4.0 4.4
Indonesia 1610 2370 1870 2630 5.9 4.8 2.0 3.6 4.0
Thailand 140 630 6 30 5630 4.4 3.7 2.0 2.5 2.7
Bangladesh 980 590 4390 3810 6.6 4.9 2.0 3.7 3.3
Vietnam 140 270 6 80 1630 5.8 4.1 2.0 3.1 3.1
Sri Lanka 150 220 10 220 5.7 5.3 2.0 4.0 4.8
Burma 50 800 100 4040 6.0 4.8 2.0 3.6 3.8
Pakistan 1520 0 0 0 6.0 - - - 6.0
Nepal 0 190 110 910 - 4.8 2.0 3.6 3.7
Malaysia 270 270 20 150 6.0 4.8 2.0 3.6 4.5

a
DS = dry-season irrigated; WS = supplemental irrigation, wet season only; UD = total area upland rice (nonbunded fields) and deep-water rice;
RF = rainfed paddy, bunded but without irrigation.
bBased on IRRI estimates of proportions in each of the four types, and the FAO figures for total area planted to rice (1970-74 averages).

cAverage maximum yields obtained on trials in farmers’ fields in the Philippines, India, Indonesia, Thailand, Bangladesh, Vietnam, and Sri Lanka.
For the other four countries, maximum possible yields were taken as the average of the other seven countries.
Importance of Rice as a World Crop 27

energy in obtaining high yields of rice. Supplemental

irrigation in the wet season gave the next highest calculated
maximum yield, ranging from 3.7 to 5.4 t ’ha. The estimate for
maximum on-farm yields under rainfed paddy conditions,
with no supplemental irrigation, gave values from 2.5 to 4.0
t/ha. The IRRI economists assumed a 2.0 t ha yield for upland
and deep-water rice. The figure was based on a number of trials
under those conditions, but because yields are so variable from
season to season, depending on the amount of rain and on its
distribution pattern, the scientists decided to assume a constant
for each country.
The weighted averages shown in Table 3 represent the best
estimate of the mean maximum yield obtainable under farm
conditions in each country, assuming that the areas and
proportions of land in each of the four catrgories do not
change. These maximum calculated national yields vary from
2.7 t/ha for Thailand to 6.0 t ha for Pakistan, which grows
only irrigated rice.
So that officials in the 11 Asian countries listed in Table 3
might gain a practical view of the amount of rice that their
countries could produce, Table 4 was constructed. The data in-
dicate that it is possible to double rice production on the farms
of the 1 1 Asian countries, even with no more land under irriga-
tion than at present. These optimistic estimates of maximum
production, however, assume that all farmers will follow the
recommended practices faithfully and fully-a condition that
experience has shown is not likely to come about. China has
made an herculean effort to produce more rice, yet its average
yields are still less than 3.5 t/ha. A more likely prediction of rice
yields in those 11 countries for the year 2000 would seem to be
about 3 t ha. This means, then, that rice production would
more or less keep abreast of population growth in the
intervening time. Even that modified figure probably will not
be attained without major effortson the part of the leaders in all
rice-producing countries to increase the amount of irrigated
rice land and to make available to farmers the inputs and the
necessary infrastructure. (The requirements for launching
and maintaining a successful rice production program are
discussed in chapters 7 and 8.)
TABLE 4. AREA, YIELD, AND PRODUCTION OF PADDY RICE IN 11 ASIAN COUNTRIES IN 1976, THE WEIGHTED
AVERAGE OF THE CALCULATED ON-FARM MAXIMUM YIELDS (PROM TABLE 3) AND THE ESTIMATED
AMOUNT OF RICE THAT COULD BE PRODUCED IN EACH COUNTRY

1976 Calculated

Average
maximum Maximum
Area Yield Production yield production
Country (million ha) (t/ha) (million tons) (t/ha) (million tons)

Philippines 3.62 1.8 6.7 4.1 14.8

India 36.00 1.8 69.0 4.4 158.4
Indonesia 8.80 2.6 23.0 4.0 35.2
Thailand 8.20 1.8 14.5 2.7 22.1
Bangladesh 9.90 1.8 18.2 3.3 32.7
Vietnam 2.30 2.0 4.5 3.1 7.1
Sri Lanka 0.52 2.0 1.0 4.8 2.5
Burma 5.13 1.9 9.5 3.8 19.5
Pakistan 1.70 2.2 3.8 6.0 10.2
Nepal 1.27 2.1 2.6 3.7 4.7
Malaysia 0.58 3.2 1.8 4.5 2.6

Total or avg. 78.02 2.0 154.6 4.0 309.8

Importance of Rice as a World Crop 29

Finally, it must be remembered that the foregoing predic-

tions do not extend beyond the year 2000, whereas mankind’s
struggle for survival in the face of its increasing numbers will
continue indefinitely. Eventually, the entire system under
which the world’s peoples live-economic, social, and
technological-must be brought into a state of equilibrium.
The United Nations predicts that the earth’s population might
not become stabilized before the year 2100 or even 2150, by
which time it will be between 10,000 million and 16,000
million. It is sobering indeed to consider the enormous
resources of food, energy, and water required to support a
population of that size, quite apart from the concern over the
social, economic, and political problems engendered by such
overcrowding of the human species.
 2
The Modern Rice
Plant and the New Technology:
Greater Potentials
for Rice Production in the Tropics

Since 1960 more progress has been made in increasing the

yield potential of the tropical rice plant than had occurred in
the first 50 years of this century. As rice breeders were
developing the new higher yielding varieties, other scientists
were gaining more knowledge of the physiology and the
chemistry of rice. Some specialists were improving methods of
insect and disease control, of water management and of
fertilizer use; others developed small, relatively inexpensive
agricultural machines and equipment for use in the low-
income countries. Soil scientists revealed the changes taking
place in the flooded rice soils under tropical conditions;
agricultural economists studied the factors affecting farmer
adoption of the new technology and the relationship between
such acceptance and farm income.
This chapter presents some of the more important recent
advances in rice science in the tropics, to provide, especially for
persons who are not rice scientists, a concise account of the
modern rice technology that has so decidedly widened the scope
for increasing rice production in the tropics.
Although many of the studies discussed in the following
sections were conducted by the International Rice Research
Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines, the rapid progress they
represent could not have been made without benefit of the
research conducted earlier in other parts of Asia, such as Japan
and Taiwan. Furthermore, the work at IRRI was carried on by
an international (largely Asian) team. Such scientists brought
to IRRI a knowledge of and an experience with rice that were

31
32 T h e Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

invaluable in getting the research program off to a strong start.

In addition, the continual involvement of scientists of other
countries in IRRI-based symposia and in cooperative research
and testing programs in their homelands contributed, and is
still contributing, to the success of IRRI.

The Modern Tropical Rice Plant

The traditional tropical rice plant, an indica type, is tall
(usually 160 to 200 centimeters) with long drooping leaves. It
has been bred and selected for dependable yields under low
management levels, is tolerant to variations in water level in
the paddies and competes reasonably well with weeds. It
endures low soil fertility conditions and is fairly resistant to
insect and disease attack. But the yield potential of the
traditional varieties is low. Yields on farmers’ fields seldom
exceed 2.5 t/ha and often fall considerably short of 2 t/ha.
As the availability of new rice land in Asia dwindled in the
1950s, efforts were made to use modern inputs, particularly
fertilizer, on the traditional rice varieties in an effort to raise
their yields. The results were disappointing. When nitrogen
was applied to those tall leafy indica rice varieties, they became
even taller and leafier, so that by flowering time or soon after
they lodged (toppled over), thereby decreasing yields markedly.
Scientists soon learned that the earlier in its life that the rice
plant lodged, the greater the reduction in yield. In 1955, for
example, most tropical rice research stations recommended
that no more than 30 kg/ha of nitrogen be applied to rice,
because larger amounts either did not increase yields or
actually depressed them. The result was that even on
experimental fields, with near perfect water control and with
other cultural practices at ideal levels, essentially no yields of
more than 2.7 t/ha were reported; indeed, most were lower. At
the same time, Japanese agronomists (with japonica varieties)
were obtaining yields well over twice that quantity.
The dilemma thus facing the tropical Asian farmer was as
follows: if he used fertilizer, particularly in the rainy season,
either he got little in return for it or his yields decreased because
of lodging; if he applied no fertilizer, yields remained low,
The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology 33

because the rice was undernourished.

Although rice breeding took place in the 1920s and 1930s in
Japan, Taiwan, India, the Philippines, and elsewhere, it was
not until after World War II that the shortage of food and the
ominous population increase caused major attention to be
focused on improving the yield potential of rice in Asia, where
it was by far the most important food crop.
One of the important programs of the 1950s was the indica-
japonica hybridization project of the Rice Breeding Working
Party of the International Rice Commission of the FAO. The
Asian countries participating in the project sent their most
promising varieties for crossing with japonicas to the Central
Rice Research Institute in Cuttack, India. From the crosses
made there, F2 generation seed was sent to the cooperating
countries for testing and selection. Although for several reasons
this project was less successful than it would have been a decade
later, several superior varieties came from it, particularly ADT
27 in Tamil Nadu state, India, and Malinja and Mashuri in
Malaysia. Even today Mashuri is preferred by many farmers in
both Malaysia and parts of India.
National programs were also producing higher yielding
varieties independent of the indica-japonica program of the
FAO. Typical examples of improved indica rice varieties
developed during the mid-1950s are BPI-76 in the Philippines
and H-4 and H-5 in Sri Lanka (then called Ceylon). In general
these varieties were earlier maturing, more disease resistant,
less photoperiod sensitive, and somewhat shorter and hence
more nitrogen responsive than the typical indica varieties
grown in tropical Asia. Nevertheless, they could not stand high
levels of nitrogen fertilizer without lodging.
When the International Rice Research Institute started its
research program in 1962, its scientists were aware of the fact
that in Japan, Taiwan, and elsewhere, short, stiff-strawed rice
varieties had been developed that were fertilizer responsive and
that had a much higher yield potential than did the traditional
tall, leafy tropical varieties or even the improved varieties
developed in South and Southeast Asia during the 1950s. Also,
it was known that if the Japanese varieties were planted in the
tropics, they flowered too early, were too low tillering for the
34 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

less exact rice spacing that was practiced by the tropical rice
farmer, and were highly susceptible to insect and disease attack.
Scientists in Taiwan had developed japonica varieties that
were quite well adapted to the higher temperatures andshorter
day lengths of the tropics, but those varieties proved to be
deficient in insect and disease resistance, and they retained the
low-tillering characteristic of the typical japonica plant.
Scientists in Taiwan had also, however, released a short-
strawed indica variety, Taichung Native 1, in 1956. From about
1960 onward it became popular with farmers there mainly
because it gave yields of 6 to 8 t/ha under proper management.
Taichung Native 1 originated from a cross between Dee-geo-
woo-gen, a short heavy-tillering variety, and Tsai-yuan-chung,
a tall, disease- and drought-resistant variety. IRRI plant
breeders were able to get seed from Taiwan of not only
Taichung Native 1 but also of its dwarf parent, Dee-geo-woo-
gen. In addition, they brought in another Taiwanese dwarf
variety, I-geo-tse. In their effort to develop improved short-
statured tropical varieties as soon as possible, IRRI scientists
used these three dwarf varieties from Taiwan in many of the
crosses made during the institute’s first year of research activity.
The other parents were tall indica varieties that were popular
in the Asian tropics.
The most successful of these crosses was between Peta, a tall
Indonesian variety then being grown rather extensively in the
Philippines, and Dee-geo-woo-gen. Of the many selections
from this cross that were tested, one, designated IR8-288-3,
proved to be outstanding. After being widely tried throughout
tropical and subtropical Asia in 1965, it became IRRI’s first
named variety in 1966: it was called IR8. In tests not only at
IRRI but at other rice experiment stations in Asia, IR8 yielded
from 4 to over 8 t/ha, which was more than twice the normal
yield of the tall lodging-susceptible rice varieties then being
grown by Asian rice farmers.
The meaningful difference between the two contrasting
kinds of rice-the modern and the traditional-is one of
plant type, sometimes referred to as plant architecture. The IR8
plant type is even today considered to be ideal (no variety has
exceeded IR8 in true yield potential). When grown under good
The Modern Race Plant and the New Technology 35

management, IR8 has the following characteristics:

• Short stature-the height ranging between 90 and 100

centimeters
• Short, thick, sturdy stems imparting resistance to
lodging at high nitrogen levels and in strong winds and
heavy rains
• Rather short and erect leaves of medium width, which
allow the penetration of sunlight, consequently improv-
ing photosynthetic efficiency
• High tillering capacity, which aids in producing more
panicles per unit area of land, allowing the crop stand to
compensate to a degree for missing plants or, in direct-
seeded rice, for thinly sown areas
• A high grain to straw ratio, or harvest index. Usually the
weights of grain and straw are about equal (whereas in
the traditional tall varieties no more than one-third of
the total dry matter is grain)
• Photoperiod insensitivity. Although not a feature of
plant type, this character is nevertheless significant, for it
means that the variety has about the same growth
duration in the tropics regardless of the month in which
it is planted

Although all these characteristics are beneficial when rice is

grown under controlled water conditions and at high soil
fertility levels, the most important features are short stature and
sturdy stems.
Geneticists studied the mode of inheritance of short stature
and found that it is controlled by a single recessive gene. This
means that when a tall and short variety are crossed, the first-
generation (F1) plants are all tall. In the second generation (F2),
three-fourths of the plants are tall and one-fourth are short.
The short plants will produce only short progeny from then
on. Plant physiologists discovered that this single recessive
gene for shortness was the one that lowers the content of
giberellic acid, the substance that promotes cell enlargement.
IR8 has its defects. Its grain is too chalky and coarse to
command top prices in most Asian markets. Moreover, the
36 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

IR8 growing next to its parents, Peta (tall) and Dee-geo-woo-gen (short).
(Source: IRRI)

amylose content of the grain is too high and it has a hard gel
consistency that causes the cooked rice to harden when it cools.
Furthermore, IR8 is not sufficiently resistant to several of the
major rice insects and diseases. Nevertheless, it set a standard
for improved rice plant type and established new records for
yield in the tropics and subtropics. Not until the new short-
statured indica rice varieties were created did scientists and
farmers realize that yields of 5 to 6 t/ha were possible in the
tropical rainy season and that, under highly favorable
conditions, 7 to 9 t/ha could be produced in the dry season.
IR8’s superiority to Taichung Native 1, a progeny of a Dee-geo-
woo-gen cross made a decade earlier in Taiwan, lies primarily
in its better disease resistance and stiffer sterns.
Both the advantages and the disadvantages of IR8 and of
Taichung Native 1 stimulated rice breeders at IRRI and at
national rice experiment stations in the tropics and subtropics
to cross their tall local varieties with the modern short ones.
They sought to develop high yielding, fertilizer-responsive
varieties that had greater resistance to insect and disease attack
and superior eating and cooking qualities as well. During the
1970s, many improved varieties have been developed. The work
Figure 2 . Resistance ratings of IRRI rice varieties in the Philippines. (Source: IRRI)
38 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

at IRRI is a good example of the progress that has been

made. The most recently developed varieties have proved to be
resistant to eight major insects and diseases (Figure 2), whereas
IR8 was resistant to only two.
By 1977, 25 to 30 percent of the rice land of South and
Southeast Asia had been planted to modern rice varieties that
had a high yield potential. Unfortunately, the true yield
capacity of such varieties is seldom expressed on farmers’ fields.
In the main, the cultural practices on most farms have not been
of a sufficiently high level to allow the varieties to yield well.
Too often fields lack water, fertilizer applications are too low,
and few pesticides are used. But farmers also needvarieties that
are better adapted to diverse growing conditions. To achieve
this goal, plant breeders are placing more emphasis on
developing varieties that have greater resistance to drought and
that are intermediate in height, so that they are more tolerant of
variations in water depth and can compete more successfully
with weeds.
Although farm yields could be considerably higher than they
are, it should be understood that obtaining the absolute
maximum yield potential of any variety is not profitable.
Studies have shown that the relatively small yield increases that
occur in response to the application of very high levels of
inputs generally are not economical.

Response of Modern Varieties to Fertilizer

The impact of the improved plant type is most evident when
substantial amounts of nitrogen fertilizer are applied to the rice
crop. At high nitrogen levels the modern varieties tiller heavily,
produce more grains per unit area of land, and, of course,
remain standing until harvest. The tall, lodging-susceptible
traditional varieties, on the contrary, seldom respond to more
than 30 or 40 kg/ha of nitrogen, and on fertile soils may show
no response whatsoever to applied nitrogen.
Fertilizer trials comparing modern and traditional varieties
have been conducted in essentially all rice-producing coun-
tries, with similar results. The average yield data obtained over
a 5-year period at four locations in the Philippines, in both dry
and wet seasons, are shown in Figure 3. IR8 and IR20 are
modern varieties, and Peta is a traditional variety.
The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology 39

Figure 3. Effect of levels of nitrogen on grain yield of IR8, IR20, and Peta.
Average of f o u r locations (IRRI, Maligaya, Bicol, and Visayas) in the
Philippines, 1968-73. (Source: S. K. DeDatta et al., 1974, Proc-. FAI-FAO
Seminar on Optimising Agricultural Production under Limited Availability
of Fertilizers, New Delhi)

The modern varieties respond like the traditional varieties to

phosphorus and potassium, when the soil is deficient in either
of (hose elements. However, excess applications of phosphorus
and potassium, unlike. those of nitrogen, do not cause drastic
yield reductions even in the traditional varieties. In other
words, the modern and traditional varieties respond more simi-
larly to phosphorus and potassium than they do to nitrogen.
40 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

In Laguna province in the Philippines in 1967, modern varieties were

spreading from farm to farm. The land on the right was still beingplanted to
Intan, a traditional variety, while the farmer controlling the land on the left
had shifted to IR8. By the following season, both farmers were growing a
modern fertilizer-responsive variety, for it had become evident that on fertile
rice soil yields could be doubled simply by changing the variety. (Source:
IRRI)

Furthermore, there is evidence that when phosphorus-and,

to a lesser degree, potassium-isapplied and nitrogen is not,
the result is an increase in the amount of soil nitrogen available
to the rice plant. The most likely explanation for this
phenomenon is that with the application of phosphorus and
potassium, the soil microorganisms become more active, some
fixing atmospheric nitrogen and others decomposing the
organic matter and thus mineralizing organic nitrogen to the
inorganic form.
Soils that are alkaline in reaction or that are high in organic
matter may be deficient in zinc. When field trials show a
response to that element, the deficiency can be remedied easily
by dipping the rice seedlings at planting time in a 2 percent
suspension of zinc oxide.
Although silicon is not considered essential for plant
growth, scientists have found that if the rice straw contains less
than 11 percent silica (SiO2), yield levels sometimes will rise
after that compound is applied.
The efficiency of nitrogen fertilizer use for rice is low under
The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology 41

average management conditions. Research results indicate that

as much as 50 percent of the nitrogen may never reach the crop.
Recent increases in the price of fertilizer have caused renewed
interest in ways to heighten the efficiency of nitrogen when
applied as a chemical fertilizer.
When ammonium sulfate or urea is applied to rice soils,
some of its nitrogen is absorbed by the rice plant. Part also can
be volatilized as ammonia gas or can return to the atmosphere
in the form of nitrogen gas as a result of nitrification and
subsequent denitrification. In addition, the ammonium ion
can be fixed in the clay mineral complex. Nitrogen is absorbed
by microorganisms and eventually becomes immobilized in the
organic matter. Furthermore, the element can be leached from
the soil and so lost in the drainage water. The nitrogen fixed by
the clay minerals or immobilized in the organic matter will be
partially recovered by subsequent crops.
If nitrogen fertilizer is placed in the root zone rather than
applied to the surface of the soil, losses from volatilization and
from denitrification can be greatly reduced. The increased
efficiency makes it possible to get the same yield of rice from 60
kg/ha placed at a depth of 10 to 12 centimeters as from 100
kg/ha applied in the conventional manner (broadcasting the
fertilizer before the last harrowing). Scientists at IRRI have
experimentally placed fertilizer inside balls of mud, which then
were inserted into the soil between every four hills (a hill is a
clump of two or three transplanted rice plants). In 1976 the
International Fertilizer Development Center in the United
States developed large granules and briquets of urea to
substitute for the mud balls and thus eliminate the tedious
hand-balling process. IRRI scientists found the briquets to be
as satisfactory as the mud balls. The task of placing over 60,000
briquets in each hectare of land by hand is arduous but not at
all unfeasible in economies with a surplus of labor. It is no
more time-consuming than transplanting rice. Indeed, Chi-
nese farmers in some localities are using the mud ball
technique today. It is likely, however, that less laborious
methods of fertilizer placement will be devised in the near
future.
There is growing interest in finding ways of improving the
biological fixation of nitrogen. For example, recent research at
42 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

IRRI has shown that when blue-green algae are grown in

the presence of the water fern (Azolla sp.) the amount of
atmospheric nitrogen fixed may increase by a factor of between
5 and 10, as compared with the same concentration of blue-
green algae grown alone.
Urea and ammonium sulfate are equally satisfactory nitro-
gen fertilizers. Because of denitrification losses, nitrogen
should not be added in the nitrate form as a basal dressing. It
may be used for supplemental dressings after the root systems
are well developed and the nitrogen can be immediately
absorbed.

Water Management in Lowland Rice

The wide spread of the modern rice varieties since about 1966
stimulated many studies to determine the optimum water
management conditions for these short-statured rice plants.
Although the appropriate water management practices are
influenced by varietal differences and soil conditions, a few
general principles can be widely applied.
1. The ideal water depth in the paddy is 5 to 7 centimeters,
although depths varying between 2 and 15 centimeters are not
harmful. Such water depths suppress weed growth, facilitate
the use of granular insecticides and herbicides, reduce losses of
fertilizer nitrogen, promote favorable chemical changes in the
soil-root zone and, of course, provide a continuous and
adequate supply of water to the rice crop.
2. Rice grows best in soil that is continuously submerged
from the time of planting until the crop approaches maturity.
Any drying and rewetting of the soil not only reduces crop yield
but causes losses in soil nitrogen.
3. Under tropical conditions, the growth of the rice crop
usually suffers from inadequate water unless rain or irrigation
occurs every week or 10 days.
4. When irrigation systems are inadequate or absent and
periods of water scarcity occur, the number of days that the
drought persists is the factor most highly correlated with yield
reductions. However, drought from about 3 weeks before
flowering (soon after panicle initiation) to a couple of weeks
before harvest is the most damaging. If drought occurs during
The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology 43

the early tillering stage but is followed by adequate rain for the
duration of growth, the crop usually is able to recover.
5. When there is an assured water. supply, nitrogen fertilizer
applications pay off handsomely; and, under most conditions,
applications of 60 kg/ha in the wet season and 120 kg/ha in the
dry season can be recommended with confidence. In rainfed
paddy areas, however, if the likelihood of one or more droughts
is high, it is generally unprofitable to apply more than 30
kg/ha of nitrogen.

Chemical Changes in Flooded Soils

Many chemical changes take place when soils are flooded,
most of them beneficial to the rice plant. Numerous studies
have shown that within the first 3 or 4 weeks after a dry soil is
flooded:

• the oxygen supply decreases almost to zero except in a

thin layer at the soil surface;
• the pH of acid soils increases, while that of calcareous
soils decreases, thus tending to bring most soils to
harmless degrees of either acidity or alkalinity;
• iron is reduced from the ferric to the ferrous form, and
1arge amounts of soluble iron are released into the soil
solution;
• the supply of available nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon,
and molybdenum increases;
• the availability of both zinc and copper decreases; and
• harmful quantities of toxins. such as organic acids,
ethylene, and hydrogen sulfide may be produced, and
under certain soil conditions the soluble iron quantities
may build up to toxic levels.

Of course the last two items arc harmful, but the others are
distinctly beneficial and advantageous to rice, the only major
food crop that thrives in waterlogged soil.
The chemistry of flooded soils is a complex subject, but the
most important single change that takes place on flooding is
the change in pH. Figure 4 shows the effects of submerging six
soils ranging in original pH from as low as 3-4 to as high as 8.2.
44 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

Figure 4. Changes in pH of six soils after submergence. (Source: F. N.

Ponnamperuma, 1976, Specific Soil Chemical Characteristics for Rice
Production in Asia, IRRI Research Paper Series No. 2)

After 2 to 3 weeks of flooding, nearly all soils had pH values

between 6.0 and 7.2, a suitable range for the rice plant. The one
soil that attained a pH value of only slightly over 5 was an acid
sulfate clay with a low active iron content and a high acid
reserve that prolonged submergence was unable to overcome.
The other highly acid soil reached a pH above 6. It had an
active iron content well above that of the acid sulfate clay, and
thus the quantities of soluble iron released on flooding were
sufficient to neutralize much of the soil acidity.

Solar Radiation and Rice Yields

Scientists have shown time and again that there is a high
positive correlation between the amount of solar radiation
received by the rice plant during the last 45 days before harvest
and grain yield. This phenomenon adds greatly to the
economic advantage of rice irrigation projects in arid regions
and of year-round irrigation projects in those tropical areas
The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology 45

Figure 5. Grain yield of rice in relation to solar radiation during the 45-day
period prior to harvest (average of IR8 and IR5 varieties) in 1968. (Source:
IRRI Annual Report for 1968)

that have a prolonged dry season.

The relationship between solar radiation and yield is shown
in Figure 3. The data were obtained from the date-of-planting
studies at IRRI, but the same conclusions have been reached
from shading experiments and from the numerous photo-
synthesis studies carried out in Japan. Over the last 15 years,
average dry season yields in IRRI experiments have been about
2 t/ha higher than those in the wet season (see Figure 3).
Although on experimental fields, where insect control is
good, the higher yields in the dry season are almost entirely due
to greater solar radiation, on farmers' fields the incidence of
insect and disease attack is much lower in the dry season than in
the wet season, which is an additional factor contributing to
the high yields in dry climates or seasons.
46 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technolo gyL

Plant Protection
Insect Control
Rice is subject to attack from dozens of insects, and the
damage to the plant can be severe. Some of the more common
and widely distributed rice insects in Asia are rice stern borers
(Chilo suppressalis, Tryporyza incertulas, and Sesamia in-
ferens), brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens), green
leafhoppers (Nephotettix nigropictus and N. virescens), white-
backed planthopper (Sogatella furcifera), the gall midge
(Pachdiplosis oryzae), and whorl maggot (Hydrellia philip-
pina). Other insects that occur sporadically or that are
important only in certain locations include the rice bug
(Leptocorisa acuta), armyworm (Pseudoletia unipuncta), rice
leaf folder (Cnapha1ocrosis medinalis), rice hispa (Hispa
amigera), and rice caseworm (Nymphula depuncta1is).
Numerous books and publications describe the many insect
pests of rice and methods for their control (see Bibliography).
No more is attempted here than to indicate the broader aspects
of present knowledge of insect control in rice.
Entomologists have concentrated their insect control efforts
on developing resistant varieties (working jointly with plant
breeders), on the use of insecticides, and on biological control.
Regarding the latter method, much has been learned about
parasites that attack harmful insects, but there have been no
outstanding successes in controlling rice insect populations by
rearing and releasing such parasites. Rather, the main
achievements so far have been in developing rice varieties that
are resistant to insect attack and in identifying the most
effective insecticides and devising efficient ways of applying
them.

Varietal resistance. The more recent IRRI varieties appear to

have medium resistance to the rice stem borers and high
resistance to the green leafhoppers and to the brown
planthopper (see Figure 2). Unfortunately, most insects have
biotypes that vary in their ability to attack a given variety of
rice. As the screening and testing of rice varieties and genetic
lines became widespread, it was found that certain varieties
The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology 47

bred and selected in the Philippines for resistance to a

particular insect would prove susceptible when grown in
India, for instance. The explanation is that a different biotype
of the insect existed in that country. Furthermore, when a new
rice variety that is resistant to a given insect is grown over a
wide area, in a few years a minor or obscure strain (biotype) of
the insect may become a major one, because it is able to attack
the resistant rice variety. This propensity of insects to develop
distinct biotypes and to shift their population composition
complicates rice-breeding programs and makes it necessary to
concentrate on discovering sources of broad-based resistance
that may be more lasting.
At present varietal resistance to rice stem borers, green
leafhoppers, and possibly gall midge as well seems fairly stable.
For example, the resistance of such varieties as Peta and IR8 to
green leafhoppers has not changed for more than a decade. The
brown planthopper, however, has at least three known bio-
types. As an indication, IR26, which showed strong resistance
to the brown planthopper in the Philippines and elsewhere in
Southeast Asia when it was first named, succumbed to brown
planthopper attack in the Philippines 2 years later. When
tested in parts of India it proved to be similarly susceptible. The
reason is that before IR26 was released it had been exposed only
to biotype I brown planthoppers, the predominant type in the
Philippines and in many other parts of Southeast Asia. Al-
though thus far several IRRI or Philippine varieties (IR36,
IR38, IR40, and IR42) show resistance to at least two biotypes
of the brown planthopper, there is no assurance that they will
continue to do so indefinitely.
The control of the brown planthopper is extremely
important, for not only is it the vector of the grassy stunt virus,
and of a new virus disease first noted in the Philippines in 1976
called “ragged stunt,” but it also causes severe direct damage by
feeding on the rice crop. This damage is referred to as
“hopperburn.”
As indicated earlier, the most promising approach to solving
the problem of genetic variations in insect populations is to de-
velop rice varieties with moderate-level, multiple-gene resis-
tance as replacements for the present varieties that owe their re-
sistance primarily to the presence of specific major genes.
48 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

Hopperburn in a rice field. Often the insect infestation starts in a small area
and rapidly spreads through the entire field of a susceptible rice variety.
(Source: IRRI)

In spite of the difficulties involved in breeding rice varieties

with resistance to all genetic variants that may develop within
insect populations, the use of resistant varieties still remains
the single most valuable low-input technology that can raise
yields on farmers’ fields and, at the same time, greatly reduce
the necessity for using costly insecticides.

The use of insecticides. A few years ago many scientists

hoped that stable resistance to the major insect pests of rice
could be genetically incorporated into a series of high-yielding
varieties and thus obviate the need for expensive, environment-
polluting insecticides. However, the strong tendency of some
insect species to develop biotypes, and the severity of attack by
several insect species against which varietal resistance has not
yet been found, suggest that chemical insecticides will be
needed whenever and wherever insect populations build up to
dangerous levels.
Recent studies in several Southeast Asian countries revealed
that the chief constraints to high yields on farmers’ fields were
improper water management, the inadequate use of fertilizer,
and poor insect and disease control. The results indicated that
The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology 49

the use of insecticides was often uneconomical because of the

high cost of the chemicals. Consequently, it behooves the
insecticide industry and the entomologists to develop cheaper
products and to devise ways of reducing the amounts needed for
effective insect control.
In lowland flooded rice, green leafhoppers, brown plant-
hoppers, whorl maggots, and stem borers generally can be
controlled by systemic insecticides, such as carbofuran, either
by spraying the plants or by broadcasting granules into the
paddy water. Nevertheless, when populations of brown
planthoppers are high, the insect has proved difficult to
control. This is especially true when foliar sprays are used,
because the brown planthopper feeds mostly at the base of the
plant where sprays usually do not penetrate. Furthermore,
foliar sprays used against the brown planthopper actually can
cause an increase in its population, presumably because they
kill parasites and competing insects.
Another complication in the use of insecticides is that insect
populations tend to develop resistance against a given
insecticide when it is used year after year in the same location.
Although the insecticide industry is continually introducing
new chemicals, it is barely keeping up with the genetic changes
in the insect population.
The most important recent advance in the use of insecticides
is the discovery that systemic insecticides are much more
effective when deeply placed in the soil. With a simple hand-
powered applicator, a liquid systemic insecticide can be placed
in the root zone, and one application made soon after
transplanting can be much more effective than broadcasting
the same insecticide in granular form or than four foliar
sprayings (Figure 6). In fact, 0.5 kg,/ha of the active ingredient
of carbofuran applied in the root zone was fully as effective as
1.5 kg/ha broadcast-the conventional application technique.
Entomologists are testing numerous ways of increasing the
efficiency and reducing the cost of insecticide use. They have
found, for example, that by dipping the roots of rice seedlings
into a mixture of gelatin, water, and a systemic insecticide, the
green leafhoppers and the tungro disease (of which they are the
vector) can be controlled reasonably well for an entire growing
season.
50 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

Figure 6. The impact of insecticide placement on yield of transplanted

rice. Carbofuran at 1 kg/ha (active ingredient) was applied 3 days after
transplanting into the root zone and as broadcast treatment. Mono-
crotophos was applied four times at 20-day intervals as a foliar spray at
0.75 kg/ha a.i. (Source: IRRI Annual Report for 1975)

Integrated pest control-the combination of resistant

varieties, management practices, and insecticides-is be-
coming widely recognized as the most effective and efficient
way of keeping insect populations at low levels. For instance,
brown planthopper outbreaks are common only where two or
more rice crops are grown consecutively in a single year. Thus,
planting some other crop between rice crops significantly
reduces the brown planthopper population, because the insect
has an extremely narrow host range. Transplanting rice
seedlings at wide spacing also seems to reduce population
The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology 51

build-up. Insect damage to the rice crop undoubtedly can be

kept at low levels and yields and profits can be increased by
using resistant varieties and by employing such practices as
multiple cropping and insecticide placement.

Disease Control
Although there are fungal, bacterial, and virus diseases of
rice that can cause severe losses, all of them can fortunately be
kept under reasonable control by using resistant varieties and
proper cultural practices. Fungicides and other chemicals will
cut down the incidence and severity of several important
diseases, but their use is uneconomical in the less developed
countries.
The most widespread disease of rice is rice blast, which is
caused by the fungus Pyricularia oryzae. The symptoms are
spots or lesions on leaves, nodes, and panicles. They have gray
or whitish centers and, although varying in shape and size, are
typically elliptical with more or less pointed ends. Rice blast
disease forms physiological races, and it is necessary to change
rice varieties when a new race breaks out in a locality. So far,
plant breeders have been able to create resistant varieties about
as fast as new races appear. With the extra attention now being
paid to developing horizontal (sometimes referred to as broad-
spectrum or multiple-gene) resistance, it seems likely that even
greater success in disease control through varietal resistance
will occur in the future.
Another widespread fungus disease of rice is brown spot,
caused by Helminthosporium oryzae. Typical symptoms are
oval brown spots scattered over the surface of the leaves and
glumes. The disease has been studied thoroughly by plant
pathologists, particularly in Japan and India. Nevertheless, if
the rice crop is well managed and particularly if it is well
supplied with soil nutrients, losses from the disease are not
severe.
A third important fungus disease of rice is sheath blight,
caused by Corticum sasakii. Typical symptoms are greenish-
gray, ellipsoid, or ovoid spots on the leaf sheath. In the field the
spots usually are observed first near the waterline. They may
spread to the upper leaf sheaths and to the leaf blades. When
this occurs the entire leaf dies and yield losses are severe. The
52 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

disease is encouraged by dense planting and by the use of

fertilizers. There are only a few resistant varieties, but their use
is still the best and most economical method of control.
There are only two important bacterial diseases of rice,
bacterial blight (caused by Xanthomonas oryzae) and bacterial
streak (caused by X. translucens). Bacterial blight is the more
damaging. Normally, the symptoms of bacterial blight become
noticeable in the field as the crop approaches the heading stage.
The disease is characterized by lesions on the leaf blade
beginning at the edge and enlarging to long yellow areas with a
wavy margin. Eventually these lesions may cover the entire leaf
blade, and the tissue dies and later becomes infected with
saprophytic fungi. In the tropics the disease may assume an
additional type (called “kresek” in Indonesia where it was first
described) in which young seedlings are attacked after
transplanting. The entire plant may die.
Bacterial streak has been found only in the tropics. Typical
symptoms are fine translucent streaks that enlarge lengthwise
and that later turn brown. In the advanced stages bacterial
streak is indistinguishable from bacterial blight.
Scientists have identified varieties that are resistant to the
bacterial diseases of rice, and their use constitutes the most
practical method of control.
Although there are numerous virus diseases of the rice plant,
only four are of economic importance in the tropics. They are
the tungro disease, which is transmitted by green leafhoppers;
the grassy stunt and the ragged stunt diseases, both of which are
transmitted by the brown planthopper; and the hoja blanca
disease, transmitted by the planthopper Sogatodes oryzicola.
Fortunately, none of these diseases can be transmitted
mechanically or through the seed.
The symptoms of the tungro disease are stunting of the
plants and leaf discoloration ranging from various shades of
yellow to orange. Scientists have now found that the “penyakit
merah” disease of Malaysia and the “mentek” disease in
Indonesia are the same as the tungro disease. The disease occurs
sporadically throughout the humid tropics of Asia and can
cause severe damage and heavy yield losses.
Plants infected with grassy stunt virus are characterized by
The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology 53

severe stunting, excessive tillering, and erect growth. Diseased

plants usually produce no panicles. The disease is not yet so
widespread as tungro disease and is found mainly in the
Philippines.
Ragged stunt is a newly recognized virus disease of rice in
tropical Asia. The predominant symptoms are stunting to
various degrees at all growth stages and ragged, torn, or
serrated leaves. Diseased plants do not deviate markedly from
healthy ones in color or in degree of tillering.
The symptoms of the hoja blanca disease are white, chlorotic
stripes on the leaves (or even completely white leaves), stunting
of the plant, and poor filling of the grains at maturity. This
disease occurs almost exclusively in Latin America.
The principal means of control of virus diseases is the use of
varieties that are resistant to the insect vector or to the virus, or
to both.

Weed Control
During the past decade remarkable progress has been made
in developing new herbicides for rice and improving methods
of application. It is now possible to control most noxious
weeds chemically in irrigated fields, in rainfed paddy, and
under upland conditions. Hundreds of experiments all over the
world have clearly shown that weed control is essential for high
yields. The use of chemical herbicides is not a requirement, but
weed control is.
In flooded lowland rice, weed control problems are far less
serious than in rainfed paddy or upland rice, because the flood
water itself eliminates some weeds and retards the growth of
others. Whether to weed by hand or to use chemical herbicides
is largely a matter of economics; the cost of herbicides must be
measured against the cost of labor.
In the Philippines, for example, many farmers use granular
2,4-D as a pre-emergence herbicide on flooded lowland rice
because it is inexpensive and controls most of the annual
weeds. At about US$7.00 per hectare, it is cheaper than hand
weeding. However, the more selective herbicides, such as
butaclor or thiobencarb, cost three or even four times as much
as 2,4-D, and under most conditions are more expensive than
54 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

Figure 7. Yield response to low levels of nitrogen, with and without weed
control. This is the average of two trials on farmers’ fields in the Philippines.
(Source: IRRI)

hand weeding. Taiwan offers a contrasting example. In 1975

the average daily wage for weeders there was US$3.75, as
compared with only US$0.80 in the Philippines. Thus, in
Taiwan the more costly herbicides could be used more
profitably than hand weeding.
Weed control does not need to be all chemical or wholly
performed by hand labor. Good land preparation, multiple
cropping, and straight-row planting (with the subsequent use
of the rotary weeder) all aid in weed control. Many farmers use a
combination of one application of an inexpensive herbicide
(2,4-D) followed by one hand weeding to remove any persistent
weeds not eliminated by the herbicide.
An important and basic consideration is that if fertilizers are
The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology 55

to be used profitably, weeds must be controlled, for the weeds as

well as the rice respond to the fertilizer and compete with the
crop. A study conducted in the province of Laguna in the
Philippines illustrates this principle well. When weeds were
not controlled, 30 kg/ha of nitrogen gave a yield only 0.5 t ha
higher than the yield with no fertilizer. But when weed control
was praciticed the yield with fertilircr was 1 t/ha higher than
without fertilizeer (Figure 1). The actual yields arc significant
also. On the inherently fertile volcanic ash soil of the
Philippines, the yield on unfertilized plots as increased from
2.5 t/ha to 4.0 t/ha by weeding alone; and the top yield obtained
from only 30 kg/ha of nitrogen rose from 3 t/ha to 5 t/ha as a
result of weed control. There are literally hundreds of
experiments showing this same trend. The lesson for the
extension worked is that in any pogram to increase rice yields,
weed control comes before fertilizer application when recom-
mending to farmers what practice to improve first.
Although chemical weed control in flooded rice, either
transplanted or direct-seeded, is highly successful it is more
difficult to get good control when rice is sown under upland
conditions. This is mainly due to the absence of the inhibiting
effects of flood water on the growth of weeds and to the fact that
some weed species that are difficult to control with chemicals,
such as nuntsedge (Cyperus rotondus) flourish under upland
conditions.
Weeding of upland rite fields by hand is expensive and time-
consuming. Furthermore, in the early stages of growth (and it
is essential to weed rice early), it is difficult to distinguish some
grasses from rice plants. Data obtained at IRRI show that
some new herbicides suitable for weed control in upland rice
fields, even though expensive (USS25 per hectare for chemicals
alone), cost less than the two or three hand weedings that are
often necessary under upland conditions. Moreover, because of
the slowness of hand weeding, the weeding operation often is
finished too late to be of value. Use of herbicides in contrast,
eliminates weeds before they can reduce yields.
As herbicides become cheaper (which should be expected as
sales volumes increase) and as labor costs rise, chemical control
of weeds probably will become a common practice among rice
56 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

farmers, particularly on farms larger than 2 hectares. Today,

however, except in a few regions such as Japan, South Korea,
Taiwan, and to some extent the Philippines and the Indian
Punjab, few farmers use herbicides for weed control.

Mechanization for the Small Farmer

Although the use of engine-powered equipment on small
rice farms is not at all essential for high yields, there are
conditions under which mechanization is profitable even for
the farmer tilling no more than 2 hectares of land. If labor is
either expensive or scarce, it may be more profitable to hire the
land preparation and the threshing. Then, too, if a small
farmer has the water supply to grow several crops of rice (or of
rice and vegetables) in a single year, it may be necessary-and
more profitable - to have his land prepared by a power tiller or
a four-wheeled tractor, simply because the “turn-around time”
is so much less than it would be were he to use animal power. If
a farmer tills only 2 hectares of land, he cannot afford to
purchase land preparation equipment or threshing machines,
unless he either plans to do contract work for other farmers or
buys his equipment jointly with neighboring farmers and
shares the cost and use with them.
In spite of the nonessential character of mechanization, there
has been a steady increase in the number of machines
purchased by farmers during recent years. In response to this
demand, agricultural engineers have designed machines that
are suitable for small farmers and are simple enough to be
constructed by the small unsophisticated machine shops
scattered throughout the less developed countries.
One of the oldest and most successful of the national
programs for developing small machines for rice farmers is in
Thailand. This program started in 1953 under the Engineering
Division of the newly created Rice Department of the Ministry
of Agriculture. Much of the effort was directed toward the
design of land preparation equipment, although water pumps
and threshing equipment were also developed. Two-wheeled
tractors (5- to 9-horsepower) and four-wheeled tractors (12- to
15-horsepower) were designed, tested, and released to local
The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology 57

IRRI’s improved power tiller, driven by a 6-horsepower diesel engine

drawing a comb harrow. The operator rides on a skid, which saves him from
undue fatigue. With a power tiller, preparing 1 hectare of land takes less than
6 man-days compared with 20 man-days with a water buffalo.

machine shops for manufacture. All parts of the machines

except the engines were made locally. By 1975 the machine
shops of Thailand were turning out 3000 two-wheeled and 800
four-wheeled tractors annually. In addition, the shops made
many attachments and implements for larger imported
tractors. The locally produced machines and implements
usually sold for 30 to 50 percent less than the imported ones.
‘Taiwan has been successful in improving and locally
manufacturing two-wheeled power tillers and other equip-
ment originally designed and produced in Japan.
Since its inception IRRI has had a program to design and
test equipment for small-scale rice farming. Three of the
machines are described below. The IRRI examples were
selected, because information about them is readily available,
and not necessarily because they are the only or the best types
available.

