Sinusoidal steady-state analysis

 So far, we focused on circuits with constant sources

 Now we consider circuits energized by

time-varying voltage or currente sources

 We are interested in sources in which the value of the voltage or current varies sinusoidally.

Why sinusoidal sources important ?

 Generation, transmission, distribution and consumption of electric energy

occur under sinusoidal steady-state conditions

 An understanding of sinusoidal behavior makes it possible

to predict the behavior of circuits with nonsinusoidal sources

 Steady-state sinusoidal behavior often simplifies the design of electrical systems

an engineer designs the circuit or system to meet desired steady-state

sinusoidal response characteristic

Therefore;
 if the device satisfies the specifications

the circuit will most probably respond satisfactorily to nonsinusoidal

inputs.

Note that;
 circuit analysis techniques can as well be used for sinusoidal circuits.

The sinusoidal source

 A sinusoidal voltage(current) source (independent or dependent) produces a voltage(current)

that varies sinusoidally with time

 We can express a sinusoidally varying function with either sine or cosine function

both are equivalent.

 We use the cosine function in our analysis

V  Vm cos( t   )

9.1
Period

 The sinusoidal function repeats at regular intervals

such a function is called periodic.

 The length of time required to pass through all its possible values

referred to as the period of the function and denoted with T

Frequency

 The number of cycles per second denoted by f in Hertz

 Given by the reciprocal of T

1
f  ( Hz )
T

Angular frequency

 The coefficient of t in the sinusoidal function,  represents the angular frequency of the
sinusoidal function.

 Described as
2
  2 f  (radians/sec)
T

The coefficient, Vm

 Gives the maximum amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage

 As  1 bounds the cosine function

 V m bounds the amplitude

9.2
Phase angle,(  )

 Determines the value of the sinusoidal function at t=0

 Changing the phase angle  shifts the sinusoidal function along time axis

with NO effect on either the amplitude or the angular frequency  

rms value

 An important characteristic of a sinusoidal voltage(current)

 Defined as the square root of the mean valued of squared function

1
Vrms 
TT Vm2 cos 2 ( t   )dt

 Using trigonometric identities and periodicity gives

Vm
Vrms 
2

The sinusoidal response

 Let us consider the following circuit

where V s is a sinusoidal voltage, or

Vs  Vm cos( t   )

 We assume the initial current in the circuit to be zero

 The task is to derive the expression for

i(t )  ? , t 0

 Direct application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law gives an ordinary differential equation.

di
L  iR  Vm cos( t   )
dt

9.3
  The formal solution for i(t ) can be written as

i(t )  ih (t )  i p (t )

where
ih (t ) : referred to as homogeneous solution.

the transient component of the current as it becomes infinitesimal as

time elapses

i p (t ) : referred to as particular solution

the steady-state component of the solution existing as source supplies

sinusoidal voltage

The phasor method

 We develop a technique for calculating the particular solution (steady-state response) directly

thus, avoiding the problem of solving differential equation

 The phasor is a complex number

that carries the amplitude and phase angle information of a sinusoidal function

 The phasor concept is rooted in Euler’s identity

e  j  cos   j sin 

 Then we can express

 
cos   Re e j
sin   Ime  j

 We can also write the sinusoidal voltage as follows

V  Vm cos t   

 Vm Re e j ( t  ) 
 V Ree
m
j t
e j

 ReV e m
j
e j t 
Note that;

 The quantity Vm e j is a complex number

that carries the amplitude and phase angle of the given sinusoidal function

9.4
  This complex number is called “the phasor representation” or “phasor transform” of the given
sinusoidal function.

Phasor transform

 The phasor transform of Vm cos( t   ) is described as

V  Vm e j  P Vm cos( t   )

 Accomplishes a transform from time-domain to complex domain which is also called

“frequency domain”

Moreover;
 We use an abbreviation as follows

Vm cos( t   ) 

P
Vm  

Inverse phasor transform

 For a given phasor

we may write the expression for the sinusoidal function

e.g.
V  100  26  , then V  100 cos( t  26  )

 Thus we have,
1
Vm  PVm cos( t   )

 The phasor transform is useful in circuit analysis

 It reduces the task of finding the maximum amplitude and phase angle of the steady-state
sinusoidal response.

Basic observations

1. The homogeneous solution (transient component) vanishes

so the particular solution (steady-state component) must satisfy the

differential equation.

2. In a linear circuit driven by sinusoidal sources, the steady-state response is also sinusoidal

the frequency of the sinusoidal response is the same as the frequency of the
sinusoidal source

3. We can postulate that the steady-state solution is of the form


Re Ae j e j t 
9.5
where
A : maximum amplitude of the response
 : phase angle of the response

4. When we substitute the postulated solution into the differential equation

the exponential term e j t cancels out leaving the solution for A and  in
the domain of complex numbers.

