COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (359/18/S05)

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Definitions
✓ IT

It is an organized combination and use of hardware, software, telecommunications, database

management and other information processing technologies used in a computer-based information
system.

✓ Computer

A computer may be defined in a number of ways from different sources and point of research and
reference.

Below are some definitions of a computer:

1) It is a device that has ability to accept data, internally store and execute a program of
instructions, perform mathematical, logical and manipulative operations on the data and
reports on the results.
2) An electronic machine that works under the control of stored programs to accept, process
and output data/ information for use by the operator.
3) A functional unit that can perform substantial computation, including numerous arithmetic
operations or logic operations, without human intervention during a run.
4) Put simply, it is a machine that accepts data (input) and processes it into useful information
(output).

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5) A computer can also be defined as a programmable machine. It allows the user to store all
sorts of information and then ‘process’ that information, or data, or carry out actions with
the information, such as calculating numbers or organizing words.
6) The word “Computer” comes from the word “Compute”, which means to calculate. Hence, a
computer is normally considered to be a calculating device, which can perform arithmetic
operations at enormous speed.
7) Generally, a computer is a high-speed digital device that accepts processes and stores data
automatically by means of sophisticated hardware and software to produce the required
output. It operates by executing a set of instructions normally called computer programs.

All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic
operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

No. Operation Description

1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.

Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as
2 Store Data
and when required.

Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to convert

3 Processing Data
them into useful information.

Output The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such
4
Information as a printed report or visual display.

Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are
5
workflow performed.

✓ Computer System
It is an interrelated system of input, processing, output, storage and control components, thus a
computer system consist of input and output devices, primary and storage devices, the central
processing unit, the control unit within the CPU and other peripherals.

✓ Computer program
It is a set of instructions, written in a specific programming language, which a computer follows in
processing data, performing an operation, or solving a logical problem.

A computer program is a set of statements or instructions to be used directly or indirectly in a

computer in order to bring about a certain result.

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✓ Data and Information

Description Data Information

Raw facts, events and figures Processed data that has meaning

Cannot be used for decision Useful for decision making and

making and control control

Useful as input into the computer Usually the output of a computer

system system

Uses of computers

✓ Business

A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which has
made it an integrated part in all business organizations. Computer is used in business
organizations for −

1) Payroll calculations
2) Budgeting
3) Sales analysis
4) Financial forecasting
5) Managing employee database
6) Maintenance of stocks, etc.

✓ Banking

Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers. Banks provide the following facilities −

1) Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits and
overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
2) ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for customers to
deal with banks.

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✓ Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. Insurance
companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing −

1) Procedure to continue with policies

2) Starting date of the policies
3) Next due instalment of a policy
4) Maturity date
5) Interests due
6) Survival benefits
7) Bonus

✓ Education

The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

1) The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education).
2) CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
3) Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
4) There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to
educate the students.
5) It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out
on this basis.

✓ Marketing

In marketing, uses of the computer are following −

1) Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and
revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
2) Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use of computerized
catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to
be filled by the customers.

✓ Healthcare

Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being
used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and
diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by

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computerized machines. Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are
used.

1) Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of illness.
2) Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by computer.
3) Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for abnormality
such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
4) Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry dates,
harmful side effects, etc.
5) Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

✓ Engineering Design

Computers are widely used for engineering purpose. One of the major areas is CAD (Computer
Aided Design) that provides creation and modification of images. Some of the fields are −

1) Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships, buildings,
budgets, airplanes, etc.
2) Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and improvement
of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.
3) Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings,
determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

✓ Military

Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also employs
computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are:

1) Missile Control
2) Military Communication
3) Military Operation and Planning
4) Smart Weapons

✓ Communication

Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this
category are −

1) E-mail
2) Chatting
3) Usenet
4) FTP

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5) Telnet
6) Video-conferencing

✓ Government

Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this category are:

1) Budgets
2) Sales tax department
3) Income tax department
4) Computation of male/female ratio
5) Computerization of voters lists
6) Computerization of PAN card
7) Weather forecasting

Why computers

1) Computers reduce or eliminate jobs that are repetitive

2) Work can be completed faster and more easily
3) Complex calculations can be done at higher speeds
4) Computers are greatly accurate
5) Computer provide professional output
6) Computers allow faster retrieval of information

Why not computers

1) Computers are expensive to acquire and maintain

2) Associated with health problems like RSI
3) There is high risk of GIGO
4) Computers are prone to violation of privacy
5) Computers have a negative impact on labour force

Ideal requirements of a computer room

✓ Room specifications

1) Location-The computer room should be located in such a way that computers are not
exposed to direct sunlight or hot environment, use curtains if otherwise. Curtains reduce
the amount of light getting to the screens and other computer equipment. Light damages
screens.