Land Preparation Equipment

Among the various power tillers imported by the Philip-
58 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

TABLE 5. COMPARATIVE LABOR REQUIREMENTS AND COSTS

OF LAND PREPARATION BY POWER TILLERS ANI)
BY WATER BUFFALOES IN THE PHILIPPINES
IN 1976 a

Power tiller Water buffalo

Labor Cost Labor Cost
Item (man-days/ha) (US$/ha) (man-days/ha) (US$/ha)

Plowing 1.8 24.30 6.6 22.30

Harrowing 3.6 48.60 13.4 45.30
Total 5.4 72.90 20.0 67.60

a
Based on one plowing followed by three to four passes when harrowing with a
power tiller and 9 to 13 passes when harrowing with a water buffalo, which are
the ranges encountered in a survey of farmers. Costs based on 1977 value of the
Philippine peso: US$1.00 = 7.4 pesos.

pines in the 1960s was one that had a 5- to 7-horsepower motor

and was light and sturdy for its weight. In 1971 IRRI engineers
designed a tiller based on that machine but simpler, so that,
except for the engine and a few bearings and seals, it could be
manufactured locally. This model was released to manufac-
turers in 1972, and by 1976 15,000 units had been manufactured
and sold in the Philippines alone.
Surveys conducted in 1975 among farmers and manufac-
turers familiar with IRRI equipment showed that improve-
ments needed were more power, fewer parts, the addition of
steering clutches to facilitate turning, and the capability of
accommodating a diesel engine. By 1977, a new prototype that
satisfied all those requirements had been produced by IRRI
engineers and released to manufacturers in the Philippines and
in other countries. This machine, when manufactured in the
Philippines, cost about half as much as similar imported
machines.
By conducting a survey of 60 farms in the province of Laguna
in the Philippines, IRRI engineers and economists were able to
estimate the comparative labor requirements and costs of land
preparation with power tillers and with water buffaloes (Table
The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technolo gy s
59

Paddy soil being puddled with a comb harrow drawn by a water buffalo. In
Southeast Asia this is the most common method of land preparation for
f1ooded rice. (Source: IRRI)

5). They found that it takes nearly four times as long to prepare
flooded rice land with a water buffalo as with a power tiller.
Nevertheless, in terms of actual cost per hectare, it is slightly
cheaper to use animal power.
Another study showed that in order not to lose money a
farmer using a power tiller must cultivated at least 6 hectares of
land per year. If the power tiller is to be a good investment, he
should use it on a minimum of 10 hectares annually. Therefore,
if a farmer owns or has control of 3 hectares of land and if he
grows two rice crops a year, he would just break even. The
survey indicated that, on the average, power tiller owners
actually used their machines on 10 hectares yearly and that, if
they did not own enough land themselves, they did contract
work on the side.
These. studies of land preparation in the Philippines were
carried out in areas where lowland flooded rice was grown. The
IRRI power tiller has not yet been tested adequately under
upland conditions where the power requirements may be
considerably higher than on lowland soils.

Direct-Seeding Equipment
Transplanting rice is time-consuming, requiring on the
60 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

Direct seeding of lowland rice will become more popular in Southeast Asia in
the future, mainly because it can be done with as little as one twentieth the
labor needed for transplanting. The IRRI multihopper seeder is inexpensive
and is manufactured in several Asian countries. (Source: IRRI)

average 120 man-hours per hectare. It is likely that direct-

seeding of rice on lowland rice fields in Asia will become more
and more common in the future. Scientists have proved that
when water levels and weeds are properly controlled there is no
difference in yield between direct-seeded and transplanted rice.
In 1968, IRRI engineers designed and released to local
manufacturers a simple hand-operated seeder. It since has been
improved, and the current model is called the “IRRI
multihopper seeder.” The machine is light in weight, has a low
center of gravity, and can be built inexpensively in less
developed countries. It plants six rows at a time. An operator
can sow 50 kilograms of pregerminated rice seed on a hectare of
land in about 6 hours. This is 20 times faster than
transplanting. A conveniently placed bracket over the wheel
allows the operator to lift the machine and turn it when he
reaches the end of the field. With its single wheel, the seeder
easily can be transported across bunds. The only special
requirements for its successful use are good water control,
thorough land preparation, and the use of pregerminated seed.

Threshing Equipment
Rice threshing in most of the less developed countries is
laborious and inefficient. IRRI engineers have developed and
The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology 61

The IRRI portable thresher is efficient, relatively inexpensive, and easy to

move from field to field. (Source: IRRI)

tested a variety of cone, table-type, and drum-type threshers.

The most successful model (up to 1977) was the so-called “IRRI
axial flow thresher,” which wi11 continue to be a good machine
for community. threshing. It has a capacity of about 1000 kg/hr
and can be operated by three or four men. It is rather costly
(US$2,000), however, and even three or four average small
farmers could not afford to purchase it jointly.
In 1977, IRRI engineers produced a small portable thresher
that could be operated and readily carried from place to place
by three men. It has a capacity of up to 600 kg/hr of dry paddy
and of about 300 kg/hr when the harvested rice is wet. It is
powered by a ,5-horsepower gasoline engine and weighs 105
kilograms. Its estimated selling price to the farmer is one-
fourth that of the axial flow thresher. The design of this IRRI
portable thresher was released to manufacturers in 1977. It is
anticipated that it will be popular with farmers because of its
relatively low price, its durability (it is sturdily built and has
few moving parts to wear out), and its portability.

The New Technology and Farm Incomes

After the preceding descriptions of the more important
62 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

technological advances made within the, past two decades, the

question arises as to what benefits accrue. to the farmer who
adopts the new rice varieties and the improved cultural
practices that should accompany them.
Numerous studies have been made to analyze the economic
and social implications of the so-called Green Revolution.
Among these are a major study by the United Nations Research
Institute for Social Development, with information gathered
from various localities in the Philippines, Indonesia, Thai-
land, and Malaysia, and an equally broad study directed by
IRRI and published in 197.5 under the title, Changes in Rice
Farming in Selected Areas of Asia. The latter work includes
surveys of the impact of the new technology in many villages in
most of the countries of South and Southcast Asia. In addition
to those two major efforts, numerous investigations have been
conducted by individual economists and social scientists in
national programs, particularly in India, Bangladesh, and the
Philippines.
The results of these studies vary greatly from locality to
locality, and to some extent from country to country, because of
the diversity of such factors as the physical environment and
the infrastructure, including governmental price policies for
rice and for inputs. Nevertheless, a few general statements that
reflect the impact of the new varieties and management
practices can be made.
1. When good water control exists and the modern varieties
are properly managed, high yields occur and the new
technology pays off handsomely. Obviously, when the new
practices are substituted for the traditional, inputs are
increased-particularly those of fertilizer, pesticides, and labor
(especially as required for better weed control). Nevertheless,
when those adjuncts are applied to the modern varieties they
are highly profitable, increasing net incomes from 50 to well
over 100 percent.
2. With irrigation, the most important single yield-
promoting factor is the use of ferti1izer—particularly nitrogen,
although phosphorus often is required as well. Less frequently
The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology 63

the application of potassium and zinc is also profitable.

3. The second most important input is insecticides. In some
localities and seasons, uncontrolled attacks by the gall midge or
the brown planthopper, for instance, can devastate a stand and
make irrigation and fertilizer use completely ineffective and
unprofitable.
4. Despite the heightened use of power tillers and tractors in
land preparation and the consequent savings in labor, the total
number of laborers hired by those farmers changing from the
traditional to the modern varieties has increased rather than
decreased. In other words, farmers tended to give the modern
varieties better care. The extra labor was used largely for
transplanting, weeding, and harvesting.
5. Although the situation varies somewhat from country to
country, depending upon land reform policies and similar
factors, by and large no class of owner or operator-whether
landlord, tenant, lease-holder, or owner-operator-tends to
benefit unduly from the increased net incomes generated by the
adoption of the new technology.
6. Under unfavorable environmental conditions caused, for
example, by drought, floods, typhoons, poor weed control, and
heavy insect attack, there is usually no economic advantage in
growing the modern varieties. In general, the costs of inputs
will exceed the increasing income unless a yield advantage of
0.75 t/ha exists.
7. The modern varieties now available are not suitable
during the rainy season for many low-lying areas in Asia where
levels of water exceed 30 centimeters for extended periods, or
where the young rice plants are completely submerged for 10
days or so. Under such conditions of poor water control,
farmers tend to revert to growing the traditional varieties. The
same farmers, on the other hand, continue to grow the modern
short-statured varieties in the dry season when they can control
the water level in their paddies.
8. Most farmers adopting the new technology feel that it is
beneficial. Except for those with water control problems in the
wet season, few farmers have reverted to the traditional
64 The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology

varieties. More studies are needed to reveal the changes in living

standards resulting from the increased income provided by the
modern technology. In one major study, about 75 percent of the
farmers reporting higher incomes indicated that their standard
of living also had improved.
 3
Problems of Postharvest
Technology

When the rice grain is harvested, it is unusable as human

food until the inedible hull is removed. Since the grain is
usually consumed as white rice, the bran layer must also be
removed (through a process called polishing or milling). Thus,
the normal sequence in the handling of a rice crop after it
matures is harvesting, cleaning, drying, storage, milling, and
distribution to the market (or retention for farm family
consumption). Parboiling, if done, occurs sometime before
milling. Severe loss can occur when traditional methods of
handling are used. Studies conducted in several South and
Southeast Asian countries reveal that 13 to 34 percent of the
crop is lost during harvest and postharvest operations: during
harvesting and threshing, 5 to 15 percent; in cleaning and
drying, 2 to 3 percent; in storage, 2 to 6 percent; in processing
(parboiling and milling), 3 to 7 percent; and during handling
and transport, 1 to 3 percent. Other important losses are grain
quality deterioration, under-utilization of by-products, and
financial losses due to inefficient postharvest operations. This
chapter outlines the nature of such losses and the means by
which farmers, millers, and government agencies can increase
the efficiency of all phases of rice handling from harvesting
to final delivery to the consumer.

This chapter is based on material prepared by James E. Wimberly, rice

processing engineer of the International Rice Research Institute.

65
66 Problems of Postharvest Technology

Harvesting and Threshing

The chief consideration in harvesting is the degree of
maturity of the grain, which is determined by measuring
moisture content. The optimum moisture content of the rice
grain at harvest time is 21 to 24 percent. Under tropical
conditions this point is generally reached 28 to 32 days after
flowering. If the crop is allowed to stand in the field after it
reaches maturity, large losses occur in both the field yield of the
crop harvested and the percentage recovery of head (whole
grain) rice after milling (Figure 8). If the rice crop is left in the
field until the moisture content of the grain is reduced to 15
percent, for instance, the reduction in yield may be as high as 20
percent. The loss is due to a number of factors. A considerable
amount of grain simply shatters and falls to the ground before
it is harvested; birds and rodents take their share of the ripened
grain; and additional losses come about during the harvesting
process itself, because the grain is so loosely held on the
panicles.
Early harvesting, besides reducing the risk of such losses,
produces a higher quality milled rice. When the grain is
allowed to remain in the field after it is mature, “sun checking”
(cracking of the grain) occurs and many of the grains break
during milling. Some farmers object to early harvesting,
because the grain is wetter and requires more drying before it
can be stored. In addition, threshing early harvested paddy is
more difficult. Since many farmers continue to thresh by hand
or to drive oxen or tractors over the harvested crop, they are
interested in at least medium threshability.
Mechanical threshers remove the drudgery from the process
and save time. Although they require a capital investment, the
cost of operation is low. Small portable threshers powered by 5-
horsepower engines are available and are light enough to be
carried readily from field to field (see chapter 2). In some
countries large stationary threshers with 25-horsepower
engines can be hired.
 67

Figure 8. The relationship between the moisture content

of paddy (IR8) at harvest and total field yield, the percent-
age milling yield, and percentage head rice yield. (Adapted
from N. G. Bhole et al., 1970, Paddy harvesting and drying
studies, Rice Process Engineering Centre, Indian Institute
of Technology, Kharagpur, India)
68 Problems of Postharvest Technology

Cleaning and Drying

Cleaning
When the paddy is threshed it contains foreign matter,
including sand and small stones, straw, and immature and
unfilled grains. This extraneous material has to be removed to
provide a high quality product. Hand sieving and winnowing
are traditional farm methods of cleaning. These methods,
however, produce erratic results, and often the paddy sold is of
poor quality.
In Asia, where most farms are no larger than 2 hectares, the
fact that the farmer cannot afford to purchase equipment for
cleaning or drying is a major problem. This is a good reason for
having farmer cooperatives that can accept rice from the grower
and prepare it for storage and marketing.
Mechanical cleaners of many sizes are available. Funda-
mentally they employ (1) a vibrating screen (or in some larger
mills a rotating screen) with large openings to remove any
particles bigger than the rice grain, (2) a second screen with
small openings to separate out particles smaller than the rice
grain and (3) a blower that forces air through the falling paddy
to remove chaff and other lightweight materials. Several less
developed countries are building small cleaners suitable for on-
farm use. The larger cleaners usually are produced in the
developed countries and have to be imported.
The required capacity of a cleaner can readily be determined
if the volume of paddy to be handled in a given period is
known. Three possible situations are exemplified as follows:
1. Several neighboring small-scale farmers may wish to
clean 10 tons of paddy per day. For this they will need a cleaner
with a capacity of 2 tons per hour. Such a unit costs about
US$400 and can be operated by one man with no extra
equipment.
2. A paddy store or mill that receives 1000 tons of paddy every
20 days will need a cleaner with a capacity of about 5 tons per
hour. Generally, a bucket elevator is used to lift the paddy to a
height above the cleaner. If labor is abundant, however,
Problems of Postharvest Technology 69

workers can carry sacks of paddy up a stairway and dump it into

the cleaner from a platform. The cost of a cleaner of the
required size is about US$1000.
3. A mill or storage plant that needs to handle 250 tons per
day will require a cleaner with a 25 ton-per-hour capacity. A
unit of that size is part of a drying and storage complex with
mechanical handling throughout the entire process.
Except for farmer-operated units, the selection of cleaners
and other processing equipment, and of building facilities,
should be part of district and country planning. The 25 ton-
70 Problems of Postharvest Technology

per-hour machines would be needed only for an import-export

operation in a port or for a large rice-processing complex where
at least 10,000 tons are stored annually. The ordinary
commercial mill would require a cleaner with a capacity of 5 to
10 tons per hour. The 2- to 5-ton machines would be used
primarily by village-level mills and by small cooperatives or
groups of farmers.

Drying
The moisture content of paddy is important from the time it
is harvested until it is milled. Many farmers and quite a few of
the smaller rice mills dry the paddy in the sun on woven mats or
on concrete floors. Although this method increases the
percentage of broken grains during milling, it is inexpensive
and will continue to be a major drying procedure.
Paddy coming from the field usually has a moisture content
of between 20 and 24 percent. It should be dried to at least 14
percent as soon as possible to prevent deterioration. Paddy with
such moisture content can be stored without much damage for
up to 3 months. For longer storage, it should be dried to 12.5 to
13 percent. It is difficult to maintain moisture contents as low
as these in the wet season in the humid tropics, where the grain
absorbs moisture from the atmosphere.
Some otherwise desirable features of modern rice varieties
have made the drying process more complicated. The new
varieties often have shorter growth durations than traditional
varieties, so they ripen in the rainy season when sun drying is
difficult. Furthermore, a number of modern varieties do not
have seed dormancy and sprout soon after harvest if allowed to
remain wet. To surmount these problems and others, many
farmers and millers are purchasing mechanical dryers.
Removing excessive moisture from paddy requires equip-
ment with blowers and supplemental heat. The heat can be
supplied from oil, wood, coal, rice straw, rice hulls, or from
solar energy collectors. The decision as to what fuel to use
depends upon availability and costs in the area where the rice is
being dried. In rice mills where the husk is a by-product of
milling, it is used for fuel. Most farmers with mechanical dryers
use oil. wood, or straw as fuel.
As with paddy cleaning, the capacity of the dryer needed
Prob1ems of Postharvest Technology 71

A bin dryer that holds 1 or 2 tons of paddy is suitable for small groups of
farmers or for a village drying and storage operation. (Source: IRRI)

depends on the six of the operation. For farm drying, small 1-

to 2-ton bin dryers are used. This type is quite labor intensive,
because the paddy is loaded and unloaded by hand. It takes
from 4 to 8 hours to dry a batch. depending mainly on the
initial moisture content of the paddy. These small dryers,
which consist of a wooden, metal. or concrete box with a
perforated floor, arc. simple. to construct. A blower is needed to
force warm air through the floor and up through the paddy.
lying on it. Nevertheless, the blower and burner are easy to
operate and are relatively trouble free.
Continuous flow systems arc used for commercial drying
where large volumes of paddy arc. handled. The paddy enters a
tall vertical dryer where the temperature is high, moves on to
tempering bins, then back to the. dryer and finally into storage.
The flow path of the paddy in such a system is shown in Figure
9. Large dryers such as this are not yet manufactured in most
less developed countries. The tempering bins are made of
concrete, wood, or metal, their size depending on the capacity
needed. The conveying equipment consists of belts and bucket
elevators. The initial cost of these systems is high; but if the
volume of paddy handled is sufficient, the cost per ton of grain
dried is reasonable.
Careful study is needed before investment is made in drying
72 Problems of Postharvest Technology

Figure 9. Chart showing the movement of paddy through a modern

continuous-flow drying plant. (Source: James Wimberly)

equipment. The size must meet the rice-producing capacity of

the district concerned. In some more isolated areas, it is
economical for farmers or groups of farmers to use bin-type
dryers of low capacity and then to sell dry paddy to the
commercial miller or warehouse operator. In other sections, it
may be more economical to set up a system in which farmers
deliver their wet paddy to governmental or commercial units
that have the capacity to dry the paddy well and quickly.

G a i n s from Proper Cleaning a n d D r y i n g

For maximum profits and minimum losses it is important
for both farmer and buyer to handle good quality rice, free of
foreign matter and dried to a moisture content no higher than
14 percent. But most small farmers do not have mechanical
cleaners and dryers, principally because their rice output is too
small to justify expensive equipment.
There appear to be only two solutions to the problem. One is
for the farmers to form small groups or cooperatives, thus
gaining enough capital and volume to be able to purchase the
Problems of Postharvest Technology 73

cleaning and drying equipment. The other is for either

commercial buyers or government-owned warehouses to accept
the many small lots of grain from the surrounding area and to
clean and dry them.
Understandably, the commercial buyers or the government
purchasing agencies have to adjust the price paid to the farmer
in relation to the amount of moisture and foreign matter in the
paddy he sells them. It is important that these measurements be
made accurately and that a fair price be paid for the rice.
Reliable moisture meters and dockage testers are available and
should be employed. In the more sophisticated markets, the
buyer may wish to measure grain size and shape, to keep
varieties separate (when a premium is paid for certain
varieties), and even to determine the potential milling yield by
putting small samples through laboratory shellers and
polishers.
Good relations and mutual trust between the farmer and the
rice buyer (whether private or governmental) are essential.
They can be maintained only if paddy grades and standards are
followed. It is up to the governmental agencies that enforce the
regulations to see that both seller and buyer are protected.
Purchasing and pricing systems vary from country to
country; no single description can cover them all. However, the
economic gains that can result from producing clean, dry
paddy can be shown by a hypothetical example:
The government has a guaranteed minimum purchase price
for paddy of $125 per ton provided it contains no more than 14
percent moisture or 1 percent foreign matter. Government
policy reduces the price paid to the farmer by $1.00 per, ton for
each 1 percent of moisture above 14 percent and by $0.50 per ton
for each percent of increase in foreign matter above the 1 per-
cent allowed. Assuming 200,000 tons of paddy are marketed
annually and that the average moisture content of the rice is 16
percent, rather than 14 percent, and the dockage (foreign
material) 3 percent instead of 1 percent, then the amount of
money paid to the farmers would be $600,000 less than if the
paddy had met the established standards. Rice processing
specialists estimate that moisture meters and rice cleaners to
handle that volume of rice could be purchased for $50,000.
74 Problems of Postharvest Technology

While there are other factors to be considered than those

pointed out here, nevertheless it generally is to the farmer’s
advantage to do the best job he can in drying and cleaning his
paddy before he delivers it to the buyer.

Handling and Transportation

Studies show that from 1 to 3 percent of the paddy can be lost
during handling and transportation. The more times the
paddy is handled and moved, the greater the losses. Further-
more, the cost of handling and transporting paddy can vary by
several hundred percent depending on the system employed.
To use an extreme example, in some countries bagged rice
may be handled as many as twenty-three times and moved by
truck three times from when it is delivered by the farmer to a
purchase center to when it finally reaches the consumer. From
the purchase center, it goes to a paddy store and into storage.
Three months later it is transferred to a small mill that has no
belt conveyor and is hand carried from cleaner to sheller to
separator to polisher. Then it is trucked back to the rice store
and finally to the retail market. In the course of its handling
and traveling, it is weighed three times.
To consider the other extreme, the farmer delivers unbagged
(loose) grain to a modern rice handling and processing plant. It
is dumped into a receiving bin and moved by conveyors
through the cleaning and drying processes and into storage.
Some three months later it moves on a conveyor belt into the
rice mill where it is dehulled, polished, and graded in a
continuous operation. Finally it is automatically bagged,
loaded onto a truck, taken to the retail market, and moved to the
sales counter. Instead of being subjected to twenty-three
operations, the paddy in this second instance is handled only
six times by mechanical conveyors, twice by hand, and once by
truck.
The traditional system is labor intensive, whereas the
modern one is highly mechanized. Studies show that the
modern rice handling and processing plant, provided it runs to
capacity, is more economical than are traditional methods in
terms of cost per unit of rice outturn. Moreover, the physical
Problems of Postharvest Technology 75

losses of grain are reduced substantially.

Here are some practical suggestions for reducing the losses
and costs during the handling and transportation of paddy.
(Some points, so obvious as to be understood without mention,
are included solely for completeness.)
1. A detailed study can be made of the present system to see
how the number of handling operations might be reduced.
2. An inventory of existing transport facilities can be made
with the aim of using all equipment to the maximum degree
possible.
3. Because transporting hulk rice is more efficient than
transporting bagged rice, existing truck bodies can be
converted to accommodate bulk grain.
4. Torn jute or plastic bags should be repaired or replaced.
5. Farmer-operated tractor-trailers can he used for hauling
grain from farm to processing plant.
6. Storage and processing plants should be adjacent to avoid
unnecessary transportation time and cost.
7. Even small village mills may find it profitable to install
some mechanical devices (such as small bucket elevators to
hoist paddy to the grain cleaners).

Storage
Large losses of paddy and milled rice occur during storage.
Fortunately, these losses can be virtually eliminated. The
construction of storage facilities represents the largest single
investment in the postharvest industry.
Physical losses in storage range from 2 to 6 percent. They are
chiefly the result of insect and rodent damage and of careless
handling, including improper car-e of the sacks. Furthermore,
fungi and bacteria may reduce quality if the relative humidity
of the air in the storage space remains too high (above 70
percent), or if rain water is allowed to enter the storage
building.
The cardinal rules for good storage are to allow only clean
and properly dried paddy to enter storage and to keep the
storage building completely rainproof. In addition, the floor
should be tight so that no moisture seeps upward through it. In
76 Problems of Postharvest Technology

bag storage, wooden dunnage (platforms) should be used to

maintain an air space between grain and floor.

T y p e s of Storage Facilities
The principal factor determining the size of the storage
building is plainly the amount of paddy to be placed on the
market from the nearby area. The building material selected
can be reinforced concrete, brick, wood, or sheet metal,
according to local availability and cost. Even the size of the
building will depend upon local construction skills. In some
places it may be better, for example, to construct two 2500-ton
storage buildings rather than one structure holding 5000 tons.
Storage facilities are of two types: those accommodating
grain in bags and those built to store loose paddy (referred to as
bulk storage). Bag storage buildings are usually square or rec-
tangular while bulk plants can be either rectangular or in the
form of tall, round silos. Bag storage is labor oriented; bulk
storage plants require a larger investment but are less expensive
to operate. Losses during storage are not influenced particu-
larly by whether the paddy is stored in bulk or in sacks. Rather,
they are determined by the care taken to prevent loss and
deterioration.
Cleaning and drying operations may be attached to either
type of facility. However, from the standpoint of economy it is
especially important to have cleaning, drying, and storage in
bulk storage plants, because a system of mechanical conveyors
can move the grain from one place to another with minimum
handling.
To provide an example of the relative costs of bag and of bulk
storage, the costs for 6000-ton storage facilities of the two types
are shown in Table 6 (these are figures from one country and
reflect only a particular local situation at the time they were
assembled). The data simply support the fact that a greater
initial investment is required for bulk storage plants and that
those using jute or plastic bags are more expensive to operate.
Nevertheless, bag storage facilities may be the wiser choice in
labor-surplus economies.

Providing Additional Storage Capacity

As rice production goes up, storage space should increase
Problems of Postharvest Technology 77

TABLE 6. 4 COMPARISON OF THE INVESTMENT AND

OPERATIONAL COSTS OF 6000-TON HAG AND
BULK STORAGE FACILITIES.

Item Bag storage Bulk storage

Initial Investment
Building construction US$l50,000 US$150,000
Mechanical equipment - 60,000
Annual operating costs
Staff salaries 5 20 520
Labor 7,200 600
Plant maintenance 1,500 4,500
Power - 500
Depreciation 7,500 13,500
Interest on investment 15,000 2 1,000
Purchase of bags 20,000 -

Total operating cost $ 51.720 $ 40,620

Operating cost per ton of paddy $8.62 $6.77

acccordingly. Furthermore, most rice-producing countries do

not have the facilities to store the paddy in years when harvests
are exceptionally good or to accumulate buffer stocks for any
lean harvest years in future.
The additional storage facilities should be built in the areas
where the rice is being produced and near the processing
plants, thereby saving transportation costs. Paddy rice should
not be moved long distances. Milled rice can be transported for
one-half to two-thirds of the cost of paddy.
Future storage needs can be estimated through a detailed
analysis of present capacity in relation to the amount of paddy
available for storage. Then, by estimating the increased
production that is likely during the next decade or so, an
annual storage building program can be prepared. The needed
storage expansion will vary widely from country to country-
from as little as 5 percent to as much as 75 percent for the decade
ahead.
Few countries are prepared for emergency storage in times of
exceptionally high harvests. Temporary storage can be
78 Problems of Postharvest Technology

provided outdoors by stacking the paddy in bags on wooden

dunnage and covering it with plastic sheets or waterproofed
canvas tarpaulins.

Losses in Storage
The major causes of storage losses of paddy are birds,
rodents, insects, and attack by microorganisms when the
moisture content of the grain is too high. Fortunately, these
losses can be reduced to insignificant levels by following
known storage management practices.
Bird-proofing is accomplished by placing wire screening
over openings under the eaves and gables and over ventilators
or windows that remain open. Making a building impene-
trable by rats and mice is more difficult and costly. Broken
floors, doors, and low windows are the most frequent avenues
of entrance by rodents. Floors can be repaired or replaced,
rodent-proof doors and window frames can be installed, and
metal shields can be placed around the base of the storage
building. In addition, rat poison can be used within the
building.
Fumigation is the only practical way to control insect
damage. Jute sacks often contain insects and should be treated
with chemicals or fumigated. When an entire building is to be
fumigated it must be temporarily sealed toprevent theescape of
the fumigating gas. The technique of fumigation is well
known, however, andoperators can be easily trained to perform
the task.
The control of the moisture content of the air, to prevent
damage by bacteria and fungi, is more difficult than is
controlling insects. In the humid tropics the moisture content
of the air is often high enough to cause previously dried grain
to increase in moisture content. For example, if the relative
humidity of the incoming air in a storage warehouse is 90
percent and the air temperature is 27°C, the equilibrium
moisture content of the grain will be 17 percent- some 3 to 4
percent higher than a safe storage level. On the other hand, if
the paddy placed in storage bins has a moisture content of less
than 14 percent and if the incoming air has a relative humidity
of not over 70 percent, there will be no problems with fungi or
Problems of Postharvest Technology 79

other microorganisms attacking the grain. Nevertheless, in

bulk storage it is essential that the storage compartments are
continuously aerated by forcing a stream of air through the
grain.

Rice Processing
Parboiling
The parboiling of rice has been practiced in some countries,
notably India and Sri Lanka, for hundreds of years. In recent
years it has gained some popularity in the United States and a
few European countries. Perhaps 12 percent of the world’s rice
crop is parboiled.
Parboiling consists of soaking the paddy, then steaming it,
and finally redrying it before milling. During soaking and
steaming the starch swells and becomes gelatinized. When the
grain dries, the endosperm hardens and becomes resistant to
breakage during milling. Parboiled rice has a different taste
and texture than rice that has not been parboiled. Those accus-
tomed to it seem to prefer it. Those who are used to eating
the unparboiled product do not take readily to parboiled rice.
Parboiling rice has several advantages. First, dehulling is
easier, because the husk is split during parboiling. Second, the
extra strength acquired by the kernel during parboiling reduces
the number of broken grains during milling. Third, because
parboiled rice is harder it tends to resist insect attack during
storage. Fourth, the loss of solids into the gruel during cooking
is less in parboiled than in raw rice. Fifth, parboiled rice
withstands overcooking without becoming pasty. Sixth, the
bran from parboiled rice contains from 25 to 30 percent oil,
while bran from raw rice contains only 15 to 20 percent. More-
over, the oil from parboiled rice bran, because it has a
lower concentration of free fatty acids, is of superior quality.
There are also several disadvantages. First, the heat during
parboiling destroys antioxidants, so parboiled rice becomes
rancid more easily than raw rice during storage. Second,
parboiled rice takes longer than raw rice to cook to a given
degree of softness. Third, parboiled paddy must be redried
before milling-an additional cost. Fourth, parboiled rice is
80 Problem of Postharvest Technology

Parboiling tanks in a modern plant. (Source: James Wimberly)

harder to polish than raw rice; hence, milling is more costly in

time and power. Fifth, the parboiling process requires a large
extra investment in capital equipment and operation costs.
‘Traditionally, parboiling consists of soaking the paddy in
unheated water in concrete tanks and then steaming it in metal
tanks. It is then dried in the sun on a concrete floor. ‘The process
takes from 24 hours to several days, depending on the degree of
sunshine. In less developed countries, to reduce the costs of
parboiling, rice husks often are used as fuel to fire the boilers
producing the hot water and steam and to dry the rice after
parboiling. Because of unsanitary conditions during soaking,
rice parboiled by the traditional method is a different and
inferior product to that treated in a modern parboiling plant
in, say, the United States or Europe.
The more modern method is to soak the paddy in hot water
and then to steam it. The rice is kept free of foreign matter, and
the use of hot water for soaking prevents deterioration. In less
developed countries, the paddy is usually sun dried after
parboiling, though in a few locations mechanical driers are
Problems of Postharvest Technology 81

used. In developed countries, all of the paddy after parboiling is

dried by putting it through a continuous-flow, mechanical
dryer. Although modern equipment costs more than the
traditional, its larger capacity actually reduces the cost per ton
of processed paddy.

Rice Milling
Rice milling is the process of removing the outer husk and all
(or part) of the bran layer from the grain. The husk is totally
inedible. If the bran layer is not removed, the product is called
brown rice, Although brown rice is available on some markets,
it is not popular because it tends to cause digestive
disturbances. Furthermore, the oil in the bran layer is likely to
get rancid, especially in hot climates. In the more developed
countries particularly, almost all of the bran layer is removed to
give a highly polished white rice that is preferred by the market.
There are three principal types of rice mills now in use. One
is the steel huller, a rather simple machine that removes the
husk and bran in one operation. Its defects are that it is
expensive to operate, has a low capacity and a low rice outturn,
and produces too many broken grains. A second type is the
sheller mill. It consists of several machines: usually a cleaner, a
disc sheller, a separator, and a polisher. It has a high capacity
and medium operational costs but is less efficient than a
modern mill. The modern rice mill has highly efficient
equipment: cleaners remove foreign matter; rubber roll
shellers dehusk the grain; paddy separators remove any
unhulled grain; polishers remove the bran layer; and graders
separate broken grains from head rice. The modern rice mill
has a high capacity, and it recovers more total rice as well as
head rice. A diagram of the sequence of processes in a modern
rice mill is shown in Figure 10.
The recovery of polished rice in a mill is termed “percentage
outturn.” The outturn is affected by variety, by whether the rice
is raw or parboiled, by rice moisture content, and by the type of
mill used. If rice of the same variety and condition were put
through the three types of mills described, the average outturn
would be 70 percent for the modern mill, 68 percent for the
sheller mill, and 64 percent for the steel huller mill. A further
Figure 10. Basic design of a modern rice mill. (Source: James Wimberly)
Problems of Postharvest Technology 83

TABLE 7. AVERAGE RECOVERY EFFICIENCIES OF THREE

TYPES OF RICE MILLS

Recovery as percent of paddy

Type of mill Bran plus hulls Whole grains Broken grains

Steel huller 36.6 46.5 16.9

Sheller mill 32.5 55.9 11.6
Modern mill 30.0 62.0 8.0

breakdown into bran plus hulls, head rice, and brokens is given
in Table 7.
To be economical, modern rice mills require trained
operators and a higher level of management than is needed for
an outdated mill such as the steel huller. However, local
personnel can be trained to run the modern mills. Some studies
have been run on the economic benefits of the modern mill, the
sheller mill, and the steel huller. Based on a I-ton-per-hour
capacity and on milling a total of 6000 tons of paddy annually,
the modern mill gave an increased profit of about US$1.75 per
ton of paddy over that of the sheller mill and of nearly US$5.00
per ton over that of the steel huller.
It should not be inferred that every country should replace all
of its traditional steel huller mills with modern types.
Although the modern mills are more efficient to operate if run
at full capacity, there are other considerations. In Indonesia, for
example, a study by C. Peter Timmer shows that with a scarcity
of capital funds and a lack of alternative employment
opportunities for unskilled labor, the labor-intensive steel
huller mills have substantial economic and social advantages.
There are numerous examples in South and Southeast Asia of
large modern rice mills now being run at a loss because of an in-
ability to provide enough paddy to operate them at full capaci-
ty or because of poor management. In many countries with
scarce foreign exchange, it is better to upgrade sheller rice mills
than to purchase modern mills.
Rice Mill Capacity
Modern rice mills are available in capacities ranging from 1
ton per hour to over 10 tons. The larger the mill, the greater the
84 Problems of Postharvest Technology

efficiency, provided enough paddy is available to run the mill

full time. A 1-ton-per-hour mill requires nearly the same
manpower as a mill with a capacity of 4 tons.
Modern rice mills are designed to operate almost continu-
ously for up to 300 days a year. In determining how many hours
a day to operate a mill, factors to be considered are the available
labor and supervisory personnel for a three-shift-per-day
operation and the availability of paddy, including transporta-
tion facilities. Most mills are more economical to operate with
one shift per day for 300 days than two shifts scheduled daily for
150 days.
In most less developed countries, because both government
and private milling operations exist, there is an abundance of
milling capacity. The bottlenecks in the postharvest industry
are more likely to be the drying and storage facilities.

Rice By-products
Milled rice, the final product of rice processing, represents
only 65 to 70 percent of the original paddy. The products
removed, hull and bran, have several uses.

Hulls. The husk or hull of the rice grain, which represents on

the average 22 percent of the weight of the paddy, is high in
silica and lignin, but it has low feeding value for animals, and
none for human beings. Its principal use is as fuel for
parboiling and drying.
Hull-fired boilers are high in price, but the fuel is so
inexpensive (having few other uses) that it costs little to run the
heating plant once it is purchased. For example, the energy
value of rice hulls is lower than that of either coal or diesel oil;
but in terms of kilocalories per dollar invested in fuel, rice hulls
are by far the least expensive (Table 8).
Hulls are also an economical fuel for direct-fired furnaces to
produce hot air to dry paddy. Or rice mills that do not parboil
can use rice hulls to produce steam to power the mill. Yet,
because of the high cost of boilers and steam engines, it is often
more economical to run the machinery with electric motors,
provided that electric power is available. Some bran oil
extraction plants use the hulls as fuel to produce the steam
necessary for the extracting process.
Rice hulls also have some specialized uses. The white ash
Problems of Postharvest Technology 85

TABLE 8. ENERGY VALUE AND COST O F FOUR SOURCES

OF ENERGY IN INDIA

Cost
Fuel Energy value (kcal per US$)

Fuel oil 10,240 kcal/litter 60,000

Coal 5,560 kcal/kg 350,000
Electricity 860 kcal/kwh 4 3,000
Paddy hulls 3,300 kcal/kg 2,300,000

produced from burning them is sold as a cleaning compound

for floors and for absorbing grease. It also has limited use as
fillers, additives, and carriers in the chemical industry. Rice
hulls can be used as an aggregate for concrete blocks, as a base
for pressed board products, as cattle feed and litter, as an
additive in potting soil used by nurserymen, for the manufac-
ture of furfural (a chemical product used in the dye and
plastics industries), and for insulation. In some of the more
developed countries, hulls are compressed into briquets and
sold as a firewood substitute.

Rice bran. There are two principal uses for rice bran: as a
feedstuff for cattle, poultry, and swine, and as a source of rice
bran oil. About 8 percent of the weight of the paddy is bran.
Compared with the rice endosperm, it is rich in vitamins,
minerals, and protein. The demand for bran as animal feed is
sufficiently high that man): small rice mills will process grain
for farm families free of charge if the mill is allowed to retain
the bran, which it sells to manufacturers of feed.
Commercial bran polish, which includes the germ, contains
from 15 to 20 percent oil. But the bran of parboiled rice may
contain as much as 35 percent oil. If properly processed, rice
bran oil is comparable to other vegetable oils for cooking, for
salads, and for shortening. Lower quality rice bran oil is used
in soap making and for a few other industrial purposes.

Other By-products
Broken rice, which is not readily salable in the more
sophisticated markets, is used for manufacturing beer and
wine. Some West African countries, however, import broken
86 Problems of Postharvest Technology

rice grain to mix with local rice, thus providing consumers

with a low-cost staple.
In developed countries, processed rice products such as
breakfast cereals are in demand. Rice flour can be used as a
partial substitute for wheat flour in bread making. However,
because of its low gluten content, it cannot constitute more
than 30 percent of the flour mixture. Rice flour is also used in
baked goods for those who are allergic to wheat flour and to
other cereal grains. Little rice flour is produced, however.

Rice Distribution and Quality Control

Distribution
Because milled rice deteriorates much more rapidly than
paddy, milling takes place only a short time before the rice is
placed on the market. Even then, special care must be taken to
preserve the quality of the product in the interval between
milling and consumption.
Milled rice is generally stored from 2 to 3 weeks to as long as 2
to 3 months. As with paddy, milled rice must be protected from
moisture, birds, rodents, and insects. Although it can be kept in
loose bulk storage, milled rice normally is placed in the jute or
plastic bags in which it will be marketed. The bags should be
new or properly reconditioned before use. Wooden dunnage
always should be used to keep the sacks of rice off the floor of
the warehouse.
Because the demand for rice in the heavy consuming
countries is rather constant throughout the year, the most
economical way to handle the product is to schedule pickup
and delivery so that rice will flow steadily into and out of the
warehouses. If a steady flow is established, fewer transport
vehicles will be needed than in a haphazard distribution
system.
To plan an efficient rice distribution system it is necessary to
determine (1) the amount of rice needed at all major
consumption points, (2) the amount of rice available in the area
being analyzed, and (3) the transportation facilities needed to
move the rice. In most rice-growing countries, wholesale rice
dealers and their storage facilities, as well as those of the
government, are located in the larger district centers. Thus
Problems of Postharvest Technology 87

much of the rice must be moved from the smaller villages to the
larger centers and then again to the urban retail markets. In
some areas, though, systems haw been developed to take the
rice from the locality in which it was grown directly to the retail
market, thus saving extra transport and handling costs.

Quality Control
Quality standards in the rice markets of South and Southeast
Asia (with the possible exception of Thailand) are not so high
as in the more sophisticated markets of the United States and
Europe, for example. Consumers in Asia tend to select their rice
by appearance, generally preferring slender grains free of
chalkiness. In some areas, the buying public knows rice
varieties and asks for them by name, in order to be sure of
getting rice with a preferred eating and cooking quality. The
quantity of broken grain is also an important factor. Many
people are willing to pay. a premium for rice that has no more
than 10 pel-cent broken grain. Rice customers everywhere
naturally prefer clean rice that is free of foreign metter and
damage by insects or fungi. In an effort to standardize national
rice grading. systems, the FAO’s Intergovernmental Group on
Rice developed a model grading system for rice in international
trade. The latest revision was distributed to all interested
governments in 1972.
It appears that the only countries that have adhered to rather
strict grades are those such as Thailand that have a sizable ex-
port market that demands certain quality standards. In
Thailand a private organization the Rice Traders Associa-
tion, has established and now polices the system of standards.
The government supports the association’s program, but it did
not take the initiative to set up the system originally.
With increasing affluence, the local markets of Asia probably
will become more quality conscious than they are now. It is of
prime importance that minimum quality standards be
enforced to protect both buyers and sellers.

The Systems Approach

Too frequently countries use a piecemeal approach to
improving their postharvest operations. That is, in one
Figure 11. Sequence of postharvest operations. (Source: James Wimberly)
Problems of Postharuest Technology 89

program the nation attempts to better its storage facilities, in

another program its drying processes, and so on. Although
such efforts are beneficial, greater savings are possible when the
entire postharvest system is attacked.
A simplified flow diagram of postharvest operations is
shown in Figure 11. A systems approach to cutting losses and
improving efficiency includes (1) matching the cleaning and
drying facilities to the purchasing program, (2) adjusting the
storage capacities to the receiving and milling schedules, and
(3) matching the milling capacities and facilities to the storage
system and to the rice distribution requirements. That sort of
approach provides maximum utilization of existing facilities,
minimum investment in new facilities, and the lowest possible
operational cost. A study in Sri Lanka showed that when the
scheduled systems approach was applied to the entire
postharvest operation (as compared with the piecemeal
approach), the nation’s processing costs fell by US$7.30 per ton
of paddy.
The size of storage and rice processing plants is a major
consideration. The economics of three plants of varying
capacity is shown in Table 9. It is evident that larger mills cost
more but that the profit per ton of paddy is greater. Moreover,
the number of employees per ton of paddy is lower in the larger
mills. These figures, obtained in Sri Lanka, reflect the situation
when all three mills were run at full capacity. Whenever they
were operated below their rated level, the cost per ton increased.
In summary, to take advantage of the economics of the
systems approach the following steps can be helpful:
1. analyzing the present status of the rice industry in a
district or region, including making a study of procurement
programs, of cleaning and drying facilities, of storage and
processing capacities, and of problems in transportation and
distribution;
2. becoming familiar with the newest technology and
available equipment;
3. taking into consideration each step shown in Figure 11
when planning the improved system;
4. attempting to remove barriers to implementation and
making policy changes when necessary;
90 Problems of Postharvest Technology

TABLE 9. THE ECONOMICS OF THREE SIZES OF MILLING

OPERATIONS. (Data from a recent study in Sri Lanka;
values in US $)

Processing capacity of mill

(tons of paddy per year)
6,000 12,000 24,000

Investment cost (thousands) $465 $720 $1 100

Annual operating cost (thousands) 83 131 192
Operating cost per ton of paddy 14 11 8
Profit per ton of paddy 8 11 13.50

Number of employees 31 53 71
Number of employees per
1000 tons of paddy 5.16 4.42 2.96

5. encouraging and supporting the local manufacture of

modern postharvest equipment;
6. setting up training programs for both management
personnel and semi-skilled employees; and
7. reviewing the system from time to time and making any
necessary changes in line with current technological develop-
ments.
In conducting surveys using the systems approach, a country
may find it necessary to obtain expert assistance from outside
agencies (see appendix). Such studies require the participation
of engineers, economists, and marketing and management
experts. This systems approach is obviously a government task.
Nevertheless, a number of specialists in the economics of rice
handling and marketing believe that governments should do
no more than help remove the bottlenecks and should let
private industry make the major investments in rice processing
and marketing. The decision will depend considerably on the
kind of political and economic system that exists in a given
country. For instance, 'Thailand and Sri Lanka might act quite
differently in improving their postharvest systems.
 4
Rice Marketing

In Asia, and to an extent in Latin America and Africa, the

marketing of rice has several conspicuous features. First,
supply and price fluctuate sharply. Although demand is
steadily increasing in line with population growth, supply-
and consequently price-mayvary greatly from year to year,
depending upon weather conditions. Second, on-farm rice
consumption is heavy. From 50 to 70 percent of the rice crop in
the less developed countries of South and Southeast Asia is
consumed by farm families and never reaches either local or
international markets. Third, exports are limited. Only about 4
percent of the world's rice crop enters into international trade.
In other words, on the average 96 percent is consumed in the
country in which it is grown. Fourth, crop surpluses are
improbable. The countries of Asia, as a whole, approach self-
sulficiency in rice only in years of favorable weather. Therefore,
there is little likelihood of any sizable accumulation of excess
rice in Asia as populations continue to increase. Finally,
modern rice marketing techniques are needed. In most less
developed countries, rice marketing policies, drying and
storage facilities, and systems for the control of market supplies
and prices require substantial improvement. Of the foregoing
characteristics of rice marketing, only rice marketing tech-
niques are likely to change significantly (at least in Asia)
during the rest of this century.

