TIME - OF - FLIGHT DIFFRACTION COURSE (Level [and 11) Revsionnunber_| 06 D081 959 Preparsdiby | Revinwed by | Approved by] Date Print_P. Carlee [J.MAitcher | TJ.Amnitt_ | 15/897 Si ISSUE 1 FEB 2000, iDEFINITIONS Figure 1 Co-ordinate System “The following symbols ate wed in the text, © velosty ofsound 2 wavelengtn of sound ‘d—depth of reflector below scanning surface D thickness of sample being scanned parallel sen in which dirsction of beam parallel to direction of sean non-parallel sin in which direction of beam normal to direction of sean PCS probe cents separation $s halfof probe centre separation 2s ttimeof fight of signal from a reflector te timetake for sound o pas through two probe shoes, i, probe delay tu timeof fight of lateral wave { _timeof fight oF back wall signal 8 angle of beam centre with respect to normal to metal surface ‘y beam cone halEangle Be timing coe 84 depth er Be arorinydocity Bs erorin probe separation ‘3H erorin change in couplant thickness 5h qrorin variation of surfice height ISSUE 1 FEB 2000 aCONTENTS ‘TIME - OF - FLIGHT DIFFRACTION COURSE.. (Level [and 1), DEFINITIONS. CONTENTS... [INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Scope ofthe Cows = 1 1.2 Requirements... t 13 Examination. 2 2, BACKGROUND AND CONVENTIONAL ULTRASONIC TESTING. . 3 2.1 Background to Non Destructive Testing, 3 2.2 Ultrasonie Non-Destructive Testing... vo cod 4 5 7 9 9 223 Pulsoecho detection of laWS..0. 2.4 Flaw Sizing wth the Pulse-ccho Techniques : 2.5 Comparison of Flaw Sing Accuracy for dierent Techniques 3. THE TIME-OF-FLISHT DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE. . 3.1 Backgrond he inprance of the TOFD Tesi. 3.2 History of TOFD Development... 3.3 Principle of TOPD. 3.3.1 Diffraction pocess 3.3.2 Angular Variation of Diffraction Sie ' 3.3.3 Basic TOFD Setup vn 33.3.1 Probe ype and wave ype. 33.32 Signalsabserved, 7 33.3.3 Phe Relationships. 33.34 Dopth Calculation... 3.3.5 Meaturament of Time and itil abe Cote Spraton 20 3.3.3.6 Pati fr Surfie breaking Dai 22 3.4 Types of TOFD Sean, 23 3.5 Main Uses OF TOFD... 6 3.6 Summary of Adztages and Disadvantages of TOFD 26 3.7 Basie Steps in the Sizing or Detection of Flaws. 4, DATA COLLECTION SYSTEM, 4.1 Basic Hardware, TISSUE 1 FEB 2000 i42 Advantage of Digital Resording. 43 Digloaon ofthe Analog Ulsoic Signals, 43.1 Amplitude... 43.2 Sampling Rete 4 Selection of trqnences fo tering. “Amount of data calleced during an inspection. 4.6 Groy scale imeging and B-scans 4.7 Signal AvEBINE oso 48 Pulse Width Conto... — 4.9 Pulse Repetition Frequency — 2 4.10 Software = 4.10.1 Online. : 4102 Analysis ard Obie facilities. = DESIGN OF TOFD INSPECTION... 511 Precision and Resolution. 5.2 Beam Spread Considerations 5.2.1 Basics for elevation of beam spread... 52.2 Example of section of number of sean for an inspection 5.3 Examination of Material tobe Inspected. 5.4 Choice of Probe Angle cnnnsennsnnnnnnnns a 5.5 Choice of Probe Freauency 5.6 Choice of Probe-Centre-Seperation nn 5.7 Calibration and Setting of Ginn 52.1 Gain is not cependent on reflector size. . 5.72 Use of dffisction signal fom slot to set gain... 5.73 Use of grain ose or “grass” to set the gain. 5.74 Eee of attomation or coarse gran noise on gain sting. 5.73 Calibration or checking of the inspection 8 UP wo ‘58 Digsation Rate and Pulse Repetition Frequency... 539 Region of A-scan to be Digits. - 5.10 Signal Averaging and Pulss-width = SIL No signals ~ Common fl... 5.12 Manual versus Mechanical Scanning. 5.12.1 Gener 5.12.2 Manual Scaning... 5.12.3 Mechanical Scanning... 5.12.4 Sampling terval. 5.13 Temperatures. ‘5.14 Couplant. ‘3.15 Special Technigues 3.15.1 Double Ski... 515.2 Use of Made Converted Biches nnn 5.15.3 Use of Offaris Scans 56 Summary of Chie of Pans fr TOFD Sean. 6. ERRORS . — 641 Intodition 62 Timing Eros... ISSUE 1 Fe 2000 iv163 Near surface Problems... 66 6.4 Dead Zones. = 61 64.1 Lateral wave dead zone. 267 6.4.2 Backwall Dead Zone. 67 65 OfF-Axis Error and Back Ws 67 65.1 Of-ais depth er0¢.. 67 65.2 Back wall bind zone. 8 {6.6 Spatial Resoluion of embedded defecs So 67 Bffect of change in Probe Separation and Importance of alain ‘wth Lateral and Back wall signal. . 70 ‘62.1 Change in Probe Separation. 70 {67.2 Importance of Calibration. v0 er 68 Erors in couplant dept, surfce height variations and velocity {68.1 Error due to variations in couplant depth... 8.2 Bray d te varintonin sie profi. 6.8.3 Veloctty error 9 tndes Pt Maton Bros 6.10 Other Errors. 6.11 Multiple Ares 6.12 Large Grained Materials 6121 General 6.122 Cladding... 7 6.13 Overall Enors and Monitoring Growth. {6.13.1 Overall BIO. 6.13.2 Monitoring Defect Grow... 6.14 Estimate of Flaw Length from a TOFD D-Sean 6.14.1 Introduction 6.142 Estimationof length jaws with profes parte othe cal surface 78 6,142.1 Use of shapod cursor representing pont source Bp 6.1422 Measurement of beam spread. 79 6.1423 Useof the SAFT tecinique to measure length. 80 6.14.3 Estimation of length for flaws with curved profiles eure ‘reking0 6.1454 Conclusion DATA ASSESSMENT - FLAW CHARACTERISATION 71 Basic analysis... 7.2 Introdetion to Characterisation. 173 Shear Waves... 17.4 Pores and Slag in TOFD Records 75 Umer CYACK oon 1716 Upper Surtace Breaking Cracks. 1.7 Lower Surface Breaking Cras. 78 Bec of changing Defect Profile. 719 Weld Root Flaws and Backwall Features 7.10 Crack Transparency .sennnsnnnnnunanns TAD Transverse Fla. — 17.12 Uncategorized Flaws. a 7.13 Additional Sean fr Detailed Characterisation. ISSUE 1 8 2000 v7.14 Accepuance Crizria. 8 ANALYSIS SOFTWARE. BU Linearstion ns 8.2 Latera/Back wal Staighten and Removal 83 Parabolic Cursor... 8:4 Synthetic Aperture Focusing Teehnique -SAPT 85 Split Spectrum Processing. : : 8.6 Locus pots om 9, CURVED SURFACES AND COMPLEX GEOMETRY. 9.1 Curved Surfaces. 9.2 Complex Geometry. 10 REPORTING en = PROCEDURE WRITING . 12 EQUIPMENT AND PROBE CHECKS 1. = 1211 Egulpment Chek ssn 12.L.T Sereon Height Linear snus 12.1.2 Amplitude Uncarity 12.13 Time Base Linearity 12.1.4 Probe Indes Emission Pont. 12.13 Beam Argh 12.16 Beam Spread {21.7 TOFD Combined Probe Dea. 12.18 Sensitivity 12.13 Resoluion 12.2 Probe chooks 12.2.1 Material Velocity Measurement. 12.2. Probe Frequent scones 12.253 Probe Pube Length 12.3 Check of Atersation in Materia. 13, TOPD TRIALS AND VALIDATIONS, 131 Inroduetion. 13.2 UK Defect Detection Trias, 133 PISC 11 Tail 13.4 PISC I Trials 13.5 Other Validation Exercises 13.5.1 Welding lstitute Collaborative Programme. 13/52 Offshore Structures. 13.53 Validation Work atthe EPRINDE Centre USA... 13/54 NIL Projea- Non-Destructive Testing of Thin Pte. 13535 Evaluation of TOFD in a 350 mm test block, 1998, APPENDIX | OFF-AXIS DEPTH ERROR. Al Theoretical Derivation of Off Ais Depth Error ‘A12 Bvample of Variation of Depth Error with Off As Bisons {ALS Depth Error at Edge of Ulrasonle Bea... ALBA General Stations ‘41.3.2 When Beam Centres aimed at 23 Depth of Sample ‘13.3 When Boast Centres aimed at Backwal ISSUE 1 FE 2000 wi‘ALA Depth Error at Bdge of Weld... ALA.L Single ‘V"Weld os. ‘1.4.2 Double ‘V Weld. ALS Conclusions... ADPENDIN 2. DETERMINATION OF DEPTH POR OFF-AXIS FLAWS IN A NON. ‘PARALLEL SCAN USING MODE CONVERTED WAVES. ‘APPENDIX 3 STEP EY STEP GUIDE TO A TOFD INSPECTION, ‘A3.1 Data Collet0t. ‘A3.2 Analysis. ‘A33 Processing the Data. ‘A334 Laterabackwall SeaigterRenora. ‘A332 Linearsatin.... A333 SAFT, ‘A334 Examine fescan display. ‘A3.3.5 Select Par ofan image. 