2) Room walls, ceiling, and doors should be sound isolated from other occupied areas.

3) Doors should be 42" to 48" wide, and 8' tall.

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4) Antistatic floor finishing (no wax) is recommended for raised floor tiles or sheet vinyl.

5) Room should not have windows (for security, sound, and environmental management
reasons). if it's a server room

✓ Electro-mechanical

1) Room cooling and humidity control should be via an independent AC system (i.e., not
connected to main building system), with a return air design point temperature and relative
humidity of 72°F (±2°F) and 45% (±5%), respectively.

2) There should be sufficient clearance (minimum 4') between the A/C unit and computer
racks in order to avoid potential damage from water leaks, as well as to allow for
maintenance access.

3) Power supply – power supply should be of the right voltage and supplied from safe socket
outlet. Power cables should not cross the room to avoid interfering with free movements.

4) Use of Uninterrupted Power Supplies (UPS) – in the event of unanticipated power loss or
power surge there should be some standby power alternative so that the users’ information
is not lost.

5) The room should have separate, dedicated power panels for both computer equipment and
the A/C system. Mechanical and electrical systems should be designed for long term,
maximum expected room utilization (though not to exceed 300 watts per square foot).

6) Building power quality considerations should be taken into account to determine the need
for isolation transformers, UPS systems, and other power conditioning equipment. To the
extent possible, such heat generating support equipment should not be located in the server
room

7) Emergency/backup power should not be tied into the building life safety system. The
department must supply and maintain separate backup power (e.g., UPS or generator) if
desired.

8) Computer room electrical distribution system should have easily accessible shunt trip
capabilities for emergency shutdown.

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Computer generations
✓ First Generation computers (1945-1956)

By 1941 German engineer Conrad Zeus had developed a computer, the Z3, to design airplanes and
missiles.

In 1943, the British completed a secret code-breaking computer called Colossus to decode German
messages. Colossus was not a general-purpose computer; it was only designed to decode secret
messages. Second, the existence of the machine was kept secret until decades after the war.

The Harvard-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, or Mark I for short was in 1944. The
purpose of the computer was to create ballistic charts for the U.S. Navy. It was about half as long
as a football field and contained about 500 miles of wiring. The machine was slow (taking 3-5
seconds per calculation) and inflexible (in that sequences of calculations could not change); but it
could perform basic arithmetic as well as more complex equations.

Another computer development spurred by the war was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer (ENIAC), produced by a partnership between the U.S. government and the University of
Pennsylvania. Consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and 5 million soldered joints,
the computer was such a massive piece of machinery that it consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical
power, ENIAC, unlike the Colossus and Mark I, was a general-purpose computer that computed at
speeds 1,000 times faster than Mark I.

John von Neumann designed the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) in
1945 with a memory to hold both a stored program as well as data. This "stored memory" technique
as well as the "conditional control transfer," that allowed the computer to be stopped at any point
and then resumed, allowed for greater versatility in computer programming. The key element to the
von Neumann architecture was the central processing unit, which allowed all computer functions
to be coordinated through a single source.

In 1951, the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer), built by Remington Rand, became one of
the first commercially available computers to take advantage of these advances. Both the U.S.
Census Bureau and General Electric owned UNIVACs. One of UNIVAC's impressive early
achievements was predicting the winner of the 1952 presidential election, Dwight D. Eisenhower.

First generation computers were characterized by the fact that operating instructions were made-
to-order for the specific task for which the computer was to be used. Each computer had a different
binary-coded program called a machine language that told it how to operate.

✓ Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)

Stretch by IBM and LARC by Sperry-Rand.