This chapter is based on material prepared by J. Norman Efferson, chan-

cellor, Center for Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development, Louisana
State University.
91
92 Rice Marketing

The subject of rice distribution and marketing, including

pricing policies, is a complex one and deserves more thorough
treatment than can be given here. Nevertheless, a few major
factors that administrators should keep in mind can be listed.

Local Marketing
A sizable segment (as much as 50 percent in some countries)
of the small farmers of South and Southeast Asia are still at the
mercy of the rice buyer, in spite of a trend to improve the
marketing of rice through such measures as stabilizing prices,
regulating the practices of rice dealers, and improving
collection, drying, milling, and storage facilities. Too fre-
quently, the farmer has to accept the buyer’s offer, because he
needs immediate income to support his family. In addition, he
is likely to be in debt, perhaps to the same person (the
moneylender) who offers to buy his rice. Furthermore, most
small farmers in Asia do not have satisfactory storage facilities
for holding any crop surplus until prices rise after the harvest
season. Another factor contributing to the plight of the small
rice farmer is his isolation from the marketplace because of
inadequate roads. Inaccessibility discourages farmers from
producing more rice than they need for subsistence.
Although some countries have established policies that not
only guarantee a satisfactory minimum price to the farmer but
also stabilize prices from year to year, there is great need for
further improvement. Most countries do not have enough
storage capacity to accumulate buffer stocks in times of bumper
harvests. Adequate storage is a requirement both for price
stabilization and for protection against importation in lean
harvest years.
The lack of well-run cooperatives or farmers’ associations in
many rice-deficient Asian countries also contributes to the
adversity of the small farmer. Efforts to establish cooperatives
among farmers in Southeast Asian countries have had limited
success. Often the cooperatives are run by poorly trained
managers, the objectives and the advantages of the cooperatives
are not well explained to farmers, and farmer members are
given little opportunity to participate in the decision making.
Rice Marketing 93

If those defects are rectified, and if the cooperatives are run by

honest people dedicated to the farmer's well-being, such
organizations can aid immensely in marketing and in
supplying inputs at reasonable prices.
Nevertheless, some improvements in the handling and
marketing of rice are being made. Most countries are taking
steps to establish pricing policies, to build new drying and
storage facilities, to modernize rice mills, to organize farmer
cooperatives, and to improve credit systems. But the job, which
is being done slowly, needs to be intensified and accelerated. In
most nations, the large capital investments involved in these
improvements requires that foreign aid be sought to finance
the projects.
In many countries, government agencies have been estab-
lished to handle rice pricing, purchasing, and selling.
Examples are the National Grain Authority in the Philippines,
the National Logistic Authority in Indonesia, the Padi and
Rice Marketing Board of Malaysia, the Paddy Marketing Board
of Sri Lanka, the Union of Burma Agricultural Marketing
Board, and the Food Corporation of India. Fundamentally,
each such organization sets policies aimed at providing
adequate supplies of rice in the nation, regulates imports and
exports, and enforces whatever pricing policies have been
decreed by the government. To the extent that such agencies are
free of corruption and unfavorable political influence, they arc
an advantage to any country. Where rice is the staple food of a
nation, they are in fact a necessity, since some government
agency has to have the authority to control the rice industry.
With the exception of Thailand, Burma, and Pakistan, and
possibly Vietnam, Laos, and Kampuchea, it is doubtful that
any country in South and Southeast Asia will be a steady
exporter of rice in the foreseeable future. Consequently, the
primary concern of most governments in those regions is to
develop pricing policies and marketing facilities that encour-
age maximum production at the most economical levels.
Undoubtedly, a number of Latin American and African
countries will become important exporters of rice as they
develop their rice industries and as the world demand for rice
increases.
94 Rice Marketing

Self-sufficiency as a Goal
During the serious transportation problems and input
shortages of World War II and the early post-war period, many
rice-consuming nations were critically short of their principal
source of nourishment. Prices soared, and consumers were
forced to eat many less desirable foods in order to survive.
Elections were won and lost depending on the volume of rice in
local markets and the prices at which rice could be purchased.
Resolutions were made and laws passed to try to ensure that the
situation would never occur again. In some countries, buffer-
stock programs and price support policies were introduced and
have been continued since that time. The goal of practically
all of the deficit rice-consuming nations of the world has been
self-sufficiency.
In the three decades since then, the global demand for rice has
continued to increase at 2.5 to 3.0 percent annually. World
production of the grain has risen at about that same rate, but
output from year to year has been erratic. In some years, total
production increased twice as fast as demand. Consequently,
rice being plentiful, prices in the next year were relatively
low-much lower than the internal support prices in some
countries. At other times, the production level was less than
that of the previous year, while demand continued to increase.
After such a year, rice prices went up drastically around the
world, and in some deficit countries adequate rice supplies at
reasonable prices were almost impossible to obtain.
The outlook is for a steady increase in demand for rice and a
continued expansion in production equal to demand but with
widely variable production from year to year, mainly due to
weather. As in the past, in some years there will be surpluses
and low prices, and in others, shortages and high prices.
The rice-growing countries have to decide whether to aim for
self-sufficiency and at what cost. The answer is tied to
conditions in the country under consideration. If a nation-
such as India-has a foreign exchange problem, a current low
average yield of rice and a high domestic requirement, it
certainly is justified in doing everything possible to boost
production. Nevertheless, “self-sufficiency at any cost” is not a
Rice Marketing 95

valid goal for every government. Certainly, rice prices should

be stabilized at levels high enough to encourage farmers to seek
better yields. Necessary, too, is a favorable ratio between the
price of rice and the cost of inputs the farmer needs for
obtaining good yields. In some countries the price at times was
set so high that excess production was stimulated and the
government had to dispose of the surplus at a loss. This has
occurred in Japan where rice prices have been double or triple
the world price. Japan, industrialized and affluent, is able to
afford such a policy, but it would be unwise for agrarian
countries to emulate that nation. It would seem far better for
the less industrialized rice-growing countries to maintain a
modest support price and to stimulate rice production by
investments in irrigation systems, storage facilities, fertilizer
plants, and other requirements for a sound and permanentrice
industry.
A few countries in Asia have developed large export markets
for their agricultural and industrial products and have a
favorable balance-of-payments situation. Malaysia, Korea, and
Taiwan are prime examples. All three, however, are attempting
either to achieve or to maintain self-sufficiency in rice. The
wisdom of these goals may be questioned. In Malaysia, for
instance, the government can purchase high quality rice from
Thailand at a lower price than it can buy it domestically. Social
as well as economic factors govern the adoption of rice policies,
and undoubtedly those countries feel there is a political
advantage to striving for self-sufficiency.
The Latin American countries should carefully consider
their pricing policies for rice. In recent years several have set too
high a support price, and the governments have had to sell rice
at a loss. Unlike Asia, Latin America still has a relatively low
per capita consumption of rice. Thus there is a decided limit to
the amount of rice that can be sold domestically. Undoubtedly,
the world demand for rice will eventually be great enough so
that Latin American countries might become important
suppliers. In the meantime, they would be wise to limit their
rice production to domestic needs and to whatever export
markets they can develop. Moreover, they may find it
advantageous to promote the consumption of rice in their own
96 Rice Marketing

countries, for there are many flat-lying, poorly drained areas in

Latin America that are ideally suited to rice growing and that
have limited use for other purposes.

Export Marketing: Problems i n Marketing Surplus Rice

Many Latin American and African nations have a major
comparative advantage in producing rice. They have large
areas of land suitable for expanded rice production, with an
adequate water supply and a favorable climate. With the
implementation of additional research and rural education
programs, with an infrastructure to supply inputs and
marketing outlets, and with the development of irrigation
facilities, the prospect is not only for rice self-sufficiency but,
also, for extra amounts of that commodity for export.
Understandably, some nations hesitate to take the needed steps,
because they fear creating serious marketing problems through
excess production. This applies not only to countries with a
still underdeveloped rice-growing potential but, also, to those
on the verge of self-sufficiency or now producing small
surpluses of the grain.
The correct policy decisions revolve around the possible
export markets for rice in the foreseeable future; the prospective
prices; the grain qualities and types demanded by foreign
markets; the kind of approaches made in developing export
markets; and the problems of improving the internal
purchasing, storing, drying, milling, packaging, and shipping
facilities that are needed for a rice export industry.

World Rice Markets

In recent years, between 7 and 8 million tons of milled rice
have moved annually from surplus to deficit countries. This is
only about 4 percent of total yearly world rice production, but
this percentage has held relatively constant in years of low
prices as well as in years of high prices. Although some
importing countries have been decreasing their per capita
consumption of rice, the demand for it in other importing areas
has increased. Many of the developing nations are important
rice consumers and, as their incomes increase, so does their
demand for rice. For example, in Africa, though some countries
Rice Marketing 97

Figure 12. Export price of rice (Thai, 5 percent broken) FOB Bangkok,
1964-77 (from April to December 1973 no prices were quoted). (Source: IRRI)

will increase their rice production, the expected expansion in

their populations will cause demand for imported rice to
continue. Such requirements will more than offset the reduced
consumption in other countries.
In addition, some exporting nations will gradually be forced
to reduce their exports of rice as their domestic needs grow. The
export demand for rice likely will expand to at least 10 million
tons in the 1980s. That 2-million-ton increase over present rice
exports would provide an outlet for countries seeking world
markets for their surplus rice production.

World Rice Prices

From 1971 through 1977, world export prices for reasonably
good quality, 5 percent broken grain content, long-grain rice
varied from a low of US$125 per ton in 1971 to a high of US$630
98 Rice Marketing

per ton in 1974 (Figure 12). The low point was maintained for
only 2 months and the high point for 1 month. On account of
good harvests from 1974 onwards, the price of rice had
decreased to about US$250 per ton by 1977. Prices for other
qualities, including long-grain rice with higher breakage,
medium-grain rice, and short-grain rice, as well as for
parboiled rice of different qualities, followed the same trends
but at US$25 to US$75 per ton less.
World rice prices will continue to fluctuate as they have in
the past. With the steady to increasing demand, an average
export price slightly higher than that of recent years should be
expected-but not so high as that reached in 1974. In general,
any nation that can produce rice at an export price of US$250
per ton for high-quality, long-grain rice, or US$175 to US$200
per ton for lower quality types, should be able to compete
reasonably well in the world export market. These estimates are
based on 1976-78 input cost levels; should inflation continue,
the maximum cost levels will need to be adjusted accordingly.
Countries whose rice production costs exceed these maximum
levels should not strive to produce for export under current
price conditions.

Rice Qualities and T y p e s Demanded by E x p o r t Markets

Although high-quality, well-milled, long-grain rice with 5
percent or less broken grain commands the highest prices in
export markets, there is demand for a wide variety of other rice
types and qualities. All three basic types–long-, medium-, and
short-grain rice–are in demand. Lots with up to 35 percent
broken grain can be sold. High-quality parboiled rice is in
great demand in some parts of the world. Medium-quality
parboiled rice is marketed in still other regions. Lots of 100
percent broken grain are imported by some countries for
blending with local whole grain rice; and a large market exists
for broken grain rice in the brewing industry, where it is the
preferred ingredient in the production of high-quality beer.
Some low-quality rice, especially lots with discolored grains,
numerous brokens, insect contamination, undesirable odors,
and excessive foreign materials, although salable in the
country of production, are not acceptable in export markets.
Rice Marketing 99

D e v e l o p i n g E x p o r t Markets
Rice export marketing requires the establishment of contacts
abroad in principal importing centers, the development of
lines of credit, the generation of confidence that the deliveries
will be of the quality specified, and the organization of the lines
of communication that are so important to international trade.
The major rice-exporting nations have built this commercial
network over a long period. For a country with a sudden sizable
surplus to be marketed abroad, this gradual approach may not
be possible. Instead it may pay to hire an international grain
marketing company to handle the exports.
There are several international grain marketing firms that
have numerous contacts with all principal rice-importing
countries and with important transportation, storage, finan-
cial, and international sales agencies. These private businesses
operate to make a profit, and their charges may be large. Thus,
it is wise to make the selection through a competitive bidding
process. The firms are professionals in the field of grain
marketing. For a new rice-exporting nation their charges are
likely to be more than worth the investment during the first
years of a rice export program.

Internal I m p r o v e m e n t s Needed for a R i c e E x p o r t Industry

As a country raises its rice production and moves toward
production of a surplus for export, a number of bottlenecks in
the marketing system (second generation problems) may begin
to develop. In accelerated rice programs in most countries,
production increases occur irregularly, with some farming
areas expanding more rapidly than others. The first sign of
success in the production program, and of the developing
second generation problems, is the appearance of these
scattered “islands of surplus.” Generally, marketing agencies,
storage facilities, and established channels of trade are
inadequate to handle surpluses. As production continues to
expand, additional islands of surplus develop and the distress
market situation is intensified. As a result, paddy prices to
farmers may decline suddenly and drastically, and affected
growers may discontinue their efforts to produce more rice.
100 Rice Marketing

To avoid this situation, major adjustments in domestic rice

marketing programs must be made early in an overall rice
expansion program. In most countries, second generation rice
marketing problems require adjustments in the price support
program and expansion of rice drying and storage facilities. In
many countries, milling facilities must be improved to handle
expanded production for export markets efficiently. Some
nations will also have to establish standard weights and
measures and set up training programs to develop competent
personnel in the marketing chain for grading, operating
storage facilities, milling, transportation, and merchandising.
The private sector can provide many of the facilities required
for both local and export marketing. Where a free economy is in
operation, the government should encourage the participation
of commercial interests and thereby save public funds for other
development activities.
 5
Some Successful Rice
Production Programs

A number of countries considered to be less developed have

nevertheless been able to obtain high average rice yields (4.0 to
5.5 t/ha) and to improve remarkably their rice production over
what it was 20 to 30 years ago. Some have made rapid progress
just during the past decade and are continuing to do so,
although their yields do not yet approach those of Japan or the
United States. Furthermore, in certain other countries there are
localities, districts, or regions that have mounted extremely
successful accelerated rice production programs even though
gains in rice yields for the nation as a whole have not been
notable.
Such advances are not random developments; they are the
result of deliberate and careful planning followed by action.
There is no comprehensive blueprint €or agricultural develop-
ment that is appropriate for all environments and all cultures.
Certain common elements, however, are applicable to any rice
production program in any country that is plagued by low
yields and a rice deficit.
The countries (or localities or regions) cited here are simply
examples; other high-yield models could have been chosen.
The only requirements for inclusion (other than having a
successful program) are that the region or country be classed as
“less developed” and that adequate information about its rice
production be available.
The selected group-which includes Taiwan, South Korea,
the Philippines, and Colombia-exemplifies, in addition, the
varying conditions in which progress is being made in

1O1
102 Some Successful Production Programs

Figure 13. Indices of agricultural production, rice production, and

population in Taiwan from 1950 to 1975. (Source: K. T. Li, 1977, “Strategy
for Rice Production in Taiwan,” Proceedings: Food Crisis Workshop
(Mimeo) Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation, Manila)

increasing rice production by raising yields rather than by

enlarging the area planted to rice. Taiwan is an example of a
situation where yields have increased steadily since World War
II in spite of the small size of farms and the vicissitudes of a
monsoon climate. South Korea was chosen because of its recent
success in adding an extra ton per hectare to its rice yields
(which were already the second highest in Asia). The
Philippines is pointed out because it is rather typical of the
countries of Southeast Asia that traditionally have had, and
still have, low rice yields. That country, however, has launched
an intensive effort that has had a significant impact on national
yields, though leaving considerable room for improvement.
Colombia was selected because it is a well-documented
example from Latin America of the successful introduction of
modern Asian rice varieties on large irrigated farms. The
Colombian experience can serve as a valuable model for other
countries in Central and South America that wish to expand
their rice production.
Some Successful Production Programs 103

Figure 14. Yield of rice (paddy) in Taiwan, 1938 to 1975 (3-year moving
average). (Source: Taiwan Provincial Food Bureau)

Taiwan
The average yield of rice (paddy , or rough rice) in Taiwan is
about 4.5 t/ha. In 1952 it was only 2.5 t/ha. The area devoted to
rice, as wel1 as to agriculture as s whole, has decreased since
1962 because land formerly used for crop production is needed
for housing, factories, anti highways. Nevertheless, rice
production kept pace with population growth until 1967
(Figure 13). Since that time, total rice production has leveled off
while population has continued to grow at about 1.9 percent
annually.
The Yield of rice from 1938 to 1975 is plotted in Figure 14. To
moderate year-to-year variations due to weather, a 3-year
moving average is used. The year 1938 was chosen as the
starting point, because it represents the highest yield obtained
up to that time while Taiwan was under Japanese rule. Most of
Taiwan’s fertilizer then came from Japan. When the latter
became involved in the war with China, and later in World War
II, its shipments of chemical fertilize. to Taiwan were seriously
curtailed. This caused the yield of rice to drop from 2.8 t/ha to
about 1.8 t ha bet ween 1938 and 1946. From 1946 to 1971, yields
104 Some Successful Production Programs

increased steadily and then leveled off at about 4.5 t/ha. This
rise of more than 2 t/ha in less than 3 decades is a remarkable
achievement.
Taiwan uses its rice land intensively. About 60 percent of the
land produces two crops a year and essentially all of it grows at
least one crop annually, with a multiple cropping index in
many sections of 2 to 3. The island’s soils are not highly fertile,
and with such intensive cropping it is unlikely that rice yields
will be much higher in future, although modest increases are
still possible.

Irrigation
Taiwan was a colony of Japan from 1895 to 1945. Under
Japanese administration many irrigation systems were built,
the main objective being to increase Taiwan’s capacity to
produce rice for export to Japan. In 1895, rice was grown on
200,000 hectares, about half of which were irrigated. By 1941
the irrigated rice land had expanded by a factor of five to
547,000 hectares, of which 462,000 hectares were under the
jurisdiction of farmer-controlled irrigation associations (the
remainder being irrigated by private individuals or groups).
Since the end of the war and the end of Japanese rule, several
large reservoirs have been constructed for supplying both
irrigation water and hydroelectric power. The latest, com-
pleted in 1973, made it possible to add 50,000 hectares of land
for the production of lowland rice.
Today, 98 percent of Taiwan’s 540,000 hectares of rice is
irrigated. Because the subtropical climate permits the growing
of two rice crops on three-fifths of this land, the total area
planted to rice in a single year is about 790,000 hectares.
Taiwan, like much of monsoon Asia, has heavy rainfall (1500
to 2000 millimeters annually), but most of it occurs from June
to October. Without irrigation, nothing can be grown from
November to May (except in the most northerly portion of the
island). In spite of the high rainfall, dry spells occur frequently
during the monsoon season that would seriously depress yields
were it not for the availability of irrigation water.

Varietal Improvement
When the Japanese first occupied Taiwan, the local rice
varieties were indicas, originally brought to the island by
Some Successful Production Programs 105

farmers who had migrated from the Chinese mainland. These

indica varieties, which were termed “native” to distinguish
them from the japonica varieties introduced from Japan, were
planted over most of the rice land of Taiwan into the 1920s.
Although Japanese varieties were introduced into Taiwan as
early as 1912, they did not yield as well as the native varieties,
particularly in the southern part of the island and in the
lowlands in general. Therefore, beginning about 1926, a rather
thorough rice breeding and testing program was started for
developing japonica varieties suitable for the more tropical
climate of Taiwan. Between 1931 and 1943 researchers
developed a series of japonica varieties called ponlais
(“heavenly rice”) that yielded as well as or better than the local
varieties and provided the grain quality that appealed to the
Japanese. Furthermore, the photoperiod insensitivity of the
ponlais permitted two crops a year to be grown.
Among the varieties created during this period was
Taichung 65, which had a yielding capacity under ideal
conditions of over 9 t/ha. It matured in only 120 days and thus
fitted into the multiple cropping and rotational systems of
Taiwan. Taichung 65 not only was widely grown until about
1959, but it served as a parent in many crosses made during the
1950s. Other ponlai varieties followed Taichung 65, the more
outstanding of which were Chianan 8, Chianung 242,
Kaohsiung 53, and Tainan 1, 3, and 5.
The most popular variety grown on Taiwan in the 1970s is
Tainan 5. It has a high yielding capacity, considerable disease
resistance, and a height of only 100 to 110 centimeters. It
matures in 120 days in the first crop (March-April to late July)
and in 95 days in the second crop (July-August to October-
November). Today over 40 percent of Taiwan’s rice area is
planted to Tainan 5.
In the 1950s, the government of Taiwan supported a limited
breeding program to improve the native (indica) rice varieties.
A number of superior varieties came out of this program, the
most outstanding of which was Taichung Native 1. This
variety made a great contribution to rice breeding throughout
the world in the 1960s and 1970s, frequently being used as a
source of dwarfness, of high harvest index, and of heavy-
tillering capacity. By 1965, 79,000 hectares of Taichung Na-
tive 1 were planted on Taiwan in the first crop. Since then its
106 Some Successful Production Programs

popularity has decreased, but as late as 1970 it was second only

to Tainan 5 in area planted.
Without question Taiwan’s rice breeding program has paid
off richly. Although to show their true yield potential these
modern varieties require good water control and the abundant
use of fertilizer and other inputs, without their adoption aver-
age yields in Taiwan would be considerably lower than they are
today.

Fertilizers
In 1952, Taiwan used 362,000 tons of fertilizer on its rice
crop. By 1975 fertilizer use had almost doubled, amounting to
665,000 tons. Thus in 197.5 the average farmer applied 144
kg/ha of nitrogen to each crop of rice and about one-fourth as
much phosphorus and potassium. However, in recent years the
amounts of phosphorus and potassium applied to rice have
increased faster than that of nitrogen, indicating that the
soils are becoming depleted of those elements. Because of heavy
fertilizer use, rice fields in Taiwan rarely show signs of nutrient
deficiency.
Taiwan’s practice of using generous amounts of fertilizer is
backed by numerous fertilizer trials that have shown there is a
profitable response to nitrogen and increasingly so to
phosphorus and potassium. Certainly Taiwan’s rice yields
could not have been realized, nor continuously maintained,
without heavy fertilizer applications.

Pesticides
Pesticide use in Taiwan has increased remarkably. Expendi-
tures for pesticides (and a few other materials) in 1975 were
US$33 million, a thousandfold increase since 19.52 even after
discounting inflation. Until recently, the expenditures were
mostly for insecticides. Lately, however, as industry has
absorbed more and more of the rural labor force, farmers have
bought larger and larger amounts of herbicides. As recently as
1972, for example, 79 percent of the expenditures in this
category were for insecticides and only 15 percent for
herbicides. The remaining 6 percent covered other materials
(not including fertilizer). By 1975 expenditures for herbicides
Some Successful Production Programs 107

had increased to 30 percent, and expenditures for insecticides

had fallen to 63 percent. Of course, the actual amount of
insecticides and herbicides bought during that 3-year period
increased.
The total expenditures for insecticides, herbicides, and
incidental materials almost equal the amount spent for
fertilizers, US$37 million. Thus, Taiwan’s farmers, who
cultivate 790,000 hectares of rice, are spending about US$43 per
hectare for pesticides and US$47 per hectare for fertilizer.
Less affluent and less industrialized countries should not
attempt to emulate Taiwan in the use of pesticides. Every effort
should be made to use varietal resistance and integrated pest
control to keep down insect infestation. Furthermore, in labor-
surplus economies, particularly with irrigated transplanted
rice, hand weeding should continue to be used instead of
herbicides.

Production Incentives
It had been government policy for Taiwan to produce
enough rice to meet domestic demand. As the population and
industrialization increased, however, holding to that goal
became more difficult and required various changes in the
methods of implementing the policy, which had been
established in 1949. Authorities who have written the story of
Taiwan’s strategy for rice production divide it into two
periods: 1949-69, and the years since 1969.
During the first period, the aim was to provide low-cost food
for the labor force involved in industrial development. Thus
performance was not measured in terms of farmer income but
rather in terms of rice yield. The government controlled the
price of rice but kept it at a low level relative to the cost of other
goods, with the objective of transferring agricultural capital
formation to industrial development.
In the first period of development, fertilizer supply was
inadequate for agriculture as a whole, and the government gave
a high priority to rice production. Rice farmers were allowed
enough fertilizer provided that they gave paddy in exchange for
it. This so-called rice-fertilizer barter system, along with
further collections in settlement of land taxes and land price
108 Some Successful Production Programs

repayments, allowed the government to purchase 26 percent of

the rice output. Because only 55 percent of the crop was
marketed, it was relatively easy for the government to stabilize
prices and to provide cheap rice for industrial laborers, for the
urban population in general, and for the military. Large buffer
stocks were built up and exports were possible.
Land reform occurred during the first period: land rent
reduction was ordered in 1949, and the transfer of land
ownership from landlord to tenant took place in 1953. By
contributing to the stability of rural society and to better
income distribution, land reform had a favorable impact on
rice production. The government also spent large amounts of
money for rural infrastructure such as irrigation systems, rural
electrification, road building, and marketing facilities, all of
which contributed to rice production.
By 1965, industrialization had grown tremendously, prices
had risen, and many farmers were seeking alternative sources of
income. In other words, rice production was becoming
unprofitable. Furthermore, due to population increase, the
domestic demand for rice equalled the local supply. A change
in government policy clearly was needed if Taiwan was to
continue to produce enough rice to feed its people. Therefore,
in 1969 a new agricultural policy was announced. It was
designed to reduce the cost of rice production and to increase
the income of the rice farmer, thereby inducing him not only to
continue growing rice but to maintain high yields. This new
policy included the following elements: (1) subsidizing prices
for fertilizer, pesticides, and farm machinery; (2) strengthening
farmers' organizations and their services; (3) providing
adequate long-term loans for rice farmers; and (4) increasing
support for rice research to raise the level of technology
available to the farmer.
Announcement of the new policies was followed by action.
In 1970, for example, the price of urea was reduced from
US$135 per ton to US$116, and ammonium sulfate dropped
from US$82 per ton to US$72. In 1971, prices were reduced
again—area to US$100 per ton and ammonium sulfate to
US$65 per ton. And in 1972 the rice-fertilizer barter system was
abolished.
Some Successful Production Programs 109

Finally, in 1974, the government declared a guaranteed

minimum price for rice, based on the estimated cost of
production plus a 20 percent profit. Through this program, the
administration collected approximately one-third of the off-
farm rice stocks and then set its price to consumers. Although
the actual government price for rice had risen gradually since
1949, in terms of purchasing power it had remained fairly
constant. The change in policy in 1974 caused the price index
for rice to climb markedly. By 1975 rice prices were 2.4 times
their 1971 level. With the price of fertilizer and of pesticides
subsidized, Taiwan’s farmers now can plant rice with the
assurance that if their yields are high they will make a good
profit.

Organization of the Farmers

Taiwan has three systems of farmer organization that apply
to rice production: farmers’ associations, irrigation associa-
tions, and joint farming operations and land consolidation.

Farmers’ associations. The farmers’ associations of Taiwan

are controlled by farmers but supervised by the government.
Their primary function is to serve the economic needs of the
farming population. Although for supervisory and organiza-
tional purposes there are one provincial and 20 county-level or
city-level associations, the main functional units that serve the
farmer directly are at the township level. Within each of these
township associations (which, in 1976, numbered 273) area few.
small agricultural units located in the villages within each
township. These small units serve as a bridge between the
township association and its member farmers, distributing
useful information and providing voting locations at times of
officer election in the town associations. There are over 4500
such small units in Taiwan. One person in each household
engaged in agriculture can become a voting member. Today
about 95 percent of all the farming households of Taiwan
belong to farmers’ associations.
Each township association has, on the average, six extension
agents who advise farmers on the technological advances.
Much of the extension education is carried on through farming
110 Some Successful Production Programs

study groups in the villages. One survey indicated that two-

thirds of the increase in yield of agricultural crops should be
attributed to improved technology that has been spread
throughout the region by over 1600 full-time agricultural
extension agents employed by the farmers’ associations.
The farmers’ associations make production loans to farmers
and accept savings deposits from association members. The
profit made by lending money at a somewhat higher rate of
interest than that paid for savings deposits provides the funds
for operating the credit program. At the end of 1975, the total
credit extended to farmers amounted to US$359 million, of
which three-fourths was for farming use and the rest for
nonfarming purposes. At the same time, the farmers’
associations held US$471 million in savings deposits. About 90
percent of Taiwan’s farmers obtain credit from the farmers’
associations.
Distribution of chemical fertilizers and the storing and
milling of rice are highly important functions of the farmers’
associations. The Food Bureau of the government makes
contracts with the farmers’ associations to distribute fertilizer
and also arranges for the associations to store and mill about
one-third of Taiwan’s rice crop (the portion usually purchased
by the government). To be able to provide such services, the
farmers’ associations own 1600 rice warehouses, which can
store about 850,000 tons of paddy rice, and 800 fertilizer
warehouses with a capacity of about 400,000 tons. In addition,
the associations own 400 rice mills with an average daily
capacity for each mill of 10,500 tons. Beside fertilizer, the
associations sell to farmers seeds, agricultural machinery,
pesticides, and other products.
In summary, the farmers’ associations contribute immensely
to the agricultural development of Taiwan. They provide
farmers with a source of agricultural supplies, credit, and
technical advice. Through membership in the associations
farmers gain a sense of participation. Furthermore, the support
of government leaders has given the associations stability and
the confidence of the farming population.

Irrigation associations. The irrigation associations of

Taiwan are self-governing corporate bodies organized by
Some Successful Production Programs 111

farmers to administer irrigation systems and to construct new

ones-but under close government supervision. There are 16
irrigation associations, each with four divisions: engineering,
management, finance, and administration.
In 1975, the irrigation network of Taiwan consisted of 190
main canals, 817 laterals, and 444 sub-laterals, with a total
length of over 36,000 kilometers. In years of normal rainfall, the
systems can supply water continuously to all farmers in the
command areas. However, in recent years, rotational irrigation
has been introduced to save water in times of drought. In this
system, each irrigation area is divided into sections that take
turns in using the irrigation water at 3-day to 5-day intervals.
Water savings of up to 25 percent have been reported from the
use of rotational irrigation.
Major irrigation projects are subsidized by the government,
but from 30 to 50 percent of the costs are provided by the
irrigation associations. In turn, the associations get their funds
from membership dues. The fees are determined by land
productivity and by the source and costs of water. The charges
that farmers pay vary from as little as US$l.50 per hectare
annually to as high as US$25.00 per hectare.
Taiwan’s system of managing its irrigation works through
special associations has resulted in the best operated and
maintained irrigation system in Asia (with the possible
exception of Japan). This, in turn, has had a profound impact
on rice yields.

Joint farming operations and land consolidation. Two

relatively new activities, joint farming operations and land
consolidation, are not normally classified as “farmers’
organizations.” Both are designed to increase the efficiency of
farming, particularly with regard to mechanization and labor
efficiency.
Since 1968 there has been a strong effort to help farmers
combine in the farming of 20-hectare blocks. The land that
makes up a block is operated as one farm, with the labor
(usually 30 to 40 families) and farm equipment already
contained in the area.
Consolidation of fragmented small landholdings in Taiwan
112 Some Successful Production Programs

began in 1959. The procedure is to rearrange the small plots in

irrigated areas into rectangular shapes of larger size. By 1971,
over 260,000 hectares of farm land had been consolidated. Joint
farming operations for rice, at least, have been most successful
on these consolidated areas.
As wage rates increased in relation to capital costs, Taiwan’s
rice industry has become more mechanized. From 1966 to 1976,
for instance, the number of power tillers rose from 9300 to
about 45,000. Land consolidation and joint farming operations
have further stimulated mechanization. In the last several
years, sales of rice transplanting machines, combines, and four-
wheeled tractors have risen by 30 to 100 percent annually.

Off-farm Opportunity
Although possibly not directly affecting the yield of rice, the
abundant opportunities for off-farm employment in Taiwan
contribute greatly to its economic prosperity and to the general
well-being of both urban and rural (and thus rice-farming)
populations.
There is much manufacturing in the cities, but small
industries are scattered throughout the countryside. The types
of industry found in rural areas tend to be agricultural
businesses, such as food processing plants, starch factories, and
plants manufacturing farm tools and equipment. In addition,
there are small nonagricultural establishments making such
products as plastics, textiles, and parts for the electronics
industry.
Many a farm family owning less than a hectare of land is able
to maintain a relatively high standard of living because several
of its members are employed in nearby factories. The high
degree of literacy in Taiwan is possible partially because
children can be spared from the farm to attend school. This is in
great contrast to the situation in poorer countries where school-
age children are needed on the farm to help eke out a living.
Taiwan’s foreign exchange position is excellent. Its indus-
trial and agricultural prosperity is reflected in a per capita
income in 1977 of just over US$1000 annually, which—with
Some Successful Production Programs 113

the exception of Japan and Singapore-is the highest in Asia.

Unlike many less affluent countries in South and Southeast
Asia, Taiwan has reached a stage of development that allows it
to subsidize the rice industry and thus transfer income to the
rural areas.

Summary
Taiwan has included in its strategy for rice production all the
important elements, the most crucial of which are irrigation,
heavy investment in rice research, the wide use of modern rice
varieties, high fertilizer and pesticide application, and a well-
organized system of farmers’ associations to supply extension
services and credit. To this list must be added access to reliable
markets, guaranteed minimum prices for rice, subsidized prices
for inputs, and abundant off-farm employment opportunities.
Finally, mention must be made of the industriousness of
Taiwan’s farmers and their willingness to accept and comply
with various governmental regulations designed to boost
agricultural development throughout the land.
Countries with little industrialization and scarce foreign
exchange resources will have difficulty in adopting Taiwan’s
plan in its entirety. Nevertheless, Taiwan stands out as an
example of what can be done with small farms in the tropics
and subtropics; and many parts of its program are applicable in
the less developed countries.

South Korea
Rice yields in South Korea have climbed steadily during the
past several decades (Figure 15). There have been wide
variations from year to year, often caused by drought. As
irrigation facilities have been improved, however, yields have
become more stable.
South Korea has long had a nationwide program to increase
rice production, and by 1970 it reached a national average yield
of 4.6 t/ha. In spite of this high yield, however, the nation still
had to purchase rice abroad to satisfy its domestic needs. From
114 Some Successful Production Programs

Figure 15. Yield of rice (paddy) in South Korea, 1956 to 1976 (3-year moving
average). (Source: FAO)

1969 through 1972, South Korea annually imported 500,000 to

900,000 tons of milled rice. During this period the government
greatly intensified its effort to produce more rice. As all the
suitable rice land was already in use for that crop (the harvested
rice area in South Korea has remained between 1.1 and 1.3
million 'hectares since 1957), the only course open to
agricultural planners was to raise yields. Between 1972 and
1976, South Korea was able to add an extra ton per hectare to its
average rice yield. This was a remarkable achievement
considering the already high level of national yields.
Before turning to the factors responsible for this outstanding
success, the future of the upward trend might be pondered.
Although the steepness of the yield curve during the past 4 to 5
years would indicate that yields will continue to rise during the
next few years, experience in other countries strongly suggests
that the ceiling has almost been reached. No country, including
Japan, has been able to maintain average yields above 6 t/ha;
and the FAO estimate of South Korea's average rice yield in
1976 is 5.9 t/ha. Even though the nation has reduced its annual
population growth rate from 3.0 percent in 1960 to 1.7 percent,
population increase will probably make South Korea a rice-
importing nation again by 1985.
Some Successful Production Programs 115

Figure. 16. Fertilizer consumption (NPK) in South Korea, 1955 to 1955 (3-
year moving average). (Source.: FAO)

Ferti1izers
The soils of South Korea are derived largely from granite and
therefore tend to be sandy with low levels of native fertility.
Consequently, good soil management, including heavy
applications of fertilizer, is essential for high yield.
No data for South Korea are available on the amount of
fertilizer used on rice alone. Nevertheless, as a high priority
crop, it is likely to receive a large share of the fertilizer
allocations. Fertilizer use has risen rapidly during the past 20 to
25 years, particularly since 1969 (Figure 16). In that year, the
country consumed 478,000 tons of fertilizer (expressed as
nutrients NPK). By 1974, fertilizer use had climbed to 757,000
tons. This is an unusual increase for a 5-year period. Before
1957, South Korea used less than 200,000 tons of nutrients
annually.
Today South Korea manufactures all of its chemical
fertilizer. Its current high rice yields could not have been
achieved without the ample investment made in the construc-
116 Some Successful Production Programs

tion of chemical fertilizer plants and in the importation of the

raw materials needed for their production.

Irrigation
The government of South Korea has spent large sums on
irrigation. In 1966-68, for example, over US$60 million was
allocated to irrigation projects, which was more than one-third
of the entire investment in agriculture during those years. In
1975 alone, the expenditures for irrigation projects were over
US$30 million. However, because the investment in agricul-
ture was much greater by then, that figure represented only 15
percent of funds spent for agricultural development.
Although 85 percent of the nation’s rice crop is now
irrigated, 30 to 40 percent of it is poorly irrigated, and there is
an inadequate supply of water during drought periods.
Apparently, the 15 percent of South Korea’s rice land that is
now rainfed cannot be economically irrigated. Nevertheless,
the country can wisely invest additional funds in improving
those areas now classed as “irrigated,” but which need an
assured water supply throughout the growing season.

Varietal Improvement
South Korea has long had a rice breeding and varietal testing
program. In 1962, the system of agricultural research and
extension was reorganized and consolidated into the Office of
Rural Development, which is directly under the Minister of
Agriculture and Forestry. The Office of Rural Development
now has responsibility for both research and extension
activities, including community development projects related
to agriculture. The reorganization stimulated agricultural
research and extension, in which programs rice continued to
receive top priority.
In the mid-l960s, among the 24 leading rice varieties being
grown in South Korea, half were developed by Korean plant
breeders, and the remainder were imported directly from
Japan, a nation that always has been a leader in rice research.
Because South Korea’s climate is similar to that of central and
northern Japan, many of the better varieties did as well in
South Korea as in Japan. However, in spite of the advances
Some Successful Production Programs 117

made in their own program and of the adaptability of Japanese

varieties, Korean farmers were plagued with outbreaks of the
rice blast disease and the stripe virus and with lodging when
high amounts of fertilizer were applied.
In an effort to remove those yield constraints, a cooperative
research program between South Korea and the International
Rice Research Institute was started in 1965. The principal
cooperators in South Korea were the Office of Rural
Development and the College of Agriculture of Seoul National
University. Both organizations sent research scholars to
IRRI for training in plant breeding and in other disciplines.
Research scholars who worked in rice breeding under the
direction of IRRI scientists made a number of japonica-indica
crosses in an attempt to develop varieties that had more disease
resistance than the japonica varieties then being grown in
South Korea and that also possessed the desirable plant type
features of IR8. By including a japonica variety they hoped to
retain the low amylose content of the grain desired by the
Korean consumer.
Among the first crosses made at IRRI and tested in South
Korea was one between Yukara (a Japanese variety) and
Taichung Native 1 (a short-statured indica variety from
Taiwan), from which an F1 progeny was then crossed with
IR8. The most promising selection from that triple cross was
designated as IR667-98. Although this new selection did not
have sufficient cold tolerance or an ideal grain shape for the
Korean market, in widespread yield trials in 1970 it outyielded
the standard varieties then grown locally by 30 to 40 percent. Its
high yield potential can be attributed largely to its resistance to
the rice blast disease and the stripe virus, to its early maturity, to
its lodging resistance, and to its profuse tillering capacity. Seed
of IR667-98 was multiplied in South Korea during the summer
and at IRRI in the winter. In 1972 Korea gave this selection
the varietal name “Tongil.” That same year Korean farmers
grew 187,000 hectares of the variety.
Tongil needed further improvement. While it was being
multiplied and distributed to farmers, the rice breeding
program continued at an intensive pace. As a result, several
“Tongil-type” varieties were developed. Among the better ones
118 Some Successful Production Programs

are Yushin, Milyang 21, and Milyang 23. These varieties have
greater cold tolerance and better grain quality than Tongil
without any lowering of yield potential. IRRI has con-
tinued to cooperate in both the breeding and the seed
multiplication programs, but most of the work and the costs
have been the responsibility of the Koreans.
In 1977, the improved japonica-indica varieties of the Tongil
type were grown on 57 percent of South Korea’s rice land.
Government planners expect that by 1980 about 90 percent of
the nation’s rice farmers will be planting these improved
varieties. Although other factors have contributed to the rapid
increase in rice yields in South Korea since 1972, without the
greater disease resistance and the improved plant type that
came out of the rice breeding program, the nation could not
have attained yields that are now the highest in Asia.

Cultural Practices
South Korea’s abundant rice harvests have resulted to a
significant degree from excellent cultural practices. Aside from
the improvements in irrigation systems and the increase in
fertilizer use, Korean farmers have applied minor elements on
about 37 percent of the rice-producing land where one or more
trace elements are known to be deficient. The use of silica has
increased most notably.
The nation’s farmers diligently control weeds by hand or by
applying chemical herbicides. Recently, there has been a
tremendous increase in the use of vinyl-covered seedbeds to
permit early planting, so the farmers can harvest their rice 2
weeks earlier and follow it immediately with a crop of barley.
The use of vinyl covering in seedbeds rose from 4 percent in
1971 to 65 percent in 1976. Pest control has been greatly
improved by the use of warning systems and the application of
pesticides over wide areas as needed.

Price Incentives
South Korea has a guaranteed minimum price for rice and
also subsidizes inputs. In the mid-l970s, the country’s
procurement price for rice was set as high as US$270 per ton. At
the same time the government subsidized fertilizer at 44 percent
Some Successful Production Programs 119

of the normal retail price. According to the Asian Development

Bank, a kilogram of nitrogen cost 1.42 times as much as a
kilogram of paddy in 1976. In contrast, in Thailand, where
fertilizer is not subsidized and the purchase price for rice is low
(usually about half that of South Korea), nitrogen cost 4.08
times as much as paddy in 1976. South Korea, like Taiwan, has
shown a high industrial growth rate in recent years and thus
can afford to offer excellent price incentives to rice farmers. For
many rice-growing countries, a pricing policy that provides
greater incentives than does Thailand, but with support prices
lower than those in Taiwan and South Korea, would be
appropriate. Nevertheless, the high prices paid for rice in
South Korea have permitted farmers to purchase inputs readily
and to improve their living standard. In the 1970s Korean farm
families greatly increased their savings, as compared with the
amounts they put away in the 1960s.

The New Village Movement

In 1970 the South Korean government launched a massive
community development program called the Saemaul Undong
-the New Village Movement. This nationwide program was
initiated by the president of the country and has had his strong
support ever since. Although the program involves much more
than increased rice production, it has provided information,
inspiration, and technical guidance to the rice farmer and has
much improved the rice-growing environment through the
rural development projects included in the plan.
The New Village Movement is a joint effort by the
government and the people to attain a higher standard of living
in South Korea’s 34,660 villages by attacking the causes of rural
poverty through a massive self-help program with strong
support from the central government. Substantial fundingwas
contributed by the government, much of it in the form of
cement and structural steel for road building, for the
improvement of irrigation and drainage ditches, for the
construction of wells where appropriate, and for other
modernization projects, such as public buildings. However,
the value of the completed projects has been much greater than
the resources contributed by the government (Table 10). In
120 Some Successful Production Programs

TABLE 10. GOVERNMENT CONTRIBUTIONS AND THE TOTAL

VALUE OF THE COMPLETED PROJECTS IN THE
NEW VILLAGE MOVEMENT IN SOUTH KOREA
FROM 1971 TO 1976

Value of government Estimated value of the

contributions completed projects
Year (US$ millions) (US$ millions)

1971 8.8 24.0

1972 6.6 63.0
197 3 43.0 196.0
1974 61.6 265.6
1975 3 30.0 591.8
1976 3 30.0 645.0

other words, the self-help component was truly significant.

