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Chapter 18 : Varia.on and selec.on
01 Variation
• The differences between individuals of the same species
02 What causes variation?
• Mutations in the genetic code
03 Phenotypic variation
• The difference in features between individuals of the same species
- caused by both genetic and environmental factors
04 Genetic variation
• The difference between the genotypes of individuals of the same species
05 Continuous variation
• Results in a range of phenotypes between two extremes e.g. height in humans
(contains intermediates)
- Mostly caused by both genes and environment
06 Discontinuous variation
• Results in a limited number of phenotypes with no intermediates e.g. tounge
rolling (distinct phenotypes)
- Mostly caused by genes alone
- Ex: blood groups in humans
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07 Mutation
• genetic change
08 Gene mutation
• A change in the base sequence of DNA
09 How new alleles are formed
• Through mutation
10 Things that increase the rate of mutation
• Ionising radiation
• Some chemicals
11 Symptoms of sickle-cell anaemia
• Headaches
• Fatigue
• Fainting
12 Explain why sickle cell anaemia reduces the delivery of oxygen to tissues
• Haemoglobin becomes abnormal
• It carries less oxygen than normal haemoglobin
• Red blood cells become sickle shaped
• These sickle cells clot in blood vessels and reduce Elow of healthy blood
12.1 How does sickle cell anaemia arise?
• Mutation
• A change in the base sequence of DNA
• in gene for haemoglobin
13 Inheritance of sickle-cell anaemia
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14 What disease do people who are heterozygous for sickle-cell anaemia have
resistance to?
• Malaria
15 Distribution of sickle-cell allele in human populations
• Sickle-cell anaemia tends to be found more in places where malaria is common
16 How sickle-cell anaemia distributes?
• People who have sickle cell anaemia are resistant to malaria
• Those without sickle cell anaemia are not immune and are more likely to die from
malaria
• Over time, a majority of the population will carry the sickle cell anaemia gene
17 Adaptive feature
• The inherited functional feature of an organism that increase its Eitness
18 Fitness
• The probability of an organism surviving and reproducing in the environment in
which it is found
19 Hydrophytes
• Plants adapted to live in extremely wet conditions
• Adaptations:
- Large air spaces - leaves Eloat
- Stomata in the upper epidermis - movement of gases from air
- Thin cuticle - no need to reduce water loss by transpiration
20 Xerophytes
• Plants adapted to live in extremely dry conditions
• Adaptations:
- Thick waxy cuticles - reduces transpiration
- Leaves reduced to spines - reduces surface area of leaves reducing water
lost
- Rolled leaves - reduces surface area of leaves
- Few stomata - reduce transpiration
- Deep roots - absorb water
21 Natural selection
• Variation within population
• Production of many offspring
• Competition for resources
• Struggle for survival
• Reproduction by individuals that are better adapted to the environment than
others
• Passing on of their alleles to the next generation
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22 Evolution
• The change in adaptive features of a population over time as the result of natural
selection
23 Process of adaptation
• The process resulting from natural selection in which populations become more
suited to their environment over many generations
24 Development of strains of antibiotic resistant bacteria
• Resistance is developed by mutation in small number of bacteria
• Antibiotic kills bacteria that do not have mutation
• Resistant bacteria have no competition
• They reproduce and pass on the gene for resistance
• This is known as natural selection
25 Selective breeding
• Choose organisms best adapted to conditions
• Breed them together
• Select offspring that show desired features
• Breed them together again
26 Differences between natural and artificial selection
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27 Selective breeding by artificial selection to improve plants and animals
• Outbreeding:
- Breeding of unrelated animals / plants
- To combine good characteristics of separate individuals such as:
§ disease resistance
§ increasing crop yield
- Resulting in tougher individuals with a better chance of survival
- This is called hybrid vigour
• Inbreeding:
- Breeding close relatives
- To retain desirable characteristics
- However, there can be harmful effects such as:
§ Loss of vigour (physical strength and good health)
§ Lack of diversity
§ Reduced fertility
§ Greater risk of disease
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