The machines were costly, however, and tended to be too powerful for the business sector's
computing needs, thereby limiting their attractiveness.

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Second generation computers replaced machine language with assembly language, allowing
abbreviated programming codes to replace long, difficult binary codes.

Throughout the early 1960's, there were a number of commercially successful second-generation
computers used in business, universities, and government from companies such as Burroughs,
Control Data, Honeywell, IBM, Sperry-Rand, and others.

These second-generation computers were also of solid-state design, and contained transistors in
place of vacuum tubes.

They also contained all the components we associate with the modern-day computer: printers, tape
storage, disk storage, memory, operating systems, and stored programs. One important example
was the IBM 1401, which was universally accepted throughout industry, and is considered by many
to be the Model T of the computer industry. By 1965, most large business routinely processed
financial information using second generation computers.

It was the stored program and programming language that gave computers the flexibility to finally
be cost effective and productive for business use. The stored program concept meant that
instructions to run a computer for a specific function (known as a program) were held inside the
computer's memory, and could quickly be replaced by a different set of instructions for a different
function. A computer could print customer invoices and minutes later design products or calculate
pay checks.

More sophisticated high-level languages such as COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language)

and FORTRAN (Formula Translator) came into common use during this time, and have expanded
to the current day. These languages replaced cryptic binary machine code with words, sentences,
and mathematical formulas, making it much easier to program a computer. New types of careers
(programmer, analyst, and computer systems expert) and the entire software industry began with
second generation computers.

✓ Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)

Though transistors were clearly an improvement over the vacuum tube, they still generated a great
deal of heat, which damaged the computer's sensitive internal parts. The quartz rock eliminated
this problem. Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas Instruments, developed the integrated circuit (IC)
in 1958. The IC combined three electronic components onto a small silicon disc, which was made
from quartz.

Scientists later managed to fit even more components on a single chip, called a semiconductor. As
a result, computers became ever smaller as more components were squeezed onto the chip. Another
third-generation development included the use of an operating system that allowed machines to
run many different programs at once with a central program that monitored and coordinated the
computer's memory.

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✓ Fourth Generation (1971-Present)

After the integrated circuits, the only place to go was down - in size, that is. Large scale integration
(LSI) could fit hundreds of components onto one chip. By the 1980's, very large scale integration
(VLSI) squeezed hundreds of thousands of components onto a chip. Ultra-large scale integration
(ULSI) increased that number into the millions. The ability to fit so much onto an area about half
the size of a U.S. dime helped diminish the size and price of computers. It also increased their
power, efficiency and reliability. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, took the integrated circuit
one step further by locating all the components of a computer (central processing unit, memory,
and input and output controls) on a minuscule chip. Whereas previously the integrated circuit had
had to be manufactured to fit a special purpose, now one microprocessor could be manufactured
and then programmed to meet any number of demands. Soon everyday household items such as
microwave ovens, television sets and automobiles with electronic fuel injection incorporated
microprocessors. Such condensed power allowed everyday people to harness a computer's power.

They were no longer developed exclusively for large business or government contracts. By the mid-
1970's, computer manufacturers sought to bring computers to general consumers. These
minicomputers came complete with user-friendly software packages that offered even non-technical
users an array of applications, most popularly word processing and spread-sheet programs.
Pioneers in this field were Commodore, Radio Shack and Apple Computers. In the early 1980's,
arcade video games such as Pac Man and home video game systems such as the Atari 2600 ignited
consumer interest for more sophisticated, programmable home computers.

In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) for use in the home, office and schools. The
1980's saw an expansion in computer use in all three arenas as clones of the IBM PC made the
personal computer even more affordable. The number of personal computers in use more than
doubled from 2 million in 1981 to 5.5 million in 1982. Ten years later, 65 million PCs were being
used. Computers continued their trend toward a smaller size, working their way down from desktop
to laptop computers (which could fit inside a briefcase) to palmtop (able to fit inside a breast pocket).
In direct competition with IBM's PC was Apple's Macintosh line, introduced in 1984. Notable for its
user-friendly design, the Macintosh offered an operating system that allowed users to move screen
icons instead of typing instructions.

Users controlled the screen cursor using a mouse, a device that mimicked the movement of one's
hand on the computer screen.