83.36 Profiling ‘833.7 Echodynamics| {A338 Fourier Tensor APPENDIX 4 PRINTNG DATA. oon ‘41 REPGEN ‘442 BMP File APPENDIX 5 TOFDAIDS SOFTWARE PACKAGE, INDEX ssn - FIGURES. {SsUE 1 Fe8 2000 viiFIGURES. igure 1 Co-ordinate Systm. Figure 21 Faw size in ration to beam spread. Figure 2.2 Determination of Fle Size by 6dB Drop Sizing, Figure .1 lution of mportance of accurate ing measurements. Figure 3.2 Represenatios of the Difftaton Process from Crack Tips. Figure 3.3 Ulustation of Diffraction... . igure 3.4 Calculated Vaiation of Ampitide of Diftacted Waves with Angle B igure 3.5 Cross Seaton of Typical Probes. ir igure 3.6 Wave Paths fr the TOFD Arrangement igure 3.7 A-scan with no Defect Present [Figure 3.8 A-scan with Defect Preset. — Figure 3.9 Basic TOD parameters. — igre 3.10 Consistent measurement of ime of vasious Salen Figure 3.11 Surface opening crac ina non-parallel sean. Figure 3.12 Surface opening eracks on the back wall for « non anil ean ne 3 Figure 3.13 Non-Paralll or Longitudinal Scan... vo 24 igure 3.14 Parallel or Transverse Sean. vn 24 Figure 3.15 Difference between non-parallaned a parlel se... 25, igure 3.16 Uncertainty in ateral position ina non-parallel sea. von Figure 4.1 Typical Digital System for colleting TOFD Data. 29 Figure 42 Digitisation of an Asean. “3 Figure 4.3 Digitisation with 5 samples per period nn 33 Figure 4.4 Sampling a 10 Miz sin wave witha 20 MHz digi 4 Figur 4.5 Sampling 1OMlz sin vave witha 5 Miz dg. 35 igure 46 Grey scale reresetation ofthe amplitude... “37 Figure 4.7 Appearance of signal in a scan which occurs ina suosssion of Acseans.37 Figure 48 Principle of Signal Averaging. vn 3D Figure 49 Effet of Drie Pulse on Transmiter Crystal Element. von Figure 4.10 Ilustation of Effect of altering Driver Pulse Width, mal igure 5.1 Iusteation of meaning of Precision and Resolution 45 Figure §.2 Definition of Beam Spread... 46 Figure 5.3 Bective volume of coverage for two 60 degree probes sited at 29T no. 48 Figure 5.4 Effetive voume of coverage for two 45 and two 60 degree probes (5 Miz) aimed at 237. sn AD gue 5.5 Biecive volume of coverage fra 60 and two 70 dogpee probes (3 MEL) aimed nest sufice region... 50 Figive $6 Complete average of + and 40 mm about weld centre with 3 scans comm apart using two pairs of TOFD probes. 50 Figure 5.7 Arrangement ior determining gun. 34 Figure $8 Arngemeat for double skip. 59 Figure 6.1 Example of doth ero sa fancton of depth duet timing uncer 64 gue 62 Exe of dah roa fiction fal for agen ning eta 6S Figure 6. Genoral TOFD Layout Figure 64 lostation of Back Wall Blind 2006 w.yncranove <6 1s5ue 1 8 2000 viiiFigo lstsaton of where to mets ler and back wal postions de cate IM PCS vn sin TE Figure 6.6 Ultrasonic pai through couplant layer... a8 Figure 67 Musiration of varlaion tn index point on surface of metal wth defect, petons Figure 68 Example of Overall Er a a function of Depth. Fees Go Sarthe Toro Dasan esr ducs flaw wats oe pls. 79 Figure 6.10. Measurement of beam spread. 80 Figure 6.11 Shape of TOSD sean record due fo flaws ith curved profiles. 81 Figure 7.1 B-scan fiom Parallel scan shoving characteristic pattem of mode converted signals. Figure 72 Appearance of Pores and Siagin Dscan Figure 73 Appearance oflong Slag Lines, Figure 74 Appearance of internal crack and thick sag line Figure 75 Appearance of Top Surface Breaking Fla... Figure 7.5 Profile of Rear Surface Breaking Defest : Figure 7.7 Appearance of signal from Defects near io or breaking lower surface igure 7.8 Chango in Signal Strength due to change in Profle igre 7.9 Use of Parabo ie Shaped Cursor o detect if Defect Profile is Carved rane 90 Figure 7.10 Definition of accoptance entra for TOFD wn zt 298 Figure 8.1 Uso of Paraboic Cursor for Determining Length. ed 96 Fire 42 Bene Beam Spread wth AFT won cnn Figure 83 The SAPT Precess ns sn 8 Figure 9.1 TOED Probeson Convex Surlace 101 Figure 9.2 TOFD Probeson Concave suiee.. 102 igure 9.3 Complex Geometry access to one Surface ony. 103 igure 9.4 Complex Geometry acc058 0 (0 ICES oneness 108 Figure Al.1 Ellipse - cure with constant time -of flight. 123 Figure AL.2 Variation of factor fwth off-axis ditance X at d=1/2D and s=2/3DTan 0125 Figure A1.3 Variation of depth error with offaxis distance X at d=1/2D and :DTano. 125 igure AL Definition of at lower beam aie. 6 Figure ALS Variation of factor f wth depth ot edge of beam for 8-280... 27 Figure A1.6 Depth error a edge of beam for s= 2/3DT an. vel Figure 41.7 Variation offactr fwit depth av edge of beam for = DTANO.ouu. AB igure ALS Depth error at edge of beam for $= DTN 129 Pige A. Yaron fet see of asin V weld (included angle 609 for BDA 60) 129 Figure AL.10 Depth error at cdg ofavingle "weld (included angle 609 fore ~ 130 2 DTan( 60) Figure l.1i Variation of ctr fa edge ofa double "wold Ginclded angle 609 for 3 = BDI an 60) 130 Figure Al.12 Depth ror at edge of double 'V weld (nluded angle 609 for s = BT AH 60) sone BI Figure 42.1 Two posable postions fr flaw tip when tp effet rom cons line... 133 Figur AS. Example oft output om te alevation ofthe beam spre fr ft te inthe TOPDAIDS package...roon = rn VAS ISSUE 1 8 2000 ixFigue A. xanpieofteaaaion ofthe een TOFD stp oy the TOFDAIDS. package 6 ISSUE 1 82000 xblank page 1SSUE 1 F=8 2000 xiA. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Scope of the Course “The purpose ofthis coure sto make the reader and student aware of the Time-of light Ditttuction (TOFD) techaique and its ability to perform flay detection, location and ing, Although the couse wil be based around the digital ultrasonic data collection system currently available cumber of similar systems are avilable an have essentially the same major features end fils, "The course notes are intend tobe used as backround and reference material fr both Level | and Level Il qualification standard. Where there isa clear distinction inthe notes this will be indicated by ying the specific Level II material in italics. Normal duration of the Level | and Level Tl eurses are 40 hours. Level | teeniians shouldbe capable of i) setting up the TOFD equipment iy collecting TOFD inspection data i iijecording and elasifying the results according to wsteninstrvtions is) eporting the results. Level Technicians shoud be capable of {setting up and calibrating the equipment performing and supervising the inspection interpreting and evaluating the results acconling to the applicable standards | iv) define imitations of TORD + write ractcal testing instructions and procedures +i supervise and tain Level {technicians vai) organise and report the results of « TOFD inspection. Considerable time is speat during the eouse on th practical collection and analysis of "TOFD data since experince in the viewing and analysis of TOFD data is very important. Itis also very important to have in mind the different nature of TOFD as compared to the ‘more traditional Pulse-esho technique. The course will hopeflly extend the participants | knowledge to be abe 1 -ecognise the limitations ofboth techniques and tobe able to ‘ ‘choose the appropriate teshnique or both forthe intended inspection, In addition tothe current course notes the British TOFD Standard, BS 7706 and the European (Pre) Standard, CEN/TC 138 WG 2 N 143, should be studied. The book by Charlesworth .P.and Temple J. A. G., "Engineering Applications of Ultrasonic Time- ‘sight Ditfnsion”, published by Research Studies Press TD, is also well worth fending especially for Nuclear inspections and the inspection in particular of austenitic components 1.2 Requirements Itiseasumed tha a reasanabl level of ultrasonic understanding has already been achieved uivalent toa least an ENAT3 Ultrasonic Level | forthe current Level | course and an Chapter 1 Introduction Pages =IEN47S Level IL for the curent Level I course. All candidates should have roof ofa satistictory vision test 13 Examination [An examination will be st atthe end ofthe course which will consist of, Level Lien examination, 30 questions - 90 minutes Level II wrten examination, 30 questions -90 minutes ‘The object ofthe examination isto demonstrate that ultrasonic practitioners are capable of understanding the TOFD teebnigue and its limitations. (Chapter | Introduction. Page--2-2, BACKGROUND AND CONVENTIONAL ULTRASONIC ‘TESTING 2.1 Background to Non Destructive Testing Defects in welded