In 1974 all projects connected with increased food produc-
tion (including such projects as irrigation and flood control
that, in part at least, had been handled previously by separate
agencies) were encompassed in the New Village Movement.
This partly accounts for the fivefold increase in government
contributions in 1975 as compared with those for 1974.
Another factor in the success of rice growing among
“Saemaul” farmers was the increase in cooperative farming
units from 22,000 in 1972 to about 52,000 in 1977. These units
allowed farmers to share equipment and labor and, by working
larger areas of land, to increase the efficiency of their
operations. This movement was similar to the joint farming in
Taiwan.
Again through the New Village Movement, but adminis-
tered by the Office of Rural Development, extension activities
were widely expanded from 1972 to 1976. Near the start of the
intensified program, 1800 new extension specialists were
added, and by 1976, 7500 were working in the rice-growing
villages. The inauguration of special training courses for
extension workers enabled them to advise farmers properly in
the growing of the Tongil-type rice varieties and in basic
objectives of the New Village Movement. These extension
Some Successful Production Programs 121

TABLE 11. AVERAGE INCOMES OF URBAN AND RURAL

FAMILIES IN SOUTH KOREA FROM 1970 to 1975

Annual income of Annual income of

urban families rural families
Year (US$) (US$)

1970 762 5 16
1971 904 712
1972 1034 859
1973 1100 961
1974 1289 1349
1975 1718 1745

people, plus others who were not rice specialists, ran massive
winter training courses for farmers. In 1976 alone, 2.8 million
Korean farmers attended the short courses.
These activities are only a small part of the New Village
Movement which included all important rural activities, such
as wheat and barley production, horticulture, livestock
farming, forestry, and fisheries, as well as activities in private
industry and some urban areas.
The standard of living of the rural people in South Korea has
improved much, as indicated by the increased use of television
sets, motorcycles, refrigerators, home water systems, and
methane gas installations for cooking. The impact on rural life
can best be seen, however, by comparing average family
incomes in rural and urban areas (Table 11). Although rural
incomes were considerably lower than urban incomes in 1970,
by 1974 they were higher.

Summary
South Korea, like Taiwan, is an example of a country that
has mounted an extremely successful national program to
achieve self-sufficiency in rice production. The average yield
had reached the respectable figure of 4.6 t/ha by 1969,
indicating that even then many of the requirements of high
yield and a thriving rice industry had been met. These
prerequisites included reasonably good irrigation facilities, a
122 Some Successful Production Programs

prosperous fertilizer industry, good roads and communication

facilities, adequate access to dependable markets, a well-
organized rural credit system, a completed land reform
program, and satisfactory price incentives.
Notwithstanding the high yields already being obtained in
the late 1960s, South Korea found that its domestic require-
ments for rice exceeded what it was producing on about 1.2
million hectares of land. Therefore, it decided to make an all-
out effort to increase yields still further. It is much more
difficult to boost yields from 4.6 t/ha to 5.6 t/ha than it is to go,
for example, from 2 t/ha to 3 t/ha. Thus South Korea’s feat of
adding an extra ton to national yields in a 5-year period can be
considered a unique accomplishment.
The nation achieved self-sufficiency in rice by 1976. The
most recent spurt in yield was brought about mainly by the
breeding of a new set of modern rice varieties that were short
and heavy tillering, with strong sturdy straw that resisted
lodging at high fertility levels and that were resistant to South
Korea’s two most serious rice diseases, rice blast and stripe
virus. In addition, cultural practices were bettered, irrigation
facilities were renovated and enlarged, and the extension
services were expanded and improved.
It is doubtful that all of this would have been accomplished
had there not been a strong national will, at the popular as well
as the official level, to make such progress and had that will not
been implemented through the New Village Movement.
Incorporated in this movement were massive indoctrination
and intensive extension education. All the forces of the
countryside were mobilized. Villages, and individual farmers
within them, that did not measure up to expectations were
singled out for special attention.
As in Taiwan, farmers responded well to government
directives to a degree that might be difficult to attain in
countries where the population has not yet been asked to accept
such regimentation. Nevertheless, South Korea remains an
excellent example of a country that, despite small farms,
relatively infertile soils, and a limited land area suitable for rice
production, has been able to boost its yields to exceptionally
high levels.
Some Successful Production Programs 123

Figure 17. Yield of rice (paddy) in the Philippines, 1966 to 1976, compared
with the 1961-65 average (3-year moving average). (Source: FAO)

The Philippines
The Philippines never has had a high national average rice
yield. Before 1966 this could be attributed chiefly to the
growing of tall, lodging-susceptible rice varieties and to the
fact that less than 15 percent of the rice was fully irrigated, most
of it being vulnerable to drought or flood depending on the
vagaries (including typhoon incidence) of the monsoon rains.
From 1961 to 1965-before the advent of the Green Revolution
-the average yield of paddy in the Philippines was only 1.2
t/ha (Figure 17). Among Asian rice-growing countries only
Laos and Kampuchea had lower yields during that period.
The first spurt in Philippine rice yields came in 1969 and
1970, largely as a result of the introduction of the modern rice
varieties developed at the International Rice Research Insti-
tute. Between 1966 and 1970, the percentage of the rice-growing
area planted to the improved varieties rose from essentially zero
to over 50 percent-the fastest adoption of the new varieties in
all of South and Southeast Asia.
Yields slumped in 1971 and 1972 because of severe drought,
typhoon damage, and a widespread outbreak of the tungro
virus disease. During 1973-77, yields climbed slowly but
124 Some Successful Production Programs

steadily. There appear to be two principal reasons for the gains.

One is that the government launched an intensive rice
production program, known as Masagana 99. The other is that
the country was continually expanding its irrigation system for
rice.

The Masagana 99 Program

Since the rice crop in the Philippines in 1971 and 1972 was
severely affected by unfavorable weather and, particularly in
1971, by an outbreak of the tungro disease, the country was
badly in need of more rice. The secretary of agriculture was
aware of the potential for increased production, and in 1972,
with the assistance of both IRRI and the Philippine
agencies concerned with rice research and production, he
launched a pilot project to test known varieties and techniques
on entire farms, rather than on plots within farms. In addition,
a start was made in organizing leaders at barrio (village),
municipal, and provincial levels and in improving the
infrastructure, including rural credit.
The new pilot extension program involved the cooperation
of the National Food and Agricultural Council, the Bureau of
Agricultural Extension, provincial organizations in Central
Luzon, and IRRI. Pilot barrios within municipalities were
selected for their “progressiveness.” One trained technician
was assigned to five or six barrios, in each of which the better
farmers were selected to try a package of practices on their land.
The rural banks were allowed to provide noncollateral loans to
farmers who either leased land or were strictly tenants. During
1972 this pilot scheme covered about 2600 hectares. The average
yield on the closely supervised farms exceeded 4 t/ha, whereas
surrounding farms outside the pilot extension scheme were
obtaining no more than 2 to 3 t/ha.
As a result of the pilot extension program, and of the
promising additional applied research results obtained in 1972,
the Philippine government decided to launch a massive
nationwide rice production program. Accordingly, in 1973
President Marcos announced an all-out effort to bring rice
production in the Philippines to at least the level of self-
sufficiency and labeled the program Masagana 99. Masagana is
Some Successful Production Programs 125

a Tagalog word meaning “bountiful,” and the figure 99

quantified the goal of the program to bring yields up to 99
cavans (44 kilograms each) per hectare. In other words, the
objective was to raise yields to about 4.4 t/ha on farms that
entered the program.

Principal elements. The four elements that formed the

backbone of the program were credit, the transfer of the new
technology (including a massive publicity program), price
support for rice, and the provision of low-cost fertilizer.
From past experience in the Philippines, it was evident that
the majority of farmers could not purchase the inputs needed to
increase rice production unless they had access to credit.
Furthermore, most of them were either tenants or leaseholders
and did not have collateral to secure loans. In 1973-74, the
government set up an expanded and revolutionary credit
system involving 420 rural banks, 102 branches of the
Philippine National Bank, and 25 offices of the Agricultural
Credit Administration. The government assured the various
credit organizations that it would guarantee 85 percent of all
loans if the agencies would make production loans to farmers
who had no collateral but who were enrolled in the Masagana
99 program. As a result, the banks no longer were reluctant to
make loans to small farmers.
Every effort was made to simplify and speed up loan
applications. Bank representatives and field technicians
processed loan applications in the field, obviating the necessity
for farmers to spend time going to the bank to apply. The
Philippine National Bank, for instance, purchased 100 jeeps in
order to deliver money to the farmers’ doorsteps. The farmers
had help from the field men (and women) in drawing up farm
plans and sensible budgets that would be acceptable to bankers.
Often farmers were organized into groups (called seldas) of 5 to
15 who were jointly responsible for one another’s loans. By the
end of the first full year of operation (1974), Masagana 99
farmers had been granted 643,000 loans, amounting to US$80
million. In addition, 257,000 farmers participating in the
Masagana 99 program got along without borrowing. Thus
900,000 farmers had joined the program.
126 Some Successful Production Programs

Credit was not unlimited. A maximum of about $100 per

hectare was available to each farmer who qualified for a loan.
Part of each loan was provided in cash to cover labor costs, and
the balance was given out in purchase orders for fertilizer,
pesticides, etc. The merchants who sold those products to the
farmers were able to redeem the purchase orders for cash at the
banks.
Just as important as credit were technical advice and
guidance so that the farmer could wisely invest the funds he had
borrowed. This service was accomplished through an exten-
sion program backed by 3200 well-trained technicians, all
graduates of Philippine agricultural colleges, who were
deployed to the villages.
The extension program was an integral part of Masagana 99
and had three main features. First, widespread trials of new
varieties and management practices were carried out on
farmers’ fields. Second, the field technicians visited the
Masagana 99 farmers frequently, advising them on the more
promising varieties, the appropriate fertilizer application for
their particular soil type, the use of pesticides, and so on. They
also assisted them in making loan applications and in turn
helped the banks in making the collections when the loans
matured. Third, as an additional aid in transferring the
modern technology to the small farmer, a greatly expanded
program to disseminate information through the mass media
was undertaken.
A private advertising agency donated its services to produce
the largest radio broadcasting campaign that the Philippines
had ever known (a survey having shown that three out of every
four Filipino farmers had a radio). The company produced a
series of down-to-earth spot announcements, radio skits, and
musical jingles in the six principal languages of the
Philippines. Over 50 l-hour radio broadcasts were given daily,
usually by the field technicians, providing timely information
on the management of the rice crop.
Supplementing the radio broadcasts, hundreds of thousands
of pocket-size Masagana 99 primers, leaflets, and brochures
(some even in comic style) were printed in the six languages. As
an added publicity feature, membership flags were distributed
Some Successful Production Programs 127

to permit Masagana 99 farmers to advertise their cooperation

with the national program to make the Philippines self-
sufficient in rice again.
The government support price for paddy in the Philippines
increased steadily, rising from US$97 per ton in 1972 to US$170
in 1976, an increase of 75 percent. However, during the same
period, the consumer price index rose by about 70 percent.
Thus, in real terms, the government purchasing price changed
little.
Although the Philippines was not able to subsidize fertilizer
to the extent that South Korea did, in the first year of the
Masagana 99 program it subsidized urea by 21 percent and in
1975 increased the subsidy to 25 percent. The high cost of
fertilizer in 1974-75 lowered its use by farmers, but the great
reduction in world fertilizer prices in the next two years again
made it profitable for farmers to use fertilizer. The leaders of the
program considered that the 25 percent subsidy of fertilizer
costs was significant to the early success of the effort.
The impact on yield. Although national average rice yields
have not yet reached 2 t/ha, the leaders of Masagana 99 reported
that in 1974 and 1975 rainy season yields on 610,000 hectares of
irrigated rice averaged 3.4 t/ha and on about 300,000 hectares of
rainfed paddy, 2.8 t/ha; in the dry season 590,000 hectares of
fully irrigated rice yielded 3.85 t/ha. Yields among Masagana
farmers were about the same in 1976 and 1977 as in 1974 and
1975.
Without doubt, the Masagana 99 program contributed
significantly to the increase in rice yield and in total
production, especially in 1974 and 1975. The reports issued on
Masagana 99 state that yield increases by the 900,000
participating farmers ranged from 0.4 to 1.2 t/ha, depending
on the level of their former yields and the extent to which they
had adopted modern practices. However, the fact that national
average yields continued to rise in 1975, 1976, and 1977,
whereas the average yields on Masagana 99 farms remained at
about the same level, indicates that the effort has not been
completely successful and, furthermore, that factors outside the
program were contributing to the increase in national average
yields.
128 Some Successful Production Programs

One disappointment of the Masagana 99 program has been

the marked decrease in loan repayments since the start of the
program. The Asian Development Bank reports that in 1973-74
the repayment rate was 91 percent. In 1974-75 it decreased to
around 76 percent. By 1975-76 it had gone down to 35 percent.
Recent indications are that there has been no improvement in
the rate of loan repayment. Unless specific action is taken, there
is danger that the movement, as such, will stagnate at its
present level.

Exapnsion in Rice Irrigation

Unfortunately, accurate data have not been published on the
amount of rice land in the Philippines that has been converted
from rainfed to irrigated. In 1977 the secretary of agriculture
stated that the Philippines was bringing 100,000 hectares of rice
a year under irrigation. If we assume that irrigated rice
produces 1 t/ha more crop than rainfed rice in the wet season
and that the irrigated land is double cropped with an average
yield of 3.5 t/ha in the dry season, then 100,000 hectares of
newly irrigated rice land should add 450,000 tons of rice to the
annual harvest in the Philippines, which is currently about 5.5
million tons.

Summary
The rice production program in the Philippines is an
example of a national effort, in a typical rice-growing country
of Southeast Asia, to attain self-sufficiency in rice. Since the
nation imported no rice in 1975 and 1976 and actually exported
a small surplus in 1977, its immediate goal was reached.
Although the weather was better than average during those 3
years, it was not progressively better each year.
The disturbing fact in the Philippines is that despite
Masagana 99, the presence of IRRI, and the strong national
effort to increase rice production, national average yields are
still less than 2 t/ha. According to studies by IRRI scientists
and by other agencies, the apparent reasons for the low yields
are inadequate irrigation, inappropriate fertilizer use, and
poor pest and weed control—in that order of importance.
There may be both economic and social causes for these
Some Successful Production Programs 129

deficiencies in technology. The fact remains, however, that

until the rice fields are well managed, yields will continue to be
below the potential. Another obvious reason why Philippine
rice yields are low is that of the 3.6 million hectares devoted to
rice, about 500,000 are planted to upland rice, the yields of
which are extremely low. Furthermore, consideration must be
given to the fact that the Philippines has the highest incidence
of typhoons of any Asian country.
Although, statistically speaking, 40 percent of the Philip-
pine rice crop is irrigated, many of the irrigation canals and
ditches are poorly maintained, and water deliveries are not
properly managed. Too often, farmers located at some distance
from the source of irrigation water are not supplied at critical
times. Furthermore, many irrigation systems provide water for
only short periods beyond the duration of the rainy season. So
for many farmers, irrigation serves, at best, only to supplement
the rains during periods of drought or to extend slightly the
growing season for a single crop of rice. Because the
Philippines is continually improving and enlarging its
irrigation systems for rice, however, yields undoubtedly will
continue to rise during the years ahead.
Such a forecast for progress presupposes that there will be no
slackening of government support for improving and expand-
ing irrigation systems, for agricultural research and extension,
for a workable credit system, and for a guaranteed minimum
price for rice. The goal of the Masagana 99 program to achieve
a paddy yield of 4.4 t/ha is a reasonable one for fully irrigated
land, and a national average yield approaching 4.0 t/ha can be
attained if there is a united and sustained effort by the
government and the farmer to bring it about. With the present
high population pressures in the Philippines, there appears to
be no danger of overproduction; a good domestic market for
rice is assured indefinitely.

Colombia
For the two decades ending in about 1965, rice yields in
Colombia remained slightly less than 2 t/ha. But between 1966
and 1975, the national average yield of rice more than doubled
130 Some Successful Production Programs

Figure 18. Yield of rice (paddy) in Colombia, 1966 to 1976, compared with
the 1961-65 average (3-year moving average). (Source: FAO)
(Figure 18). The most important causes of this dramatic
increase were (1) the adoption of modern, stiff-strawed, disease-
resistant rice varieties as replacements for the taller U.S.
varieties and (2) an increase in the proportion of rice land under
irrigation.

Introduction and Breeding of Modern Varieties

Up to 1957, the dominant rice variety in Colombia was
Bluebonnet 50, a rather tall U.S. plant that had excellent grain
quality. That year there was a widespread outbreak of a virus
disease known as hoja blanca, which is transmitted by a rice
planthopper (Sogatodes oryzicola). Bluebonnet 50 proved to be
susceptible, and Colombian scientists sought resistant varie-
ties. In 1961, another U.S. variety, Gulfrose, which showed
some resistance to the vector of the hoja blanca, was released to
rice growers. In 1963 a cross between Bluebonnet 50 and
Palmira 105 (a local selection), named Napal, proved to be
resistant to the virus disease and was released to farmers.
However, it, too, soon succumbed to the disease.
Next, in 1965, Tapuripa, a variety from Surinam, was
Some Successful Production Programs 131

released and became popular with the rice growers. By 1968,

Over 40 percent of the irrigated rice land in Colombia was
planted to that variety. Tapuripa’s advantages were that it was
vigorous and sturdy and yielded at least 1 t/ha more than
Bluebonnet 50.
In 1967, CIAT (the Spanish acronym for the Interna-
tional Center for Tropical Agriculture) was established in Cali,
Colombia. It immediately set up a rice research program with
cooperation from IRRI in the Philippines. The program
was conducted in conjunction with the Colombian Depart-
ment of Agriculture (ICA) and the Colombian National
Federation of Rice Growers (FEDEARROZ). CIAT intro-
duced a number of IRRI’s best short-strawed varieties and
genetic lines. Several of those introductions were resistant
to the planthopper that spreads the hoja blanca virus and gave
high yields under Colombian conditions. The first semidwarf
varieties to be widely grown in Colombia were IR8, IR22, and
CICA 4. The first two were IRRI-named varieties; CICA 4 was a
Colombian selection from an IRRI genetic line. Later (1975),
CICA 6 was released.
In 1970, 36 percent of the irrigated rice land in Colombia was
still planted to Bluebonnet 50, with 26 percent sown to
Tapuripa and 29 percent to IR8. By 1976 the amount of
Bluebonnet 50 had become negligible, and 9 percent of the
irrigated land was planted to IR8,33 percent to IR22,34 percent
to CICA 4, and 22 percent to CICA 6. Thus, modern, short-
statured varieties by then occupied essentially the entire
irrigated rice area in Colombia.
No doubt the fact that FEDEARROZ was keeping abreast of
recent developments in rice technology aided greatly in the
rapid adoption of the new varieties. The basic reason for such
acceptance was that the new varieties not only had strong
resistance to the planthopper vector of the hoja blanca virus,
but they outyielded the best varieties formerly available by
about 2 t/ha when properly managed.
By 1976 Colombian rice researchers had developed two other
varieties, CICA 7 and CICA 9, each of them with a higher yield
potential, as well as greater disease resistance, than previously
used varieties and with grain quality superior to that of IR8.
132 Some Successful Production Programs

CICA 9 is somewhat taller than the other Colombian varieties,

has great vigor, and is heavy tillering. Therefore it may prove to
be suitable for the more favorable upland sites, as well as for
irrigated and rainfed paddy fields. In addition, it is resistant to
many races of the rice blast disease that occur in Colombia and
in other Latin American countries. In short, it promises to
make a sizable contribution to higher rice yields not only in
Latin America but in similar environments in other parts of the
world. Undoubtedly CICA 9 will replace many of the earlier
varieties in Colombia and elsewhere.
Although the increased use of pesticides, fungicides, and
improved cultural practices had a definite influence on
Colombia’s yields of irrigated rice, the main reason why yields
jumped from 3 t/ha to over 5 t/ha in less than 10 years is that
Bluebonnet 50 was replaced by modern short, fertilizer-
responsive, disease-resistant varieties.

Irrigation
As Colombian rice growers were adopting new varieties,
another change was taking place that had a profound impact
on national average rice yields: the proportion of rice that was
irrigated increased and the area devoted to upland rice
correspondingly decreased (Table 12). In 1966, before the
accelerated rice production program got under way, upland
rice occupied two-thirds of the total rice area and irrigated rice,
one-third. By 1975, upland rice had shrunk to only a quarter of
the rice area. In that same period, the total land area planted to
rice had increased by only 5 percent, yet annual rice production
in Colombia rose from 680,000 to 1,622,000 tons.
Irrigated rice in Colombia has consistently yielded more
than twice as much as upland rice (Figure 19), even when
Bluebonnet 50 was the predominant variety. Therefore, as the
percentage of irrigated land increased, average national yields
likewise increased (Figure 20). The high correlation (0.98)
between yields and amount of irrigation should in no way
detract from the contribution of modern varieties and other
inputs. It simply shows that good water control is essential for
the full expression of varieties and of such inputs as fertilizers,
pesticides, and herbicides.
TABLE 12. AREA, PRODUCTION, AND YIELD OF RICE IN COLOMBIA FROM 1966 TO 1976 (BY SECTORS),
AND THE PERCENTAGE OF THE RICE AREA UNDER IRRIGATION

Area Production
(thousand hectares) (thousand tons) Yield t/ha Irrigated
Upland Irrigated Upland Irrigated Upland Irrigated National (% of total)
Year rice rice rice rice rice rice aver age

1966 235 114 339 341 1.44 3.00 1.94 32.6

1967 180 110 2 80 381 1.55 3.47 2.28 37.8
1968 150 127 25 1 535 1.67 4.22 2.84 45.8
1969 135 116 220 474 1.64 4.09 2.77 46.2
1970 121 112 198 5 54 1.64 4.94 3.22 48.0
1971 109 144 174 731 1.59 5.06 3.57 56.8
1972 103 171 161 88 3 1.56 5.17 3.81 62.3
1973 99 192 155 102 1 1.56 5.32 4.04 66.0
1974 96 27 3 150 1420 1.57 5.20 4.26 74.0
1975 96 286 151 1471 1.60 5.10 4.25 74.9
1976 95 261 148 1333 1.50 5.10 4.16 73.2

Data from Colombian publications that gave the source as statistics released by FEDEARROZ.
134 Some Successful Production Programs

Figure 19. Average paddy yields in Colombia under irrigated and under
upland conditions, 1955 to 1975 (3-year moving average).

The government investment in irrigation is estimated to be

about US$2000 per hectare. Between 1966 and 1975, the
irrigated rice area enlarged by 160,000 hectares. This represents
an investment of US$319 million in irrigation. The additional
rice produced in 1975 alone (as compared with 1966) was
952,100 tons. The cost of obtaining this extra rice must be
divided between the research that went into developing the new
varieties and other techniques and theinvestment in irrigation.
From experimental data available in Colombia, it is
impossible to calculate absolutely the impact of irrigation in
contrast to that of varieties. However, if the assumption is
made that the varieties did not change but that the areas devoted
to the two systems of rice culture would change as they did
between 1966 and 1975, the average national rice yield in
1975 would be 2.6 t/ha. If, on the other hand, the varieties
changed as they did and yields increased particularly on the
Some Successful Production Programs 135

Figure 20. Average national yield of rice in Colombia in relation to

percentage of rice land irrigated.

irrigated land, but there was no change in the proportions of

irrigated and upland rice, the average yield would be 2.8 t/ha.
Neither of these assumed situations is realistic, as the
availability of the modern, high-yielding varieties stimulated
the use of irrigation and discouraged the production of rice
under upland conditions, where the modern varieties could not
express their superior yield potential.
The only conclusion that can be reached is that both varieties
and irrigation played highly significant roles in increasing rice
production in Colombia. If neither the varieties nor the
proportion of irrigated land had changed, it is rather likely that
yields would have remained near the 2 t/ha that existed for the
136 Some Successful Production Programs

decade before 1966. As it was, by changing both factors national

average yields increased to the remarkable level of 4.3 t/ha by
1974.

The National Federation of Rice Growers

An important contribution to the rapid increase in the
average yield of rice in Colombia was made by an efficient
organization dedicated solely to serving the rice grower.
Similar to the farmers’ associations of Taiwan, FEDEARROZ
(National Federation of Rice Growers) is an organization that,
although originally formed by the growers themselves, now
receives its principal financial support from the government.
FEDEARROZ was established in 1947 to promote the political
and economic interests of rice growers, but its function as a
technical agency did not start until 1963. In that year, a law was
passed that levies a tax of one Colombian cent on each
kilogram of rice sold by the rice grower. This amount is
deducted from the purchase price to the rice buyer, who,
however, is required to pay it later to the government. The law
allows FEDEARROZ to handle the funds collected and to use
them for the support of rice research, for regional variety
testing, for publishing technical bulletins, for running
training courses for field agronomists, and for covering other
expenses for its technical division. In addition to its technical
services, FEDEARROZ produces and handles certified rice seed
and sells fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides, and farm machinery
at reasonable prices. The organization is described as a
nonprofit agency that provides services and supplies to
farmers. Its well-trained technical advisory staff keeps abreast
of the latest developments in rice research in Colombia and
elsewhere and brings the newest techniques and information to
farmers.
Although the rice farmer actually pays the cost of the benefits
derived from FEDEARROZ, farmers recognize that it is a well-
run, highly efficient organization, designed to serve their
interests whether political, economic, or technical.

The Use of Inputs

The Colombian rice farmer, on irrigated land at least,
Some Successful Production Programs 137

applied high amounts of fertilizer even before the advent of the

modern varieties. It appears that the amount of fertilizer used
on rice in Colombia did not increase as the modern varieties
were introduced. Nevertheless, there is no indication that the
new varieties did not receive adequate amounts of fertilizer.
There is evidence that, from 1968 until 1974, rice growers’ use
of insecticides and fungicides increased markedly. This
accounts, in part, for the rise in yields on irrigated rice land
even before the full impact of the modern varieties was felt. Rice
is mostly direct-seeded in Colombia and chemical herbicides
are widely employed. The total amount of herbicides used
climbed particularly during the expansion of irrigated rice
land between 1971 and 1974.

Other Considerations
In contrast with a number of Asian countries where price
supports, subsidized inputs, and improved credit facilities
played important roles in raising yields and production, in
Colombia those factors did not change greatly as rice yields
expanded. From 1966 to 1975 there was a good domestic market
for rice, and all production was consumed in Colombia (14
percent of the calories in the Colombian diet are derived from
rice). Since the support price for rice usually was at or below the
world price, the government seldom bought any. The
abundant supply of rice following the adoption of the
improved varieties pushed prices down and provided a cheap
source of food for the low-income, urban population. This can
be construed as a social benefit of the accelerated rice
production program.
In 1976 the rice situation in Colombia changed somewhat.
The area of irrigated rice decreased by 25,400 hectares and
upland rice by 400 hectares. Yield levels of both irrigated and
upland rice were stable, but total production fell by 141,000
tons, 9 percent below the record level of 1975. The basic cause
for the reduced rice harvest was economic, not technical.
According to authorities in Colombia, the reduction in area
and production (which continued in 1977) was due to a
combination of high production costs and low farm prices for
rice. Farmers switched to other crops, believing that the profits
138 Some Successful Production Programs

would be greater. The decrease in production forced Colombia

to import 33,000 tons of rice to satisfy domestic requirements.
It appears that the Colombian government might find it
advisable to increase the support price for rice modestly to
guarantee adequate rice for domestic requirements. Further-
more, the results of recent research obtained at CIAT
indicate that the Colombian rice grower could reduce
production costs by using less fertilizer, by practicing more
efficient methods of weed control, and by sowing smaller
quantities of seed-without reduction in yield.
There has been no subsidization of inputs in Colombia, ex-
cept that FEDEARROZ buys fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides,
and farm machinery, and sells them to farmers at the lowest
price possible.
Although there was no apparent increase in the amount of
credit extended to rice farmers as yields went up, there also was
no credit decrease. The Caja Agraria and the Fondo Financierpo
Agrario, the two important credit agencies in Colombia, made
loans to rice growers from 1968 to 1974 averaging US$30 to
US$40 per hectare annually. Most individual loans were larger
than that, because some rice producers did not need to borrow
money.

Transferability of the Colombian Experience

Rice growing in Colombia is unlike rice growing on the
small farms of Asia. Over 60 percent of Colombia’s rice crop is
produced on farms larger than 50 hectares. Many farms are 100
to 500 hectares, and a few are over 2500 hectares. Most are
highly mechanized. In fact, the techniques of growing rice in
Colombia (and in much of the rest of South America) are more
similar to those used in the United States than in Asia.
Therefore, the applicability of the Colombian experience is
mostly confined to those regions where landholdings are large
and where heavy machinery is available for land preparation
and crop harvesting.
In South America (and in some parts of Central America and
Africa) there are vast areas of low-lying flat land, particularly in
the larger river basins, that are particularly well adapted to rice
growing. Many parts of these areas are so poorly drained that
Some Successful Production Programs 139

no commercial crop other than rice can be grown; they remain

largely unused today. They could be converted at relatively
small cost into rainfed rice land by the construction of rather
simple dikes or bunds to control the water level. With greater
expenditures, the same areas can be irrigated for year-round
rice production. On much of this potential rice land the varie-
ties and methods used in Colombia would be appropriate.
The lesson to be learned from the Colombian experience is
that with good water control, with modern varieties, and with
the ample use of fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides (in South
America fungicides are commonly used for the control of the
rice blast disease) and herbicides, yields of over 5 t/ha can be
obtained.
Latin American countries are in an excellent position to take
advantage of Colombia’s successful rice production effort.
They can send both research and extension staff members to
CIAT for training. They can arrange for delegations of large
rice farmers to observe rice farming in Colombia first hand, and
they can directly use some of the varieties developed by
CIAT and by the Colombian Ministry of Agriculture.
There seems to be little question that rice production in
Latin America will continue to increase and that, concurrently,
per capita consumption of rice will rise (provided the price
remains low in relation to that of other staple food crops).
Supporting good research programs directed toward finding
ways of producing rice more efficiently is an important means
by which governments can make rice growing more profitable.
There is abundant evidence that rice research, both national
and international, has paid handsome returns during the past
two decades.

Other Countries That Have Made Rapid Progress

In selecting the four countries as examples of those that have
made rapid progress in increasing rice yields and total
production during the past decade or so, an attempt was made
to use well-documented cases in widely varying environments.
There are more than four successful examples, of course.
Mention, however brief, should be made of several other
140 Some Successful Production Programs

countries that have shown at least a 25 percent increase in

average yields of rice from 1961-65 to 1971-75.
In Pakistan, rice yields during that 10-year period jumped 63
percent, from 1.42 to 2.31 t/ha. This increase was brought
about primarily by substituting modern varieties such as IR8
for traditional low-yielding varieties. Nevertheless, yields are
still much lower than they should be. All of the rice is irrigated,
and because of the arid climate solar radiation is high. Yields
on experimental fields often are between 7 and 10 t/ha,
showing that the potential exists. Without doubt, if the effort is
made, Pakistan can have an average national rice yield of
between 5 and 6 t/ha.
The principal reasons for the low national yield appear to be
poor water control, high salinity and alkalinity in some areas,
and the continued production of Basmati rice for export in
spite of its low yielding capacity (though new varieties are
being created that have the excellent grain quality of the
Basmati rices but that are short and stiff-strawed and respond
well to heavy applications of fertilizer).
In Indonesia, yields of paddy rice increased about 25 percent
between 1961-65 and 1971-75, to about 2.5 t/ha. Indonesia made
a strong effort to increase rice production through a national
program similar to the Masagana 99 project in the Philippines.
An analysis by the Asian Development Bank attributes the
increases in rice yield in Indonesia to two main factors. One is
the rising proportion of rice land under irrigation and under
rainfed paddy conditions relative to the area devoted to upland
rice. The other is the widening use of chemical fertilizer.
Moreover, the amount of credit extended to farmers has
expanded pronouncedly. Unfortunately, as was true in the
Philippines, the repayment of loans to farmers made under
crop intensification programs in Indonesia has dropped-
from 91 to 95 percent in 1971-73 to only 44 percent in 1975.
India achieved only a 16 percent gain in rice yield between
1961-65 and 1971-75. Nevertheless, certain states and regions in
India made remarkable advances in yield. In the northwestern
region consisting of Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, and the Punjab,
rice yields increased 84 percent to 2.8 t/ha. Similarly, in the
more northern Jammu and Kashmir region, yields rose 82
Some Successful Production Programs 141

percent to 2.7 t/ha. Less outstanding but above average gains

were obtained in the southern region comprising Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala, where yields
(already at high levels in the early 1960s) increased 25 percent to
2.6 t/ha. On the lower end of the scale was that portion of
eastern India containing the states of Orissa, West Bengal, and
Bihar, where yields went from 1.4 t/ha in 1961-65 to only 1.5
t/ha in 1971-75, an increase of 7 percent.
The causes for these wide variations in yield gains have not
been thoroughly studied. Still, certain differences among the
areas mentioned are obvious. The two regions in northwestern
India where exceptionally rapid progress was made grow
mostly irrigated rice and have much higher levels of solar
radiation than do the less productive areas. Furthermore, the
incidence of insect and disease attack is much lower there than
in more humid areas.
The states in south India cited as making above average
progress had initiated, early on, sizable research and produc-
tion programs with resulting yield gains that, in the first half of
the decade under consideration, exceeded the rate of rice
improvement in the dryer, irrigated states of the northwest.
The regions of eastern India showing little advance in rice
yields contain extensive areas of rainfed rice and are subject to
both drought and floods. Moreover, partly because of the
uncertainties of the weather and the consequent economic risk
involved, considerably less fertilizer is used, and cultural
practices in general are less intensive than in the high yield
regions. Unfortunately, appropriate modern varieties that are
superior to local varieties under such unfavorable environ-
mental conditions have yet to be released.
Laos and the Ivory Coast showed large yield increases during
the decade under consideration. However, the yields in both
countries have not only remained at low levels but have shown
no further increases since 1973.
The Soviet Union has made remarkable progress in raising
rice yields and total production. Between the 1961-65 and 1971-
75 periods, yields increased by more than 50 percent, area
almost tripled, and total rice production more than quadru-
pled. Russia irrigates all of its rice crop and has developed
142 Some Successful Production Programs

superior high-yielding varieties in a well-supported rice

research program.

Comparing the Programs

The three countries that have national average rice yields in
excess of 4 t/ha (South Korea, Taiwan, and Colombia) have
had the following conditions in common: (1) a high
percentage of the rice crop is produced under irrigation; (2) the
irrigation systems are well managed and good water control
exists throughout the growing season; (3) the use of fertilizer
and pesticides is adequate; (4) good weed control is practiced;
(5) modern, short-statured varieties with a high yield potential
are widely grown; (6) the government supports an adequate rice
research program; (7) sufficient credit is available to farmers;
(8) a well-trained extension staff is at hand to assist farmers in
obtaining higher yields; and (9) there is at least one farmers’
organization with the sole purpose of providing the services
that farmers need.
The Philippines, in strong contrast to the other three
countries used here as examples, as of 1977 had yet to obtain an
average national yield in excess of 2 t/ha. Yet there is ample
evidence of the possibility of attaining yields of over 4 t/ha on
its irrigated land and on rainfed lowlands where adequate
water control is possible. The same is true for lowland rice in
all of South and Southeast Asia, in Latin America, and in
Africa.
Undoubtedly, lowland rice yields will continue to rise,
particularly in Asia where little land exists for expanding the
rice-growing area. The yield increase probably will come about
through better water control, higher fertilizer applications, and
the development and use of varieties that have high levels of
tolerance to variations in water level, to adverse soil conditions,
and to insect and disease attack.
One pattern that is consistent wherever rice is grown is that
national average rice yields are low if a high percentage of the
rice crop is grown under upland conditions. In Southeast Asia,
Latin America, and Africa no country has been able to obtain
average upland rice yields of 2 t/ha, and in many regions yields
TABLE 13. PROPORTION OF RICE AREA UNDER LOWLAND CONDITIONS, NATIONAL. RICE YIELDS,
AND YIELDS OF LOWLAND AND UPLAND RICE IN 10 COUNTRIES

Proportion of Advantage of
total rice area lowland rice
planted to Yield (t/ha) relative to
Year of lowland rice National Lowland Upland upland rice
Country data (%) average rice rice (%)

Indonesia 1972 86 2.26 2.46 1.23 100

Korea 1974 98 5.1 3 5.17 2.60 99
Philippines 1974 87 1.60 1.71 0.85 101
Taiwan 1973 99 4.08 4.09 2.33 76
Ivory Coast 1963 14 0.89 1.35 0.82 65
Madagascar 1961 84 1.82 2.05 0.57 240
Brazil 1976 22 1.33 3.35 1.20 180
Colombia 1976 74 4.42 5.10 1.50 225
Peru 1976 75 4.78 5.55 1.74 219
Venezuela 1974 28 2.52 4.6 7 1.68 178

Note: Lowland rice includes all irrigated rice and rainfed rice that is bunded. Upland rice is direct-seeded in dry soil in fields that are not bunded
and requires frequent rains for its moisture supply.
144 Some Successful Production Programs

are below 1.5 t/ha. Furthermore, in most nations upland rice

yields are only one-third to one-half those of lowland rice
(Table 13).
Certainly, as population pressures mount and new land
suitable for rice growing is fully used, more and more land will
be irrigated, and in the tropics and subtropics it will be double
cropped to rice. Furthermore, it is likely that upland rice
gradually will be replaced by other crops that have greater
drought resistance.
 6
Promising Rice Research

International agricultural research centers and national

programs in many rice-growing countries are conducting well-
rounded research efforts covering all important aspects of rice
production. This chapter singles out a few lines of such
investigations that show unusual promise of making, within
the next decade, a significant contribution toward the removal
of serious constraints to high rice yields on farmers’ fields.
The purpose is not only to point out the real hope that exists
for the further weakening of the barriers to high yield, but more
importantly, to identify for research administrators in the rice-
producing nations some of the more fruitful research projects
that merit concentrated attention. Yield-limiting problems are
not simple; only the most thorough and widespread research
among the involved countries will resolve them.
The priority given the various lines of research will depend
upon the nature and severity of the constraints encountered in a
particular environment. Although the areas of research selected
for discussion here are unavoidably somewhat arbitrary, they
are ones that affect large numbers of rice farmers in many
countries.

Varietal Improvement
The yield potential and the disease and insect resistance of
the rice plant have improved remarkably since the 1960s. Yet, a
number of goals that appeared to be attainable have not been
reached. Some of the rice breeding objectives that need to be

145
146 Promising Research

stressed are early maturity, more stable resistance to insect and

disease attack, maintenance of fertilizer responsiveness, and
tolerance to drought, to varying water depth, and to adverse soil
conditions.

Early Maturity
As population pressures mount, it becomes increasingly
critical, especially in the tropics and subtropics, to grow as
many crops a year on the same land as possible. Early maturing
rice varieties make possible the growing of several rice crops (or
rice and other crops) within 12 months. Furthermore, under
rainfed conditions, rice varieties that have a short growth
duration often yield better than those that have a long growth
duration, because they escape the drought that occurs when the
rainy season ends early. Although rice breeders have produced
early maturing varieties with growth durations of 90 to 110
days, too often such varieties have lacked good plant type, high
yield potential, and adequate resistance to insects and diseases.
IRRI plant breeders have developed several genetic lines and
several varieties (IR36 is an example) that mature under
tropical conditions in about 110 days (from seed to seed), have
desirable grain characteristics, and are resistant to most
important pests and diseases. However, even earlier maturing
varieties are needed. In 1976, IRRI began an intensive rice-
breeding project to develop varieties that have exceptionally
high vegetative vigor in the early growth stages, mature in 90 to
95 days, and yet have a yield potential of no less than 7 t/ha. It is
extremely likely that that program will succeed and, also, that
there will emerge from national breeding programs similar
varieties with particular adaptability to the regions where they
are bred and selected.

More Stable Resistance to Insects and Diseases

Rice breeding work aimed at developing stronger resistance
to insect and disease attack has usually involved major single
gene resistance (often called vertical resistance). This approach
has been effective against the green leafhopper and grassy stunt
virus disease but less successful in combatting certain other
Promising Research 147

insects that readily form biotypes (such as brown plant-

hoppers) and diseases that develop physiologic races (such as
rice blast).
Plant breeders have three principal approaches that might be
more successful in obtaining stable resistance than the
commonly used method of identifying major genes and
transferring them to otherwise suitable varieties through the
standard pedigree breeding system. One approach is gene
pyramiding. This consists of combining in each variety a
complex of both major and minor genes for resistance to a
given pest or pathogen.
A second approach is the development of multiline varieties.
A series of genetic lines is developed that have similar external
characteristics but that differ in their reaction to specific
biotypes or physiologic races. The lines are then mixed and
planted together. Experience with wheat and other crops has
shown that this method can provide protection against losses
when new genetic mutants of a particular pest or pathogen
appear in an area.
A third approach is to create horizontal (field) resistance by
incorporating into varieties many minor genes that provide
moderate-level resistance to the insect or disease. In the major
or single gene (vertical) resistance now being used so
extensively, the continued tolerance of the host plant to the pest
or pathogen depends entirely on the stability of a single
avirulent gene in the attacking organism. On the other hand,
the theory behind minor or polygenic (horizontal) resistance is
that so many genes are contributing toward resistance that the
pest or pathogen cannot mutate sufficiently to overcome all of
them.
There are techniques of screening still to be perfected in the
horizontal resistance breeding program. Many procedures
being used in conventional pedigree and vertical resistance
breeding programs have to be discarded. Nevertheless, results
with other crop plants (particularly potatoes in breeding for
resistance to late blight) indicate that, if this breeding method
were widely used in high-volume polycrossing breeding
programs, the stability of resistance to disease and insect attack
in rice would be substantially increased.
148 Promising Research

IR42, a variety that is highly lodging resistant, is still erect a week before
harvest, while other promising genetic lines adjacent to it have lodged
because of weak stems. Actually, just a few days before harvest the plot of IR42
did start to lodge, indicating that it, too, requires further improvement in
straw strength. (Source: IRRI)

Maintenance of Fertilizer Responsiveness

The rice variety IR8 represents an ideal plant type. Its stems
are short, thick, and sturdy; hence it does not lodge even when
heavy applications of nitrogen fertilizer are made. However, it
lacks several important characteristics-particularly, good
grain quality and adequate resistance to insects and diseases.
Most varieties developed between 1967 and 1977 by IRRI
and by several national rice breeding programs reflect efforts to
overcome the undesirable traits of IR8. They are far superior in
grain quality and in insect and disease resistance. On the other
hand, they have weak stems and lodge when grown at high
nitrogen levels. On many farms, this characteristic does not
depress yields severely, because the farmers apply only modest
amounts of nitrogen. But as pressures for greater food
production intensify, it becomes increasingly necessary to use
larger amounts of fertilizer to approach the true yield potential
of the modern rice varieties. If this essential practice is to be
followed, rice breeders will need to restore in their varieties the
strong sturdy stems they were able to obtain in IR8.
Promising Research 149

The apparent reason that plant breeders at IRRI and

elsewhere have produced so many weak-stemmed rice varie-
ties during the past decade is that a number of selections
used as parents (notably TKM6 from India and O. nivara)
that carry genes for resistance to several important insects
and diseases have weak stems. Moreover, it seems likely
that there is a genetic linkage between weak stems and
resistance to pests and pathogens. If this were not so, breeders
seemingly would have retained the character for strong sturdy
Stems that was present in at least one of the parents of their
crosses.
In spite of the complexities encountered in incorporating
into one variety resistance to insects and diseases and to
lodging, plus satisfactory grain quality, the difficulties
probably will soon be overcome. In fact, IR42, an IRRI line
named by the Philippine Seed Board in 1977 that has attractive
grain quality and good insect and disease defenses, also appears
to have more than ordinary resistance to lodging at high
nitrogen levels. Lodging resistance will be especially impor-
tant in varieties for direct-seeding, which may become more
common in the years ahead.