As computers became more widespread in the workplace, new ways to harness their potential
developed. As smaller computers became more powerful, they could be linked together, or
networked, to share memory space, software, information and communicate with each other. As
opposed to a mainframe computer, this was one powerful computer that shared time with many
terminals for many applications, networked computers allowed individual computers to form
electronic co-ops. Using either direct wiring, called a Local Area Network (LAN), or telephone lines,

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these networks could reach enormous proportions. A global web of computer circuitry, the Internet,
for example, links computers worldwide into a single network of information. During the 1992 U.S.
presidential election, vice-presidential candidate Al Gore promised to make the development of this
so-called "information superhighway" an administrative priority. Though the possibilities
envisioned by Gore and others for such a large network are often years (if not decades) away from
realization, the most popular use today for computer networks such as the Internet is electronic
mail, or E-mail, which allows users to type in a computer address and send messages through
networked terminals across the office or across the world.

✓ Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond)

Defining the fifth generation of computers is somewhat difficult because the field is in its infancy.
The most famous example of a fifth generation computer is the fictional HAL9000 from Arthur C.
Clarke's novel, 2001: A Space Odyssey. HAL performed all of the functions currently envisioned for
real-life fifth generation computers. With artificial intelligence, HAL could reason well enough to
hold conversations with its human operators, use visual input, and learn from its own experiences.
(Unfortunately, HAL was a little too human and had a psychotic breakdown, commandeering a
spaceship and killing most humans on board.)

Though the wayward HAL9000 may be far from the reach of real-life computer designers, many of
its functions are not. Using recent engineering advances, computers may be able to accept spoken
word instructions and imitate human reasoning. The ability to translate a foreign language is also
a major goal of fifth generation computers. This feat seemed a simple objective at first, but appeared
much more difficult when programmers realized that human understanding relies as much on
context and meaning as it does on the simple translation of words.

Many advances in the science of computer design and technology are coming together to enable the
creation of fifth-generation computers. Two such engineering advances are parallel processing,
which replaces von Neumann's single central processing unit design with a system harnessing the
power of many CPUs to work as one. Another advance is superconductor technology, which allows
the flow of electricity with little or no resistance, greatly improving the speed of information flow.
Computers today have some attributes of fifth generation computers. For example, expert systems
assist doctors in making diagnoses by applying the problem-solving steps a doctor might use in
assessing a patient's needs. It will take several more years of development before expert systems
are in widespread use.

Difference between computer generations

✓ Clock speed - newer processors generally run at higher speeds; this is a measure of how
quickly the processor can operate, expressed in hertz. This is not the only relevant figure
when comparing different processors.

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✓ Numbers of cores - in the last couple of years, chip makers have touted the number of cores
on their processors; think of each one as a separate minicomputer of sorts, able to complete
its own tasks; a limitation with multicore processors is the software, which often cannot
take full advantage of multiple cores.

Types of computers
Basically, computers are classified into different classes based on several parameters.

✓ Classification by Basic type

a) Digital computers: these are computers used to process data

b) Analog computers: these are designed to process data in a continuous wave like form. They
process data from machines or instruments such as volt meter, thermometers and speedometers.

c) Hybrid computers: are computers with a combination of digital and analog computer features.

✓ Classification by Purpose

a) General purpose: these are computers designed to carry out a variety of tasks.

b) Special purpose: refers to a computer designed to carry out a single task such as weapon guiding,
military or scientific research and weather forecast.

✓ Classification by Use

a) Personal Computer: these are designed for use by an individual. They are sometimes portable.
They can be connected to a network environment and are also called stand alone. Examples include
(1). The Word Processor - a computer used to produce office documents usually in text. It has very
limited memory and processing capabilities. They are cheap to buy. (2). Home Computer - a cheap
computer that is used for domestic purposes e.g. programmes for games and controlling home
finances.

b) Desktop: is generally a way of classifying whereby all computers used on a desk in an office
environment are included.

c) Workstation: is a computer with more advanced features than an ordinary PC such as

interconnection parts and graphical display units (e.g. used in banks). It is a computer terminal

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(PC or desktop) designed to support the work of one person. It can be high-powered or have other
superior capabilities to PCs or ordinary desktops e.g. capacity to do calculations, graphics and
other advanced logical operations.

d) Lap top: this is a very small computer which can be used comfortably on the lap. It is like a brief
case in shape and has a flat screen. . It is portable and has an in-built rechargeable battery that
can support it when there is no power from the mains.

e) Embedded Computers - These are computers in other devices that cannot be accessed directly
e.g. those in petrol pumps, ATMs, vending machines, cell phones and elevators.