structures may ive rise to premature failure or unserviceability i pressure vessels or piping systems. Thus welds need tobe inspected and harmful deets removed by grinding andor welding, The detection of ecacks, particularly in welds, ‘before file i thus ver important since tho consequences may be very serious. Flaws ‘which are rac-like may be activo growing, such as fatigue and stress corrosion cracks, (Other flaws may grow but often remain unchanged, e.g welding and fabrication defects such a lack-of-fusion, ad the volumetric defects Such as porosity and slag. ‘The latter typeof flaws are more easily detocted but are not so efficient as cracks in raising local ‘rests and then proving o feilure. There are various nn-destuctive techniques ‘available for testing mete components and they are generally divided into two classes of detection, surface ope wgeracks by magnetic particle ‘dye penerrant dy curent magnetic techniques ultrasonics and internal cracks by radiography tlrazonics Surface opening cracks re usually considered the most important since they are most likely to grow and eause flute. However, they have the advantage tat they ean usually be repaired more easily tvan internal cracks. Dye Penetrant and Magnetic Particle inspections have no dept sizing capability and the magnetic techniques are also generally used for detetion only. The Eddy Curent technique has sizing capability but, ‘depending on the materi only within few millimetres ofthe surfice Ulleasonies has both a detection and sizing capability. Plant operstrs must satsy the cetfying authority that the plant i it For service. This process will include NDE, usually during the plant shutdown. Defects that are found from the NDE may need tobe epaired or the component replaced. Thus itis very important to detect and size internal eacks because repairs may prove very dificult and expensive and ican be proved that te crack size is below some critical level the plant may be safely eft evening, Foc most intemal cracks there are only vo inspection techniques available, radiography and ultrasonics. Radiography i best sited o detecting volumetric type defects and planar tricks may only be eficientl detected ifthe beam of rays is directed down the crack, ‘Also radiography needs acces o both sides ofthe sample and has safety implications. However, radiography is very widely wed and isa very cliable technique for detecting ‘many types of weld errs and will detect changes in density equivalent to 1% ofthe wall thickness. Radiography generates images which are widely aeceptod and understood, it so ‘ives a permanent recor of the inspection which canbe stored away for future refeence (Chapter2 Background ( ultssonies page 3lowever, the most refiatle technique for detecting and sizing planar cracks is ultasonics, butts sensitivity may only be equivalent 1 2% or 3% of wal thickness. Ultrasonics also hha the advantage tht it only need accoss to one side ofthe sample and there are no safety implications 2.2 Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing. If an electte potential is appicd toa piezoelectric type material it osillates and fit is of the right thickness will produce waves of ultrasound ofthe frequencies most useful for {ngpecting metal components. Ths material i the basis of ultrasonic probes which produce longitudinal wares, generally called compression waves. Ite longitudinal ‘waves enter metal tan enle then thoy refractin the metal and produce both longitudinal And shear waves, the angles ofthe two types of waves depending onthe velocity of shear And longitudinal waves inthe metal andthe velocity ofthe longitudinal waves in the probe shoe material. Shear waves are transmitted by a periodic shea force and ean only exist in ‘materials like metals which possess shear elasticity. Liquids cannot sustain a shear fore, For normal ultrasonic inspection of meals ultrasonic frequencies of between 2 and 5 itz are used. The corresponding wavelength ofthe waves ae found from the formuls, velocity (e) wavelength (2) «frequency ( ‘Velocity is usally defined in units of rs and typical valus in steel are $950 mvs for Fongitudinal waves and 2230 re for shear waves. Since the probe frequeny is in nits of Mz (and we shall oo tht timo is defined in mieroseconds inthe TOFD technique) itis more convenient to defre the velocity units at mus (Le. 5.95 mm/s and 3.23 mms respectively, In these uit the wavelength inthe above equation i given in millimetres. ‘Thus forthe above froqumnces the wavelength of longitudinal waves is in the ange 1 to 3 rim and for sheer waves fom 0.6 tl.6 mm, For reflectors of size les than half ‘wavelength interference cin take place in the reflected waves and hence the minimum size ‘of cracks that can reliably be detected is equivalent to one half the wavelength. To detect Small eecks in thin materials higher frequencies are used but in thick material the increasing attenuation wth increase in fequency generally prevents the use of much higher frequencies. For conventional palse-echo ultresonie inspections angled shear waves are very important since at a given Fequency they havea wavelength half that of longitudinal waves, allowing forthe resolution of smaller defects. Also, as wll be seen ina later chapter, for @ tiven sizeof erystal diancter and frequency shear waves producea smaller beam spread land a consequently higher beam intensity and more accurate sizing ability than longitudinal wave, 2.3 Pulse-echo detection of flaws ‘An ultrasonic inspection of «sample i carried out by scanning the metal with a beam of ultrasound, Any reflctos in the metal are only detected ifthe sound is reflected back. fiom th discontinuity aad returs othe crystal element ofthe probe, where it vibrates the crystal and is converted to electrical signals. In order to reflec he waves back the beam ‘ust ideally bea ight angles tothe reflector surface. This is the socalled “specular” Chapter 2 Background w ultrasonics page 4reflection. {the surface is tilted with respect othe direction ofthe beam of ultisound then the reflected waves may miss the probe crystal altogether and the discontinuity will remain undetected. The propertion of the sound beam getting back to the enya fll off rapidly with inreasing angles of tt and skew from tis ideal postion. tlt of only 5 ‘depress can cause the amplitude to fll by factor of bout 2 (6B) and 10 degres or ‘more may result in los of detection. "Ths for normal gulseecho inspections with angled shear waves it is important to ‘sean the metal with a range of probe angles chosen to give the best chance of detecting the ‘expected orientations ofthe ercks of main intrest. In general a practical compromise hts to be made, Vertical craces are difficult to detect because of the difficulty of geting an ultrasonic beam at right anges tothe crack surface and a pair of probes may be needed to detect the cracks (Lande technique). “The decision to report the presence ofa reflector in pulse-echo inspections is based initially on the amplitude ofthe signal compared to ome threshold level. This is & relatively simple concupt which works well practically. The threshold level is usually determine fron the amplitude ofthe signal reflected back from a standard reflector in 8 calibration block, However, since the roughness ofthe reflector sueice, as well a its ‘orientation, directly effect the amplitude of the retured signal an awareness of the likely probability of detection every important. Ultrasonic inspection isnot perfect andthe skill land experience ofthe operator i Very important, ence the ned for training, 2.4 Flaw Sting with the Pulse-echo Technique ‘The method of flaw sizing used inthe pulse-ccho technique depends on the size ofthe flaw with respect to the beam spread ofthe probe (se figure 2.1). robe | | ~—_/ \ hea Figare 21 Flaw size in relation to beam spread ‘The baste assumption in determining