Drought Tolerance
In the eleven Asian rice-growing countries listed in Table 3,
34 percent of the rice land is classified as irrigated, 50 percent is
devoted to rainfed paddy, 8 percent is used for growing upland
rice, and another 8 percent is planted to deep-water rice.
Although the amount of irrigated land will continue to
increase, with a consequent reduction in the area under rainfed
paddy and upland rice, the fact that two-thirds of the rice land
in South and Southeast Asia is without a controlled water
supply makes it important to continue to develop varieties that
can withstand periods of drought without severe reduction in
yield. Not only in Asian countries, but also in Brazil and in
much of West Africa, drought-tolerant rice varieties are badly
needed.
Rice scientists have fully demonstrated that varieties vary in
their capacity to endure drought. It seems evident that a deep
root system may be the single most important characteristic
150 Promising Research

associated with drought tolerance. Even though rice breeders

have long been engaged in developing varieties that can
withstand high soil moisture tension, no rice variety yet
approaches the drought tolerance of wheat, maize, sorghum,
millet, or sweet potatoes. In recent years IRRI has in-
tensified its research on drought tolerance. Rice scientists are
attempting to identify plant characteristics that contribute
to drought endurance. Hundreds of crosses are made annually,
and thousands of the progeny are tested in an effort to combine
drought tolerance with other desirable plant qualities. Similar
work is going on in West Africa, particularly at IITA in
Nigeria and at Bouake in the Ivory Coast.
Great differences exist among rice varieties in the ability to
survive under severe moisture stress, but the impact of this
quality on yield capacity is not yet clear. It is logical to assume,
however, that when the drought-tolerant characters are
introduced into otherwise desirable varieties, yields under
conditions of moisture stress will be elevated considerably.

Tolerance t o Varying Water Depths

In tropical monsoon Asia, many flat low-lying areas are
flooded during the height of the rainy season. If water levels
reach 15 to 30 centimeters or more, modern varieties are usually
unsuitable. In many of the river deltas of India, for instance,
farmers grow the new varieties during the dry season but
continue to plant the taller traditional ones in the wet season.
Extensive areas in Bangladesh, India, Thailand, and
Vietnam and localized areas in all other rice-growing countries
flood to depths of 1 to 6 meters. In these areas, only deep-water
or floating rice varieties can be grown. About 10 percent of the
world’s rice land is classified as suitable only for deep-water
culture.
An additional 20 percent of the rice-producing area of Asia is
subject to water depths of less than 1 meter - but often with
flooding during much of the growing season to depths of 30 to
60 centimeters. Some of that same land, during short periods,
may be flooded to the extent that young rice plants are
completely submerged for a week to 10 days.
It is unlikely that major increases in yield potential of the
Promising Research 151

deep-water varieties that have to endure water depths of over 2

meters will be realized, although there will be some advances
tied to such qualities as improved “kneeing” ability and
increased survival under deep flooding during early growth
stages, as well as to better weed control methods before the flood
waters arrive. There is an excellent chance, however, that
greatly improved varieties that are tolerant to medium-to-deep
water depths and to temporary submergence will be created
soon.
Rice breeders have demonstrated that, when a deep-water
variety is crossed with a short-statured one, some of the progeny
have the capacity to remain short when the water is shallow and
to elongate when the water rises. The IR442 lines are examples
of this phenomenon. Selections from the IR442 cross have
shown wide adaptability, even exhibiting considerable drought
tolerance and yielding well under upland conditions. In
addition, good harvests have been obtained at water depths up
to 60 centimeters. However, none of the lines from this cross,
which lack photoperiod sensitivity (desirable to avoid flower-
ing before the flood waters have subsided) and adequate
resistance to insect and disease attack, has been named by
IRRI.
Rice breeders paid little attention to developing rice varieties
for varying water depths until 1975 when IRRI and Thai-
land began a joint program of breeding and testing in the
Philippines and at the Huntra Deep-water Rice Station in
Thailand. Furthermore, meetings have been held with
representatives from other countries with deep-water rice
problems, and an extensive cooperative scheme for breeding
and testing rice varieties has been inaugurated. Among the
objectives of this cooperative movement is the intention to
breed and widely test rice varieties that can survive prolonged
periods in water between 30 and 60 centimeters deep. IRRI
reported in 1976 that a number of selections from this program
consistently yielded over 4 t/ha whether grown in shallow
water or in water 50 centimeters deep. In water 100 centimeters
deep, however, yield was reduced 28 percent.
Rice scientists are also testing thousands of genetic lines for
tolerance to complete submergence during the early stages of
152 Promising Research

growth. Preliminary results indicate that many varieties can

withstand complete submergence for a week to 10 days without
any significant reduction in yield and that this quality can be
combined with tolerance for medium-depth flooding. Fortu-
nately, it is being found that drought tolerance can be
combined with adaptability to medium-depth water and to
temporary submergence.
In summary, there is genuine promise that a series of disease-
and insect-resistant varieties can be developed that combine
high grain quality, photoperiod sensitivity, and drought
tolerance with the ability to yield well in water as much as 60
centimeters deep, and that can stand total submergence for a
week to 10 days during the early growth stages. The successful
achievement of such a goal will benefit hundreds of thousands
of farmers who are growing lowland, rainfed rice that is subject
to the vagaries of the monsoon rains. It is entirely possible
(though with no firm evidence yet) that these new varieties, if
properly weeded and fertilized, will outyield currently grown
rice varieties by 1 to 2 t/ha.

Tolerance to Adverse Soil Conditions

An estimated 40 million hectares in the tropics and
subtropics are unsuitable for modern rice varieties because of
adverse soil conditions. The most injurious conditions in those
areas are salinity, alkalinity, strong acidity, iron toxicity, zinc
deficiency, phosphorus deficiency, and large amounts of
organic matter (peat soils).
Most detrimental soil conditions can be alleviated by proper
soil management, but the treatment is frequently quite
expensive. For that reason, IRRI recently greatly expanded
its effort to breed and widely test rice varieties that are tolerant
to problem soils. In 1976 alone, IRRI scientists screened about
17,500 entries from the germ plasm bank and the breeding and
hybridization program. The most encouraging result of the
tests was that several named modern varieties and elite genetic
lines proved to be tolerant to a number of adverse soil
conditions. IR30, IR32, and IR36, for example, showed a
salinity tolerance only slightly inferior to that of a well-proven
resistant line (IR2153-26-3-5-2). Furthermore, nine elite lines
Promising Research 153

with good plant type and resistance to insect and disease attack
had a higher tolerance to alkali soils than did several varieties
widely grown in alkali areas. In addition, IR28, IR29, IR30,
and IR34 were tolerant to phosphorus deficiency; and IR20 and
IR34 showed some tolerance to low zinc levels in the soil.
As in drought tolerance research, many of the tests for
resistance to salinity, alkalinity, high acidity, and growth on
organic soils reflect survival and vegetative growth, and there is
too little information yet available as to the yield levels that can
be expected when the genes for resistance to those toxic
conditions are incorporated into otherwise superior varieties.
Nevertheless, considerable benefit should result from this work
in time.
More data are available on the tolerance to low zinc and
phosphorus levels. Some modern varieties have yielded as
much as 5 t/ha without the addition of zinc or of phosphorus,
while less tolerant varieties yielded less than 3 t/ha. No variety,
however, can yield well when the level of either zinc or
phosphorus is extremely low, unless the soil deficiency is
corrected.

Supplying Nitrogen to the Rice Plant

Nitrogen is almost universally deficient in rice-growing
soils, but chemical sources of nitrogen are becoming increas-
ingly costly. Three promising avenues of research may reduce
farmers’ expenditures for fertilizer: improving the efficiency of
the utilization of chemical nitrogen by the rice plant, the
partial substitution of organic materials for chemical nitrogen,
and increasing the biological fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.

Loss of Nitrogen
A rice crop often absorbs no more than 25 to 50 percent of the
nitrogen applied to the soil, because much of the nitrogen is
lost or unavailable. There are five principal ways in which
nitrogen may be lost after it is applied: by ammonium
fixation, by direct volatilization of ammonia from the flood
water, by immobilization in the soil organic matter (from
which, however, some of the nitrogen will be recovered later),
154 Promising Research

by leaching, and by denitrification. A symposium held at

IRRI in 1977 made it clear that current quantitative
measurements of nitrogen transformation and loss are
inadequate. For example, authorities largely agree that most
nitrogen is lost through denitrification; yet directly measuring
the escape of nitrogen gas from the soil into an atmosphere
already laden with the element is highly difficult. Although
indirect methods have depicted total losses reasonably well,
they have not shown satisfactorily just where the losses occur.
Present knowledge indicates that ammonia gas escapes from
the surface of flood water when the pH is high and when
nitrogen fertilizer is broadcast onto the surface without
mechanical incorporation. Furthermore, deep placement of
fertilizer into the reduced zone is known to cut down on
denitrification losses. It also has been proved that when a paddy
soil dries out, nitrogen depletion through denitrification
increases. It is further recognized that when nitrogen fertilizer
is applied as a topdressing to a rice crop that has a healthy,
active root system, efficiency is high, because the nitrogen is
absorbed before it can be transformed or lost. In spite of such
practical knowledge, soil scientists remain unable to account
for the disappearance of added nitrogen by totaling the values
of the various loss components. Furthermore, the size of the
experimental error and the great variations in research workers’
estimates of nitrogen losses point to the serious need for
improvements in research techniques.
The efforts of soil scientists to improve the methodology for
measuring the destiny of nitrogen applied to rice should meet
with success in the next decade or so. Until that is
accomplished, however, progress in improving the efficiency
of nitrogen use will be slow.

Nitrogen from Organic Materials

Longtime fertility experiments in Japan, the Philippines,
and elsewhere have revealed that from half to two-thirds of
chemical nitrogen can be replaced with organic nitrogen from
such sources as compost without any reduction in yield. The
organic matter source can be compost, oil cake, animal
manures, green manures, or rice straw. However, experimental
Promising Research 155

results show that if top yields are to be obtained, some chemical

nitrogen is needed either in making compost or when other
organic materials are added to the soil. Moreover, materials
with a high carbon/nitrogen ratio, such as rice straw, must be
applied well ahead of rice planting to avoid tying up too much
nitrogen during the early growth stages of the crop and to get
rid of toxic organic compounds formed when the straw starts to
decompose.
In many of the long-term experiments, 10 to 20 t/ha of
compost and 35 to 55 kg/ha of chemical nitrogen were applied
to obtain maximum yields. In China it is common to use as
much as 75 t/ha of compost. However, the Chinese have found
that if maximum yields are to be obtained, such heavy
applications of organic matter must be supplemented with
chemical nitrogen.
Organic sources of nitrogen increase the organic matter
content of the soil, release nitrogen slowly during the entire
period of crop growth, and add other plant nutrients, both
major and minor. It is probably for good reason that the
Japanese farmers who have won the rice yield contests have
invariably applied both organic and inorganic fertilizers.
In the developed countries where labor is scarce and
expensive, no doubt chemical nitrogen will be usedentirely for
the foreseeable future. On the other hand, where labor is
abundant rice farmers can well use local sources of organic
matter, particularly green manures, rice straw and other crop
residues, and animal manures, for at least half of the nitrogen
required by a high-yielding rice crop.
Soil scientists are studying ways of managing and applying
organic matter as a source of nitrogen and other elements. If the
results of both past and future studies are brought to the
attention of farmers through on-farm trials, it is likely that
many of them will change their present practice of burning rice
straw simply to get it out of the way. Moreover, improved
methods of conserving animal manures are required. Much
organic matter is now wasted in rural areas. It is unlikely that
the farmers of South and Southeast Asia will go to the same
extremes as Chinese farmers in using all sources of organic
matter (from night soil to composts made from animal
156 Promising Research

manures and crop residues to city rubbish), but great

economies can be achieved by increasing the amounts of
organic fertilizer and decreasing the purchase of chemical
nitrogen. Agriculturalists must develop sound management
systems for maintaining soil fertility by the most economical
means in the less developed countries.

Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen

Longtime rice fertility trials conducted in both the temperate
zone and the tropics have proved that yields between 1.5 and 2.0
t/ha can be maintained year after year on many soils without
the addition of nitrogen from either organic or inorganic
sources. The amounts of nitrogen removed by the rice crop
range from about 35 kg/ha to over 100 kg/ha, with an average
around 60 kg/ha. The nitrogen absorbed by an unfertilized rice
crop comes largely from the decomposition of soil organic
matter and from atmospheric nitrogen that is fixed by soil
microorganisms.
Studies on the quantity of nitrogen that is fixed in the root
zone in rice paddies and in the paddy waters by blue-green algae
and by other nitrogen-fixing microorganisms are conflicting.
Usually at least 20 kg/ha is fixed during each crop-growing
season, and values three to four times that amount have been
occasionally reported. There are doubts surrounding some of
the higher values, and it is generally agreed that measurement
techniques are still inadequate. Soil incubation studies in the
laboratory are often unreliable indicators of what takes place
under field conditions. The acetylene reduction method has
improved the accuracy of estimates of the amount of
atmospheric nitrogen that is fixed, but it has limitations.
There is sound evidence that more nitrogen is fixed in
flooded rice soils than under upland conditions. It is likewise
known that nitrogen fixation values are higher in the tropics
than in northern latitudes. It seems clear, also, that the most
abundant microorganisms that fix nitrogen are the blue-green
algae and that their capacity to do so in flooded rice fields is
considerably enhanced when they are growing in association
with the water fern, Azolla.
There is great need for expanded research on biological
Promising Research 157

fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in lowland rice paddies. For

example, there appears to be insufficient knowledge about the
amount of nitrogen actually fixed not only by the blue-green
algae but by other microorganisms. Methods of managing
Azolla, particularly under tropical conditions, need more
study. The impact of the presence of a rice crop on nitrogen
fixation is not well understood. These are only a few of the
deficiencies in our knowledge of nitrogen fixation in paddy
soils.
These problems, and others, have been worked on by
scientists with varying and inconclusive results. Soil micro-
biologists today, however, feel that if nitrogen fixation research
is sufficiently intensified throughout the rice-growing world,
progress resulting in outstanding benefits to the rice industry is
a certainty.

Improved Insect Control at Low Cost

Studies of the yield constraints on farmers’ fields have shown
that, predictably, the application of insecticides increases
yields significantly when insect populations are high. Yet the
gains in yield, although substantial, are often unprofitable
because of the high cost of the insecticides. Aside from less
costly insecticides or other methods of insect control, the
solution to the problem may lie in finding ways to increase the
effectiveness of insecticides so that good control can be
obtained with smaller quantities. As an example, when
carbofuran is applied to the root zone, 0.5 kg/ha (active
ingredient) gives better control than does 1.5 kg/ha when
broadcast as granules onto the paddy water. Furthermore,
recent studies indicate that the whorl maggot can be well
controlled if the rice seedlings are dipped into a mixture of
gelatin, insecticide, and water-a method that requires only a
small amount of insecticide and a little extra labor and
equipment.
Additional research work is needed to develop a better
applicator for placing insecticide in the root zone. The new
chemical products being turned out by industry should be
thoroughly evaluated to findcompounds that are both effective
158 Promising Research

and low in cost. Research on biological control should not

slacken. There is evidence that the use of parasites-insects,
bacteria, and fungi-as well as virus diseases that attack
harmful insects may yet prove to be an inexpensive way of
insect control.
Varietal resistance will continue to be the least costly way of
controlling insect populations except for those species for
which no resistant varieties have yet been found or when an
insect species develops new biotypes so frequently that it is
impossible for plant breeders to produce new varieties fast
enough to maintain insect control.
The most likely approach to practical insect control in the
years ahead is “integrated pest control,” which consists of
employing resistant varieties, cultural methods, biological
control, crop rotation, or whatever method is appropriate for a
given pest, and resorting to the use of insecticides only when
those other methods have proved ineffective. It must be kept in
mind that the use of insecticides is never profitable unless insect
populations are high.

Better Weed Control Methods for Rainfed Rice

In the 1960s, scientists developed selective herbicides that
controlled weeds in flooded lowland fields of transplanted rice.
At that time, however, no herbicide satisfactorily controlled
weeds under upland conditions or in any other circumstances
where rice is direct-seeded without previous flooding.
In the 1970s decided progress was made in producing
herbicides effective against many weed species in nonflooded
fields. Nevertheless, there are a few weeds that are difficult to
control, especially perennials such as nutsedge (Cyperus
rotundus) and Mimosa invisa. The only satisfactory methods
require two or three applications of several herbicides at
various times, a laborious and costly procedure.
With the recent emphasis on growing two crops of rainfed
rice in the monsoon season - the first one being direct-seeded
before enough rain falls to permit puddling of the soil - it is be-
coming increasingly important to have herbicides that will kill
all weeds and yet not be toxic to the rice plant. This is impor-
tant, also, in flooded or deep-water rice fields, for they are usu-
Promising Research 159

ally direct-seeded after the first rains appear but before the flood
waters arrive. Frequently, yields are seriously reduced because
of competition from weeds during the early growth stages.
In flooded, transplanted rice fields, the surface layer of water
helps eliminate many weed species. Moreover, the transplanted
rice seedlings have a good start over the water-tolerant weed
species. In direct-seeded rice fields, however, the weeds and the
rice germinate at the same time, and there is no standing water
to inhibit weed growth, Therefore, the weed control problem is
difficult. Chemical herbicides likely will prove to be the most
economical way of controlling weeds in direct-seeded rice. To
weed a hectare of flooded, transplanted rice by hand may
require as much as 300 man-hours of labor whereas direct-
seeded, upland rice may require as much as 1200 man-hours. If
upland rice gets no weed control, the harvest is often reduced to
zero.
In summary, despite the important advances that have been
made in recent years, there is still great need for better selective
herbicides for use on direct-seeded, nonflooded rice that
depends on rain for its growth.

Fundamental Causes of Low Rice Yields

In 1976 the average rice yield for South and Southeast Asia-
specifically Bangladesh, Burma, India, Indonesia, Kampu-
chea, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, and Vietnam-was estimated by the FAO to be 1.81
t/ha. The 13 countries, with a total population of just over 1000
million, plant 86 million hectares of rice. Because the East
Asian countries (China, South Korea, and Japan) are not likely
to have much surplus rice in the years ahead, the South and
Southeast Asian nations will have to increase their rice
production steadily if they are to meet their own requirements.
That high yields are possible is shown by the fact that on
carefully supervised trials on farmers’ fields conducted in the
Philippines in 1975, yields of 6.1 t/ha were obtained in the dry
season and of 4.6 t/ha in the rainy season. These yields are 1 to 2
t/ha higher than those obtained by the farmers themselves on
land adjacent to the trials.
It was fairly easy to identify the reasons for the differences in
160 Promising Research

the carefully conducted trials. Because water control was good

on the selected farms, 80 percent of the yield differences could
be explained by the fact that more fertilizer and pesticides were
applied to the supervised trials than the farmer normally
applied himself. In fact, from the many studies that have now
been carried out on farmers’ fields throughout South and
Southeast Asia, it has become clear that water control is the
foremost yield constraint, followed by inadequate fertilizer use,
and poor pest and weed control. Although the actual
constraints vary from location to location, it appears that the
more significant yield-limiting factors have been identified.
What seems necessary is a series of economic and social
studies to find the basic reasons, for example, why adequate
irrigation systems or flood control projects have not been
constructed, why farmers are not using enough fertilizer, and
why pest control or adequate weed control is not being
practiced by enough farmers. The answers can lie in such
factors as too low a support price for rice or an inadequate
credit system. The studies generally would be conducted
separately by country or by areas within countries. Such
agencies as the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank
are particularly well suited to conduct the needed surveys at
national and regional levels.

Cropping Systems Involving Rice

Multiple cropping has been practiced in China for
generations, and intercropping has been carried on by
subsistence farmers in many countries for centuries, yet it is
only recently that intensive research has been conducted in
those areas of agriculture. The research projects are usually
carried out under the general title of either cropping systems or
farming systems.
Of particular concern to agricultural administrators in the
less developed rice-producing countries of the tropics and
subtropics is the possibility of annually growing several crops
of rice or a crop of rice plus one or more other crops. Because
Asia has little arable land left for expansion, in addition to
raising yield per crop the only avenue left for producing more
Promising Research 161

food is to increase the intensity of cropping throughout the

year.
Three international agricultural research centers are con-
ducting research on cropping systems involving rice. IRRI’s
cropping systems research program is devoted entirely to
systems that include at least one crop of rice each year. Rice is
of lesser concern at the International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture in Nigeria or the Centro lnternacional de
Agricultura Tropical in Colombia. Therefore, only a portion
of their cropping or farming systems research is concerned with
rice as one of the crops.
IRRI recently inaugurated a cooperative program to
conduct cropping intensity studies at 14 sites in six countries of
South and Southeast Asia. Concurrently, it has initiated
detailed studies at several locations in the Philippines.
Essentially all of this work is being conducted on the farms of
cooperating rice growers.
The principal objective of these studies in tropical Asia is to
utilize more fully the water from the monsoon rains. Many
farmers in monsoon Asia grow a crop of rainfed rice, wait until
the soil is dry enough to cultivate, and then plant maize or some
other upland crop. This causes an extended turn-around time.
With this practice, any additional rainfall or residual soil
moisture goes unused during the period following the rice
crop. IRRI research workers have found that if two direct-
seeded rice crops are grown, the first dry seeded and the second
transplanted, and if those two crops are followed by a drought-
tolerant crop such as maize or sorghum, much more food can be
produced than under the present system. In several experiments
on farmers’ fields, as much as 10 t/ha of rice was harvested from
the two crops of rice alone in years of normal rainfall
distribution.
Additional work is needed on the techniques of direct-
seeding the rice crop under both dry and wet soil conditions, on
weed control methods under rainfed conditions, on ways of
reducing the turnaround time between crops, on methods of
insect control, on the use of fertilizer in multiple cropping, on
the most effective way of handling crop residues, and on the
profitability of supplemental irrigation in the multiple
162 Promising Research

cropping system. As population pressures rise, multiple

cropping will increase. This movement must be backed by
sound and widespread research programs, with many trials on
farmers’ fields to aid in promoting rapid adoption.

Continuous Rice Production

Recently there has been considerable interest in designing
systems of continuous rice production in irrigated rice fields of
the tropics. This has been tried by scientists at CIAT in
Colombia, by the applied research and training group at
IRRI, and by an innovative Filipino farmer. All of these plans,
although varying in detail, have been successful in providing
the rice farmer a continuous source of income and an even
distribution of labor throughout the year. In 1976, the IRRI
initiated a research project based on a modification of a scheme
worked out by a Filipino farmer who had produced 30 tons of
paddy from a 1.5-hectare plot in one year. In the IRRI
experiment, a l-hectare field is managed by only three laborers.
The field is divided into 250-square-meter plots. Every
Monday, Wednesday, and Friday one plot is transplanted. On
Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, rice is harvested from the
plot planted 90 days earlier. Only 1 day of turn-around time is
allowed, which means that the day after a 250-square-meter
plot is harvested, the plot is again prepared for transplanting.
The system gives the farmer a steady year-round income,
abolishes peaks and troughs in labor use, and maximizes
annual yields per hectare. With an early maturing variety
(IR36), IRRI obtained annual yields of 23.5 t/ha. To get
such high yields management was intense: generous amounts
of fertilizer and insecticides were used, and weed control was
perfect. Nevertheless, economic analysis of the costs and
income shows that the venture is a profitable one. The three
laborers in the IRRI experiment, who work steadily for six 8-
hour days, are former tenant farmers. They like the method,
and some of their relatives are adopting it on their own farms.
This kind of experiment must be tried out more broadly and
Promising Research 163

over a number of years. Farmer reaction needs to be more fully

explored, and the problem of disease and insect population
buildup should be studied. Nevertheless, it shows great
promise for use on irrigated land and by farmers who are
willing to work diligently to increase their incomes.
 7
Elements of a Successful
Accelerated Rice Production
Program

The production of rice during the past several decades has

barely kept pace with population growth. In spite of the Green
Revolution, then, the Asian rice consumer is no better fed today
than he was 10 years ago. Yet, the yield levels of many rice-
growing countries are only half of what they could be. To reach
its full yield potential, each nation must mount an accelerated
rice production program. This program must combine careful
planning with sustained, energetic, and effective implementa-
tion. Especially necessary is the participation of government
officials at all levels, from president or prime minister and
minister of agriculture through provincial or state officials to
the agricultural extension people in direct contact with the
farmer.
Government involvement of this scope becomes more likely
as the countries strive to improve their world financial position
by limiting imports to nonindigenous commodities. Increases
in the cost of fertilizer, farm machinery, and other agricultural
inputs have been accompanied, understandably, by a rise in the
price of food grains. Consequently, in less developed countries
with meager foreign exchange reserves, interest in cereal self-
sufficiency has mounted. For much of Asia, this means self-
sufficiency in rice.
It is not essential, of course, for every nation to grow all the
rice it consumes. Malaysia, for example, with its valuable
exports of rubber, tin, and palm oil, can afford to purchase rice
from outside. On the other hand, such countries as India,
Bangladesh, Vietnam, and the Philippines, which are densely

165
166 A Successful Accelerated Production Program

populated and have relatively low foreign exchange earnings,

find it advantageous to produce enough rice to meet domestic
demand and to divert foreign currency earnings to the purchase
of the materials that are necessary for economic advance.
There are no simple answers to the problems of agricultural
development. Requirements vary greatly from country to
country, depending on the state of development of the nation.
For instance, an accelerated production program for rice in
Nigeria or Senegal, where up to now the crop has been a minor
one, would require rather different guidelines, particularly in
the early stages, than a program in India or Bangladesh, where
rice has been grown extensively for centuries. Furthermore, the
trade resources available for development differ considerably
from nation to nation, some countries having oil or surplus
agricultural produce for export and others having but few
commodities with which to earn foreign exchange.
Despite such complexities, certain fundamentals of develop-
ment apply generally to those countries in the tropics and
subtropics where per capita incomes are low (often less than
US$200 annually), and where a large segment (60 percent or
more) of the population operates small farms, mostly of less
than 2 hectares. It is to agricultural leaders in such developing
countries that this and the following chapters are addressed.
Although the information presented is not new, it nevertheless
is a practical summary of what most authorities agree are the
key elements in a strategy for mounting a successful accelerated
rice production campaign.
But, first of all, it must be recognized that the outcome of a
national accelerated rice production effort will not succeed
unless administrative officials have a strong political will to
achieve the desired results. Moreover, they must thoroughly
understand it.
The distance between the seats of government and farmers’
fields is normally a long one, both measurably and in terms of
activities and objectives. Along the extended route from
officialdom to the farming community, nevertheless, are those
who, in varying degrees, are familiar both with national
directives and with the more detailed workings of agriculture -
those, in short, who can bridge the gap between the two. Only
A Successful Accelerated Production Program 167

with a clear line thus connecting both ends of the endeavor will
a nationwide crop production program succeed. In Taiwan
and South Korea, for example, not only were top-level
decisions made to mount an all-out effort to achieve self-
sufficiency in rice production, but these were backed by a
countrywide campaign, right down to the local level where
every responsible farm family was expected to do its utmost to
obtain higher yields than ever before.
Naturally, to be successful any operation functioning from
the head of government to the farmer himself calls for a high
degree of determination, dedication, and discipline at all levels.
This can better be achieved, experience has shown, if suitable
recognition is given to all who work effectively and coopera-
tively for the program, and if all are kept aware of the
importance of their part in it. The personal satisfaction to be
gained from participating in a successful movement to increase
food production (and thus contributing significantly, perhaps
even historically, to the well-being of one’s own people and
country) is a morale-sustaining resource that should be
recognized and skillfully used. It is particularly important that
the farmers be given a chance to participate in decision making
at the local level and be made to realize that, in the final
analysis, they determine the success or failure of the national
campaign to produce more food.
Assuming, then, that the energy and enthusiasm of a
country’s most promising personnel-specialists and non-
specialists alike-can be marshaled to carry out a national drive
for increased rice production, what factors must be taken into
account in mapping out a successful strategy of operations?
The first steps are to assess the country’s natural resources as
they apply to the growing of rice and to identify the important
elements that constitute a successful rice production program.

Analyzing the Natural Resources

Water Supplies
No factor is more critical to rice production than water
control. In planning a national program of accelerated rice
production, it is essential to have a thorough knowledge of the
168 A Successful Accelerated Production Program

country’s water resources, both from streams and from ground

sources. If nationwide surveys have not been conducted, they
should be arranged without delay. If the capability for making
such surveys is not available within the country, international
aid agencies (see appendix) can assemble teams for that
purpose. In addition, of course, there are numerous commer-
cial firms in North America, Europe, and Japan that can be
hired to make surveys of water resources.
Administrators and decision makers must find out theextent
to which nonirrigated lands, or areas that are now only
partially irrigated, can be provided with a year-round water
supply. Furthermore, of course, they must have information on
how such potential sources can best be developed. Water
resource surveys tell the planners whether irrigation water can
be obtained most dependably and economically in a locality by
building reservoirs, by placing barrages in the rivers, or by
tapping groundwater sources. If the latter, they need to know
whether the wells should be deep or shallow, and what the
long-range predictions are for a continuing and adequate
supply of water.
Although a lack of water is the primary constraint to high
and stable rice yields, too much water is likewise a problem.
There are, for instance, vast areas in South and Southeast Asia
where floods recurrently damage rice during the monsoon
season. Here again, the advice of experts is needed to determine
the feasibility of drainage or flood control projects.
Irrigation projects are expensive, but when properly
engineered and managed, they give good returns on the invest-
ment. The Asian Development Bank states that, in six of
the large irrigation projects that they have supported in Asia,
the average investment cost was US$1500 per hectare.
Justifying that outlay was the subsequent increase in annual
rice production on those projects of 5 t/ha, resulting mainly
from the fact that two crops a year could be grown where only
one was grown before.
Studies in Southeast Asia show that the success of irrigation
projects lies in their proper design and management. The
capacity of the system must beadequate to supply all farmers in
the command area. Too frequently, in their anxiety to serve as
A Successful Accelerated Production Program 169

many farmers as possible, irrigation agencies spread the water

resources over an excessively large area, which greatly
intensifies the competition among farmers for an adequate
supply. In such circumstances, the farmers at the head of the
main canal tend to use more than their share of water, leaving
little or none-especially during the dry season-for those
farther along the system.
Surveys among Filipino and Indian farmers reveal that if
sufficient water is available and if the system is carefully
explained to the farmers, they have good cooperation among
themselves and are willing to pay the irrigation fees. To gain
the farmers’ confidence, however, the system must be managed
by competent field men. There is little point in trying to
supervise farm-level distribution in lateral canals properly un-
less the main canal is equally well regulated. The formation
of farmer-controlled irrigation associations, which work
closely with the irrigation authorities at the national or district
level, is often the key to successful water management.
Where adequate groundwater resources exist, many farmers
prefer to sink tube wells, chiefly because they are then able to
control their own water supplies. Generally, however, tube
wells are expensive sources of water. There is not only the
initial cost of drilling the well but also the continuing expense
of diesel fuel (or of electric power where available) to pump the
water. Still, thousands of deep wells have been drilled in the
Indian subcontinent during the past 20 years, most of them
privately funded and thus not requiring government support.

Soil Conditions
Although water control is a major factor determining the
feasibility of increasing rice production, some attention must
be given to soil and topographic conditions. Sandy soils are
usually unsuitable for rice growing. Their low capacity for
holding water and nutrients and their high permeability make
it difficult to maintain the necessary flooded conditions
without using excessive quantities of water. Soils of this type
normally can be put to better use than for rice production.
Sweet potatoes, for example, can often be grown satisfactorily
on sandy soils where rice would give deplorably low yields.
170 A Successful Accelerated Production Program

Of the acid-sulfate clay soils, some can be so managed as to

produce reasonably good rice yields, but many of them are so
acid and have such a high acid reserve that they cannot be
reclaimed economically. Clay soils that are not too acid, of
course, are ideal for rice.
Hilly lands are not well adapted for rice growing. Unless
they are terraced and bunded so that water can be stored during
periods of abundant rainfall, yields will be low and extremely
unstable. Even with terracing, a minimum rainfall of 1500
millimeters, largely occurring during the growing season, is
needed for reasonably dependable harvests. Moreover, terrac-
ing is expensive and is seldom advisable at present-day costs of
labor and equipment. Although there are extensive areas of
upland rice planted on hilly land, without exception those
countries growing a high proportion of rice under upland
conditions have national average yields considerably below 2
t/ha.
Low-lying flat lands with clayey soils, on the other hand, are
ideal for rice production. They not only are most suitable for
the special requirements of the rice plant but, particularly
during the rainy season, are largely unfit for any other major
food crop.

Climatic Conditions
Rice performs best between about 40 degrees north and 40
degrees south of the equator. Growing rice at latitudes more
than 40 degrees requires special early maturing varieties and
the use of plastic-covered seedbeds. Always, too, there is a
hazard of early frosts at flowering time and consequent severe
crop losses. Similar problems confront the farmer attempting
to grow rice in the tropics at elevations above 2000 meters. For
those reasons only a small fraction of the world’s rice is grown
at high latitudes and altitudes.

Pest Populations
Certainly not a natural resource (although possibly an “anti-
resource”), the pest populations of a country are a natural
presence influencing the success of a rice production program,
and consequently they should be considered in the planning
A Successful Accelerated Production Program 171

process. An analysis of previous pest outbreaks and a survey of

current pest control problems are important in determining
what methods of attack should be planned. Assessment should
be made of such factors as the amount of rat damage that
occurs, the depredations of migrating or indigenous bird
populations, and of course the kinds of insects and the extent of
their damage.

The Essential Elements

A Problem-oriented Rice Research Program
The biological components of agricultural technology are
not wholly transferable from one region to another. Environ-
mental conditions that vary widely dictate the usefulness of
certain materials, methods, and practices, and the impractica-
bility of others. This means that every rice-producing country
needs its own program of rice research, which includes the
testing of genetic lines and rice varieties developed by the
international agricultural research centers or by the large
national rice improvement programs that carry on comprehen-
sive breeding research. In addition to such plant testing, the
regional research stations will find it useful to conduct soil
fertility trials to determine optimum fertilizer treatments, to
work out appropriate insect and rodent control programs, and
to study cultural practices suitable for the soil and general
environmental conditions in the area.
Major rice-producing countries can fully justify a complete
research program incorporating plant breeding, entomology,
plant pathology, plant physiology, agronomy (including soil
science), agricultural engineering, and agricultural economics.
India is a good example of such a country, It has not only
central rice research stations operated at the national level but
also many state-controlled research programs associated
primarily with agricultural universities.
It is safe to say that any nation growing more than 200,000
hectares of rice is justified in supporting one or more rice
experiment stations that conduct adaptive research. This is in
addition to on-farm trials and demonstrations. Obviously, the
research stations conducting problem-oriented rice investiga-
172 A Successful Accelerated Production Program

tions should be located in the principal rice-growing areas,

where the results will be more applicable to the surrounding
farm conditions.

O n - f a r m Trials and Demonstrations

Even though a country has a well-run, problem-oriented rice
research program, it is still of utmost importance that on-farm
trials of varieties and of cultural practices be conducted. These
trials serve two important purposes. First and foremost, they
provide a means of determining the suitability in each locality
of the more promising varieties and the accompanying modern
practices. Second, they permit local farmers to observe the
results. Because the preliminary screening of varieties and
testing of practices will have taken place at the various
experiment stations, most of the trials will be successful.
Consequently, they will double as convincing demonstrations.
This observable example gives the farmer confidence in the
new technology-perhaps to a greater extent than does any
other method of persuasion.
On-farm trials should be conducted jointly by scientists from
research stations and by the extension staff to facilitate contact
and the exchange of ideas between research and extension
workers. In addition, the research scientist benefits from seeing
his findings tested under farm conditions, where results may be
quite different from those he obtained at the experiment
station.
On-farm trials should be replicated, frequent observations
should be made during the growing season, and, of course,
yield data should be obtained. Although they may prove to be
valuable demonstrations, their primary purpose, it must be
kept in mind, is to test promising varieties and methods under
farm conditions.
The number of trials to be established within a locality or
district depends on the size of the area being covered and the
variability that exists within it. If it has significantly different
soil types, fertilizer trials should be run on each major type. If
sizable variations in elevation exist, separate varietal trials
should be conducted for altitudes that differ by more than 250
meters.
As results are obtained from on-farm trials and as research
A Successful Accelerated Production Program 173

and extension personnel gain confidence in certain varieties

and methods, demonstration plots should be set up on farmers’
fields. Demonstrations have a different objective than on-farm
trials. They would not be replicated on any one farmer’s field
but would be set up on the fields of many farmers. No large rice-
growing village should be without one or two demonstrations.
The demonstration plots should be simple. The idea to be
introduced depends upon the level of technology in the local-
ity. In some areas, a simple weed control demonstration to-
gether with an improved variety may be appropriate; in others,
where modern varieties already have been introduced, treat-
ments to show the advantage of fertilizers or insecticides may be
called for. The demonstrations should vividly portray the re-
sponse that can be obtained with the use of the technique or in-
put being featured. As extraneous factors in the test plots can
ruin the demonstration, the extension agent in the locality
must closely supervise the plots, not only when they are first
established, but during the entire period that the rice crop is
growing. Poor weed control is an extraneous factor that can
make a fertilizer demonstration ineffective; birds and rodents,
which can destroy any test, must likewise be guarded against.
The value of demonstrations on farmers’ fields cannot be
overemphasized. A farmer who sees a successful test on his land
or his neighbor’s will be far more willing to change from the
traditional methods to the modern ones. Indeed, there are no
known examples of rapid progress having been made in the
introduction of modern rice-growing practices in the absence
of on-farm trials and demonstrations.

Availability of Inputs
If modern varieties are to be grown successfully, needed
inputs must be available to farmers. The importance of water
control has already been stressed. Weed control is essential, but
most farmers realize this and do a reasonably good job of hand
weeding. Therefore, under average conditions, if water
supplies are adequate, the next most important input is
fertilizer.

Fertilizer. Although there are some fairly young (geologi-

cally speaking) volcanic ash and alluvial soils in the
174 A Successful Accelerated Production Program

Philippines, Indonesia, and elsewhere on which rather high

rice yields can be obtained without fertilizer, yields of over 4
t/ha ordinarily cannot be attained without fertilizer, and
unfertilized fields usually yield much less than that. Even the
more fertile soils, if intensely cropped, will soon need fertilizer,
because each rice crop removes substantial amounts of plant
nutrients.
If applied generously, organic fertilizers (animal manures
and compost) are able to produce good rice yields. However,
since vast areas of the world’s rice land cannot be supplied
economically with sufficient quantities of organic materials to
support high yields, the only alternative is to use chemical
fertilizers. (Even in China, where the traditional use of natural
fertilizers, including night soil, continues to be extensive,
chemical fertilizer factories are operating at maximum
capacity, and building new factories has become a priority
goal.)
Fertilizer application should never be haphazard. Before
planting time, stocks of chemical fertilizers must be available at
the places where they are to be used, in the amounts needed, and
at a fair price in relation to that of rice. The kind and amount of
fertilizer most suitable €or each area can be determined by
adaptive research and on-farm trials. With the exception of a
few special environments, rice will always respond to nitrogen
(provided water supply is adequate and insects and weeds are
controlled). In many regions, phosphorus, in addition to
nitrogen, is required for high yields. On certain lighter
textured soils or on older soils, potassium may be limiting. In
each area a test should be run to determine whether zinc may be
needed.

Production and distribution of good seed. The significant

advances made in breeding superior rice varieties during the
past two decades make it highly important that pure seed be
made readily available to farmers. Too frequently, there is no
adequate system for multiplying the seed of new varieties and
for distributing it to farmers. In some countries it takes 10 years
from the time a cross is made until one of the progeny is
released as a variety and seed is available generally in the
A Successful Accelerated Production Program 175

countryside. Elsewhere this same process has been accom-

plished in only 4 years. The rapid change in varieties that
occurred on farms in Taiwan, South Korea, Colombia, and the
Philippines, for example, would not have been possible
without efficient seed programs.
Too many countries are unnecessarily cautious with on-farm
trials and unduly restrict the release of promising genetic lines
and varieties. In addition, there are often not enough seed
farms, either private or governmental. As an alternative,
progressive farmers can be taught to produce good seed. Rice,
being a self-pollinated crop, is relatively easy to manage for
pure seed production.
Every country should have a seed certification program, so
that top-quality seed is available to farmers who wish to
purchase it. Furthermore, it is important that a source of pure
seed of the leading varieties be maintained. A good seed
certification program requires thorough organization and
control. It starts with breeder’s seed, followed by registered seed,
and finally by the certified seed that is actually produced on
private and government seed farms, under rigid inspection in
the field and at harvest time.
In spite of the importance of a national certified seed
program, certified seed need not be planted by every farmer who
wishes to grow the modern varieties. Even in developed
countries, many rice farmers grow what is termed “good seed,”
which would not quite pass the rigid standards for certified
seed.
Usually the local agricultural extension officer is the key
person in determining whether there is a problem in getting
good seed to the farmer. If there is, the difficulties should be
identified and corrected. With proper communication among
plant breeders, research administrators, and the government
agencies responsible for seed multiplication, certification, and
distribution, good seed of the appropriate modern varieties
should be available to all rice farmers in any country.

Insecticides. Although insecticides are sometimes necessary,

they should be used only when other methods have proved
inadequate. The kind and quantities of insecticides farmers
176 A Successful Accelerated Production Program

need vary from country to country, depending on the prevalent

insects. Detailed information in regional rice production
manuals and various extension leaflets serve as the best guides
to agricultural officials in the various countries and localities.
Furthermore, in most places the commercial companies that
sell or manufacture insecticides provide ample information on
the use and the effectiveness of their products.

Herbicides. There have been tremendous advances in the

production of new herbicides that effectively control weeds in
rice fields. Undoubtedly, the use of chemical herbicides will
increase as time goes on. To the extent that there is a demand
for them, they should be provided.
The use of herbicides is not essential, of course, for weeds can
be controlled by hand methods. Whether or not to use chemical
methods of weed control is a matter of timing and of
economics. Studies in Southeast Asia show that often farmers
are so late in removing weeds from their fields that the crop is
already damaged by the time the last of the weeding is done.
When labor is either scarce or costly, herbicides may prove to be
profitable. Either way, good weed control is imperative if
fertilizers are to be used profitably.

Power equipment. Farm power equipment, especially power

tillers, four-wheeled tractors for land preparation, and portable
grain threshers, will be in greater demand as more rice land is
irrigated and the consequent opportunities for double and
triple cropping increase. The use of gasoline- or diesel-
powered equipment in land preparation becomes profitable
when two or more crops are grown annually on the same land.
The turn-around time is much shorter with power equipment
than with animal power.
Direct-seeding equipment, small grain dryers, seed cleaners,
and simple low-lift water pumps are available. In the more
industrialized Asian nations, mechanical transplanters are
becoming popular among farmers. An assessment of the degree
of development of a given rice-growing area should indicate to
agricultural officers the extent to which mechanical equip-
ment would be in demand. Naturally, in the early stages of
A Successful Accelerated Production Program 177

development other inputs will have a much higher priority.

Agricultural Extension
Many problems remain for research scientists to resolve.
Nevertheless, the bottleneck in raising rice yields on farms is
often a weak extension program. Too frequently, extension
workers cannot advise farmers properly because they are
inadequately trained. Often they are given assignments not
directly related to increasing crop production. In some
countries, although large numbers of extension workers are
assigned to the field, their operational budget is meager, and
the): have no means of transportation. As a result, extension
workers are not able to visit the farmers on a regular basis;
instead, farmers have to seek out the extension officer at his
headquarters.
Extension programs have been organized successfully in
various ways in different countries. Sometimes extension is
carried out through farmers’ associations or farmer coopera-
tives. Or it may be part of the program of the national
community development agency. In numerous countries it is a
function of the ministry of agriculture. Many authorities prefer
this arrangement, for they feel that increasing crop production
is the main purpose of the agricultural ministry and that the
varied functions of some of the other agencies prevent them
from giving an accelerated crop production program concen-
trated attention. A few nations, such as the Philippines and
Indonesia, have developed special accelerated rice production
programs into which the major rice-extension activities have
been incorporated.
Regardless of which agency operates the extension service,
certain principles apply to any successful extension program.
The principles described briefly below are based on Benor and
Harrison’s Agricultural Extension: The Training and Visit
System, which is a helpful guide to a sound and well-organized
extension system.