✓ Classification by size/ capabilities (Processing and Storage)

a) Supercomputer Systems

These are extremely powerful mainframe computer systems.

They require a large room. They are equivalent to 4 000 personal computers

They are specifically designed for high speed numeric calculations.

These can process hundreds of millions instructions per second (mips).

They consume high power.

They are expensive (cost $4 m - $5 m)

They can be used by government research agencies, national weather forecasting, spacecraft
construction and navigation, petroleum industry, automobile industry, structural mechanics etc.

Examples include Cray research (CRAY -2), Fujitsu (VP 2000), Hitachi (S820), NEC (Sx20), PARAM
10 000 by C-DAC, Anupam by BARC, PACE series by DRDO.

b) Main frame computer

These are large and powerful general-purpose computer with extensive storage capacity and
processing capability.

They can accommodate several users. Number of users varies from one to six.

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They are used usually as Host Computer on a Wide Area Network (WAN). They are usually situated
at the headquarters of most organisations (banking system, hospitals, insurance companies,
railways etc.).

These are large, powerful computers with a lot of processing capabilities. They are suitable for
medium-size to large corporations where they are used to manage centralised databases. They can
also be linked together to form a powerful and flexible system.

Similar to minicomputers but have several large processors and high processing speeds of up to
200 million instructions per second (mips).

They have massive amounts of storage power.

They can use high speed line printers.

They have a large number of magnetic disks and tape units with large capabilities.

They are multi-user and multi-processing.

They have improved reliability.

Their performance may be enhanced by slotting a smaller system, like a minicomputer between the
terminal and the main processor - the front-end processor (FEP). Both processors run concurrently
with the FEP passing on partially processed data to the main frame for further processing.

They, however, are expensive to buy (cost from $3 500 to many million dollars) and maintain, they
need special and very expensive software and they also require a special environment.

They can be used for large corporations (such as large international banks) and government
departments.

Examples include IBM 3 000 series, Burroughs B 7 900, Univac 1 180, DEC.

c) Minicomputer

Refers to medium sized computers used for general purposes at a smaller scale but usually
designed for special purposes.

It can accommodate two to two hundred users and is usually off hand tasks of the main frame as
front end processor.

They can also control Local Area Networks (LANS) in branches of an organisation as servers.

They have storage capability larger than personal computers.

They can support a variety of transaction processing activities.

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They support magnetic tape storage.

Have multiple hard disks, both fixed and exchangeable.

They can be upgraded when necessary.

They do not require a special environment to work so can allow for decentralisation.

They are less expensive than the mainframe systems.

They have bigger capacities than microprocessors, some have 32 bit microprocessors.

Examples include digital equipment PDP 11/45 and VAX 11

d) Microcomputer

These are the smallest computers used for small scale commercial applications.

They are very cheap with limited storage capacity and processing capability in these computers
several integrated circuits are replaced by a single circuit.

They are also called Personal Computers (PCs) or Desktop Computers.

The system is normally made up of the microprocessor as a CPU, keyboard, VDU one or two floppy
disk drives, a printer and a hard disk drive.

It has a hard disk capacity of 20Mb to 520Mb to 2Gb.

May use a colour or monochrome cathode ray tube (CRT).

Have capabilities for networking.

They are single user.

They occupy little space.

They are capable of multiprogramming.

They are compatible with a wide range of software. They are commonly used in washing machines,
TVs, Cars, desktop publishing, accounting, statistical analysis, graphic designing, project
management, teaching, entertainment, etc.

PCs come in a variety of sizes: notebooks (handheld), laptops, palm top, desktops and floor
standing, wrist PC, IBM PC, PS/2 and Apple Macintosh.