the slzeof flaws that are smaller than the beam spread is that the ampltate ofthe reflected signal willbe proportional othe area of the “flaw in the boam of wdirund. In ths situation the estimate of size is based onthe ‘elaive sce ofthe amplitude with respect to that obtained from a standard reflector at a Similar rang. Standard reflectors are provided a varlous calibration blocks and consist CChopter2 Background t ultrasonics page 5(Offlat bottomed hole, side drilled holes or notches. Thus the accuracy very much depends on the degree of roughness of the flaw surface and ts exact orientation with respect to the ultrasonic beam. For flaw sizes larger thax the beam spread increasing the size ofthe flaw will have no effect on the amplitude ofthe signal since the area ouside the beam will not contribute to the reflected sgnal, The Taw size has tobe obtained therefore by scanning the probe over, the flaw and noting the position where a certain change in amplitue takes place. This is illustrated tn igure 2.2 or an angled shear wave probe sizing a lack of fision 1) Seaning actos the aw yea height a amplinde rN aa t se ha prac higt probe moveret < > potion ofprabe —> 1b Plt of masmam sbeerved anpliude as Function of poston Figure 2.2 Determination of Flaw Size by 64B Drop Sizing “flv. When the probe is moved towards the weld the flaw starts to appear inthe ‘lrasonic Beam and the amplitude ofthe law signal rises. Once the flaw area fils the ‘beam the amplitude stays constant ntl the Beam starts pass the other end of the flaw, when the amplitude start ofall I's assumed fortis explanation that a Distance “Amplitude Correction ha been applied So that there no yaratton of ampli with range, The maximum anplitude trace across the flaw i called an eckodynamic trace and ts shown in the bottom half of figure 2.2. “tthe level where the signal amplitude i half that ofthe masimum signal itis assumed ‘hat only half the flaw arsa is in the beam of lirasound and thatthe centre of the probe is ‘opposite the edge ofthe aw. Thus ifthe positions ofthe probe are noted where the ‘amplitude has dropped by 6 dt the size of the flow can be measured and hence the term 6 4B drop sizing. Ifthe distance between the probe postions ix mum then the width, w. of the flaw is given by w= zc0e(9, whore Ot the angle ofthe beam cenire wit respect to (Chapter 2 Background to ultrasonics page 6‘he normal the surface ofthe metel on which the probe sis. The through wall height of ‘the flaw (the eal measurement), hs then i= xeos(sin(. To determine the length ofthe flaw along the weld the probe must be positioned so as to obtain the maximum amelitude signal and then moved parallel othe weld to determine ‘the 6 dB drop postion. The length ls the distance between these positions ‘Again the main problem withthe 6B drop technique is the variation in amplitude due to the possible roughness of scattering surface andthe fat that the flaw surface 1 unlikely 10 be normal tothe utraonic beam. ‘Some ypical smallest ies of flaws which can be detected and typical sizing errors are listed below from docinent SII - 580 -86 from Commission V ofthe International AInaitate of Welding for pulse-echo alrasontes. Defee positions | Tiroughethicbwess | Length ‘Smallest | Accuracy, [Smallest | Accuracy, size,mm_| + or-mm | fengeh, mm | + or mm Near surface, 3 a 4 3 8-5 mm depth ‘lid-vall, $25 3 3 4 ‘ 25.28 3 3 7 7 75.125, 5 3 10 0 Back swfoce well thickness, mom 10.2 4 ‘ 4 ‘ 28.75 4 4 7 7 75.125, 5 5 i0 io 2.5 Comparison of Flav Sizing Accuracy for different Techniques (Other techniques are avilable for sizing flaws. For surface opening las, acess is ‘available to the surfce the alternating current potemial drop (ACPD) Is an accurate Technique. Te technique essentially measures the drop in vollage between two surface Contacts when placed oncither side ofthe flaw, the additional voltage drop being due to Current having to flow around te flaw surface. Specialised eddy current ype techniques (ACEM) can also mewure the see of near-surface flaws. One of the most accurate ad lusef techniques for mensuring flaw height ls the TOFD technique which isthe subject of ‘this cours, The importance ofthe TOFD technique is seen from the comparison ofthe accuracy of diferent creck sizing techniques summarised below, (Chapter 2 Backysound Wo ultasonies page 7“anual pulse-echo Ta ACPD (ur ig on) Lm TIED. Tom ‘TOFD when monitoring growth | 0.3 mm ‘Chapter 2 Background ultrasonics page 8‘Blank page ‘Chapter? Background to ultrasonics page 93. THE TIME-OF-FLIGHT DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE 341 Background to the Importance of the TOFD Technique “The most serious types of defect in welds and metal components ae planar cracks since they are the most likey te grow and cause failure ofthe component and hence the ‘importance of wltrasonie inspection since ultrasonics isthe mos suitable technique for dllermining the postion and sizing such defects. The importance of developing more fceurate sizing tectniques than afforded by conventional pulse-ocho inspetions became ‘apparent inthe 1960's, expecially in the nuclear and cherscal plant industries. When defects where found in these plants repair ofthe damaged components was often very ‘ifficult or impossible, one ofthe problems being the dfficlty of earying out the roessary heat treatment iter weding. In the nuclear industry there was also the problem ff acess and often high dition levels, To shut down and replace such plant is avery expensive exercise. “Thus the sience of Fracture Mechanics developed to enable the growth rate of defects to be predicted und to caleuiat the critical size of defect below which it was possible to carry on safely running the plant Often, because of the ficulties in determining all the [ropestes necessary for the calculation (eg. fracture toughness) very conservative states had to be madeand the consequent lifetime predictions for the safe operation of the plant beeame very short. fit could be proved by suoessve ultrasonic examinations ofthe deft that they are not rowing o they are growing a armuch slower rate than predicted then this would be very {important to the plant opwator. Ifthe defects are stable an below the eiical size then the plant can stay in operation. If they are growing at a slower rate then the lifetime ofthe plant can be extended, Aso if the growth rate can be accurately measured then suitable plans can be drawn fora programmed repair or replacement of the plant, again saving the plant operator alo of expense. Unexpected shutdowns with the consequent loss of ouput land the noed for unplanned repairs ae the plant operators nightmare, "The need in order to mesure the growrh rate of cracks is accurate though wall sizing, ‘The inadequacy of conventional puse-echo techniques is illustrated in figure 3.1. The to plots show the predicted lifetime curve fora particular defect andi is predicted to ‘reach the critical size after about [5 yeas. Inte top illustration i shown the results of pulse-echo measurements of tho crack height atthe yearly plant shutdowns. Beeause of the large error on the measurements indicated by the eror bar the measurements can not influence the conservative prodicted lifetime. The bottom plot illustrates the results of measurements with TOFD. Since the erors are now much smaller iti apperent thatthe tual growl is less than the predicted growth and the actual plant lifstime ean be extended ‘The abil to sce laws wore accurately shoud also help to limit the number of false cals fthe requirements that ver high probability of detection is required for flaws ‘above a certain sce then the threshold for pulsevecho detection has fo be set consiercbly Tower than this size because ofthe large error with the pulse-echo technique. Tis eens ‘hata considerable mumier of las, whick are actualy below tis sic, are reported as being above this