Illustration of our observations in RL circuit

 Let the steady-state solution for the current be


iss (t )  Re I m e j e j t 
 Substituting into the differential equation gives

    
Re jLI m e j e j t  Re RI m e j e j t  Re Vm e j e j t 
 Re jL  R I e e   ReV e e 
m
j j t
m
j j t

 Note that if we had used sine function in our analysis,

  
I m  jL  RI m e j e j t  I m Vm e j e j t 

 When both the real and imaginary parts of two complex quantities are equal, we get

 jL  R I m e j  V m e j
V m e j
 I m e j 
R  jL

 Therefore, the task of finding I m and 

involves the algebric manipulation of the complex quantities Vm e j and

R  jL

Remark. The phasor/inverse phasor transforms allow to go back and forth between the time-domain
and frequency domain

i.e. obtaining a solution implies that you are either in the time-domain or
frequency domain NOT both

Remark. The phasor transform also applies to the sum of sinusoidal functions

the superposition principle works

9.6
Passive circuit elements in the frequency domain

 We need to establish the relationship between

the phasor current and the phasor voltage at the terminals of the passive
circuit elements

 We must also develop the phasor domain version of the Kirchhoff’s laws

by using the passive sign convention

The V-I relationship for a resistor

 If the current in a resistor varies sinusoidally with time

that is, i (t )  I m cos( t   )

 Then we have from Ohm’s law

V  RI m cos( t   )

 The phasor transform of this voltage is

V  RI m e j  RI m  
 RI

where I  I m   is the phasor transform of current

 This shows that the current and voltage of a resistor are in phase

both reach corresponding values at the same time.

The V-I relationship for an Inductor

 We assume that a sinusoidal current over an inductor

 Thus, for i (t )  I m cos( t   ) , we get

di
V L  LI m sin(  t   )
dt
 LI m cos( t    90)

9.7
  The phasor transform of V is
V  LI m e j ( 90 )  LI m e  j 90 e j
 


 Since e  j 90   j , we obtain
V  jLI m e j
 jLI

 Hence the frequency-domain equivalent of the inductor

 This implies that the voltage leads the current by 90 

OR, the current lags behind the voltage by 90 

The V-I relationship for a Capacitor

 We can derive it from the differential relationship of capacitor current and its voltage as

dV (t )
i (t )  C
dt

 Assume that V  Vm cos( t   ) , then

i (t )  CVm sin(  t   )
 CVm cos( t    90  )

 The phasor transform of i(t ) is given by

I  CVm e j ( 90 )  CVm e  j 90 e j

 

 jCVm e j
 jCV

 Thus we get an equivalent capacitor circuit in phasor domain

1
V  I
jC
the current leads the voltage by
90 

9.8
Impedance and reactance

 In the frequency domain, the Ohm’s law can be written as follows

V  ZI

where
Z : represents the impedance of the circuit element
V : voltage phasor
I : current phasor

 Impedance is measured in Ω’s

Note that;
 Although impedance is a complex number

it is NOT a phasor

 Impedance in the frequency domain is the quantity

analogous to resistance, inductance and capacitance in the time-domain

Reactance

 The imaginary part of the impedance is called reactance

Kirchhoff’s laws in the frequency domain

 The phasor transform applies to Kirchhoff’s laws

 One can use node voltage and mesh current techniques

to find phasor currents and voltages

 Phasor circuit analysis consist of two fundamental tasks :

1. Construct the frequency domain model of a circuit

2. Manipulate complex numbers and/or quantities algebraically

9.9
Ex. Consider the following circuit

a. Construct the frequency

domain equivalent circuit

b. Calculate the steady-state

current i by the phasor
method

a.
Vs  750 cos(5000t  30  )

Z R  90
Z L  jL  j 5000  32  10 3
 j 160

Z C  1 / j C  1 / j  5000  5  10 6 
  j 40

 Then the total impedance is

Z  Z R  Z L  Z C  90  j 160  j 40
 90  j 120  150 53.13 

 The phasor transform of voltage source is

V  75030 

b. Therefore,

V 750 30 
I   5  23.13 
Z 150 53 .13 

 i (t )  5 cos(5000 t  23.13  ) A

Source transformations and Thévenin-Norton equivalent circuits

 These analytical techniques can also be applied to frequency-domain circuits

 We can follow the same process except that

we substitute impedance (Z ) for resistance (R)