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NB: These boundary lines dividing the categories are not static due technological changes.
Present computers are able to process faster than older main frames; this applies also to
micro and mini computers.

✓ Considerations on classifications based on size

The classification of computers based on the physical size of the computer has become blurred and
a bit misleading. Some seemingly small systems can perform more powerfully than the larger ones.
The power of the computer system depends on the microprocessor.

A microprocessor is a type of an integrated circuit (IC). It has two distinct characteristics - word
size and speed of operation.

Word size - the number of bits dealt with at the same time, some processors are 8 bit, others even
32 bit. The larger the word size the more powerful a computer system is. So some physically bigger
systems may have smaller word sizes and hence less power.

Speed of the microprocessor - it is the clock rate or rate of data transfer, it is the rate at which data
bits are moved around inside at bits per second (megahertz) this is also called the baud rate.
Systems with higher speeds tend to be more powerful though they tend to be physically small.

Career paths in computers (Duties and responsibility of computer personnel)

(a) Computer Operator

S/he operates mainframes, minicomputers, or networks of personal computers. He is responsible

for the efficient running of the computer equipment, which if not ensured efficient running time of
the computer may be lost.

Duties

1) Collecting files and programs required for a computer run from the library.

2) Loading magnetic tapes and disks into drives.

3) Putting stationery into the printer.

4) Carrying out routine maintenance such as cleaning the tapes and read write heads.

5) Ensure the equipment is running efficiently and reporting any faults to the technicians.

6) Replacement of computer accessories e.g. toner cartridges, ribbons, ink.

7) Switching the computer on/off.

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8) Operators also maintain logbooks or operating records, listing each job that is run and
events, such as machine malfunctions, that occur during their shift

(b) Hardware/Software Technician

Provide technical support to end-users within the organization.

Duties

1) Create, initiate and develop desktop computing environment in an organization.

2) Install software programs and applications.

3) Determine, identify and troubleshoot technical problems relating to software and hardware.

4) Install and configure software programs and applications.

5) Execute, test and debug programs.

6) Maintain and manage workstations, servers, printers and scanners and other related
equipment.

7) Ensure quality hardware and software support for end-users.

8) Interconnect workstations, terminals and existing data networks.

(c) Computer Programmers

After design the programmer comes in. He uses the program specifications produced by the
analyst/system designer to develop the programme. The programme specifications may consist of
file and records layouts, field description, report and screen layouts. A flow chart or diagram
indicating the main logical steps in the proposed program may be made. The programmer converts
specifications from the system analyst into a working programme. Computer programmers
generally write, test, and maintain the detailed instructions, called programs that computers must
follow to perform their functions. They also conceive, design, and test logical structures for solving
problems by computer.

Duties

1) To reach an understanding of what each programme is expected to do and to clarify any

problems with the analyst or systems designer.

2) To design the structure of the programme in accordance with installations standards.

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3) To provide a working of an efficient programme using the installations standards within

the budgeted time and funds.

4) To test programmes thoroughly both as a unit and in relation to other programmes.

5) To provide the required programme documentation.

Once the programme is in place, the maintenance Programmer would take the responsibility of
correcting any subsequent problems and recommend any improvements.

(d) Database Administrator

The primary role of the Database Administrator is to plan, design, administer, develop, maintain
and implement the policies and procedures necessary to ensure the security and integrity of the
corporate database. Database Administrators are often on-call and required to work as needed.
This position carries an enormous amount of responsibility. This person relates to the management,
system analysts, programmers and other stakeholders in the organisation. He needs to have
adequate managerial and technical abilities to suit the job. He therefore must have a sound
knowledge of the structure of the database and the DBMS.

Duties

1) Ensure that the database meets the needs of the organisation.

2) Ensure facilities for the recovery of data

3) Ensure the functioning of report generation systems form the DBMS

4) The DBA is also responsible for the documentation of the DBMS through the designing and
availing of the data dictionary and manuals for the users giving such direction as the general
use of the database, access to information, deletion of records from the system and the
general validation and verification of data.

(e) Systems Administrator

A system administrator's responsibilities might include:

Duties

1) Analysing system logs and identifying potential issues with computer systems.

2) Introducing and integrating new technologies into existing data centre environments.