size because they appear with the pulse-eco technique tbe larger. ‘Thus while a very high probability of detection may be oblained for flaws above the size (Chapter 3 TOFD technique page: 9-‘ofinterest there wil be alarge false cll rate This is made worse by the fact thatthe isributon curve of flan size against rmberof flaws usually ses toward the smaller ‘Thus i principle the detection threshold forthe more accurate TOFD technique can be sei much closer tothe size of nerest and thus greatly reduce the fase call rte. 3.2 History of TOFD Development eee To a scot | = = t —— ee \" L oe re sent ze Ko Ft sine, years > Figure 3.1 Illustration of importance of accurate sizing measurements Inthe las section the imoortance of accurate sizing of racks was described, especially in the Nuclear Industry. Hor this reason the Naticnal NDT Centre at Harwell then part of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority - UCABA) asked Dr Maurice Silk to try and develop an ultrasonic sizing technique more accurate than the conventional pulse-echo ‘method. In the early 1970's De Silk developed the technique known as Time-of light Diffraction (TOFD), “The two most important differences from conventional pulse-echo are "A its more accurate sizing accuracy (typically +1 mm and in a monitoring situation 40.3 mm) and the almost independence of angle ofthe flaw for ‘Chapter 3 TOFD technique pages 10-“detection, The sizing is based on the transit time ofthe diffraction signals and does not depend on the amplitude B) it willbe seen that with TOFD a simple amplitude threshold cannot be applied for rejecting or reporting las since the amplitude of the diffraction Signals does not depend on the size ofthe Naw and all the data must be analysed before any flaws can be rejected. Hence with the TOFD technique training and experience are essential. For a number of years TOFD remained largely a lboratory tool, but the realisation of its importance nd te proposed Public enguiry for a PWR Reactor inthe UK lead toa ‘number of major trials inthe early 1980's to evaluate the best possible ultrasonic inspection technique forthe reactor pressure vessel and other major components. These trials were known a the Defect Detection Trials (DDT). The trials were very important in view of the infomation PISC exercise inthe late 1970"s, which was aimed at ‘establishing the capability of the ASME Code ultrasonic procedure, and which obtsined ‘poor results forthe relia ity and sovuracy of conventional pulse-echo inspection. As will ‘be mentioned later (soe Chapter 13), TOFD proved to bea very capable and acurate technique. Many other rls and validations have been carriod out comparing diferent techniques and in al thes ests TOFD has always proved tobe virtually the most reliable and accurate technique Because the digital systerns avallable upto 1982 were reatvel lange it was dificult to cary out inspections in the Feld, Thus the National NDT Centre developed more portable system for coleting and analysing the data. The system was known as ZIPSCAN and wa licensed by SGS Sonomatic in 1983 and sold throughout the word, ‘Sonomatic is now part of AEA Technology. Nowadays there are a number of commercial digital ultrasonic stems available for caeying out TOFD inspections. Initially TOFD was only developed and used asa sizing tool twas expected that flaws ‘would be detected by the conventional techniques and then TOFD used for more sccurite ‘izing, A particular applisation was in the monitoring the crack grow of cracks detected inmajor plant componens, e.g pressure vessels. However, has TOFD hecime more aecepod and used during the lter half ofthe 1980's, especially bythe oil and gas industry both offshore and onshore its economic advantages for detection as wel sizing became apparent and these days TOFD is used in many ‘pplication for both detection and sizing. Very often one sean witha pair of TOFD probes along a weld wil reveal all the defects in the weld volume. The ability to collect fn image of the inspection data (B- of D-scans) also affords advantages in dificlt ‘geometrical situations or for weld roots since itis often easier to recognise new pattems in fan image than to characterise signal in a single A-scan. A good example o this is major {se of TOFD in the offshore oil industry for detecting weld rot erosion, The TOFD technique bas continued to be developed by he major research establishments (eg. modelling application fr helping with the analysis of the data and optimising the collection ofthe date in complex geomety) and by the inspection companies for different applications. Chapter 3 TOFD technique pages 113.3 Principle of TOFD 3311 Diffraction process |When an ulttasonic wave interac wit along eree-lke flaw it results in the production ‘of diffaced waves from the crack tis, n addition to any ultraoni waves reflected from the surice ofthe crack. The diffracted waves are much weeker than speclary reflected waves used for conventcnal ultrasonic inspection, but they radiate from the tps in all tlictions along the same plane asthe incident ullasonic waves as indicated in igure 32. ‘The phenomena of diffraction i nathing new and occurs wth all ppes of waves. eg. light ‘and water waves. 11s very well Enown in light especially when light is passed through a stor past an edge and contributes to the resolving power of telescopes and other opvical instruments. To explain diffraction when waves passthrough aslo! Probes Ieidest = ® Figure 3.2 Representation ofthe Diffraction Process from Crack Tips “Huygens proposed, three centuries ago, that “each point on a wavefront may be regarded asa new source of waves”. Hence, for illustration purposes, we can think of reflection of wave from a surface oceuring as outlined in figure 33. Each point on the Chapter 3 TOFD technique page 12—Figure 33 1 surface (ona scate smalier than the wavelength) ats asa reflection point and produces ‘waves. Then a the separate maves cros eack other interference takes place and as explained by Young in 1202 fr light “the resultant displacement isthe sum ofthe Adsplacements due to each separate wave" and inthis case the results a reflected plane ‘wave. However atthe edge of the surface the waves from te tip are left an produce so called difraction waves. Nowadays diffraction ls more accurately described by Kirchhoff s theory ‘The ptenoment of tp difaction is just another technique inthe repertoire of general ulirasonies. The use of tip diffraction signals as Tong been used in pulse-echo sizing testmations since itoften enhances the signal when the probe is opposite the end ofthe defect and used in this way its sometimes called the maximum amplitude technique ot backward seater tip difintion, 4.3.2 Angular Variation of Diffraction Signals ‘The angular variation of he amplitude ofthe diffracted waves with s lusrated in Figure 3:4, The fgure is mot an exact Chapter 3 TOFD technique page 13 ~scar receiver te theta ° }- signal fom bottom frac alae de a signal rom top. oFerack say 608 theta degrees Figure 34 Calculated Variation of Amplitude of Diffracted Waves with Angle ‘reproduction and the reader should refer to Charlesworth and Temple (1988) fr an exact Yarition. The variation of the top and bottom signals from a vertical crack Tocated mid- ‘way between wo TOFD transducer s shown as afncton of ofthe beam angle with respect othe normal, Tye amplitude has a maximum at around 65 degrees in see, and hha slightly greater cmplitude from the bottom ofthe crack than the top, but the ‘amplitudes on the whole are very similar. Between about 45 and 80 degrees the variation Iinamplitude isles than 6 4B. For the Bottom ofthe crack there is large reduetian in amplitude at about 38 degrees with the amplitude rising again around 20 degrees. Typical angles in an inspection are 45, 60 and 70 degrees. For shear waves the optimum angles in steel are about 4S degrees forthe top and 57 zgrees forthe bottom ofa vertical crack. For defects which do no ein aplame perpendicular othe line fining the wo Iransducers the culvstatun ts more complex andi desertbod by Charlseworth and ‘Temple (1989), bu relatvely large angles of skew have litle effect on the amplitude “Thus one ofthe main advantages of TOFD, unlike pulse-echo is that the diffraction signal is largely indepeadent of angle and thus almost independent of defect orientation. 