9.10
 OR

 and a source transformation in the frequency-domain can be shown as

Note that;
 once we obtain a Thévenin equivalent

we can get its Norton equivalent by applying source transformation

Ex. Find the Thévenin equivalent with respect to terminals a, b for the circuit shown as follows

9.11
Thévenin voltage

 This voltage is the open-circuit voltage

appearing at the terminals a, b

 Let us apply node-voltage method at nodes and

:
V x  120 V x V x  VTh
  0
12 60  j 40
( j 10) ( j 2) ( 3)

  3  j 12 V x  j 1200  3VTh  0

:
VTh  10V x VTh  V x
 0
120  j 40
( j) ( 3)

 3  j VTh  (3  j 10)Vx 0

3 j
 Vx  VTh
3  j 10

 Then we get

 3  j 12 3  j 
VTh  j 1200  3VTh  0
3  j 10
 9  j 3  j 36  12  9  j 30   j 1200  VTh 
12000  j 3600
3  j 10 12  j 9

4000  j 1200 4000  j 1200 4  j 3

VTh  
4 j3 25
 784  j 288  835 .22  20.17 

Thévenin impedance

 We can use either short circuit current method or test voltage method

 Let us apply the short circuit current, i SC technique

9.12
 Note that we can apply node-voltage technique for node

V x  120 Vx V
  x 0
12  j 40 60
( j 10) ( 3) ( j 2)

 3  j 12 Vx  j 1200  0  Vx 
j 1200
 3  j 12

 then
  10V x Vx 
i SC    0
 120  j 40 
 
 1 1  j 1200  3  j 10 j 1200
 i SC     
 (12 j 40   3  j 12 j 120  3  j 12
 j 10) ( 3) 

 3  j 10
 10
 3  j 12
 8.43  j 0.39

 Hence we obtain

VTh
Z Th 
i SC
784  j 288

8.43  j 0.39
 91.2  j 38.4

9.13
Alternative method

 Let us apply the test voltage method

 We first deactivate the independent voltage source

V x V x V x  VT
  0
12 60  j 40
( j 10) ( j 2) ( 3)

3
 V x (3  j 12)  3VT  0  Vx   VT
 3  j 12

VT  V x VT  10V x
  IT  0
 j 40 120
( 3) ( j)

 (3  j 10)V x  (3  j )VT  j 120 I T  0

 3 3  j 10 VT
 (3  j )VT  j 120 I T
 3  j 12

 9  j 30  9  j 3  j 36  12 
VT  j 120 I T
 3  j1 2

VT j 120 (3  j 12)

   91.2  j 38 .4 
IT  12  j 9

9.14
Ex. Use the node-voltage method to find the steady-state expression for V (t ) in the following
circuit.

i s  10 cos  t A
Vs  100 sin  t V , where
  50 k rad / s

 Let us calculate the impedances

1 1
ZC  6

j  50  10  9  10
3
j 0.45

Z L  j  50  10 3  100  10 6  j 5
i s  100 
Vs  100   90  V  100 j

 Applying node-voltage method gives

V V V V  100 j
 10     0
5 1 j5 20
j  0.45

 
 1 1 1 
  10  j 5  V   j 0.45   0
 ( j 4)
5 ( j 20) j 5 20 
 ( 4) ( j)

5 j5
  10  j 5  V 0
j 20
j 4(10  j 5) 20  j 40
 V    (1  j )(20  j 40 ) / 2
1 j 1 j
 10  j 30
 V (t )  31 .63 cos(50000 t  71 .57  ) V

9.15
Ex. Use the mesh-current method to find the phasor current I in the circuit shown as

Note that
I a  I , I c  0.75 V x

 and Vx   j 5 ( I a  I b )   j 5 ( I  I b )  I c   j 3.75 ( I  I b )

 applying mesh current equations

 33.8  (1  j 2) I  (3  j 5)( I  I b )  0

(3  j 5)( I  I b )  ( I b  I c )2  0
 (3  j 5)( I  I b )  2I b  j 3.75( I  I b )  0

 We can rearrange equations and as follows

(4  j 3) I  (3  j 5) I b  33.8
(3  j 5  j 7.5) I  (3  j 5  2  j 7.5) I b  0
 (3  j 2.5) I  (5  j 2.5) I b  0
3  j 2.5
 Ib  I
5  j 2.5

3  j 2.5
(4  j 3) I  (3  j 5) I  33.8
5  j 2.5
 (4  j 3)(5  j 2.5)  (3  j 5)(3  j 2.5)I  33.8 (5  j 2.5)

 (6  j 2.5) I  169  j 84.5  I  29  j 2  29.07 3.95 

9.16