Training the extension staff. Although no component of a

rice extension program is more important, surely, than a well-
qualified field staff, too often extension workers are inade-
178 A Successful Accelerated Production Program

quately trained. Although it is valuable and useful to learn the

principles of communication, by itself even the most thorough
knowledge of that discipline is insufficient preparation for
extension personnel. People who are in constant touch with
the rice farmer must fully understand how to grow a good crop
and how to diagnose the problems a farmer may encounter.
Unless an extension agent has had an opportunity to grow a
rice crop himself, he is unlikely to be of much help to the
farmer. On the other hand, if he has spent 6 months in a rice
production training course that provided him an opportunity
to perform all the field operations necessary in growing rice,
from planting to harvest, he can face the farmer with
confidence and guide him effectively. (Rice production
courses, described further in the appendix, are available in
Asia, Latin America, and Africa.)
Training of extension people can be a continuous process. In
the “training and visit” system, a training session for field
workers takes place every 2 weeks, mainly to instruct them in
certain timely techniques that will be brought to the attention
of rice farmers during the following 2-week period. If possible,
however, all field workers should go through a basic rice
production course before they take up their duties as rice
advisers to farmers. For those who cannot be spared for 6
months, there are 2-week courses available and even in that
short time a trainee can learn much about modern rice
production methods.
Within the limitations of basic training, naturally, a field
technician cannot become an expert in the many problems
affecting the rice plant. Essential to the success of every rice
extension program is the availability of specialists-in such
fields as plant pathology, entomology, and soil science- to
identify diseases and insects and suggest appropriate methods
of control, to provide the remedy for any unusual adverse soil
condition that may exist, and to advise in other specialized
areas.
These specialists could come from the faculty of an
agricultural college, from the ministry of agriculture, or from
some international agency, depending upon how agricultural
research and extension are organized in a country. The
important thing is that they be readily available to the
extension field-worker when he encounters a baffling problem.
A Successful Accelerated Production Program 179

It is desirable for these experts to help the extension field staff,

thus affording an opportunity for mutual acquaintanceship
from the start.

Scheduled visits t o farmers in their villages. No matter how

well trained an extension worker is, he will be of little value in
conducting an accelerated rice production program unless he
visits farmers frequently. To do so, he needs transportation.
The kind of vehicle would depend on the locality: in some, a
bicycle would suffice, in others a motorcycle would be needed.
In some successful extension programs, a firm schedule is
followed. Usually each extension employee is detailed to visit
every rice-growing village in his area once every 2 weeks. The
farmers then know that he will be in their village on the same
day of the week every fortnight. Although the extension worker
cannot call on every farmer during those visits, he is available
to any of them who have serious problems and who request
help. It is advantageous for the extension worker to select two
or three key farmers in each village who he expects will adopt
new techniques rapidly and who will pass information on to
other farmers in the village. He should call on the selected
farmers at each visit to acquaint them with any new or timely
information he has. The farmers quite naturally may have a
worthwhile experience to report to the extension worker as
well.

Field days. Assuming that thriving on-farm trials and

demonstrations exist in the area, it is useful to schedule
farmers’ field days. The focal point is usually either the tests
and demonstrations or the fields of one of the selected key
farmers who has an outstanding crop to display. Generally, a
number of villages are served by a single field day. It is under
such group conditions that many farmers are persuaded to
change varieties and other practices. Nothing is more convinc-
ing to farmers than witnessing success in fields and surround-
ings they know intimately.

Unified e x t e n s i o n service. Because conditions vary so much

from country to country, it is not feasible to attempt to specify
the actual organization of an extension service, from the top
officials in the central government to the extension workers in
180 A Successful Accelerated Production Program

the villages. Nevertheless, the more successful extension

programs generally have had a single line of command from
the governmental agency responsible for agriculture right to
the field staff. Unless the head officials are convinced that an
active and well-supported extension service is essential for
progress, support for the program at the farm level will never be
adequate.

Side roles in extension. Ideally, extension field workers

should be occupied purely with promoting an accelerated rice
production program among farmers (or with a multiple
cropping program in which rice is the main crop). The
extension worker, however, must be concerned about all the
ingredients necessary for progress in production (fertilizer
supplies, credit sources, and the like), and he must use his
influence to see that any missing ones are provided. He may
have to approach the agencies responsible and point out that
the program is being held up by the unavailability of inputs
and services. On the other hand, it would be unfortunate if, for
example, he had to run around the countryside trying to locate
fertilizer supplies for individual farmers.
On occasion, too, the extension agency cannot avoid giving
the field staff certain responsibilities that are not strictly
associated with advising farmers in crop production tech-
niques. For instance, in the Masagana 99 program in the
Philippines, the extension workers help farmers fill out loan
applications and do a certain amount of loan collecting as well.
Philippine officials justify this on the basis that credit is
essential for the success of the program. They add that because
the farmers are often illiterate, the field staff, all graduates of
agricultural colleges, are able to help in preparing loan
applications that are more likely to be accepted by the lending
agency. Moreover, in the process of helping farmers apply for
loans, extension workers frequently gain their friendship and
confidence and, as a result, can often be extremely successful in
getting the farmers to repay their loans at harvest time. Another
argument for involving the extension staff in rural credit is that
it provides additional occasions to visit the farmers and their
fields and to discuss any problems they may be having.
A Successful Accelerated Production Program 181

Maintaining staff morale. Generally speaking, extension

service employees have a lower status than research workers.
Often they are paid less, and low staff morale can be a serious
problem. One way to improve morale is to recognize the top
achievers. When a field staff member is notably successful in
getting agriculture moving in his locality, he should be praised
publicly. This is the responsibility of district and national
officers when they visit the extension projects. Through such
genuine efforts to let the field staff know they play a critical role
in agricultural development, the extension worker gains
confidence in his ability, develops pride in his work, and makes
an extra effort to attain further success. In addition, of course,
everything possible should be done to pay extension workers
well and to provide merit increases for those who turn in
exceptional performances.
The adequacy of funds and materials strongly affects staff
morale and achievement. If sufficient funds are not available
for travel, for visual aids, and for the materials needed to put on
vivid demonstrations of new techniques, it is usually better to
reduce the size of the staff and properly support those who
remain.

Farm-to-Market Roads
For the foreseeable future, the market for rice in Asia and
Africa will be good. Unless farmers have ready access to those
markets, however, they will have little incentive to raise rice
production beyond subsistence levels. Furthermore, inputs
(particularly fertilizer) can reach farmers only if thereareroads
into the villages capable of accommodating four-wheeled
vehicles. Rural areas of South and Southeast Asia are dotted
with isolated villages where development has been thwarted by
the lack of roads capable of accommodating trucks. In many
areas, dirt roads are passable only in the dry season; during the
monsoon rains, even ox carts may become mired.
This backwardness can be changed. With proper inspiration
and leadership, a village can build its own access road on a
community self-help basis. In the off-season, farmers using
their own oxen or water buffaloes, and with volunteer labor
from other people in the village, can construct an all-weather
182 A Successful Accelerated Production Program

road for the few kilometers from the town center to the nearest
main highway.

Rural Credit
If progressive agriculture is to be developed and maintained,
production credit must be extended to farmers. The formal
farm credit systems include private commercial banks (includ-
ing rural banks), farmers’ associations, cooperatives, and
various types of government lending agencies. These agencies
are usually backed by the government or by the central banking
system of each country. They are well equipped to supply credit
to the more progressive, better educated farmers who are
commercially oriented; in fact, they have been doing so for
many decades.
The principal problem faced by lending organizations is
how to accommodate small farmers who have limited resources
and little collateral. Such farmers tend to fall into two
classes: (1) those whose resources are so low that they cannot
support their families even at subsistence levels, and (2) those
whose resources, if properly used, are sufficient to allow them
to make a respectable living but who are poverty stricken
because they lack the credit to switch from traditional to
modern agricultural methods.
The farmers in the first category are not good credit risks
unless their family incomes are augmented by off-farm
employment. Those in the second category, however, should
receive major attention from the formal lending agencies, for
only with such financing will they be encouraged to adopt the
new rice technology with its attendant input costs.
In many countries, the number of production loans to small
farmers has increased markedly in recent years. Unfortunately,
however, the rate of repayment of such debts has been
disappointing. Some rural banks and other lending facilities
have simply refused to make a second loan to any farmer who
did not repay the first. This has caused such farmers to revert to
borrowing from the private moneylender, who, though more
flexible in his lending policies, usually charges exorbitant rates
of interest.
The Asian Agricultural Survey 1976, published by the Asian
A Successful Accelerated Production Program 183

Development Bank, lists three desirable characteristics of a

small-farmer credit system. First, loans should be made
available to farmers in time to meet the expenses of crop
production. Second, repayment should be deferred when a
farmer has suffered from crop failure or other unforeseen
calamity. Third, credit agencies should be prepared to deal
with large numbers of very small farmers in both lending and
repayment operations.
Small farmers frequently complain that loans are finally
approved only after the planting season is over - when it is too
late to use the funds to buy fertilizer and other inputs that
would increase the farmers’ rice yield and provide the extra
income from which they could repay the loan at harvest time.
Such late arrival of credit further tends to cause farmers to use
the money for the purchase of consumer goods that are not
related to increasing the income from their land.
Too few lending agencies have sufficient staff to supervise
credit properly among their clients. In the Philippines, those
rural banks that added extra staff to supervise loans had a much
higher collection rate than those that tried to do it with an
inadequate number of field men.
In addition to such obvious factors of indebtedness as crop
failure or the misuse of credit for nonproductive goods, too
many small farmers neglect to repay their loans simply because
they feel that governments and banks are “rich” and that
therefore they do not need to return the money they borrowed.
This problem is not easily solved, but the answer seems to lie in
educating the farmer to understand (1) that no lending agency
can continue to operate unless it collects its loans and (2) that
without such agencies he will have no way to obtain credit
except at usurious rates. Part of the difficulty can be solved by
making loans in kind rather than in cash. There is then greater
assurance that the loans will be put to productive use. In the
end, lending and repayment policies must be tough, yet
sufficiently flexible to provide noncollateral production loans
to deserving small farmers.
Most government-sponsored credit programs charge low
interest rates in the belief that this encourages the small farmer
to borrow the needed funds. Studies of this policy indicate,
184 A Successful Accelerated Production Program

however, that as long as interest rates are reasonable, the small

farmer will continue to borrow. Furthermore, low interest rates
encourage the larger farmer with a good business sense to
borrow at “bargain” rates, to the partial exclusion of the
needier farmer.
Another weakness of the low interest rate is that small-farmer
loans become unprofitable for rural banks and other lending
agencies, which in turn makes them reluctant to hire enough
loan supervisors to achieve a good collection rate. It would
seem more logical to maintain interest rates at a sufficiently
high level to permit the lenders to service their loans efficiently
and improve collections. The interest rates charged would still
be significantly lower than those of private lenders.
Although the credit needs of most small rice farmers
continue to be met from such informal sources as the private
moneylender and landlords, it is extremely important that
government-backed lending organizations develop viable
credit systems for these growers.

Price Incentives
Two principal price policies favorably influence production
and farm incomes: controlling the price of rice and subsidizing
the cost of inputs. Obviously, governments can use a
combination of these two policies, and some do. Because
economists do not agree that one method or the other is
superior, and because there are marked differences in the
economies of the less developed nations, a firm recommenda-
tion cannot be made as to which is preferable, but some of the
advantages and disadvantages can be listed.

Controls on the price of rice. The price of rice is controlled in

two ways. One is simply to set it well above the world price. The
other method is to set a minimum guaranteed price level. If the
price on the free market drops below that level, the government
agrees to buy the rice.
The first method (used in Japan) provides a strong
inducement to production but is so costly that most of the less
affluent, nonindustrialized nations cannot afford it. The costs
to the urban dweller are high, and the government usually
A Successful Accelerated Production Program 185

must subsidize the cost of rice to the consumer, too. In the poor
countries, this policy consumes government funds that are
sorely needed for investment in the infrastructure, for
increasing wages, and for achieving other goals. Furthermore,
high rice prices favor the large farmer who has an abundance of
rice to put on the market more than the small farmer who is
growing rice chiefly to satisfy the needs of his family.
In most tropical rice-growing countries where 60 to 75
percent of the population is engaged in farming, it appears
better to set a minimum price for rice at a reasonable level. This
gives the farmer confidence that regardless of the abundance of
the rice harvest, he will get a good price. The government is
protected because the price is not exorbitantly high, and in
poor crop years the market price will be above the support
price. In recent years, that policy has been followed in Taiwan
and seems to be working well.
Although the guaranteed price for rice may have to be set
annually, two important principles seem clear. One is that
once a government decides to support the price of rice at a
minimum level, it must continue to do so year in and year out.
This makes the farmer feel secure in his investment of time,
labor, and valuable inputs, and he will not be seeking
alternatives to growing rice. The other principle is that the
guaranteed price should be high enough to allow the farmer to
purchase the necessary inputs and still make a profit. In other
words, as the cost of inputs-such as fertilizer-increases, the
price of rice should rise accordingly.

Subsidizing i n p u t s . Many governments of rice-growing

countries subsidize inputs. In few countries do farmers pay the
full cost of irrigation water, for example. Fertilizer is also a
commonly subsidized input. Less frequently, farm equipment,
electricity, and insecticides are provided to farmers at less than
cost.
In times of abnormally high prices (as, for example, in 1973-
74 when the price of fertilizer soared), there is justification for
subsidizing inputs; but in normal times, and if there is an
appropriate minimum support price for rice, it is difficult to
argue in favor of such subsidization. Nevertheless, many
186 A Successful Accelerated Production Program

authorities prefer subsidizing the cost of agricultural inputs to

providing support prices for rice. Proponents of subsidized
inputs claim that the lowering of the price of an input to the
farmer makes it more certain that he will use that input,
whereas higher prices for the crop do not give any assurance
that the increased income will be used to purchase materials
that will enhance yield. It is contended, also, that subsidizing
inputs, unlike increasing the price of rice, does not affect the
incomes of the urban and rural poor who produce no rice. A
third argument for input subsidies is that they can be rather
flexible and thus can be varied in accordance with the economic
levels of specific farming regions.
Actually, general input subsidies have had little impact on
production. Perhaps this is partly because the use of expensive
inputs in the less developed countries is still a small part of the
total cost of production, especially among small farmers. There
are numerous examples of the misuse of subsidized fertilizer;
sometimes the poorer farmer sells it to the more affluent farmer.
The flexibility argument is nullified further by the considera-
tion that when fertilizer, for example, is subsidized for use on
rice and not on, say, sugarcane, the rice farmer might sell it to
the cane grower at a higher price than the subsidized one.
Despite these difficulties, the subsidization of agricultural
inputs may be justified in certain countries or under special
circumstances.

Off-farm Employment
The hungry people of the world are the poor. It is now
recognized that regardless of advances in agricultural science,
the world food problem cannot be solved unless the problem of
poverty is attacked concurrently. Although the poor and
undernourished in the less developed countries are found in
both rural and urban areas, because such a high percentage of
the population is engaged in agriculture, the majority of the
low-income people live in a rural environment. The causes of
rural poverty are many, but overpopulation, the small size of
farms, low crop yields, and a general lack of off-farm
employment opportunities are the chief factors responsible for
the excessively low incomes in rural areas. Moreover, the rural
A Successful Accelerated Production Program 187

population in most less developed countries has been able to

contribute little to the national economy, mainly because the
majority of farmers are operating at subsistence level and have
little cash to spend. Since the greater number of people in low-
income countries are engaged in agriculture, economic
development cannot proceed unless the earning and purchas-
ing power of that huge segment of the population is increased.
It is often suggested that rural poverty can be avoided by
using labor-intensive farming methods instead of mechaniza-
tion. This course has some validity as long as the productivity
of the land is increased in proportion to the expanded use of
labor. However, there are limits to yield, and hence there is a
limit to the number of people who can be fed and supported
from a given area of land. The policy of continually increasing
the farm work force is bound to exacerbate rural poverty and to
result in economic stagnation. The only long-term remedy for
the situation is to provide nonfarm employment opportunities
in agricultural areas. The creation of alternative employment
in farming communities particularly helps landless laborers
and the rural unemployed, whose numbers are ever on the rise.
Furthermore, it reduces the tendency for rural people to seek
employment in the already overcrowded cities.
There are two principal strategies for creating off-farm jobs
on a large scale. One is the establishment of labor-intensive
public works projects. The other is the development of
manufacturing industries in the rural areas. Programs to create
more jobs are especially needed in the rice-growing regions,
which are densely populated and contain many unemployed
and underemployed people.

Labor-intensive rural p u b l i c works. The kinds of rural

works projects that are appropriate depend on the needs of the
region. Common deficiencies are farm-to-market roads,
bridges, and irrigation and drainage systems. Generally,
projects that directly benefit the communities in the area are the
easiest to accomplish, because they attract local support and
cooperation. Usually, however, in addition to community
support it is necessary to obtain outside funding, which may
involve foreign aid or at least support from the national or
188 A Successful Accelerated Production Program

provincial government. Any rural public works program

should be a permanent scheme, moving from one project to
another through the years, rather than a relief measure soon to
be abandoned. The problems of rural poverty are not overcome
by short-term programs.

R u r a l manufacturing industries. As a rule, the most suitable

rural manufacturing plants are small and labor intensive.
Although considered to be non-urban, they should be near
secondary cities or market towns. If indiscriminately dispersed
through the countryside, electric power, communication and
transport facilities, banks, and the like may be lacking.
For areas that have yet to develop rural industries, the most
appropriate are agro-industries, including factories both for
food processing and for manufacturing agricultural machinery
and equipment such as power tillers, irrigation pump sets,
animal-drawn equipment, and hand tools. Modern fertilizer
factories are not small-scale industries, but the bagging and
distribution of fertilizer are operations that can employ many
rural people. Countries with abundant coal resources might
find it advantageous to manufacture ammonium bicarbonate
in modest-sized plants of the type widely found in China.
As the need for the products of agro-industry is met and
further expansion is thus unwarranted, the region can proceed
to establish plants for manufacturing consumer goods such as
clothing, furniture and other wood products, and plastics.
Many less developed countries have made a start in providing
off-farm employment in rural areas, but for the most part such
efforts must be intensified if the job opportunities are to keep
up with population growth.
 8
A National Rice Program:
Putting the Ingredients Together

In presenting the more important elements of a successful

rice improvement program in the preceding chapter, no
attempt was made to rate them according to their importance or
to the difficulty of introducing them into a rice production
scheme. To do so would be arbitrary and theoretical in view of
the interdependence of the program ingredients and of the
differences among countries in stage of development and in
natural, social, and political environments.
The interdependence and interaction among the various
ingredients must be appreciated. For example, if irrigation
water is available but no fertilizer is used, yields will remain
low. If modern rice varieties are not planted, there will be little
response to the use of fertilizer. If a workable rural credit system
is lacking, farmers cannot raise the money to purchase fertilizer
and other supplies needed to increase yields. If production
incentives, such as a minimum guaranteed price for rice, are
not available on a permanent basis, farmers may be reluctant to
invest in the inputs required to express the full yield potential
of the modern varieties. Thus the list continues, each element
of a successful rice development program inevitably linked to
others.
Nevertheless, decisions do have to be made as to which
components should receive primary attention. Administrators
and planners endeavoring to increase a nation’s rice output
should first examine each geographic area being considered for
improvement to determine its state of development with respect
to each of the elements needed to implement an accelerated rice

189
190 A National Program

production program. It is essential to identify constraints to

yield, whether technological, economic, or social. The
decision then to be made is which obstacles are the most
limiting and to what extent available resources will permit
them to be removed or at least to be markedly reduced.
This final chapter offers guidance in assessing the rice
production potential of an area, in selecting and undertaking
steps to achieve that potential, and in maintaining the
increased pace of rice production after it has been set. Described
first is a rural structure of the type needed to facilitate the flow
of goods and services in the countryside-a structure that
includes the major elements set forth in chapter 7.

Organizing the Rural Structure

Once the decision has been made to mount an accelerated rice
production program, attention should be given to the
organization of public and private services at the local and
district levels and to the relationship between those sectors and
operations at the national level.
The Farming Locality
Subsistence farmers can operate reasonably well without
much dependence on outside organizations or agencies,
governmental or private. However, when a farmer moves from
the subsistence level to producing a marketable surplus, he
immediately requires various services. He needs technical
advice on improving crop yields, and he must have access to
input and output markets, and to credit facilities. Such services
should be available within a reasonable distance of each
farmer. To achieve this proximity, an area has to be divided
into rather small units, each of which contains the assemblage
of facilities.
A. T. Mosher terms these units “farming localities,” a usage
that is followed here. A farming locality is similar to the
“community” as defined by early American rural sociologists.
In China, the “commune” provides the facilities and services
that would be contained in a farming locality. In Taiwan, the
farmers’ associations substitute for the farming locality.
A National Program 191

The size of a farming locality depends upon the quality of its

transportation. The farming locality should be small enough
so that the average farmer can travel readily from his home to
the market center and back in a day. Farming localities tend to
become larger as development takes place. If, for example, most
rice farmers have no transport beyond a buffalo-drawn cart, the
radius of a farming locality should not be greater than 5 to 7
kilometers. As access to trucks and buses becomes available, the
locality can be considerably larger.
As a minimum, each farming locality should contain: (1) a
market center for selling rice and for purchasing farm supplies;
(2) rural access roads to connect the market center with the
outside world, in addition to roads leading to the market center
from the villages within the farming localities (the quality of
the roads should be in keeping with the kinds and the amount
of traffic they have to accomodate); (3) adaptive research trials
and on-farm demonstrations; (4) an extension agent who is
qualified to help farmers manage modern rice varieties; and (5)
some sort of credit office (usually part of a large national
organization) in each market center.

The Farming District

The “farming district” is a larger unit. It serves the farming
locality as the latter serves the farmer. The facilities and
personnel in individual farming localities are not self-
sufficient. They must be tied to larger units in a nearby city.
Mosher describes the farming district as the truly basic unit for
creating a progressive rural structure. It is the smallest unit that
can afford to have all the services for agricultural development
in an area.
The size of a farming district depends on such factors as the
density of the farming population, the topography of the area
(long narrow valleys, for instance, that grow lowland rice
almost exclusively would have a different distribution of
farming localities and districts than would a broad expanse of
flat land not limited by hills), and the presence of secondary
urban centers. Frequently a farming district would include
from 20 to 30 farming localities.
The heart of a district is obviously an already existing
192 A National Program

population center of larger size than any community within

the group of farming localities that it serves. In areas where rice
is the major agricultural commodity produced and sold, the
district center probably would be located on flat land
surrounded by extensive areas of lowland rice. The center of the
farming district normally provides wholesale markets, a
regional rice research facility, a central extension office, district
banks, and communication links to the farming localities
within the district.
Wholesale markets are needed in the district centers, because
rice seldom can be moved directly from the market centers in
the localities to the nation’s main urban areas where much of it
finally is sold. As part of the marketing system, the district
center should also contain sizable rice mills and storage
facilities. Furthermore, relatively large distributors of farm
equipment and supplies would be established in the district
center. Such companies would be able to supply fertilizer,
machinery parts, insecticides, etc., to the smaller dealers in the
farming localities.
Although it may not be feasible to have a regional research
station in every district, one or more research officers should be
located there to conduct adaptive research, particularly to
identify appropriate rice varieties and management practices
for the area. These officers would cooperate with the extension
field personnel distributed among the farming localities in
carrying on additional verification trials and on-farm demon-
strations. Furthermore, they would link the principal national
rice research stations with the extension personnel residing in
the farming localities.
Each district requires an extension administrative office to
provide the field staff in the farming localities with periodic
training, with visual aid materials, with the most recent
information on rice research, and with ready access to
specialists. The office of the extension personnel and of the
research staff could well be in the same building, thus
encouraging close cooperation and coordination. In small
districts only one research officer and one extension worker
might be required. In such circumstances, however, both
should be easily able to call specialists into the district
A National Program 193

whenever difficult problems arise on farmers’ rice fields.

Furthermore, they should be able to attend training courses
from time to time to keep abreast of new developments.
The credit facilities in the farming localities can meet the
production credit requirements of farmers only if they can
rediscount their loans to farmers with larger banks or credit
agencies. Thus, each district should contain at least one service
unit with the resources to back up lending operations of small
credit offices situated in the market centers of the farming
localities. In most countries, even the district banks or credit
offices are supported by a national banking structure.
Suitable roads must connect the market centers in the
farming localities with the district center, where the larger
markets exist. The roads should be adequate to take care of all
types of vehicular traffic, including four-wheeled trucks, buses,
and automobiles. Besides roads, it is advantageous to have good
telephone and mail services.
All the activities taking place in the localities and districts
should be coordinated with the programs of village, munici-
pal, and provincial (or state) officials. The objective would be
to strengthen and add to programs already in existence rather
than to supplant them or to compete with them.

Deciding Where To Put the Emphasis

Selecting the Land Areas for Attention
Few countries have enough skilled manpower or funds to
mount a nationwide accelerated rice production program all at
once. If scarce resources are spread too thin, the program will
have little impact on production. Most development authori-
ties agree that any program to improve crop yields greatly
should be started first in those localities and districts where the
natural advantages are most abundant. For rice production, the
chances of success are the greatest where irrigation facilities
already exist, where the topography is level, and where the soils
are heavy textured with rather low permeability to water.
In addition to a favorable natural setting, areas with a strong
potential for initial success also would possess such organiza-
tional and infrastructural elements as a well set up extension
194 A National Program

service, adequate farm-to-market roads, sources of rural credit,

and connections with the national economy. Such conditions
can lead to early success at minimum cost.
All the less developed rice-growing countries contain land
that has a potential for increased rice yields but that requires
the investment of large amounts of money and manpower if
high and stable production is to be obtained. The element most
commonly lacking in these regions is water control. Irrigation
and flood control projects are so expensive that developing
countries usually have to seek foreign aid to undertake them.
Nevertheless, rice production in the absence of water control is
risky. Irrigation systems, if properly designed and operated, in
the long run guarantee high returns in the form of increased
rice yields.
There are also parts of any rice-growing country where the
potential for increasing rice production is so low that no funds
should be invested in rice development projects. Hilly, rocky,
or extremely sandy areas are unfit for rice growing. Often,
however, they are well adapted for upland crops, for forestry,
and for livestock enterprises.
If a reliable inventory of a country’s land and water resources
has not been made, it is advisable to conduct such a survey to
identify the areas that have a good potential for rice
production.

Adopting Practices and Policies from Abroad

The most difficult decision for government administrators
in the low-income countries is how to allocate scarce resources
for development. Among the questions to be answered in
planning for an expanded rice production program is which
practices and policies of the more industrialized and hence
more affluent nations should be adopted—and which should
not—by countries that have an abundant labor supply but
limited capital resources.

Mechanization. In the United States, for example, the rice

industry is fully mechanized. Operations from land prepara-
tion to harvest are done with heavy machinery or by airplane.
Indeed, many Western agriculturalists believe the only cure for
A National Program 195

low rice yields in the tropics is the adoption of large-scale

mechanized farming methods. This is not so; time and again it
has been proved that there is no “economy of scale” in lowland
rice production. In fact, small farms have higher yields on the
average than large ones, mainly because they are managed
more intensively.
Probably only where extensive new areas are opened to rice
culture could large-scale mechanized rice farming be practiced.
Even then, great caution would be needed. Small pilot projects
should be tried first to determine the basic suitability of the area
for rice growing. Care needs to be exercised to avoid
overinvestment in equipment. Problems of transportation,
marketing, milling, and storage should be analyzed thor-
oughly. Numerous large-scale projects have failed in the
tropics merely because administrators decided that what
worked in the United States could be transferred directly to the
tropics.
In Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, where rice farms are
still small, there has been a great increase in recent years in the
number of power tillers and in transplanting and harvesting
equipment. This expansion in mechanization was triggered
largely by industry’s demand for labor, which created a
shortage of workers in rural areas.
Undoubtedly, as off-farm employment opportunities in-
crease in the less developed nations, the mechanization of small
rice farms will be justified. At present, power tillers tend to be
unprofitable unless at least 10 hectares of rice are being
cultivated, either on a single farm or by contract work. Further-
more, any program for expanding mechanization should
include a sufficient supply of spare parts and adequate repair
services.
Most rice farmers in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan use
mechanical threshing equipment, often powered by electricity.
In countries where rural electrification is not widespread,
threshing will continue to be done chiefly by hand or with
small portable threshers powered by gasoline engines. Several
farmers can share in purchasing a small power thresher,
thereby conserving time and labor.
It is doubtful that mechanical transplanters will prove
profitable in the labor-surplus nations for some time to come.
196 A National Program

However, as chemical weed control methods become less

expensive, more and more rice is likely to be direct-seeded
rather than transplanted.
The developed countries generally use modern rice mills.
Such facilities, when operated at full capacity, tend to be more
efficient than the traditional rice mills. Nevertheless, their wide
introduction into less developed countries may not be the
wisest policy. The bases for deciding whether to invest in large
modern mills are volume of rice to be handled, the alternative
opportunities for using the unskilled labor force released by
modernization, and the availability of capital to invest in rice
mills as compared with other capital needs. In free economies
every encouragement should be given for private capital to be
invested in the rice-milling industry. Japan and Thailand
present good examples of a successful milling industry run by
private enterprise.

Irrigation. Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan irrigate most of

their rice. In fact, all countries with average rice yields of over 4
t/ha irrigate from 80 to 100 percent of their rice crop. Properly
designed and well-managed irrigation systems are a good
investment, for in the absence of water control, the yield
increases expected from the use of modern rice varieties and of
fertilizer may not be realized. If the less developed countries are
to remain self-sufficient in rice, they will find it necessary to put
more of their rice land under year-round irrigation. Recent
studies in Thailand and the Philippines showed that
satisfactory net profits could be obtained from irrigated rice. In
well-managed rice fields, the return above variable costs ranged
from US$250 to US$600 per hectare, which is twice the level
obtained from rainfed rice farms in the same areas.

The use of fertilizer. The more advanced rice-growing

countries use 5 to 10 times as much fertilizer as the less
developed countries. Although it is not economical to apply
sufficient fertilizer to obtain the absolute maximum yield,
because fertilizer response curves follow the law of diminishing
returns, nevertheless appropriate input pays high dividends.
Hundreds of fertilizer trials conducted on both farmers’ fields
A National Program 197

and experimental farms show that in South and Southeast

Asia, almost without exception, modern rice varieties give an
economic yield response to at least 60 kg/ha of nitrogen in the
wet season and to 100 to 120 kg/ha in the dry season, assuming
that there is good water and weed control and no serious
damage from insects, rats, and birds. When phosphorus,
potassium, and zinc are limiting, those elements must be
added. The only way to be certain of what nutrients should be
applied is to conduct on-farm trials. The importance of this
practice cannot be overemphasized. In some areas phosphorus
or zinc is so limiting that the application of nitrogen alone
produces no grain yield response.
Without question, if average national yields are to be
increased, fertilizer must be made available to farmers at a price
they can afford. It is important to keep the price ratio of
nitrogen to paddy below 2.5 to encourage farmers to purchase
enough fertilizer.
The more developed countries, such as Japan, South Korea,
and Taiwan, manufacture their own fertilizer. Many nations
manufacture part of their fertilizer needs and import the
remainder. Decisions on whether or not to construct fertilizer
factories—usually a matter for government action—depend on
the size of the agricultural area, on its natural resources, and on
the availability of capital funds.

Pest control methods. Rice farmers in Japan, Taiwan, and to

some extent in South Korea, use vast amounts of insecticides
and herbicides. Many rice specialists believe that the quantities
used are excessive. Certainly, the less affluent nations should
adopt less expensive methods of pest control. Above all, every
effort should be made to develop rice varieties that are resistant
to insect attack. This will continue to be the most economical
and most effective way of reducing damage by insects.
In addition, the application of integrated pest control
methods should be encouraged. Often a combination of the use
of resistant varieties, optimum planting time, proper plant
spacing, and other beneficial cultural practices, can keep insect
populations under reasonable control. It should be remem-
bered that in the absence of high insect populations, the use of
198 A National Program

insecticides is never profitable. A pest outbreak warning system

encourages farmers to use pesticides only when necessary.
In labor-surplus economies, weed control in transplanted
rice can be done by hand. However, administrators should
carefully watch developments in weed control, since new
herbicides may come on the market that are more economical
than hand weeding.
In Japan and in several other countries, fungicides are used
to control the rice blast disease. It is not recommended that less
developed countries apply any chemicals for disease control in
rice. The use of resistant varieties should provide adequate
control provided that each country maintains a vigorous
testing program so that as new physiologic races or strains of a
disease appear, another rice variety will be ready to be
substituted for the one that became susceptible.

Price support policies. High minimum support prices for

rice in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan have helped those
nations attain rice self-sufficiency. Less industrialized coun-
tries, however, cannot afford to finance such expensive
programs (Japan’s support price, for instance, is several times
the world price). Nevertheless, minimum support prices for
rice should be maintained in all countries wishing to increase
their rice production. Although authorities disagree on the
proper level of support, most feel that the guaranteed prices
should not be far from the world price. In years of crop surplus,
the government can buy the nation’s excess rice, accumulate
buffer stocks, and arrange for some exports. In years of a deficit,
prices automatically will rise above the support price, and the
government will not have to purchase any rice from farmers.

Farmers’ organizations. The traditional rice farmer has

shown often and convincingly that he is willing to try
innovations in technology if he believes they are feasible and
profitable in his environment. Yet yield levels on farmers’ fields
have not risen to the extent possible even with current
technology. Among the institutional (as opposed to technolog-
ical) constraints to increased production, inadequate diffusion
of knowledge ranks high in significance. Although a well-
A National Program 199

trained and adequately supported extension staff is essential,

some sort of farmers’ organization must also exist so that
extension personnel can meet with rice growers as a group and
so that the individual farmer has a better chance to become
personally involved in the improvement of life in his
community.
Farmers’ organizations range from those as complete as the
type found on Taiwan, which take care of marketing and
extension activities, supply inputs at reduced prices, and
furnish several other services, to simple cooperatives that do
little more than provide fertilizer and seed at decreased prices
and extend credit to member farmers for the purchase of those
necessities.
The irrigation associations of Taiwan are particularly
successful. Their organizational and operational patterns
could well be duplicated in many less developed rice-growing
countries. The most important benefit derived from having
farmers belong to an irrigation association is that by
participating in management decisions they see more clearly
the water needs of the area and cooperate more willingly in
promoting equitable water distribution throughout the
command area.
When the users of irrigation water are unorganized, on the
other hand, the individual farmer tends to grab whatever water
comes down the ditch, without due regard for others. The
farmer near the start of an irrigation canal gets more water than
he needs, while the farmer near the end of the command area
cannot get enough to supply his rice crop properly. Irrigation
associations composed alike of farmers and of the field staff of
the water system generally can solve such problems.
The communes of China, although subject to considerable
government control and regulation, bind the farmers together
as a productive unit. Goals are set and, to a degree,
remuneration is determined by productivity. Each person has
his assignment and seems to take pride in fulfilling it
adequately. This highly controlled system of social organiza-
tion would not be workable in many other cultures. It is
successful in China largely because most decisions regarding
crop production are made within the commune itself. Thus the
200 A National Program

commune can be a practical and realistic response to national

policy rather than an automatic reflection of it.
Agricultural cooperatives have met with varying success in
different countries. When properly organized and managed by
competent people, they can contribute importantly to in-
creased crop yields and to rural development generally. Too
often the lack of success of cooperatives has been due to poor
management. Most countries need training courses for
managers of cooperatives.
A lesson to be learned from the more affluent nations is that
nonpolitical farmers’ associations led by competent and well-
trained people who are dedicated to the lot of the small farmer
contribute greatly to the advancement of agriculture. It is
doubtful that the excellent progress in raising rice yields in
South Korea and Taiwan would have been possible without the
Saemaul Undong in the former and the Farmers’ Associations
in the latter. In fact, one can think of no advanced agricultural
country that does not have organizations in which farmers are
involved in the improvement and promotion of the crop or the
animals they raise.
The less developed rice-growing countries sorely need to
involve their farmers in rural development programs at the
local level. Too commonly today, the poorer rice farmer is at
the mercy of the moneylender and the unscrupulous politician
and is not given an opportunity to become an active citizen
involved in community development. The farmer is the key
man in any crop production program: unless he participates
in the planning as well as the day-to-day operations, a stepped-
up rice production program is likely to move very slowly.
The Importance of Rice Research
Insufficient research on new agricultural techniques and
materials often is a major cause of slow progress in crop
production and agricultural development (a second major
cause may be constraints that affect the farmers’ willingness or
ability to achieve the yield potential of the crop on his own
farm). Although dramatic progress has been made in the last
two decades in breeding improved rice varieties and in finding
 A National Program 201

the best management methods for them, much significant

research remains to be done. The barriers to further yield
increases under less than ideal environmental conditions
cannot be reduced without widespread research at both the
national and the international level.
, In spite of the great progress in rice research made by three
international organizations-IRRI, CIAT, and IITA-during
the past 15 years, national rice research programs con-
tinue to be essential for advancing knowledge about rice
within each country. The climate, the soils, and the array of
insect pests and diseases vary from region to region. Research to
develop appropriate varieties and management methods for the
varied environments should be conducted where the problems
are. Even in the Philippines, for example, the varieties and the
management methods developed at IRRI have to be tested
in other parts of the country before they can be recommended to
farmers.
On the other hand, no nation’s research program should be
conducted in isolation; many results obtained in one country
are applicable in others. For instance, the varieties and cultural
practices that are suitable for the Chao Phraya river basin in
Thailand should work well in many parts of the Irrawaddy
basin in Burma. Likewise, techniques developed in the Punjab
of India can be used in many parts of Pakistan.
In spite of the transferability of rice varieties and manage-
ment practices, there are numerous situations that differ
sufficiently to make it necessary to test research results and
materials widely before firm recommendations can be made.
Therefore, systems for testing genetic materials and agronomic
practices should be developed and maintained. Fortunately,
national rice research programs and international organiza-
tions that work with rice are cooperating in such systems. The
international rice nurseries coordinated by IRRI provide an
excellent opportunity for all rice-growing countries, whether
large or small, to test the most complete collection of
genetic materials and the most advanced cultural methods
that rice scientists have discovered. No tropical or sub-
tropical rice-growing country should fail to participate
202 A National Program

i n these international programs.

Prospects for Increasing Rice Yields in the Tropics

Irrigated R i c e
There are abundant opportunities for increasing tropical
rice yields on irrigated land, using methods and techniques
now at hand. Modern varieties that are early to medium-early,
photoperiod-insensitive, short-statured, heavy-tillering, ferti-
lizer-responsive, and resistant to attack by most of the major
insect pests and diseases have opened new vistas for yield
increases where good water control exists. Since the late 1950s,
the yield potential of lowland flooded rice has doubled. This
great rise in yield, even under conditions of good water control,
can be realized only if adequate fertilizer is applied, weeds are
controlled, and severe damage from insects and other pests such
as rodents and birds is prevented.
In any country, if the yield of irrigatedrice is less than 4 t/ha,
the most obvious actions required to raise yields are (1) to see
that irrigation and flood control systems are well maintained
and supervised, (2) to be certain that adequate fertilizer is
available at a reasonable cost in relation to the price of rice, and
(3) to take steps to provide adequate pest control at minimum
cost.
In a recent study, agricultural economists at IRRI esti-
mated that the average yield of irrigated rice in South and
Southeast Asia is currently about 3.0 t/ha. They predict that by
the 1990s it will be 4.1 t/ha. Theoretically, when management
levels on farmers’ fields equal those of currently conducted on-
farm trials, per hectare yields under irrigated conditions could
be raised another ton or more (see Table 3). At the least,
administrators should feel confident that yields of over 4 t/ha
on irrigated land are obtainable wherever good water control is
possible.

Rainfed Rice
In contrast to the relatively simple steps that need to be taken
to raise yields of irrigated rice, improving the production of
rainfed paddy, where too little or too much water frequently
A National Program 203

reduces yield, is more complex. Because the returns are less

certain, the decisions regarding the allocation of resources
become more difficult. The magnitude of the problem is
brought out by the fact that of the 83 million hectares of rice in
South and Southeast Asia alone, half is classified as rainfed
paddy.
On sloping land that has been terraced or on low-lying areas
where water depths range between 1.5 and 100 centimeters
during the rainy season, modern varieties usually are not
suitable, although rice scientists are developing varieties that
can tolerate deeper water and that have a greater drought
tolerance. Administrators of rice production programs should
see that seed of the more promising varieties is multiplied and
distributed as soon as they have been proved suitable in
adaptive research trials.
Because of the wide variation among countries in natural,
social, economic, and political environments, it is impossible
to make recommendations that can be applied generally. By
and large, though, it would seem wise for nations with large
areas of rainfed rice to make major investments in irrigation
systems and, where needed, in flood control projects. Further-
more, research on rainfed rice should continue and be
intensively pursued. Farmers should be encouraged to grow the
best varieties available, which may be those that are of medium
height (to tolerate deeper water) and early maturing (to escape
drought). Moderate amounts of fertilizer should be applied,
hand weeding (instead of chemical herbicides) should be
employed, and pesticides should be used sparingly. This sort of
strategy is aimed at keeping production costs low while raising
yields above those now being obtained.
The greatest investment in rainfed rice should be made in
low-lying and relatively level flood plains and river deltas. If
rainfall is normal, yields in such areas often approach those of
irrigated rice. 'Terraced rainfed paddy, on the other hand, is
subject to severe moisture deficiency when periods of drought
occur.
As is shown in Table 3, maximum yield trials on farmers'
fields in 11 countries of South and Southeast Asia indicate that
theoretically it is possible to obtain average yields on rainfed
204 A National Program

paddies ranging between 2.5 and 4.0 t ’ha. This is well above
current average yields for rainfed rice, which are less than 1.5
t/ha.

Maintaining the Pace Once It Is Set

Too frequently, the pace of rice production programs
slackens following an initial success. Personnel and funds
often are diverted to other projects, which indeed may be
important to total agricultural development but which
nevertheless do not directly increase rice production. In
countries, or areas within countries, where rice is the dominant
food crop and source of farm income, agricultural officers and
planners must realize that to be successful, any accelerated rice
production program has to have continuous support. If rice
research and extension programs are curtailed, or if such
development projects as irrigation and flood control are slowed
down or stopped, rice yields soon will level off.
Often both farmers and extension staff feel that if a locality
has been able to double its rice yields to, say, 2.5 t/ha, further
increases are unlikely. The fact is that in areas of good water
control, the yields of lowland rice could be doubled again.
South Korea is an example (see chapter 5) of a country that did
not content itself with initially increased production. Observ-
ing in the late 1960s that its average rice yields had leveled off at
about 4.5 t/ha, South Korea mounted an intensive rice research
and extension program tied to a nationwide community
development effort and was able to add more than a ton to its
national average rice yield.
The press has used such terms as “miracle rice” and “Green
Revolution” in reporting the advances made in increasing rice
yields. Although such phrases arouse popular interest in
agricultural research, they are unrealistic. Crash rice produc-
tion campaigns have served to get a program off to a quick start,
but the real basis for progress is more evolutionary than
revolutionary. Sustained support of research and extension
programs, steady expansion of irrigation systems, the provi-
sion of fertilizer at reasonable prices, and the formation of
farmers’ organizations are examples of important actions that
A National Program 205

form the core of a successful national rice production program.