33.3 Basie TOFD Set-up, 3.3.3.1 Probe type and wave type Chapter 3 TOFD technique page 14“The TOFD technique is crack sizing technique based on locating the crack tps from the ultrasonic encrgy re-emited by diftaction. The basi erangement ofthe TOFD technique consists of two probes in the pteh-and-cuteh configuration, wth one probe acting as the transmitter end the second probe the receiver. Such an etrangement provides ‘large volume for inspeaion and provides for unambiguous location of the postion and depth ofthe reflectors Cable coneetor Compression probe CCoupla squeezed berween probe sand shoe Shoe (perspex or snd) Pans (perspes or sade) Tangle chosen to give dese beam angle in etal Figure 35 Cross Section of Typical Probe {A single probe could be aed for the inspection but is not recommended, since it reduees the location aecuracy ofc flaw tps. We shall see that a transverse (paral) scan witha pai of probes gives the accurate location ofthe flaw tip. ‘Atypical probe is shown a Figure 3.5 and consists ofa compression transducer mounted ‘ona wedge of perspex ot similar material. The compression probe shouldbe chosen to hhavea short pulse length in order to give good depth resolution. The wedge ange is cut to sive compression wavesin the metal at typical angles of 45, 60 ot 70 degroes. The transducers often have screw threads so that they ae ewsly interchangeable with the ‘wedges. Couplaat must ke preseat between the transducer and wedge in order for tlrasound to be tansmited. This design has the drawback tha the couplant eventually dies out ad must be replaced "The reason for using compression waves inthe meta is that they travel at shout twice the velocity of shear waves end hence ative fist atthe receiver. In order to workout depth a knowledge of the velocity s required and i is much easier to unambiguously to work out ‘depth ifone can assume that the signals have a compression velocity. When either type of ‘wave is reflected or refracted it can partially mode convert into the other {ype of wave “Thusif shear waves were used and they diffactd from a defect tip compression waves right alo be produced snd these would then artve atthe reciver ist. Iin this case it ‘vas assumed thatthe shar veloity was the correct velocity the depth would be calculated incorrectly. CChaptor 3 TOPD technique page 15"After te compression orlongitudinal wave has travelled through the shoe, however it splits up imo the desired compression wave atthe required angle and into a shear wave in the metal at approximatey hal the ange of the compression wave. Thus shear waves ate resent in the metal but Le resultant signals generally goer after the compression signals "Thus the resultant TOFD inspection data can contain wavos that have travelled, all the way as compression all tho way as shear put ofthe pati as compression and pat shea. 3.33.2 Signals observed 2 Lateral wave ° ‘tection rom backwal Figure 3.6 Wave Paths forthe TOFD Arrangement The TOFD arrangement is shown in Figure 3.6, The A-scan appearance with no defect present is shown in Figwe 3.7 and witha defect present in Figure 3.8."The main types of ‘waves seen area follows. Th general «weak atra, wave running between the two probes withthe compression ‘velocity just below the sorfice of the meta is observe frst It obeys Fermat's principe in that a wave travelling baween to points takes the minimum time, As we shal see later, fora curved surface it wl travel straight across the metal between the two probes. On ‘material witha surface dadding layer the velocity of sound in the cladding may be such thatthe lateral wave travels most ofthe way inthe material beneath the cladding, ‘The Tateral wave is nota truesurface wave but a bulk wave generated atthe edge ofthe beum. The fFequency content ofthe lateral wave tends tobe lower than the waves fom the centre ‘ofthe beam (the beam spread is frequency telated and the lower frequency component has therefor a wider beam spread), For true surface wave the amplitude would deeay exponentially with distance fom the inspection surface. “The lateral wave can be very weak for large probe separations and may not even be recognisable. Chapter 3 TORD technique page 16Because ofthe basic pitch-catch probe arrangement the signals fom the nea surface region ae very comipesssd in tne and these signals may be hidden beneath the lateral Back wall signal ‘Arch larger signal refiacted/actod from the back wali observed after the lateral ‘wave because ofthe gexer distance travelled, Ifthe probe beams are ony iret at the Upper prt of the metal or here is no suitable back wal here may be no back wall ial. Det Tf planer type crack is resent in the metal in the overiapping beam ofthe two probes difracton signals from the tp and bottom tip are seen between te lateral wave and the back wall. These signalsare generally much weaker than the backweall signal but stronger than the lateral wave fhe defect has lite height then the signa fom the top and ‘bottom may run into eack other. Thus the importance of a minimum aumber of eyes in the signals inorder to improve the resolution ofthe signals fom the top snd batom of small defects, ‘Because the dffation gas ao so weak they cannot slays be easily seen ona single ‘A-scan and its ony by displaying the successive A-scans fom a sean in B-san frm hat the pater of the diffacon signals becomes clear. Signal averaging is very important in these situations because improves the signal-to-noise rato ‘Again this is why TOFD is very difficle with an analogue law detector where only a single A-scan display is available. ‘Shear or mode converted shear slanals ‘After the compression bick wall signal a much large signal generally appears and i @ back wall shear reflected signal and itis often mistaken forthe compression back wall Sina. Between these signals other signal are generally observed du to mode conversion fate defect into shear wares which thn takes longer time fr the signa to ave tthe eis often very sof toll signals in this region since genie defect signals re ‘repeated a longer times and nec surfce defect signals maybe clearer since they ae ‘spread out in time more forthe shear waves. Ray Paths The ay paths depicted in Fgute 3.6 are simply those that happen to connest the probes aud erack tps. They dot represent special angles at which éiffacion only occurs Diffraction ean occur at all angles and hogs rays in the Beam spread which happen o hit the tips wil be diffracted and hit the receiver. 3.3.3. Phase Relationships ‘An A-scan is reproduced in Figure 3.7 and contains the [teal wave and back wall signals. ‘When @ wave in a medium witha higher acoustic impedances telfeced atthe rteraee to «lower acoustic impedance thor is a phase change of 180 degrees (eg steel to water oF ‘Stel to at) This means that ifthe waveform starts with a positive cycle before it hits the wal it wil stat with a sgative eyele after reflection fom the wall (Chapter 3 TOFD techrique page: 17“Tae Receint atc gee seat Bacal eho ‘Asean epesettion Figure 3.7 A-sean with no Defect Present ‘When a defects present the situation shove in figure 3.8 occurs. The signal from the top ofthe defect acts as ifit had undergone a reflection from a backwall and has a phase ‘change of 180 degrees, ., the phase i ike abackwall and starts with a negative eye. The bottom oFadefes,towever, acts as if the wave runs round the bottom without a ‘hase change and the phuse ofthe signal is ike the lateral wave, i. it tarts with a positive cycle. Theoty shows that two diffation signals have opposite phase they must havea eontinuous erack aetween them, Thoory also shows that in afew cases the top and bottom difeaction signals may not have a phase change of 180 degrees, but in general they will, Thus the recognition of phase change is very important for characterising signals And for making the most accurate defect sizing. For example two signals may be preseat ‘which ae from two slaglins rather than a single creck. In this ease tere will not be 8 phase change, Slag lines and poces are generally to thin to produce separate top and bottom signals. Because the numberof observed cycles ina signal very much depends on the amplitude of ‘the signals it soften dificult to recognise the phase. This is expecially tr forthe ‘ackewall whichis generlly saturated. In hese situations itis important ost the probes smple being examined a» elihraton block and tum the gain down so that the allo anyother dfficlt signal has the samo sroon height asthe defect signals and then increase the grin making a note of how the signal grows with respect to the order of ‘the phases. tis sometimes easiest to concentrate on the two or three most predominant cycles. ‘Chapter 3 TOFD technique go> 18 —tis because the phase information is imprtant hat it is necessary to collect the TOFD ‘uectfied signals digitally “Tanenite Reve Lateral aime bet ae RE attra Lamieen femrcf ate oe Asc nnn Figure 3.8 A-sean with Defect Present 33.34 DepthCatetaton “The depth ofa efleco calculated from th anval time of he pulse by simple teigonomery. There ine recourse ometsutement of amplitude. The posioning of he tip signals then provides information on he ats Aaw sizes and eight estimates below tho seamed sure and rough wall size. Fora reflector situate smumetily beneath the probes, a shown in Fgue39 the distance travelled in millimetres betwen the probes, distance = 216" + dy"? half the probe cent separation (PCS) 2s, am de depth of efector, mm (0! meas guae oto the number inthe brackets Hence theme, akenin microseconds whee t=26 + d)"7e locity of sound in units of mm. (Chapter 3 TOFD techngue page 19backoall Figure 3.9 Basie TOFD parameters “Thus by earangement ofthe above equation the deph can be expressed as a function of the measured time, d= |(et/2)°- s']"" ‘Assumption - the above’ the formula used to calculate depth for an observed signal and italways assumes that ho flaw tip is symmetrically located between the two probes. Very often the reflector will not be symmetrically positioned beneath the probes and tere ‘will be an ecorin the clslation of depth (for non-parallel scans along the weld) This is dligeussed in more desl nthe Chapter on Errors and Appendix 1, and a method is ‘described in Appendix 2 for improving the determination of depth fora non-parallel sean uilisng the additional information inthe modo converted diffraction signal In most situations, however, witha single “V" weld the addtional depth eror due tothe off-axis Tocation is small. Aso wen determining flaw height fom top and bottom ip diffaction's the off axis eror wil tend to cancel. The off-axis error doesnot apply inthe ease of parallel scans cross the weld. "The typical size ofthe eror for depth measurements is +o¢- Imam (see Chapter on Enos), but when used i repeat inspections for erck growth monitoring using the same probe array and equipment the eror is reduced to typically +or-03 mm, ‘Because ofthe piteh-catch probe arrangement the relationship between depth and time is not Lneae and has car he seen fom the above equation it has a quadratic form. Software should be available to convert the colleted B- oF D-scan int a linear depth scale by 8 process known as lineation. Tis thee puvides & Bor D-scan linear with depth and ‘his maybe more set 0 plot fora report. Very often when analysing the data iis referable to work fom ‘he raw collected data withthe data plotted onthe time axis, ‘lcause the paths lo reflectors near tothe surface re almost horizontal a small change in time represent large change in depth, Ths, conversion to a nea depth scale tends to spread out the nea surfie signals and the lateral wave appears out of proportion. An alerative method for depth measurements io use a cursor on the av data and read out dept atthe position ofthe cursor. Chapter 3 TOFD technique page: 20“The other effect of this nonlinear depth scale, has wll be shown inthe Chapter on Eros, is thatthe eroron the depth measurement increases rapidly near the tp sure. Thus tbecause of the presence of the lateral wave andthe increasing depth error TOFD is ‘not so useful for inspeeting the near surface region for Internal flaws, typeally the first 10 mm when only cne sean is used, However, by reducing the PCS and maybe Using @ higher frequency then more of the nea surface region canbe directly inspeted, ‘but with some reduction inthe volume of eoverage. For example, by using higher Frequency probes (~ 15 Miz) and a small PCS, tin samples can he inspected to within a ‘millimetre or so of the surface, 33.35 Measurement of Time and ntl Probe-Canve-Soparaion Depth Calibration practise the depth alclation needs o tke into acount the exta delay in the measured time dot the pssgef he vound though the robe hos. Tis delay is known asthe probe delay icressonds. Ths th total tens ime mesure isin praise given by t= 266+ a)!/e + 2, and the depths given by d= [(c!2)'(-2t,7- 1" Thus it would appear thao clelate te depth for afetletor with a tans tine ot us that a knowledge of the ean veloiy, probe delay and probe centre separation is ‘eauie, However, it wl be shown in the Chapter on Error that a moe accra Calculation of the depth canbe made ithe voc and probe dla are found rom the smowsarement of the postions of he ateral wave and back wall signals, This procedure testo reduce any systematic errors sch serrate PCS. “The lateral yave lgna cous ata ie, ys ands ven by t= 2sle + 2t, and the back wall atti andi given by ty= 2s? + D?)"/e + 2t, vere D thins ofthe spe By reraning the wo eustion the probe delay and velcty can be ound ithe Pe 2, andthe thekness D i known, i = 2s? + D)!2-25 (et) ty- 266 + De ond 24, “Thus the recommended method of measuring depth sto measure the PCS and the thickness of the sample and enter the values into the file header before stating a scan "Then to measure a dethin « B- or D-scan, ifthe relevant sofware is availabe, frst measure the postion ofthe lateral and back wall signals and let the computer ‘utomatially calculate the probe delay and velocity. Then at each cursor position inthe Jmage the depth ean be calculated, Obviously if there sno lateral or back wal signal then Chapter 3 TOFD technique page- 21 -‘only one signal cn be se for calibration an either the velocity or probe delay must also ba input tothe program. "The PCS is measufed between the index points ofthe two probes. “Measurement of tine of arrival of various signal Besauoe of the phase chasges inthe various signals ere must be taken in when choosing ‘the position for measuring the time of arrival ofthe various signals inorder to obtain the most accurate depth estinates. The prime requirement is to be consistent in the various ‘measurements. One cou choose to measure tothe peak signa, but since the back wall Signal is often saturated ths is more difficult, One suggestion isto messure the time ata trossover point when theeycle changes from positive lo negative. This is quite easy if there ise readout oftime and amplitude asa cursor is moved about the B-ot D-scan, since the reading should change at the cross over point fom negative to positive or vice verse. ‘The sample nearest poit nearest to an amplitude of zero should be chosen ‘A possible st of positions are shown in Figure 3.10. Ifthe lneral wave slats with say positive cycle take the rewing atthe