It is to be remembered that the countries that have achieved
high average rice yields did so through careful planning and
concerted action. There was always present a national will to
reach the desired goal. None of those successes came about by
chance or with ease. Although the point has been made
repeatedly that rice yields can be doubled in any country now
producing less than 2 t ha, it must be borne in mind that there
are limits to land area, to solar energy, and to the world’s
nonrenewable resources. Thus, there is a limit in the long run
to the amount of rice and of other food crops that can be
produced and, accordingly, to the number of people the earth
can support.
‘The significant reductions in population growth rate have
occurred largely in the more developed and affluent countries,
where crop yields are high. Nevertheless, it is encouraging that
many of the overpopulated, less developed nations have
mounted sizable population control programs. Certainly, the
impact of those programs should become visible in the next
decade or two. In the meantime, there is ample opportunity for
the major rice-growing countries to produce enough rice to
feed their ever-increasing inhabitants well into the next
century.
 Appendix:
Where and How
To Get Assistance

Often countries need both technical and financial assistance to

mount an accelerated rice production program. The successful
programs described in chapter 5 received substantial aid from foreign
sources in the course of development. This appendix describes major
international organizations that offer the less developed countries
financial and technical assistance for the improvement of their rice
production efforts.

International Agricultural Research Centers

There is a worldwide network of 11 international agricultural
research centers, three of which have rice research and training
programs.
International Rice Research Institute
The most important source of technical assistance to the rice-
growing countries is IRRI. Located in Los Baños (about 65
kilometers from Manila) in the Philippines, its environment is
typical of much of the humid tropics; thus, the results obtained on its
experimental fields have wide applicability in tropical regions
around the world.
Foremost among IRRI’s activities is a sound, comprehensive
rice research program embracing all aspects of plant and soil science,
including agricultural engineering, agricultural economics, and
cropping systems. This program is conducted by an experienced,
competent senior staff composed of some 40 scientists from nine
nations. In addition, about 20 senior scientists are assigned to
cooperative national programs. In 1977 these scientists were located
in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, the Philippines (beyond IRRI

207
208 Appendix

headquarters), Bangladesh, and Pakistan.

IRRI’s international activities are designed to develop links
with national programs, to help strengthen national capabilities, and
to facilitate collaboration with national scientists in solving major
rice production problems. To accomplish those objectives several
approaches are used.
IRRI scientists are available to travel to any rice-growing country
in the world to assist in identifying problems. IRRI conducts
cooperative country projects and collaborates in regional projects. It
organizes international rice network investigations and testing, has a
large training program, and annually holds 5 to 10 workshops,
conferences, or symposia to which scientists and administrators from
around the world are invited.
The International Rice Testing Program is the most comprehen-
sive global cooperative venture of IRRI. It is an extension of
IRRI’s Genetic Evaluation Unit, which uses the “team” approach in
a greatly intensified rice genetics and breeding program designed to
produce varieties that can tolerate many of the pest and environ-
mental stresses that afflict the rice plant. To screen the thousands of
varieties and genetic lines from IRRI’s breeding program, from its
germ plasm collection of over 45,000 entries, and from national rice
breeding programs, an extensive worldwide testing system has been
developed. In 1977 the network included 14 different types of rice
nurseries ranging from observational and yield trial nurseries to those
that screen for tolerance to specific pests and diseases, to extremes of
temperature, and to adverse soil conditions. The magnitude of the
program is revealed by the fact that a total of 99,000 seed packages
were delivered to cooperating programs in 1976. Nearly 50 percent of
the entries in these nurseries were nominations from cooperating
national programs; the remainder came from IRRI’s breeding pro-
pram and from its germ plasm collection. Thus, much of the diversity
in the world’s rice germ plasm finds its way into the International
Rice Testing Program.
IRRI’s training program is available to interested agencies
throughout the world. The program can be divided into three
categories: (1) research training for promising young scientists,
including postdoctoral fellows (if desired, qualified candidates may
pursue graduate study leading to an M.S. or a Ph.D. degree at the
adjacent College of Agriculture of the University of the Philippines);
(2) a 6-month rice production training course and a similar one in
cropping systems (both of which are practical courses designed
primarily for extension workers, field technicians, and farm
Appendix 209

managers); and (3) short courses to accommodate cooperators in the

international rice testing programs or other abbreviated courses,
lasting 2 to 4 weeks, to assist organizations that wish to train groups
of employees who cannot be spared for longer periods. Thousands of
people have been trained by IRRI since this program started in
1964. In 1976 alone, 244 research fellows, scholars, and trainees from
27 nations received some type of training at IRRI.
IRRI produces an annual report that gives considerable detail
on its research findings and serves as a valuable source of
information, particularly to rice scientists located in isolated research
stations with inadequate libraries.
The IRRI Reporter is a 4- to 8-page quarterly publication featuring
highlights of IRRI’s research program. It is available free of charge
to interested persons.
IRRI also publishes the International Rice Research Newsletter,
which reports what science is doing to increase rice produc-
tion. All scientists working with rice are invited to contribute
concise summaries of significant rice research. The Newsletter is
published several times a year and appears to be the best available
single source of current global research on rice.
IRRI prints special brochures and leaflets about such activities
as its training program and international rice-testing program. It
publishes technical reports written by its scientists and recently
started a new publication, the IRRI Research Paper Series, which
features articles by senior scientists.
Also published by IRRI are the proceedings of its symposia,
workshops, and conferences. These are available to the participants
and, on request, to institutional libraries.
Colored slides and several other visual aids prepared at IRRI,
largely depicting the major research achievements in modern rice
research, can be obtained by appropriate organizations on request.
Agencies wishing to receive IRRI publications or visual aids may
write to the Office of Information Services. Other initial requests for
assistance should be sent to the director general, who will refer them
to the appropriate department or program.
The International Rice Research Institute
P.O. Box933
Manila,Philippines
Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical
CIAT (International Center for Tropical Agriculture), located
in Colombia, does not consider rice research to be a major part of its
210 Appendix

program. Nevertheless, its well-run, productive rice program,

conducted in close cooperation with IRRI, has been able, because
of CIAT’s geographic location, to make significant contributions
to rice production in Latin America.
CIAT has a small rice research staff composed of breeders,
agronomists, and plant pathologists. It conducts training courses in
rice production and accepts rice research scholars for extended stays to
work under senior scientists. Its rice breeding program develops
varieties particularly adapted to Latin American conditions.
CIAT likewise runs cooperative trials with national programs,
testing varieties and genetic lines, and conducts field experiments
with fertilizers, herbicides, and cultural practices such as seeding
rates, comparisons between transplanting and direct-seeding, etc.
Countries needing assistance in rice production programs will find
knowledgeable and cooperative people at CIAT who have access
to the newest genetic materials and experience in modern rice
management practices.
CIAT publishes its research findings in an annual report. The rice
improvement section is available, as a separate document, to
interested persons upon application.

Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical

Apartado 67- 13
Cali, Colombia
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
IITA conducts research on rice but does not consider this work
as one of its major activities. Nevertheless, its location in Nigeria and
its proximity to other African countries enable it to render effective
help to African nations in expanding their rice industries.
IITA has an active research program with a capable staff of
plant breeders, agronomists, entomologists, plant pathologists,
economists, and agricultural engineers, most of whom devote only
part of their time to rice research.
There is a training program for research scholars and occasionally
a rice production course for extension workers. IITA accepts
postdoctoral fellows, who may work for a year or two with the senior
scientists, gaining experience in their chosen specialty but working
with rice.
The IITA Cereal Improvement Program Annual Report may
be obtained by writing to the office of communications and
information.
Appendix 211

International Institute of Tropical Agriculture

PMB 5320
Ibadan, Nigeria

Private Foundations and Other Nongovernmental Organizations

Although there are numerous foundations and nonprofit organiza-
tions that support agricultural research, education, and develop-
ment, only those with substantial worldwide activities are mentioned
here.

Rockefeller F o u n d a t i o n
The Rockefeller Foundation (with home offices in New York) is
spending over US$6 million per year in its agricultural sciences
program. Its funds go largely to research and educational institutions
for library books, laboratory equipment, and the granting of
fellowships for advanced study. In addition, the foundation places
scientists at various institutions around the world to strengthen
research and educational programs. In 1976 there were 29 long-term
visiting scientists from the United States stationed abroad. The foun-
dation also provides short-term consultants in disciplines where it
has special competence.
The principal interest of the foundation's agricultural program is
to strengthen research and educational institutions in the areas of
crop and animal production and human nutrition.

The Rockefeller Foundation

1133 Avenue of the Americas
New York, N.Y. 10036, U.S.A.

Ford Foundation
The agricultural activities of the Ford Foundation (which is based
in New York) are directed toward the support of research and
education in the less developed countries. In 1976 the Ford
Foundation made grants for agricultural purposes of more than US$8
million. Its current agricultural program provides support for studies
of (1) crop production technology, (2) socioeconomic factors involved
in increasing food production, (3) the management of ecological
variables affecting food producing systems, and (4) means of
improving the social and economic status of rural populations. The
foundation may support studies that use only indigenous staff, or it
may supply visiting scientists or consultants. In addition, it supplies
21 2 Appendix

training where needed to strengthen a special project or program.

Representatives of the Ford Foundation are located in Bangladesh,
India, Pakistan, Thailand, the Philippines, Kenya, Tunisia, Nigeria,
Egypt, Brazil, Peru, Colombia, and Mexico. Nations seeking
assistance should contact the nearest representative. The head-
quarters in New York can provide addresses of its overseas offices.

Ford Foundation
320 East 43rd St.
New York, N.Y. 10017, U.S.A.

Agricultural Development Council

The primary aim of the Agricultural Development Council is to
strengthen training, research, and educational activities in agricul-
tural economics and rural sociology mostly in the less developed
countries of South and Southeast Asia. Among its activities are
fellowships for foreign study and the assigning of specialists to
educational and research organizations. It also supports country
studies in agricultural development and prepares valuable books and
pamphlets on that subject.

Agricultural Development Council

630 Fifth Avenue
New York, N.Y. 10020, U.S.A.

International Agricultural Development Service

IADS is a new organization that provides the less developed
countries of the world with assistance in their agricultural
development programs, through whatever means seem most appro-
priate. Primarily its efforts are aimed at improving national research
and extension programs that are particularly related to increased
agricultural productivity. ’Teams of specialists are assembled, on
request, and sent to countries for short periods to identify bottlenecks
in agricultural development and to suggest remedies.
IADS is not a fund-granting organization, although it is
willing to consult with governments free of charge. According to the
first annual report of IADS, it provides services “at cost to
individual countries when (1) national authorities so request,
(2) IADS’s capabilities are applicable, (3) there is an agreed-upon
program of work, (4) suitable financing is available, and (5) IADS
trustees approve the arrangements.”
IADS lists five ways in which it best can assist the less developed
Appendix 213

countries: (1) by analyzing development opportunities, (2) by

examining national agricultural research and training programs and
recommending improvements, (3) by helping plan and implement
crop and animal production programs, (4) by assisting in planning
and implementing agricultural development programs in specific
areas, and (5) by strengthening colleges and schools of agriculture.

International Agricultural Development Service

1133 Avenue of the Americas
New York, N.Y. 10036, U.S.A.

Major International Lending Agencies

Included in this section are the few major international and
regional organizations that do not customarily make grants but,
rather, confine their activities to lending money to governments.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
IBRD and its affiliate the International Development Associa-
tion (IDA) are frequently referred to as the World Bank; they
have the largest lending program for agriculture in the world.
IDA makes concessionary (low-interest or long-term) loans to poorer
nations that cannot afford to borrow money from IBRD on
conventional terms.
World Bank loans are extended to member countries (about 130 in
1977) for many kinds of development projects covering both industry
and agriculture. Approximately 23 percent of all funds lent by
IBRD, IDA are. for agricultural projects. In 1976 total lending for
agricultural projects and programs by both IBRD and IDA
amounted to around US$6600 million. of which about 60 percent was
actually disbursed in that year. These loans were distributed among
90 countries.
Lately the World Bank has attempted to redesign its lending
policies to benefit larger numbers of the rural poor by focusing on
projects in area development, settlement, irrigation, and land
improvement. Most of the projects have an agricultural base often
including irrigation systems, rural credit, fertilizer availability, etc.
Installation and improvement of irrigation schemes arc the activities
that have been receiving the most support.
Although the World Bank is not primarily a grant-giving agency, it
makes feasibility studies and surveys free of charge, when there is
some likelihood of mutual interest between the country requesting a
214 Appendix

loan and the bank.

To help the less developed countries in preparing loan proposals,
the bank has regional offices in Kenya for Eastern Africa, in the Ivory
Coast for Western Africa, and in Thailand for Southeast Asia. In
addition, the World Bank has missions in many less developed
regions to assist governments in managing loans. In 1977, country
missions were located in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cameroon,
Colombia, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Nigeria,
Pakistan, Sudan, Tanzania, Upper Volta, Venezuela, Zaire, and
Zambia.

World Bank
1818 H Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

Asian Development Bank

The ADB, with headquarters in the Philippines, makes many
loans for rice projects because of the great importance of rice in Asia.
There are 40 member countries supporting the ADK, 26 of which are
in Asia. Japan, which is the only fully developed Asian country,
provides major support to the bank. The ADB lends only to the less
developed member countries (the other countries bring contributing
members). During the past several years, the ADR has been lending
some 26 member countries between US$200 million and US$250
million annually for agricultural projects. This is about one-fourth
the amount provided yearly to the same countries by the World Rank.
Asian countries with severe agricultural development problems
will find the ADB sympathetic to their needs. The bank is seeking
well-organized proposals for loans that promise to have a significant
impact on food production and economic development.

Asian Development Bank

P.O. Box 789
Manila, Philippines 2800

Inter-American Development Bank

The IDR has about 40 member countries. 24 of which are Latin
American nations eligible to receive loans. The remainder are more
affluent countries that contribute material to the IDR’s program.
In 1976, the IDK provided US$l500 million in loans, 28 percent of
which were allocated to agricultural projects. Commanding its top
interest are programs to accelerate production of specific crops,
Appendix 215

irrigation and drainage systems, multipurpose agricultural credit

systems, land settlement and agrarian reform, and storage and
marketing systems. In the past 15 years, about 30 percent of the IDB’s
loans have been used for irrigation projects, 30 percent for credit, anti
20 percent for integrated development and agrarian reform. The
balance of the funds was lent for projects in marketing, in research
and extension, in animal health, and in fishing and forestry.
The IDB spends about US$7 million annually in what it terms
“technical cooperation,” which is directed primarily to feasibility
studies of new loan applications. Generally these are considered as
grants and do not need to be reimbursed.
Periodically, the IDB sends a programming mission to each
borrowing member country to help identify important projects that
might qualify. for- loans. For a proposal to mature into an actual loan
often takes 8 years.
IDB maintains field offices in the capital cities of essentially all the
Latin American nations that arc eligible for loans. Therefore it is
relatively easy for governments to keep in touch with the IDB.
Inter-American Development Bank
808 17th Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20577, U.S.A.

African Development Bank

Located in the Ivory Coast, the African Development Bank has 36
member countries, all of them in Africa. It has had difficulty in
raising capital; nevertheless, it has lent US$36 million for
agricultural projects since the beginning of its operations in l965. In
addition to its conventional loans at normal interest rates, the African
Development Bank extends credit on easy terms to the poorest
countries of Africa. So far, about 40 percent of these credits have heen
for agricultural purposes.

African Development Bank

B. P. 1387
Abidjan, Ivory Coast

Multinational Organizations
Food and Agricultural Organization
The FAO is the world’s largest agency devoted to the improvement
of human nutrition and to increased food production. It is supported
216 Appendix

by 136 member countries. Its aim is to assure freedom from hunger for
all of humanity.
Member countries contribute to the FAO budget in proportion to
their gross national product. In addition, the FAO receives funds
from other agencies, such as the United Nations Development
Programme and the World Bank, for projects that it administers and
conducts for them. Currently, the FAO spends about US$500 million
annually on 1200 projects around the world.
One of the FAO's highly important contributions comes from its
statistical office, which collects, analyzes, interprets, and dissemi-
nates information relating to nutrition, food, and agriculture. Its
compilation of data on area, yield, and production of food crops is the
most complete anywhere. Its predictions of future supplies and its
analyses of the state of food and agriculture - information that is
published periodically-are of great help to food-deficient nations in
planning future programs.
The FAO conducts many workshops and conferences on major
food crops and on some of the principal components of agricultural
development.
FAO supplies experts to many less developed countries on long-
term assignments. Of its 3000 professional employees, about 2000 are
assigned to national programs or work in the FAO's various regional
offices. Some 102 of the developing countries have a United Nations
representative and staff that handle activities of the FAO and the
United Nations Development Programme on a country-by-country
basis. The country representatives can supply information about the
FAO's varied and widespread programs to governments wishing
assistance. For UN member countries that do not have representatives
and that wish to seek aid, the FAO maintains four regional offices: in
Ghana for Africa, in Thailand for Asia and the Far East, in Chile for
Latin America, and in Egypt for the Near East.

FAO
Via delle Termi di Caracalla
00100 Rome, Italy

United Nations Development Programme

UNDP is the principal source of United Nations funds for
technical assistance. It dispenses over US$300 million annually, of
which about one-third goes to agricultural projects among 140
member countries of the United Nations.
Appendix 21 7

The United Nations representative and his staff in each developing

country periodically review the development plans of the country and
with it agree on major areas of UNDP support. Within his budget, the
representative has authority to approve projects up to US$250,000.
Proposals involving larger funding are sent to headquarters in New
York for review and approval.
Generally, UNDP assistance in agriculture is administered by the
FAO field staff. There are field representatives handling UNDP and
FAO activities in 108 of the less developed countries.

United Nations Development Programme

One United Nations Plaza
New York, N.Y. 10017, U.S.A.

European Development Fund

The EDF was created by the European Economic- Community
(EEC) in 1973 as a means of supplying financial and technical
assistance to 52 African, Caribbean, and Pacific associated states.
Most of the 52 countries are former colonies of the EEC members. The
nine full members of the EEC are Belgium, Denmark, France, West
Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and the
United Kingdom. These countries provide the budget for the EDF.
From the time that the EDF became fully operative (in April 1976)
until February 1977, it had approved projects in rural production
costing US$90 million, of which US$87 million was for grants and
the remainder for loans. The terms of the loans are "soft," only 1
percent being charged annually, with 40 years tor repayment.
EDF projects attempt to complement national efforts by the 52
associated states. The program emphasizes capital projects in rural
development, programs to improve crop and animal production,
technical cooperation programs in the areas of training and
technological adaptation or innovation, and projects at the
grassroots level for development in rural areas.
For 1976 through 1980, the EDF is budgeting US$3000 million for
its entire program. The money is allocated to the 52 countries by the
EDF, and a representative of the latter is assigned to each country.
These EDF delegates help develop projects and oversee their
execution.

Fonds Européen de Développement, Communautés Européenes

Rue de la Loi, 200
B1019 Brussels, Belgium
218 Appendix

West African Rice D e v e l o p m e n t Association

WARDA is a multinational rice research and development
organization that has 14 West African countries as members. Its
headquarters are in Liberia, and its governing council is composed of
one representative from each member state. WARDA’s purpose is to
assist national governments in developing their rice production
programs. This is accomplished largely by strengthening their rice
research, assisting in the training of both research and extension
personnel, and helping to prepare rice development projects. In
addition, WARDA sponsors workshops, conferences, and symposia
to which most of the rice scientists of West Africa are invited. This is a
most important contribution-before WARDA was started in 1971
there was little communication between the anglophone and
francophone countries in West Africa.
Although WARDA receives some support from each of its member
countries, it is largely financed by multilateral and bilateral grants
from various foreign assistance agencies. In 1977 WARDA’s total
budget was in excess of US$2 million.
WARDA conducts a rice production training course at the College
of Agriculture of the University of Liberia. This annual course
(lasting several months) is open to candidates from all member
countries.
There is close cooperation among WARDA, IITA, and IRRI,
which participate in one another’s workshops and exchange
experimental data and ideas. WARDA is an active cooperator in
IRRI’s International Rice Testing Program.
Besides conducting coordinated varietal trials in member coun-
tries, WARDA in 1977 was receiving bilateral grants for research on
mangrove swamp rice in Sierra Leone; on deep-water rice in Mali;
and on irrigated rice in Senegal.
WARDA’s development office works with national governments in
preparing development projects, mainly irrigation schemes. Its
statistical office compiles and distributes detailed data on rice in the
African countries.
WARDA maintains a small headquarters staff comprising the
executive secretary and his deputy, a research coordinator, a
development officer and several plant breeders and agronomists.

West African Rice Development Association

P.O. Box 1019
Monrovia, Liberia
Appendix 219

National Foreign Assistance Programs

United States
The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) under
the authority of the Department of State is responsible for the
bilateral assistance program of the United States. In 1976, its financial
aid to agriculture totaled US$582 million, of which US$116 million
was provided in grants. The remainder was used for loans.
USAID’s program includes (1) assistance in developing policy
and planning, and in strengthening local institutions; (2) develop-
ment and diffusion of new technology; (3) helping to assure the
availability of agricultural inputs, such as fertilizers, pesticides,
irrigation systems, farm machinery, and rural electrification; (4)
assistance in developing infrastructure, such as rural roads, storage
and marketing facilities, agricultural credit, and agricultural
businesses.
USAID has missions in most of the less developed countries
with which the United States has diplomatic relations. The field
missions, in cooperation with the host countries, prepare proposals
for USAID assistance that go through several stages to determine
mutual interest. If there is general agreement along the way, a final
project paper is prepared that usually is sent to Washington for
formal approval.
Because the nations that have invited USAID to place missions in
their countries are essentially the only ones that receive help,
government agencies in those countries should start any inquiries
regarding assistance with the local mission in the capital city.

U.S. Agency for International Development

Washington, D.C., 20523, U.S.A.

United Kingdom
The Ministry of Overseas Development (ODM) is responsible for
all United Kingdom foreign aid, including that for agriculture. The
ODM’s aid program is extremely broad. It includes loans and grants
for development projects, fellowships for training and direct
technical assistance to research and extension programs in the less
developed countries. Much of the ODM’s aid is given to former
British colonies and to the less affluent Commonwealth nations. The
amount of assistance to renewable natural resources (agriculture,
forestry, and fisheries) is about US$70 million yearly.
220 Appendix

Specific project identification is the responsibility of theembassies

or high commissions in the host countries. Preliminary projects are
sent to the ODM for scrutiny. If there is sufficient interest at the home
office, then an appraisal team of technical people may be sent to the
field to examine the project’s feasibility and chances of success.
Government agencies wishing to explore possibilities of assistance in
agricultural development should get in touch with the local embassy
or high commission of the United Kingdom.

Ministry of Overseas Development

Eland House, Stag Place
London SW1E 5DH, United Kingdom

Federal Republic of Germany

Germany’s foreign aid program is handled by several agencies. The
Credit Bank for Reconstruction takes charge of capital loans. The
German Agency for Technical Cooperation implements technical
assistance. The German Foundation for International Development
adminsters training.
In 1975 Germany’s total foreign aid was US$1689 million.
About US$542 million was used for loans to agriculture, of which
two-thirds went toward irrigation projects, with lesser amounts for
regional development, credit and marketing. In addition, Germany
has a technical assistance program with about 40 percent of its
activity allocated to agriculture. In 1976 there were 366 active projects,
185 of which involved German personnel assigned to foreign
countries.
About 10 percent of the training awards are in agriculture. In 1975,
446 people from foreign countries received training in Germany.
The government agency in a less developed country that wishes to
obtain financial or technical assistance from the Federal Republic of
Germany should approach the local German embassy.

Credit Bank for Reconstruction (KfW)

Palmengartenstrasse 5-9
6 Frankfurt/Maine, Federal Republic of Germany

German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ)

D-6236 Eschborn 1
Postfach 5180, Federal Republic of Germany

German Foundation for International Development (DSE)

Wielinger Strasse 52
8133 Feldafing, Federal Republic of Germany
Appendix 221

Canada
Canada has two principal foreign assistance agencies, the
Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and the
International Development Research Centre (IDRC).
CIDA is a governmental organization directly responsible to the
Secretary of State for External Affairs. Between 15 and 20 percent of its
financial assistance goes to agriculture and amounts to around US$70
million annually. The more affluent among the less developed
countries receive loans for major development projects at conven-
tional interest rates. The poorer countries with low per capita
incomes get concessional loans, which usually mean no interest and
up to 50 years for repayment.
Canada has selected a group of about 25 low-income countries in
which it conducts development programs. Missions are sent out to
identify the projects within those programs. Canada provides
individual project support to some 40 countries other than the 25
selected for long-term program assistance.
CIDA provides scholarships for training, gives technical assis-
tance in making studies and surveys related to agricultural
development, and participates in long-term technical assistance
programs to build up research projects in the less developed
countries. About 100 agricultural specialists are stationed abroad.
CIDA representatives stationed in Canadian embassies through-
out the world can assist government agencies in applying for
financial or technical aid.
IDRC was established by the Canadian Parliament in 1970 as
an autonomous public corporation. Its policies are controlled by a 21-
member Board of Governors, of which 11 are Canadian and the rest
are from both developed and less developed nations. Approximately
one third of IDRC’s funds are directed to agricultural projects. In
1975-76 this amounted to US$12.6 million. IDRC provides grants,
but no loans.
IDRC’s interests with respect to rice are principally in mul-
tiple cropping and the improvement of postharvest handling of
the rice crop. Its program almost entirely supports research. It assigns
relatively few (about 15) experts to foreign countries; instead, the
professional staff stationed in Ottawa travels frequently and
extensively to provide guidance to the many projects IDRC supports.
IDRC maintains regional offices in Singapore, Colombia,
Kenya, Senegal, and Egypt. However, governmental agencies
desiring to explore possibilities of research assistance may direct their
initial inquiries to the headquarters office in Canada.
222 Appendix

Canadian International Development Agency

122 Bank St.
Ottawa, Canada KIA 0G4

International Development Research Centre

Box 8500
Ottawa, Canada K1G 3H9

The Netherlands
The administration of development assistance in the Netherlands
is the responsibility of the minister for development cooperation in
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, who is assisted by the Directorate-
General for International Cooperation within the same ministry.
The Netherlands makes both loans and grants, and in 1975 expended
US$62 million for agricultural projects. In the same year, over 600
experts served abroad on technical assistance projects in agriculture.
The nation is now directing its agricultural program toward the
small farmer in the poorer countries. The research programs they
support are designed to open new avenues of income for small-scale
farmers. The Netherlands is interested also in assisting extension
services and agricultural schools to make farmers aware of the
possibilities for increased yield through the use of modern varieties,
fertilizers, and irrigation and of the fact that those inputs are actually
within their reach.
The country feels that it has special technical competence in land
reclamation and drainage projects, plant breeding, plant protection,
and rural extension.
It is interested in training young scientists and extension workers.
This is done mostly at the International Agricultural Centre in
Wageningen. In 1975 about 400 young professionals from foreign
countries received training there.
Initial requests for assistance from the Netherlands should be sent
through the embassy in each country, from which it will be forwarded
to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The ministry, in turn, will pass the
request on to the Directorate of Agricultural Assistance to Developing
Countries.

Directorate of Agricultural Assistance to Developing Countries

(AHO) Bezuidenhoutseweg 73
The Hague, Netherlands

Japan
Japan’s large foreign assistance program is confined chiefly to the
less developed countries of Asia. The principal agricultural interests
Appendix 223

of the Japanese foreign aid program are rice research and rice
irrigation and drainage projects.
Although the Japan International Cooperation Agency and the
Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund handle most foreign assis-
tance projects, the recommended initial approach by a government
agency in a less developed country is via the Japanese embassy, which
will pass the request on to the appropriate government unit in Japan.
In addition, the Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Research
Council provides certain experts in accordance with requests from
foreign countries.

Japan International Cooperation Agency

Shinjuku Mitsui Building, 21 Nishi, Shinjuku-ku
Tokyo, Japan

Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund

IINO Building, 1-1, Uchisaiwaicho 2-Chome, Chiyoda-ku
Tokyo 100, Japan
Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries Research Council
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
Kasurnigaseki, Chiyoda-ku
Tokyo, Japan

Other National Foreign Assistance Programs

A number of other countries have smaller, though still substantial,
foreign assistance programs chat, for the sake of brevity, are not
described here.

Belgium
Administration Générale de la Coopération au Développement
Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres
Building “AG,” Place du Champ de Mars 5
1050 Brussels, Belgium

Denmark
Danish International Development Agency
Amaliegade, 7
1256 Copenhagen, Denmark

France
Ministére de la Coopération
20 Rue Monsieur
75007 Paris, France
224 Appendix

Norway
Norwegian Agency for International Development
Boks 8142, Oslo-Dep.
Oslo 1, Norway

Sweden
Swedish International Development Authority
Birger Jarlsgatan 61
S-10525 Stockholm, Sweden

Switzerland
Swiss Technical Cooperation
Eigerstr. 73
3003 Berne, Switzerland

Australia
Overseas Economic Relations Division
The Treasury
Canberra, A. C. T. 2600, Australia

Australian Development Assistance Bureau

P.O. Box 887
Canberra, A. C. T. 2601, Australia

New Zealand
External Aid, Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Private Bag
Wellington, New Zealand

Commercial Companies
Agribusiness concerns selling such materials as fertilizers, pesti-
cides, and farm machinery often provide not only modest financial
assistance to agricultural research institutions, but also conduct
useful field demonstrations of their products. Furthermore, they offer
excellent technical guidance for the use of their equipment or
materials. Because it is to the advantage of the companies to have their
products properly used, their advice is well worth following.
 Glossary

Amylopectin. The kind of starch in the rice grain that tends to make
the rice moist and sticky on cooking. The starch in glutinous rice is
essentially 100 percent amylopectin.

Amylose. The kind of starch in the rice grain that tends to make the
rice dry and fluffy on cooking.

Awn. A thin bristle-like structure protruding from the top of the

lemma (one of the glumes) of bearded rice varieties.

Bacterial blight. A disease caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas

oryzae. The symptom is long lesions, starting at the edges of the leaves
and often resulting in dead tissue over a large portion of the leaf area
of a rice stand. Usually the disease attacks the crop after flowering.

Basal application. Refers to chemical fertilizer that is applied to a rice

crop just before seeding or transplanting.

Bearded. An awned rice variety (see awn).

Beri-beri. A human nutritional deficiency disease caused by a lack of

thiamine (a component of the vitamin B complex) in the diet.

Brown rice. Dehulled rice from which the bran layer has not been
removed. Approximately equal to 80 percent of the weight of paddy
or rough rice.

Brown spot. A fungus disease of rice caused by Helminthosporium

oryzae. The most typical symptom is the appearance of numerous

225
226 Glossa y

oval brown spots on the leaves. The disease can also attack the
glumes.

Bund. The dike or raised border surrounding a rice paddy that makes
it possible to hold rain water or irrigation water on the surface of the
ground.

Deep-water or floating rice. Rice that can be grown at water depths of

from 1 to 6 meters. Deep-water rice varieties are different genetically
from normal rice in that they have the ability to elongate rapidly
when flood waters rise. In addition, they put out adventitious roots at
the submerged nodes.

Denitrification. The biological breakdown of oxidized forms of

nitrogen (nitrite, nitrate or nitrous oxide), resulting in the evolution
of nitrogen gas that is lost to the atmosphere.

Endosperm. The starchy inner portion of the rice grain that remains
after the hull, bran, and germ have been removed by milling.

Glumes. The outer hard covering of the rice grain that, botanically
speaking, consists of the lemma and palea. Also called hulls.

Grassy stunt. A virus disease of rice causing severe stunting, excessive

tillering, erect growth. The leaves turn pale green or yellow and are
covered with rusty spots or blotches.

Harvest index. The ratio of grain weight to total above-ground dry

weight. Thus if the weight of grain is half that of the total weight of
the plant, the harvest index is 0.5, which corresponds to a grain/straw
ratio of 1.0.

Head rice. Unbroken milled rice.

Hull or husk. The outer, inedible portion of the rice grain; the
glumes.

Kneeing ability. The capacity of the upper stems and leaves of

floating or deep-water rice to become erect after being in a horizontal
position on the surface of rising flood waters. It is a geotropic
response and a desirable characteristic.

Ligule. A small, papery, triangular structure at the base of the leaf

blade of the rice plant.
Glossary 22 7

Lodging. The falling over of the rice plant. It occurs around

flowering time in tall varieties that are grown under moderate to high
soil fertility conditions.

Lowland rice. Irrigated rice as well as rainfed paddy when grown on

flooded fields.

Nitrification. The biological transformation in the soils of ammonia

nitrogen to oxidized forms such as nitrite, nitrate, or nitrous oxide.

Paddy. Whole grain rice. Synonymous with rough rice (unhulled

rice), approximately equal to brown rice multiplied by a factor of
1.25. Used also for a bunded plot of land on which rice is grown.

Panicle. The portion of the rice plant that bears the seeds. The seed
head.

Photoperiod-sensitive varieties. Varieties of rice that will not flower

until short day-lengths, usually less than 13 hours, occur. Conversely,
photoperiod-insensitive varieties tend to be uniform in crop duration
regardless of the length of day, especially under tropical conditions
where temperatures are relatively stable.

Ragged stunt. A new (1976) virus disease of rice in Asia characterized

by stunting and wavy, ragged edges of the leaves. There is little
panicle exertion, and few grains are formed. The stunting is not
accompanied by severe leaf discoloration as in the tungro disease or
the grassy stunt virus disease.

Rainfed paddy. Rice that is not irrigated but is grown on leveled

paddies that are bunded or diked to allow. an accumulation of flood
water on the surface during heavy rains.

Rice. The crop in general, the whole grain as harvested, and the
milled edible product. All rice yields in this book are expressed
in terms of paddy or rough rice.

Rice blast disease. A ubiquitous rice disease caused by a fungus

(Pyricularia oryzae) that produces spots or lesions on leaves, nodes,
and panicles.

Rice variety. A kind of rice that has been bred or selected, that is
genetically uniform, and that breeds true from seed. A variety bred in
a crossing program is synonymous with “cultivar.” In many
228 Glossary

countries, varieties are named and released officially. Previous to

release they may be referred to as "genetic lines.”

Sheath blight. A fungus disease of rice caused by Corticum sasakii.

Early symptoms are ellipsoid or ovoid greenish-gray spots on the leaf
sheath that later may enlarge to be 2 or 3 centimeters in length.

Systemic insecticide. An insecticide that is absorbed by the plant

through the roots or through the leaves and that kills insects that feed
on the plant tissues. In flooded rice, systemic insecticides may be
applied in granular form to the flood water or placed in capsules in
the root zone.

Tiller. Any of the extra stems or culms in a rice plant that arise from
its base. Varieties that have the geneticcapacity to put out many stems
are referred to as “heavy-tillering” varieties.

Ton. 1000 kilograms (2204 pounds).

Topdressing. An application of fertilizer that is applied to the soil or

water surface after the crop is well established, usually at the panicle
initiation stage about three wrecks before flowering.

Tungro disease. A virus disease of rice causing stunting and a yellow

to orange discoloration of the leaves. The disease is called penyakit
merah in Malaysia and the mentek disease in Indonesia.

Turn-uround time. The number of days between the harvesting of

one crop and the planting of the next crop.

Upland rice. Nonbunded, direct-sown rice grown in a manner similar

to that of wheat or other small grains.

Wooden dunnage. The low wooden platforms, with airspace

beneath, on which sacks of rice are stacked.

Yield. Amount of grain harvested per unit of land area. In this

handbook, all yields are expressed either in kilograms per hectare
(kg/ha) or in metric tons per hectare (t/ha).
 Annotated Bibliography

Listed below arc many of the publications on which much of the

information in this book is based. The bibliography bears directly on
the subject of rice in the tropics and can provide an expanded and
more detailed view of the topics covered. The literature citations are
grouped by chapters. If a citation is listed under more than one
chapter heading, the annotation is given only under the first chapter
in which it appears.

Chapter 1: The Importance of Rice as a World Crop, and Its

Principal Characteristics
Abelson, Philip H., ed. 1975. Food: Politics, Economics, Nutrition
and Research. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the
Advancement of Science. 202 p.
A compendium of articles on food production, most of which
appeared earlier in a special edition of Science. The papers included
arc written by prominent authorities and constitute good background
reading for those concerned about the world food problem.

American Society of Agronomy. 1975. All-Out Food Production:

Strategy and Resource Implications. Special Publication No. 23.
Madison, Wisconsin. 67 p.
Selected papers presented during the annual meeting of the
American Society of Agronomy in 1974. Useful background reading
on the world food problem.

Association of Japanese Agricultural Scientific Societies. 1975. Rice

in Asia. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. 600 p.
Between 1966 and 1972 the Association of Japanese Agricultural

229
230 Annotated Bibliography

Scientific Societies held a series of symposia on “Rice in the World.”

This book is a collection of some of the papers that pertained to rice in
Asia, particularly in South and Southeast Asia. The various chapters
were contributed by Japanese scientists who had lived or traveled
widely in Asia. An excellent assemblage of knowledge about rice in
Asia up to 1972. Unfortunately, by the time the English edition was
available, in late 1975, much of the information was out of date.

Brown, Lester R. 1974. In the Human Interest. New York: W. W.

Norton and Company. 190 p.
The author suggests a strategy for stabilizing the world popula-
tion, aiming at a maximum figure of 6000 million rather than the
10,000 million to 15,000 million forecast by other authorities.

Brown, Lester R., with Erik P. Eckholm. 1974. By Bread Alone.

New York: Praeger Publishers. 272 p.
An analysis of the world’s food resources in relation to population
growth, with certain imperatives for adequate future food supplies.

Daly, Hermon E., ed. 1973. Toward a Steady-State Economy. San

Francisco: W. H. Freeman Co. 332 p.
A collection of papers by various authorities, pertaining to the
principle that the world economy eventually must reach some kind of
equilibrium. The introduction by Professor Daly of Louisiana State
University is especially useful to those concerned about the longtime
solution to the problems of continued expansion in a finite world.

Food and Agriculture Organization. 1970. Provisional Indicative

World Plan for Agricultural Development. 2 vols. Rome. 672 p.
Contains a synthesis and analysis of factors relevant to world,
regional, and national development. Outlines the present state of
agriculture in the less developed countries, predicts future food
requirements and general needs for agricultural development, and
makes suggestions for meeting those requirements.

Food and Agriculture Organization. 1971. Food Balance Sheets.

Average of 1964-66 Period. Rome. 766 p.
Contains tables for most countries of the world, showing
production and consumption of all major food products, processed
and unprocessed. Includes the per capita intake of calories, proteins
and fats from the various food sources.
Annotated Bibliography 231

Food and Agriculture Organization. 1976. Production Yearbook.

Vol. 30. Rome. 296 p.
This yearbook appears about a year after the data are received by the
FAO from the various countries. It contains the most complete
assemblage of facts on area, yield, and production of about 100 crops
on a country-by-country basis.

Grist, D. H. 1975. Rice. 5th ed. London: Longman Group Ltd. 601 p.
The fifth edition of the well-known book first published in 1953. A
source of basic information on the rice plant, its history, culture and
world importance. Unfortunately, its account of recent advances in
rice research is incomplete.

Hopper, W. David. 1976. “The Development of Agriculture in

Developing Countries.” Scientific American 235, no. 3: 196-204.
An excellent analysis of the requirements for additional technology
and for capital from the more developed countries to speed up
agricultural development in the poorer nations.

Houston, D. F., and Kohler, G. O. 1970. Nutritional Properties of

Rice. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. 65 p.
A concise report on the vitamin, mineral, protein, and carbohy-
drate content rice and of its value as human food.

Houston, D. F., ed. 1972. Rice Chemistry and Technology. St. Paul,
Minnesota: American Association of Agricultural Chemists. 517 p.
The most complete publication available on the properties, uses,
and processing of the rice grain and its by-products. The contributors
of the various chapters are among the foremost authorities in their
fields of specialty.

International Rice Research Institute. 1977. Constraints to High

Yields on Asian Farms: An Interim Report. Los Baños, Philippines.
235 p.
Information, presented at a workshop held in Yogyakarta,
Indonesia, in 1976, on a cooperative study to determine why yields on
farmers’ fields in Asia are so far below those obtained in supervised
experiments on the same fields. The studies, conducted in Thailand,
Indonesia, and the Philippines from 1974 to 1976, are continuingand
provide new insights into the constraints to high yields in the humid
Asian tropics.
232 Annotated Bibliography

Mayer, Jean. 1976. “The Dimensions of Human Hunger.” Scientific

American 253, no. 3: 40-49.
A comprehensive description of the problem of hunger around the
world, identifying the regions where malnutrition is the most severe.

Meadows, Donella H.; Meadows, Dennis L.; Randers, Jørgen; and

Behrens, William W., III. 1972. The Limits of Growth. A Report for
The Club of Rome’s Project on the Predicament of Mankind. New
York: Universe Books. 205 p.
An examination of the five basic factors that determine, and
ultimately limit, growth on this planet: population, agricultural
production, natural resources, industrial production, and pollution.
Stimulating reading for those interested in life on this planet in the
next century or two.

Palacpac, Adelita C. 1978. World Rice Statistics. Mimeographed. Los

Baños, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute. 155 p.
Data on rice production, consumption, trade, prices, and fertilizer
use, as well as other important statistics. Issued yearly.

Poleman, Thomas T., and Freebairn, Donald K., eds. 1973. Food,
Population and Employment. The Impact of the Green Revolution.
New York: Praeger Publishers. 272 p.
Papers presented at a workshop held at Cornel1 University in 1971
to explore the social, political, and economic consequences of the
Green Revolution. The volume provides interesting and valuable
reading because of the varying views of authorities from the several
disciplines involved.

Scrimshaw, N. S., and Behar, M., eds. 1976. Nutrition and

Agricultural Development. Significance and Potential for the
Tropics. New York: Plenum Press. 500 p.
Papers presented and the ensuing discussion at a symposium on
“Nutrition and Agricultural and Economic Development in the
Tropics” held in Guatemala City in 1974. Contains papers by some of
the world’s most eminent authorities on human nutrition.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 1975.

The World Food Situation and Prospects to 1985. Foreign
Agricultural Economic Report No. 98. Washington, D.C. 90 p.
An excellent analysis of the world food situation with special
emphasis on cereal grain production and estimates of supply and
Annotated Bibliography 233

demand during the next decade.

World Food Conference, Iowa State University. 1977. Proceedings

1976. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press. 685 p.
Contains 40 papers presented at the World Food Conference of 1976
at Ames, Iowa, and the final reports of six workshops that were held
during the course of the 5-day conference. Although the subject
matter covered varies greatly from paper to paper, there is much
valuable information in the proceedings for those involved in
agricultural development.

Wortman, Sterling. 1976. “Food and Agriculture.” Scientific

American 235, no. 3: 30-39.
Treats the broad issues of the world food problem and is an
introduction to a series of articles in this special issue of the Scientific
American devoted to food and agriculture.

Chapter 2: The Modern Rice Plant and the New Technology:

Greater Potentials for Rice Production in the Tropics
Chakkaphak, Chak. 1975. “Summary Report on Agricultural Mech-
anization and Development in Indigenous Farm Machinery Produc-
tion in Thailand.” Agricultural Mechanization in Asia 6, no. 2:
99-102.

Dalrymple, Dana G. 1976. Development and Spread of High-

Yielding Varieties of Wheat and Rice. Foreign Agricultural
Economic Report No. 95. Washington, D.C.: Economic Research
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 120 p.
A compilation of the statistics and general information on the
worldwide spread of the high-yielding wheat and rice varieties.
Dalrymple has been updating these reports periodically, and
undoubtedly others will be published in future.

International Rice Research Institute. 1963-77. Annual Report. 15

vols. Los Baños, Philippines.
IRRI’s annual reports give substantial accounts of its research
activities and international programs. Usually there is a lag of little
more than a year between the time the research is done and the work is
published. However, IRRI puts out a smaller volume called
Highlights of Research that appears about 6 months after thecloseof
the year covered. This is a useful publication for busy administrators
and gives a concise summary of the more important findings.
234 Annotated Bibliography

International Rice Research Institute. 1965. The Mineral Nutrition

of the Rice Plant. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. 494 p.
The proceedings of an IRRI symposium held in the Philippines in
1964. Contains the most complete information on the subject
available at that time.

International Rice Research Institute. 1965. The Rice Blast Disease.

Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. 507 p.
The proceedings of a symposium held at IRRI in 1963, to which
the world’s experts on the rice blast disease were invited. Still a
valuable reference on the nature of the disease and methods of control.