sat ofthe eyele. The equivalent tim atthe back ‘val signal will ten be, because of the phase chang, the start ofthe fist negative cycle. However, in th exampleshown the stat ofthe second negative eyele has been chosen ‘because the amplitude is much greater and thre are more eyles. The second negative ‘eyele is deemed inthis ease tobe the equivalent cycle to that use forthe Iateral wave. For the tip difrction siguals the stact ofthe fist negative signal is chasen forthe top of the erak and the first postive signal forthe botfom ofthe eack. measure tine hare She ie Wr hk Figure 3.10 Consistent measurement of time of various signals [nitalehoice of PCS for an Inspection Chapter 3 TOFD technique page-22-or a now inspection the best choice of PCS fora single non-parallel san is such that the ultasonic beam centres are aimed at two thes of the depth ofthe sample. This will hen in general give coverage ofthe majority of the weld. Irthe beam centre angle in the metal i then in general tan@ =s/depth and at two thirds the doth the PCS, 2s = (4/3)Dtan0 where D isthe thickness of the sample. I willbe shown willbe seen ina later Chapter that when siming ata specific depth, d eg fora parallel scan thatthe PCS is given by, 2s=2dtan Check cllesting corre part of Asean Since the lateral wave isften very weak and theresa very strong shear wave bac wall Signal Beyond the compression back wal signal itis esyt take the ltr forthe lateral ‘ave andthe shear wave signal for the back wall signal, Always check thatthe observed ‘Signals correspond tothe calculated times of arial ofthe lateral wave and back wall sienal, i Intral wave y= 2s/e + 2ty and back wall ty= 266° + D)"7/e + 2t, 3.3.3.6 Pattoms for Surface breaking Defects For surface breaking cracks the expected TOFD Bor D-sean will be mosifed. Thus ifthe defect breaks the upper surface the lateral wave will normally be eliminated (shown in Figure 3.11) or very mach duced ia amplitude. I the defect isnt very lng then the Iateral wave may partially get round the side ofthe defect sukice Spening crack Be backoal echo non-parallel scan Figure 3.11 Surface opening crackin a non-parallel sean For eraks open tothe bck wall the resultant D-sean is shown in Figure 3.12. The effet on the back wall depend: onthe height ofthe crack und the volume of coverage ofthe probe setup. or eraeks with smal penetration int the metal the dftacton signal shouldbe seen just lbove the back wall wit aarmally no change inthe appearance of the back wall signal This is because the majority ofthe ultrasonic beam sil gts past the cack. Ifthe rack penetrates in somewhat further the back wall signal may fose some amplitude and have 3 {ip duet the longer pat for sound atthe edge of the beam stil being reflected ftom the Chapter 3 TOFD technique page 23“The importance ofthe parallel scan is illustrated in Figure 3.15, In the Figure a lack-ot fusion defect with constant height and length inthe ple ofthe weld is assumed. The ‘non-parallel sean will give a parallel set of difraction signal extending over the length of the defect with characterstie shaped are tthe ends where the pth length is Tonger asthe probes approach and leave the defect, However, there is no knowledge tobe gained from the D-scan of the location of the reflectors in the eros sectional plane across the weld The defects could be fom any position inthe beam coverage ofthe probes. This is illustra in Figure 3.16 \, Zack of ison detect VA ‘roe section rons weld Figure 3.14 Parallel or Transverse Sean ‘Bean fom parle sean Far 315 ie bere on garal and pal an ——o = x 7 BS some J pty ion over which sgn observed clipe wh constant ine-f figha 71 ¥T2 Chapter 3 TOFD technique ages 26~Figure 3.16 Uncertainty in lateral position ina non-parallel scan In Figure 3.16 a signal wth a certain transi time could be anywhere onthe locus of an ellipse withthe two probe positions asthe focal points Tis means that the reflectors may rot be symmetrically stuted beneath the probes and hence the depth calalaion will not be the most agcurate, The enor isin general very small because due tothe Timitations of beam spread the variation in depth is over the almost horizontal part ofthe ellipse. ‘With te parallel sean, provided a complete sean is obtained, the probes traverse over the defect and at some point ie reflectors ae symmetrically positioned beneath the probes, thus giving the most accurate depth, This i shown in the figure by the characteristic ares produced by this type of an, As the probes approach the reflectors the signal starts and ‘ses asthe pathlength shortens unfl he minimum is reached when the reflectors symmetrically beneath the two probes. The peak position coresponds to this minimum time. "This peak postion also gives the location ofthe reflector in the weld cros section ané the ‘lative postion ofa crack top and boom signal gives an indication ofthe erack ‘orientation, Ifthe scan is earied out with an encoder andthe start position is known wit ‘respect to the weld cei ine, then it shouldbe pesibleto locate the postion in the weld ‘ross section to within on o two millimetes. This is very important since the location of the defect wil help to provide a clue forthe characterisation of the defect. To obiain good results, however it may be necessary to usea smaller PCS and narrower beam width in ‘order fo obtain a sharp peak. Thmany instances, bcatse ofthe need to complete the inspection quickly or beeause of financial constraints, inspoctions are only erred with the non-parallel scan. However, in ‘order to make a reasonable guess as to the type of defect and to got the best sizing Accuracy parallel scans shoul be cared out overall the signals of intrest found inthe ‘non-parallel scans. If thedefect i log then parallel scans should be caried out at different positions along ts length. 3.5 Main Uses Of TOFD. "The main uses of the TOFD technique ate, ') for accurate flaw sizing, TOFD is one ofthe most accurate techniques specially fr internal defects. ») For screening and sizing, Since TOFD can detect all the flaws in te beam ‘coverage itrespetive of orientation it has a high probability of detection. The fact that inspection daa is collected in B- or D-scan form also improves the election of rics in the presence of signals fom goometic Features sich as ‘mismatch and weld defects such as excess penetration or undercut. Most welds ‘canbe rapidly ereened by TOFD snd demonstrated tat they are fee of significant fas «Change monitering. TOFD is one of the most accurate methods available for measuring the growth of laws. ‘The development of acceptance codes for TOFD has been slow. However, with the evelopment of Inspection Standards (British and European) aoveptance codes have been proposed, An example ofan acceptance code is given in Chapter 7. Chapter 3 TOPD technique page: 273.6 Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of TOFD. ‘TOFD isa most power technique, not only for accurate depth sizing of defects but also or detection in routine ingpestons, Howover, its lack of edequate acceptance criteria till prohibits its use in some ingpetions. Various evaluation projects have demonstrated that the technique combines «high pobebiliy of detection (POD) with a fow fase call rate (PCR). In adition the simplicity of its seanning concept enables application on many dierent component, inluding complex geometry Procedures and eriteria forthe acceptance rejection of weld defects are essential for NOT. and hence the importance of codes and standards for industry. Any new technique presents ‘problems af ntial accepance since aceplance criteria often tend tobe based on “known practise” (eg. radiograpyy), Thus iis very important to develop criteria for TOFD ‘which are compatible wih ls unique ability, i mapping the the position ofthe edges of defect, Like anyother technique POFD has its limitations (see below for advantages aud