International Rice Research Institute. 1967. The Major Insect Pests of

the Rice Plant. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. 729 p.
The proceedings of an IRRI symposium held in 1964. The most
complete description, in one volume, of rice insects and their control
that is available anywhere.

International Rice Research Institute. 1969. Insect Pests of Rice. Los

Baños, Philippines. 78 p.
A booklet that concisely describes the major insect pests of rice.

International Rice Research Institute. 1969. The Virus Diseases of the

Rice Plant. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. 354 p.
With the exception of ragged stunt, which was not discovered until
1976, this book describes all the important virus diseases of rice in
Asia. It includes the papers presented at a symposium on virus
diseases of the rice plant held at IRRI in 1967.

International Rice Research Institute. 1972. Rice Breeding. Los

Baños, Philippines. 738 p.
The proceedings of a symposium on rice breeding held at IRRI
in 1971. The most comprehensive treatment of advances in rice
breeding in the major rice-producing countries.

International Rice Research Institute. 1972. Rice, Science and Man.

Los Baños, Philippines. 163 p.
The papers presented at the convocation celebrating the 10th
anniversary of IRRI. The articles not only cover the progress
made by the institute during its first decade but include subjects of
wider scope, such as the role of international agricultural research
institutes, the new rice technology and rural life, the outlook for
Annotated Bibliography 235

world trade and rice production, and the economic consequences of

the Green Revolution.

International Rice Research Institute. 1975. Changes in Rice

Farming in Selected Areas of Asia. Los Baños, Philippines. 377 p.
The results of a study, initiated by IRRI in 1971, of the changes
occurring in South and Southeast Asia as a result of the Green
Revolution. The information was gathered from 36 rice-growing
villages in 14 study areas in six countries.

International Rice Research Institute. 1975. Major Research in

Upland Rice. Los Baños, Philippines. 255 p.
A summary of knowledge about upland rice and its culture as of
1973. The chapters were written separately by IRRI scientists and
included the results not only of their research but that of others
around the world. Provides useful information for improving the
productivity of rice grown on small farms in rainfed areas.

International Rice Research Institute. In press. Brown Planthopper:

Threat to Rice Production in Asia. Los Baños, Philippines.
This is a report of a symposium held at IRRI in 1977. It provides
up-to-date information on all aspects of the brown planthopper as a
pest of rice, including the problems of breeding resistant rice
varieties.

International Rice Research Institute. 1977. Constraints to Nigh

Yields on Asian Farms: An Interim Report. Los Baños, Philippines.
235 p.
(See listing under chapter 1 for annotation.)

International Seminar on Deep-water Rice. 1975. Proceedings.

Dacca: Bangladesh Rice Research Institute. 225 p.
The proceedings of the first attempt in recent years to bring
together the best authorities on deep-water rice. The papers are
informative; it was from this session that enthusiasm was generated
for a cooperative research program on deep-water and floating rice.

Ling, K. C:. 1972. Rice Virus Diseases. Los Baños, Philippines: Inter-
national Rice Research Institute. 134 p.
An excellent description of the virus diseases of the rice plant.

Moseman, Albert H. 1971. National Agricultural Research Systems in

236 Annotated Bibliography

Asia. New York: Agricultural Development Council. 271 p.

Proceedings of a seminar sponsored by the Agricultural Develop-
ment Council and held in New Delhi in 1970. A good account of the
status of agricultural research in Asia in 1970 as reported by
representatives from each country.

Ou, S. H. 1972. Rice Diseases. Kew, Surrey, England: Common-

wealth Mycological Institute. 368 p.
The most complete treatment of the diseases of the rice plant that
has appeared in the past 25 years. A useful reference for disease
identification and control.

Ou, S. H. 1973. A Handbook of Rice Diseases in the Tropics. Los

Baños, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute. 58 p.
A valuable practical guide to tropical rice diseases, with 21 color
plates.

Palmer, Ingrid. 1975. The New Rice in the Philippines. Report

Number 75.2. Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social
Development. 199 p.
A socioeconomic study of the impact of modern rice varieties and
technology on the rice industry in the Philippines.

Palmer, Ingrid. 1976. The New Rice in Asia: Conclusions from Four
Country Studies. Report Number 76.5. Geneva: United Nations
Research Institute for Social Development. 146 p.
An excellent summary of the four-country project. Highly
recommended for those who cannot take the time to consult the
individual country reports on the impact of the high-yielding
varieties on the economy and general well-being of the people in
India, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka.

Palmer, Ingrid. 1977. The New Rice in Indonesia. Report Number

77.1. Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Develop-
ment. 198 p.
A separate report for Indonesia of the four-country study made by
the U.N. Research Institute for Social Development with UNDP
financial support. An excellent analysis of the impact of the modern
varieties on rice production in Indonesia. Includes an economic
analysis of marketing and storage problems.

Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research. 1977.

Annotated Bibliography 237

The Philippines Recommends for Rice 1977. Los Baños, Philip-

pines. 186 p.
Contains the latest information on rice culture, including new
varieties, cultural practices, the control of insects and diseases, and
postharvest technology. Although designed for use in the Philip-
pines, much of the information is applicable throughout the humid
tropics. Updated frequently.

University of the Philippines, College of Agriculture (in cooperation

with IRRI). 1970. Rice Production Manual. Los Baños, Philippines.
382 p.
Although now somewhat replaced by the Training Manual for
Rice Production prepared by Xuan and Ross in 1976, this 1970 rice
production manual contains much helpful information on rice
culture in the tropics.

Xuan, Vo-Tong, and Ross, Vernon E. 1976. Training Manual for

Rice Production. Los Baños, Philippines: International Rice
Research Institute. 140 p.
A complete training manual for any practical course in rice
production. Especially designed for training extension personnel and
farm managers. Each lesson lists the materials and teaching aids
needed and gives full instructions for conducting the exercises. The
manual covers all operations from land preparation to drying and
storage. For use in the less developed countries where labor is
relatively abundant and farms are small.

Chapter 3: Problems of Postharvest Technology

Araullo, E. V.; de Padua, D. B.; and Graham, Michael, eds. 1976. Rice
Postharuest Technology. Ottawa: International Development Re-
search Centre. 394 p.
A compendium of the material used at a postharvest technology
training course held in Los Baños, Philippines, in 1973. A valuable
source of basic information on all postharvest operations from
cleaning, drying, and storage to parboiling and milling. Contains
designs of equipment and states the options available to countries
wishing to improve and expand their facilities.

Houston, D. F., ed. 1972. Rice Chemistry and Technology. St. Paul,
Minnesota: American Association of Agricultural Chemists. 517 p.
(See listing under chapter 1 for annotation.)
238 Annotated Bibliography

Timmer, C. Peter. 1972. “Employment Aspects of Investment in Rice

Marketing in Indonesia.” Stanford Food Research Institute Studies
11, no. 1: 59-88.
An analysis of different milling techniques with special reference
to labor-surplus Indonesia.

Chapter 4: Rice Marketing

Abbott, J. C.; Barter, P. G. H.; Kelly, R. W.; and Spinks, G. R. 1972.
Rice Marketing. FAO Marketing Guide No. 6. Rome: Food and
Agriculture Organization. 189 p.
A thorough discussion of the problems of rice marketing around
the world, with many specific examples of the widely varying
marketing procedures in various countries.

Asian Development Bank. 1977. Asian Agricultural Survey 1976.

Manila. 490 p.
A well-written and highly informative report of the state of
agricultural development in South and Southeast Asia as of 1976.
Analyzes the problems and gives sound advice on the more promising
approaches to their solution. Good reading for all Asian agricultural
administrators, planners, and developers.

Efferson, J. Norman. 1972. “Outlook for World Rice Production and

Trade.” In Rice, Science and Man, pp. 127-42. Los Baños,
Philippines: International Rice Research Institute.

International Rice Research Institute. 1971. Viewpoints on Rice

Policy in Asia. Los Baños, Philippines. 275 p.
Mimeographed papers presented at a rice policy conference held at
IRRI in 1971. A summary of and general perspective on the
conference, prepared by Vernon W. Ruttan, is especially useful to
those who do not wish to read all the papers.

Chapter 5: Some Successful Rice Production Programs

Drilon, J. D., Jr. 1975. “An Overview of Masagana 99.” Modern
Agriculture and Industry 3, no. 12: 14-16, 87-89.
A description of the Masagana 99 program and of its achievements
during the first 2 years of operation.

Food and Agriculture Organization. 1976. Production Yearbook.

Annotated Bibliography 239

Vol. 30. Rome. 296 p.

(See listing under chapter 1 for annotation.)

Korea Development Institute. 1975. Korea’s Economy, Past and

Present. Seoul. 367 p.
A good description of South Korea’s recent development, including
that of agriculture.

Korea, Office of Rural Development. 1976. Rural Development

Program in Korea—1976. Suweon, Korea.
An excellent description, with many illustrations, of how South
Korea became self-sufficient in rice production.

Li, K. T. 1977. “Strategy for Rice Production in Taiwan.” In

Proceedings, Food Crisis Workshop, pp. 141-170. Manila: Ramon
Magsaysay Award Foundation.
An excellent account of Taiwan’s policies for maintaining self-
sufficiency in rice production.

Mellor, John LV. 1976. “The Agriculture of India.” Scientific

American 235, no. 3:154-163.
A good analysis of India’s food production problems. Done in a
more optimistic vein than are similar articles by several other authors.

Philippines, Department of Agriculture, and National Food and

Agriculture Council. 1976. Masagana 99. A Program of Survival.
Quezon City, Philippines. 33 p.
A brief description of the basic elements in the Masagana 99
program to attain rice sufficiency in the Philippines.

Scobie, Grant M., and Posada, Rafael T. 1977. The Impact of High-
Yielding Rice Varieties in Latin America, with Special Emphasis on
Colombia. Cali, Colombia: Centro Internacional de Agricultura
Tropical. 163 p.
A thorough analysis of the rice industry in Colombia, document-
ing the impact on average yields of modern rice varieties on irrigated
land.

Shen, T. H. 1976. Taiwan’s Family Farm During Transitional

Economic Growth. Ithaca, New York: Program in International
Agriculture, Cornell University. 14 p.
Describes briefly the changes taking place in Taiwan as
240 Annotated Bibliography

industrialization increases. Gives data on mechanization, on joint

farming, operations, and on specialized farming areas in the region.

Shin, Dong Wang, and Shim, Yong Kun. 1975. The Effectiveness of
the Tongil Rice Diffusion in Korea. Suweon, Korea: Korea, Office of
Rural Development. 52 p.
An excellent discussion of the way in which South Korea added a
ton per hectare to its average rice yield through breeding and
distributing new rice varieties and by introducing further improve-
ments in rice cultivation methods.

Tanco, Arturo R., Jr., and Feuer, Reeshon. 1976. “Philippine Rice
Self-sufficiency through Masagana 99. An Example of the Successful
Transfer of Technology to Small-Scale Rice Farmers.” International
Rice Commission Newsletter 25, No. 1/2: 29-30.
Briefly describes the achievements of the Masagana program 3 years
after its beginning. The authors list the essential ingredients of the
program, which have broad application especially in Southeast Asia.

Yang, Y. K. 1977. Farmers’ Organizations in Taiwan. Taipei,

Taiwan: Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction. 26 p.
A clear description of the farmers’ associations and irrigation
associations of Taiwan.

Chapter 6: Promising Rice Research

Brown, A. W. A,; Byerly, T. C.; Cibbs, M.; and San Pietro, A., eds.
1976. Crop Productivity . . . Research Imperatives. East Lansing,
Michigan: Michigan State University. 399 p.
The conclusions of six working groups and the thoughts of a
number of prominent authorities who participated in an interna-
tional conference on crop productivity, held at Harbor Springs,
Michigan (U.S.) in 1975. The principal objective of the conference
was to identify both short-term and long-term priorities for research
to increase crop productivity in the less developed nations. Valuable
reading for research administrators seeking the most promising and
significant research areas that will have an impact on national rice
yields.

Council for Asian Manpower Studies. 1975. “Multiple Cropping in

Asian Development,” Philippine Economic Journal 14, No. 1/2:
1-322.
Annotated Bibliography 241

These first two numbers of the Philippine Economic Journal for

1975 are devoted to the papers given at a conference on multiple
cropping held in Taipei in late 1973 and sponsored by the Council for
Asian Manpower Studies. Because the speakers, who were from
Southeast Asian countries and Taiwan, dealt largely with multiple
cropping systems that included rice, this material will be of interest to
administrators desiring to increase food production either by
growing more than one crop of rice a year or by adding other crops in
the rotation. Gives an especially good review of multiple cropping in
Taiwan, where it has been so successful.

Cummings, Ralph W., Jr. 1976. Food Crops in the Lou)-Income

Countries: The State of Present and Expected Agricultural Research
and Technology. Working Papers. New York: Rockefeller Founda-
tion. 103 p.
Analyzes the present state of research on and knowledge of the
world's major food crops. The work of the international agricultural
research institutes with these crops is discussed and those that need
additional emphasis are identified.

Dalrymple, Dana C;. 1971. Survey of Multiple Cropping in Less-

Developed Nations. Foreign Economic Development Report 12.
Washington, D.C.: Foreign Economic Development Service, U.S.
Department of Agriculture. 108 p.
An excellent review of the history of the development of multiple
cropping and of its present status in some 25 countries. Concludes
with a discussion of future prospects and policy issues.

Deep-water Rice Workshop. 1977. Proceedings. Los Baños, Philip-

pines: International Rice Research Institute. 239 p.
Papers presenting current knowledge about deep-water rice.
Includes information useful to agricultural administrators and
scientists in countries where deep-water rice is an important crop.

International Rice Research Institute. 1963-77. Annual Report.

15 vols. Los Baños, Philippines.
(See listing under chapter 2 for annotation.)

International Rice Research Institute. 1972. Rice, Science and Man.

Los Baños, Philippines. 163 p.
(See listing under chapter 2 for annotation.)
242 Annotated Bibliography

International Rice Research Institute. 1975. Major Research in

Upland Rice. Los Baños, Philippines. 255 p.
(See listing under chapter 2 for annotation.)

International Rice Research Institute. In press. Soils and Rice. Los

Baños, Philippines.
Proceedings of a conference on soils and rice held in the
Philippines in 1977. An excellent report of the latest scientific
advances regarding the characteristics and management of soils on
which rice is grown.

International Seminar on Deep-Water Rice. 1975. Proceedings.

Dacca: Bangladesh Rice Research Institute. 225 p.
(See listing under chapter 2 for annotation.)

Matsushima, Seizo. 1976. High-Yielding Rice Cultivation. Tokyo:

University of Tokyo Press. 367 p.
An account of the author’s views on the management of the rice
plant for maximum yield. The latest of several books he has
published on the same general subject. His theories are backed by
practical experience in obtaining yields in excess of 10 t/ha of paddy.

Moseman, Albert H. 1971. National Agricultural Research Systems in

Asia. New York: Agricultural Development Council. 271 p.
(See listing under chapter 2 for annotation.)

Ranit, Luis C., with J. D. Drilon, Jr. 1977. “Lorenzo P. Jose Rice
Farm: A “Computerized” Japanese Type Rice Farming Enterprise.”
In Proceedings, Food Crisis Workshop, pp. 261-301. Manila: Ramon
Magsaysay Award Foundation.
A fascinating account of a Filipino farmer who devised a system of
continuous rice cultivation on 1.5 hectares of land. The average yield
was approximately 26 t/ha annually, accomplished with family labor
only.

Chapter 7: Elements of a Successful Accelerated Rice Production

Program
Asian Development Bank. 1977. Asian Agricultural Survey 1976.
Manila. 490 p.
(See listing under chapter 4 for annotation.)
Annotated Bibliography 243

Benor, Daniel, and Harrison, James Q. 1977. Agricultural Extension.

The Training and Visit System. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
55 p.
A clearly written, concise bulletin that outlines a system of agri-
extension particularly adapted to the poorer countries attempting to
move their agriculture from the traditional to the modern in a
practical way.

Boyce, James K., and Evenson, Robert E. 1975. National and

International Agricultural Research and Extension Programs. New
York: Agricultural Development Council. 229 p.
Contains the results of a thorough study of the investments in
agricultural research and extension in recent years and of the
contribution those efforts have made toward agricultural develop-
ment.

Chandler, Robert F., Jr. 1977. “Some Thoughts on Accelerating Food

Production in the Less Developed Countries.” In Proceedings, Food
Crisis Workshop, p. 57-66. Manila: Ramon Magsaysay Award
Faundation.
A discussion of the more important factors determining national
rice yields in Asia.

Cheany, Robert L., and Jennings, Peter R. 1975. Field Problems of

Rice in Latin America. Cali, Colombia: Centro Internacional de
Agricultura Tropical. 91 p.
A manual designed to assist farmers and field technicians in
identifying the more common insects and diseases and the plant
symptoms of adverse soil conditions in Latin America.

International Rice Research Institute. 1975. Water Management in

Philippine Irrigation Systems: Research and Operations. Los Baños,
Philippines. 270 p.
The proceedings of a water management workshop held in 1972
and sponsored jointly by the IRRI and the College of Agriculture of
the University of the Philippines. Among other points, it identifies
the weaknesses in present irrigation systems, particularly in their
management. Although it contains only Philippine data, the
information has much broader application, especially in South and
Southeast Asia.
244 Annotated Bibliography

Jennings, Peter R. 1976. “The Amplification of Agricultural

Production.” Scientific American 235, no. 3: 180-195.
The role that improved varieties of rice and wheat can play in
increasing future food supplies. An excellent article.

Mueller, K. E. 1970. Field Problems of Tropical Rice. Los Baños: In-

ternational Rice Research Institute.
A pocket-size manual containing color photographs and brief
descriptions of common rice insects and of symptoms of diseases and
soil problems.

Okita, Saburo, and Takase, Kunio. 1977. “Doubling Rice Production

in Asia.” In Proceedings, Food Crisis Workshop, pp. 187-217.
Manila: Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation.
The theme of this article is that until Asia invests large sums of
money in rice irrigation projects yields will remain low, but that by
irrigating the suitable areas average rice production can be doubled in
the next two decades.

Chapter 8: A National Rice Program-Putting the Ingredients

Together
Adams, Dale W., and Coward, E. Walter, Jr. 1972. Small-Farmer
Development Strategies: A Seminar Report. New York, N.Y.: Agri-
cultural Development Council. 33 p.
A summary of the papers presented and the principal ideas
expressed at a seminar held at Ohio State University in 1971 that was
designed to explore the most appropriate means of reaching the small
farmer in agricultural development programs.

All-India Coordinated Rice Improvement Project. 1974. India’s Rice

Revolution. A Beginning. Hyderabad, India. 72 p.
The achievements of the All India Coordinated Rice Improvement
Project during its first 8 years of operation (1965 to 1973). A good
example of what can be done to coordinate local research programs
into a successful national effort.

Brown, Lester, R. 1970. Seeds of Change. New York: Praeger

Publishers. 205 p.
A thought-provoking book, showing the impact of the modern
varieties of rice and wheat but also identifying the problems that lie
ahead in maintaining the increased tempo that the new varieties
initiated.
Annotated Bibliography 245

Castillo, Gelia T. 1975. All in a Grain of Rice. Los Baños,

Philippines: Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study
and Research in Agriculture. 410 p.
Written by a well-known rural sociologist of the University of the
Philippines at Los Baños, this work gives a highly objective analysis
of the impact of the modern rice varieties and the new technology on
the Filipino farmer. In addition, it presents and analyzes the views of
others who have written significant papers on the Green Revolution.

Chambers, Robert. 1974. Managing Rural Development. Ideas and

Experience from East Africa. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of
African Studies. 216 p.
Reflects the author’s experience in Africa while he was engaged in
rural development activities, especially in Kenya. Clearly written, it
stresses the programing and management needed for properly
transferring information obtained by the research scientists to the
extension staff, with final application at the farm level.

Mosher, A. T. 1966. Getting Agriculture Moving. New York: Praeger

Publishers. 191 p.
This book, which has been translated into a number of languages,
contains a discussion of the essentials for developing and moderniz-
ing agriculture in the less developed countries. It was written as a text
and reference work for in-service training programs. However, it is
useful reading for administrators and planners involved in agricul-
tural improvement.

Mosher, A. T. 1969. Creating a Progressive Rural Structure. New

York: Agricultural Development Council. 172 p.
An excellent treatise on the steps to be taken by agricultural and
development officers in organiring agricultural improvement
programs. A straightforward and practical book that should be
required reading for everyone involved in boosting the productivity
and economy of rural areas in the less developed countries.

Mosher, A. T. 1971. To Create a Modern Agriculture. New York: Ag-

ricultural Development Council. 162 p.
This book grew out of a series of lectures given by the author in
India in 1971, which became the basis of seminars in other Asian
countries. The book synthesizes the lecture material with a reflection
of audience comment at both lectures and seminars.
Mosher describes agriculture as an industry and outlines the steps
of organizing and planning a program of agricultural development.
246 Annotated Bibliography

This volume should be read in conjunction with the three other

works of the author that are listed here.

Mosher, A. T. 1975. Serving Agriculture as an Administrator. New

York: Agricultural Development Council. 64 p.
Sets forth the principles of agricultural administration, pointing
out the crucial role that agricultural officers play in making any
development program successful.

Poleman, Thomas T., and Freebairn, Donald K., eds. 1973. Food,
Population and Employment. The Impact of the Green Revolution.
New York: Praeger Publishers. 272 p.
(See listing under chapter 1 for annotation.)

Rao, V. K. R. V. 1974. Growth with Justice in Asian Agriculture. An

Exercise in Policy Formation. Report Number 74.2. Geneva: United
Nations Research Institute for Social Development. 95 p.
An analysis of agricultural policy formation in Asia based on
interviews with top officials and scientists in the FAO (Rome) and in
the governments of Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand,
India, and Bangladesh. Useful reading for agricultural officers
concerned with the problems of improving the lot of the small-scale
farmer in a subsistence-farming economy.

Appendix
Brady, Nyle C. 1976. “Rice Research and Training in International
Agricultural Research Centers.” International Rice Commission
Newsletter 25, No. 1/2: 6-28.
A concise but complete description of the rice research and training
programs at the IRRI, IITA, and CIAT. It is well worth reading by
the busy administrator.

International Agricultural Development Service. 1977. First Report/

1976. New York. 81 p.
Describes the policies, objectives, and achievements of IADS
during its first year of activity.

International Agricultural Development Service. 1978. Agricultural

Assistance Sources. New York. 149 p.
Contains brief descriptions of the activities and interests of 20
organizations that offer financial and technical assistance to
Annotated Bibliography 247

developing countries. It is an up-to-date and highly useful source of

information. Unfortunately, it does not contain information about
Japanese organizations, which would be of special importance to
Asian rice-growing nations.

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. 1975.

Rural Development: A Sector Policy Paper. Washington, D.C.:
World Bank. 89 p.
Discusses the nature and extent of rural poverty, and the policies
and programs that can be set up to promote rural development in the
poor countries. It also describes the World Bank program for
promoting rural development, particularly in countries and regions
where small-scale, subsistence farming has been the pattern in the
past .

World Bank. 1976. Questions and Answers. Washington, D.C.:

World Bank. 71 p.
A most useful publication for administrators in nations consider-
ing approaching the World Bank for a development loan. It explains
how to start negotiations and describes the kinds of projects in which
the bank has a major interest.
 Index

Afghanistan, 2 Broken rice, uses of, 85-86, 98

Africa, 2, 12, 14, 20, 24, 93, 96, 138, Brown planthoppers, 46, 47, 49, 52
142, 149, 150, 181; area, yield, and Brown rice, 10, 11
production of rice in, 7; potential Brown spot disease, 51
for rice production in, 96 Buffer stocks, 92
African Development Bank, agri- Burma, 3, 22, 93, 159, 201; Agri-
cultural programs of, 215 cultural Marketing Board of, 93
Agricultural Development Coun-
cil, programs of, 212 Cambodia. See Kampuchea
Amino acids, content of: in rice Canadian International Develop-
grain, 10 ment Agency (CIDA), agricul-
Area planted to rice, by continents tural programs of, 221-222
and countries: 1-9 Carbofuran, 49, 157
Armyworm, 46 Carbohydrate in rice grain, 10-11
Asian countries: area, yield, and Central America, 102, 138. See also
production of rice in, 2-7 Latin America
Asian Development Bank, 140,160, Central Rice Research Institute
168, 183; agricultural programs (India), 33
of, 214 Centro Internacional de Agricul-
Australia, 7, 13; foreign assistance tura Tropical (CIAT). See Inter-
agencies of, 224 national Center for Tropical
Azolla sp. (water fern), 42, 156, 157 Agriculture
Chemical composition, of rice
Bacterial blight, 32 grain, 9
Bacterial streak, 52 Chilo suppressalis. See Rice stem
Bali, 14, 23 borers
Bangladesh, 3, 16, 20, 62, 150, 159, China, 2,9, 13, 16, 18, 22, 23, 25, 27,
165, 166 155, 159, 160, 174, 188, 190, 199;
Basmati rice, 16, 140 communes serving as farmers’
Belgium, foreign assistance agency organizations in, 199; future rice
of, 223 production in, 23
Bran, uses of, 85 China, Republic of. See Taiwan
Brazil, 7, 149 CIAT. See International Center for

249
250 Index

Tropical Agriculture culture of, 20

CIDA. See Canadian International Demand for rice, 94, 181
Development Agency Demonstrations, on-farm, 172, 173,
Cleaning and drying operations, 191, 192
economics of, 72-74 Denitrification, 41
Cleaning rice. See Rice cleaners Diseases, of rice, 51-53, 117
Climatic conditions, suitability of: Drying rice. See Rice dryers
for rice, 170
Cnaphalocrosis medinalis. See Economic and social studies of new
Rice leaf folder rice technology, 61-64
Cold tolerance of rice, 18 Economy of scale, 195
Colombia, 7, 24, 102, 142,175; agri- Efferson, J. Norman, 91 n
cultural credit in, 138; the Caja Egypt, 13
Agraria in, 138; the Fondo Fi- Employment: off-farm, 186-188; in
nanciero Agrario in, 138; inputs public works, 187-188; in rural
used on irrigated land in, 136- manufacturing industries, 188
137; investment in irrigation by, Europe, 7, 79, 80, 87, 168
134; irrigated rice in, 132; Na- European Development Fund
tional Federation of Rice Grow- (EDF), agicultural programs of,
ers in, 131, 136, 138; rice breeding 217
program in, 130-132; rice con- Export markets: developing new,
sumption in, 137; rice produc- 99; internal improvements need-
tion program of, 129-139; rice ed for development of, 99-100;
yields in, 129-130; support price potentials of, 96-97
for rice in, 137, 138; transferabil- Extension field staff: importance
ity of experience of, 138-139; of farm visits by, 179; maintain-
yields of irrigated and upland ing morale of, 181; side roles of,
rice in, 132-134 180; training of, 177-178
Colombian Department of Agri- Extension service: field days con-
culture (ICA), 131 ducted by, 179; need for improve-
Colombian National Federation of ment of, 177; need for unified
Rice Growers. See Colombia, command in, 179-180. See also
National Federation of Rice Extension field staff
Growers in
Commercial companies, assistance FAO. See Food and Agricultural
from, 224 Organization
Cooperatives, 68, 92, 200 Farm trials, 172, 173
Corticum saskii. See Sheath blight Farmers’ associations, 92; in Tai-
Credit, rural, 182-184; interest rates wan, 109-110, 200
for, 187-188; supervision of, 183 Farmers’ organizations, 142, 198-
Cropping systems research, 160- 162 200; in Taiwan, 109-112
Cyperus rotundus. See Nutsedge Farming district: definition of, 191;
organizing of, 191-193
Danish International Development Farming locality: definition of,
Agency, 223 190; organizing of, 190-191
Deep-water rice, definition and FEDEARROZ. See Colombia,
Index 251

National Federation of Rice Husks. See Hulls

Growers in Hydrellia philippina. See Whorl
Fertilizer, 3, 62-63, 173-1 74, 196- maggot
197; organic, 154-155; response
of modern varieties to, 38-39 IADS. See International Agricul-
Field resistance. See Rice breeding, tural Development Service
for horizontal resistance IBRD. See International Bank for
Floating rice. See Deep-water rice Reconstruction and Develop-
Flood control, 168 ment
Food and Agricultural Organiza- ICA. See Colombian Department
tion of the United Nations of Agriculture
(FAO), 3, 9, 21, 23, 33; Inter- IDA. See International Develop-
governmental Group on Rice of, ment Association
87; programs of, 215-216 IDRC. See International Develop-
Ford Foundation, agricultural pro- ment Research Centre
grams of, 211 IITA. See International Instituteof
Foreign aid, 93 Tropical Agriculture
France, 13; foreign assistance India, 2, 9, 16, 20, 33, 47, 51, 56, 60,
agency of, 223 62, 79, 150, 159, 165, 166, 171;
Fungicides, 198 Food Corporation of, 93; in-
creases in rice yields in, 140-141
Gall midge, 46, 47 Indica-japonica hybridization, 33
Germany, Federal Republic of: Indonesia, 2, 16, 20, 23, 52, 62, 159,
assistance agencies in, 220 174; increases in rice yields in,
Glutinous rice, 9-10, 15, 16 140; National Logistic Authority
Grades and standards: importance of, 93
of using, 87; for paddy, 73 Inputs: need for availability of, to
Grassy stunt disease, 47, 52 farmers, 173; subsidization of,
Green leafhoppers, 46, 47, 49, 52 185-186
Green Revolution, 2, 62, 204 Insect control: with insecticides,
48-49; by integrated pest control
Handling and transporting rice, methods, 50; reducing cost of,
economics of, 74-75 157- 158; by using resistance vari-
Harvest and postharvest opera- eties, 46-47
tions, losses during, 65, 66, 74, Insecticides, 175-176, 197; systemic,
75 49; use of, 48-49, 63
Harvesting, timing of, 66 Insects attacking rice, 46; biologi-
Helminthosporiurn oryzae. See cal control of, 46; varietal resis-
Brown spot disease tance to, 46-47
Herbicides, 176, 197; butaclor, 53; Inter-American Development
thiobencarb, 53; 2, 4-D, 53, 54; Bank, agricultural programs of,
use of, on upland rice, 55 214-215
Hispa amigera. See Rice hispa International Agricultural Devel-
Hoja blanca disease, 52, 53, 130, 131 opment Service (IADS), pro-
Hopperburn, 47 grams of, 212-213
Hulls, uses of, 84-85 International Bank for Reconstruc-
252 Index

tion and Development (IBRD), 51, 56, 95, 103, 104, 114, 116, 154,
160; agricultural programs of, 159, 168, 184, 195, 196, 197, 198;
213-214 foreign assistance agencies of,
International Center for Tropical 222-223
Agriculture (CIAT), 131, 138, Java, 14, 23
139, 161, 162, 201; rice program
at, 209-2 10 Kampuchea, 3, 93, 123, 159
International Development Associ- Korea. See South Korea
ation (IDA), 213 Korea, Democratic People’s Re-
International Development Re- public of. See North Korea
search Centre (IDRC), agricul- Korea, Republic of. See South
tural programs of, 221-222 Korea
International Fertilizer Develop- Korea, South. See South Korea
ment Center, 41 “Kresek.” See Bacterial blight
International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture (IITA), 150,161,201; Land preparation: economics of,
rice program at, 210 58-59; equipment for, 57-59
International Rice Research Insti- Laos, 3, 7, 16, 93, 123, 159; level of
tute (IRRI), 14, 25, 31-32, 33, 34, rice yield in, 141
36, 38, 41-42, 45, 55, 57-59, 60, 61, Latin America, 16, 24, 53, 93, 102,
62, 117, 118, 124, 128, 131, 146, 132, 139, 142; potential for rice
148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 154, 161, production in, 96; rice pricing
162, 201, 202; activities of, 207- policies in, 95
209; International Rice Testing Leptocorisa acuta. See Rice bug
Program of, 208; training pro- Loans to farmers, problems of col-
gram of, 208 lecting, 183
Iran, 2 Lysine, 10
IR8, 34-38, 47, 117, 131, 140, 148
IR8-288-3. See IR8 Machinery for small farms, 56-61.
IRRI. See International Rice Re- See also Power equipment
search Institute Madagascar, 14
Irrigated lowland rice, definition Madura, 23
and culture of, 18 Malaysia, 2, 16, 33, 52, 62, 95, 159,
Irrigation, 3; in Colombia, 132-134; 165; Padi and Rice Marketing
importance of, 62, 196; in Philip- Board of, 93
pines, 128, 129; in South Korea, Marketing of rice: export, 96-100;
116; in Taiwan, 104, 110-111 local, 92-93, 100
Irrigation associations, 199; in Tai- Masagana 99 program, 124- 128,
wan, 110-111 129; credit aspects of, 125-126;
Irrigation systems: design and extension activities of, 126-127,
management of, 168-169; in 180; impact on rice yields of, 127;
Philippines, 129 loan repayment rates in, 128;
Italy, 13 subsidization of fertilizer in, 127;
Ivory Coast, 7, 14, 141, 150 support price for rice in, 127
Mechanization of rice industry: ap-
Japan, 2, 13, 18, 22, 23, 25, 31, 33, propriateness of, 194-196
Index 253

“Mentek.” See Tungro disease “Penyakit merah.” See Tungro

Methionine, 10 disease
Mimosa inuisa, 158 People’s Republic of China. See
“Miracle rice,” 204 China
Mosher, A. T., 190 Pest control, integrated methods
Multiple cropping. See Cropping of, 197
systems research Pest populations, need for estimate
Mud balls, application of nitrogen of,170-171
in, 41 Philippine National Bank, 125
Philippines, 2, 3, 7, 9, 14, s16,22,38,
National rice programs, selection 47, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57-59, 62, 102,
of land areas for, 193-194 142, 154, 159, 161, 165, 174, 175,
Natural resources, analyzing of, 183, 196,201; Agricultural Credit
167-170 Administration of, 125; Bureau
Nepal, 3, 159 of Agricultural Extension of,
Nephotettix nigropictus. See Green 124; expansion in rice irrigation
leafhoppers in, 128; management of irriga-
Nephotettix virescens. See Green tion systems in, 129; National
leafhoppers Food and Agricultural Council
The Netherlands, foreign assis- of, 124; National Grain Author-
tance agencies of, 222 ity of, 93; rice production pro-
New Zealand, foreign assistance gram of, 123-129; rice yields in,
agency of, 224 123
Nigeria, 7, 16, 166 Phosphorus, 39-40, 62, 106, 153,
Nilaparvata lugens. See Brown 174,197
planthoppers Plant type, 34-35
Nitrogen, biological fixation of, Planthopper. See Sogatodes oryzi-
41-42, 153, 156-157 cola; see also Brown planthop-
Nitrogen fertilizer: losses of, from pers
soil, 40-41; from organic sources, Policies from abroad, usefulness of,
154-155; response of modern 194-200
varieties to, 38-39 Polygenic resistance. See Rice
North Korea, 2 breeding, for horizontal resis-
Norwegian Agency for Inter- tance
national Development, 224 Ponlai rice, 105
Nutritional value of rice, 9-12 Population, estimates of future
Nutsedge, 55, 158 global, 24-25, 29
Nymphula depunctalis. See Rice Population growth rate, need for
caseworm controlling, 205
Portugal, 13
Pachdiplosis oryzae. See Gall Potassium, 39-40, 63, 106, 174, 197
midge Power equipment, need for: in rice
Pakistan, 2, 16, 22,27,93, 159; pro- production, 176
gress in raising rice yields in, 140 Power tillers, 57-59
Parboiled rice, 11, 16, 79 Price controls. See Price supports
Parboiling of rice, 79-80 Price ratio of nitrogen to paddy, 197
254 Index

Price supports, 95, 184-185; in efficiency of, 86-87

Colombia, 137, 138; determining Rice dryers, 71, 72
appropriate policies for, 198; in Rice hispa, 46
Philippines, 127; in South Rice leaf folder, 46
Korea, 118-1 19; in Taiwan, 109 Rice milling, 81
Production. See Rice production Rice mills: capacity of, 83-84; eco-
Protein in rice grain, 10, 11 nomics of operation of, 83, 89;
Pseudoletia unipuncta. See Army- outturn of, 81; types of, 81-83
worm Rice plant: development of modern
Pyricularia oryzae. See Rice blast types of, 32-38; traditional tropi-
disease cal, 32, 34; unique characteristics
of, 17-18
Quality control. See Grades and Rice prices, world, 97-98. See also
standards Price supports
Qualities of rice: consumer prefer- Rice production: by continents and
ences for, 15-16; cooking and eat- countries, 1-9; estimates of fu-
ing, 15-16; for export markets, 98 ture, 25-29; system for continu-
ous, 162-163
Ragged stunt disease, 47, 52, 53 Rice production programs, main-
Rainfed paddy, description and taining the pace of, 204-205
culture of, 18-19 Rice production training: at the
Research. See Rice research, im- International Center for Tropi-
portance of cal Agriculture (CIAT), 210; at
Rice blast disease, 51, 115 the International Institute of
Rice bran. See Bran Tropical Agriculture (IITA),
Rice breeding, 33-35; for drought 210; at the International Rice
tolerance, 20, 149-150; for early Research Institute (IRRI), 208
maturity, 146; for fertilizer re- Rice research, importance of in na-
sponsiveness, 148; gene pyramid- tional programs, 17 1, 200-201
ing in, 147; for horizontal resis- Rice self-sufficiency, as national
tance, 147; multiline varieties de- goal, 94-95
velopment in, 147; for stable re- Rice soils, chemical changes in:
sistance to insects and diseases, after flooding, 43-44
146-147; for tolerance to adverse Rice starch, amylose and amylo-
soil conditions, 152-153; for pectin in, 9, 15-16
tolerance to varying water Rice stem borers, 46, 47, 49
depths, 150-152 Rice types: bulu, 14; indica, 12-13;
Rice bug, 46 japonica, 13; Oryra glaberrima,
Rice by-products, 84-86 14-15
Rice caseworm, 46 Rice varieties: ADT 27, 33; Blue-
Rice cleaners, selection of, 68-69 bonnet 50, 130, 131, 132; BPI-76,
Rice consumption: in Colombia, 33; Chianan 8, 105; Chianung
137; by Europeans, 9; in princi- 242, 105; CICA 4, 131; CICA 6,
pal Asian countries, 9; in United 131; CICA 7, 131; CICA 9, 131,
States, 9 132; Dee-geo-woo-gen, 34, 36;
Rice distribution, increasing the Gulfrose, 130; H-4, 33; H-5, 33;
Index 255

I-geo-tse, 34; IR20,38, 153; IR22, of, 44-45

131; IR26, 47; IR28, 153; IR29, South America, 2, 7, 102, 138; area,
153; IR30, 152, 153; IR32, 152; yield and production of rice in,
IR34, 153; IR36, 47, 146, 152; 5, 7. See also Latin America
IR38, 47; IR40, 47; IR42, 47, 149; South Korea, 2, 13, 18, 23, 25, 56, 95,
Kaohsiung, 53, 105; Malinja, 33; 102, 142, 159, 167, 175, 195, 196,
Mashuri, 33; Milyang 21, 118; 197, 198,200,204; comparison of
Milyang 23, 118; Napal, 130; rural and urban incomes in, 121;
Peta, 34, 38, 47; Taichung Native cooperative farming units in,
1, 34, 36, 105, 117; Taichung 65, 120; development of Tongil rice
105; Tainan 1, 105; Tainan 3, in, 117-118; fertilizer use in, 115-
105; Tainan 5, 105; Tapuripa, 116; New Village Movement in,
130, 131; TKMG, 149; Tongil, 1 19-121, 200; Office of Rural De-
117; Yukara, 117, 118; Yushin, velopment of, 116, 117,120; price
118. See also IR8 incentives in, 118-1 19; rice cul-
Rice yields: in Colombia, 129-130; tural practices in, 118; rice irriga-
by continents and countries, 1-9; tion in, 11 6; rice production pro-
in Philippines, 123-124; reasons gram in, 113-122; rice yields in,
for low, 159-160; in South Korea, 1 13- 114, 122; varietal improve-
113-114; in Taiwan, 102-104. See ment in, 116-118
also Yield potentials Soviet Union, 8, 13; area, yield and
Roads, farm-to-market, 181 production of rice in, 8; increases
Rockefeller Foundation, agricul- of rice yields and production in,
tural programs of, 211 141-142
Spain, 13
Saemaul Undong. See South Sri Lanka, 3, 16, 19, 33, 89, 159;
Korea, New Village Movement Paddy Marketing Board of, 93
Seed, 174-175 Storage facilities: bird-proofing of,
Seeding equipment, 59-60, 176 78; control of moisture in, 78;
Senegal, 166 fumigation of, 78; need for, for
Seoul National University, College buffer stocks, 92; planning of, 77;
of Agriculture of, 117 temporary, 77; types of, 76
Sesamia inferens. See Rice stem Storage, losses during, 75, 78
borers Stipe virus disease, 117
Sheath blight, 51 Surinam, 13 1
Silica, 118 Swedish International Develop-
Silicon, 17, 40 ment Authority, 224
Sogatella furcifera. See White- Swiss Technical Cooperation, 224
backed planthopper Systems approach, use of: in post-
Sogatodes oryzicola, 52, 130 harvest operations, 89-90
Soil conditions, need for survey of,
169-170 Taiwan, 2, 13, 31, 34, 54, 56, 57, 95,
Soil nitrogen, 41 119, 121, 122, 136, 142, 167, 175,
Soil pH, effect of flooding on, 17 190, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200;
Soil salinity, tolerance of rice to, 17 farmers’ associations in, 109-110;
Solar radiation, effect on rice yield fertilizer use in, 103, 106; guaran-
256 Index
teed minimum rice prices in, 109; granules and briquets, 41
irrigation associations in, 110- USA. See United States
11 1; joint farming in, 111-112; USAID. See United States Agency
land consolidation in, 11 1-1 12; for International Development
land reform in, 108; off-farm em- U.S.S.R. See Soviet Union
ployment opportunities in, 112-
113; per capita income in, 112; Varietal improvement. See Rice
pesticide use in, 106; rice-fertiliz- breeding
er barter system in, 107; rice irri- Vietnam, 3, 20, 93, 150, 159, 165
gation in, 104; rice production Vitamins, in rice grain, 10-11
program in, 102-113; subsidiza-
tion of inputs in, 108; varietal WARDA. See West African Rice
improvement in, 104-106; yield Development Association
Water management, for modern
of paddy in, 102-104
varieties, 42-43. See also Irriga-
Thailand, 3, 20, 22, 23, 24, 27, 62,
tion systems
87, 93, 95, 119, 150, 151, 159, 196,
Water supplies, national surveys
201; development of rice ma-
of, 167-168
chinery in, 56-57; Rice Traders
Waxy rice. See Glutinous rice
Association of, 87
Weed control, 53-56, 172, 176; in-
Threonine, 10
fluence of, on nitrogen response,
Threshing equipment, 60-61, 66
55; for rainfed rice, 158-159
Timmer, C. Peter, 83
West Africa. See Africa
Tryporyza incertulas. See Rice
West African Rice Development
stem borers
Association (WARDA), 218
Tungro disease, 52
White-backed planthopper, 46
UNDP. See United Nations Devel- Whorl maggot, 46, 49, 157
opment Programme Wimberly, James E., 65 n
United Kingdom, Ministry of World Bank. See International
Overseas Development of, 219- Bank for Reconstruction and
220 Development. See also Inter-
United Nations, 24, 29 national Development Associa-
United Nations Development Pro- tion
gramme (UNDP), 216-217 World rice prices. See Rice prices,
United Nations Research Institute world
for Social Development, 62
Xanthomonas oryzae. See Bacterial
United States, 7, 9, 13, 79, 80, 87,
blight
138, 194, 195
Xanthomonas translucens. See
United States Agency for Interna-
Bacterial streak
tional Development (USAID),
agricultural programs of, 219 Yield. See Rice yields
United States Department of Agri- Yield potentials: of irrigated rice,
culture, 8 202; of rainfed rice, 202-203;
Upland rice: definition and cul- studies of, by International Rice
ture of, 19; impact on national Research Institute, 25-29
yield levels, 142-144; percentage
of, 143; weed control for, 55 Zaire, 7
Urea, application of: in large Zinc, 40, 62, 153, 174, 197