3) Performing routine audits of systems and software.

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4) Performing backups.

5) Applying operating system updates, patches, and configuration changes.

6) Installing and configuring new hardware and software.

7) Adding, removing, or updating user account information, resetting passwords, etc.

8) Answering technical queries.

9) Responsibility for security.

10) Responsibility for documenting the configuration of the system.

11) Troubleshooting any reported problems.

12) System performance tuning.

13) Ensuring that the network infrastructure is up and running.

(f) Software Engineer

If you are considering a job as Software Engineer here is a list of the most standard responsibilities
and duties for the Software Engineer position.

Duties

1) Design, develop and manage software projects for clients.

2) Analyse and evaluate user needs and develop software solutions.

3) Write supporting documents for projects developed and tested.

4) Develop Microsoft .net based web applications.

5) Develop MS SQL server applications like views, triggers and stored procedures.

6) Design and develop web user interfaces with back-end databases and other tools.

7) Recommend technical feasibilities and solutions.

8) Evaluate new technologies in the light of emerging trends and technologies.

9) Modify and update existing technologies improvise performances.

10) Troubleshoot and resolve difficult problems relating to software applications and programs.

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(g) Systems Analyst

The title and function of this person may vary from organisation to organisation or as an
organisation develops from stage to the other. As the computer is applied to the different
organisational problems, the duties of the analyst may change. A business analyst would require
less skill than the system designer or the technical analyst. These personnel deal with more or less
the same task but with differing depth.

Main Duties

1) Examine the feasibility of potential computer applications and to consider all the various
approaches to computerisation that are available.

2) To perform the proper analysis of user systems and requirements.

3) Develop a cost benefit analysis in conjunction with the users.

4) Design system, which take into account not only the computer procedures but the clerical
and other procedures around the computer system.

5) To specify the check and controls to be incorporated into the system in conjunction with
the audit staff.

6) To specify the most appropriate processing techniques to be used e.g. micro, mini or
mainframe, batch or real time processing.

7) To ensure that there is proper communication and clear instructions at each stage of the
project e.g. programme specification, file set up, operating instructions, print out volumes.

8) To ensure the system is properly set up and documented.

9) To ensure a proper environment for system testing and pilot running and parallel running
of the system as may be appropriate.

(h) Computer Scientist

Duties

1) A computer scientist typically designs and develops complex hardware and software
systems, along with software solutions.

2) IT professionals incorporate technological advances into existing systems and networks.

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TOPIC 2: COMPUTER HARDWARE

✓ Hardware

Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer, i.e. the components
that can be seen and touched. Examples of Hardware are the following:

• Input devices − keyboard, mouse, etc.

• Output devices − printer, monitor, etc.
• Secondary storage devices − Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.
• Internal components − CPU, motherboard, RAM, etc.

Components of a computer system

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Input devices

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −

✓ Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some
additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys
are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.No Keys & Description

Typing Keys

1
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the same
layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad

2 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17
keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines and
calculators.

Function Keys

3 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at the top
of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some specific
purpose.

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Control keys

4 These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys.
Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl),
Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

5
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num
Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

✓ Mouse

Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends
corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between
the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot
be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages

1) Easy to use
2) Not very expensive
3) Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

✓ Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen.
It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves
in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

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The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

✓ Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the
CPU.

✓ Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be
moved.

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Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

✓ Scanner

Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for
further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be
stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.

✓ Digitizer

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Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert
a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer.
They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data into
binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation
applications.

✓ Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

✓ Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be processed
every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special
type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

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This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of
MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

✓ Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable code,
and stores the text on the system memory.

✓ Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a
handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

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Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed
to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

✓ Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil.
It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.

The processing unit

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

• CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

• CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
• It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
• It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

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CPU itself has following three components.

1) Memory or Storage Unit

2) Control Unit
3) ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit)

✓ Memory or Storage Unit (primary memory)

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main
memory or the primary storage.

Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types
of memories in the computer. Primary memory consists of the Random-Access Memory (RAM) and
the Read Only Memory (ROM).

Functions of the primary memory unit are −

1) It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
2) It stores intermediate results of processing.
3) It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
4) All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

✓ Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made
up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction
required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and
ROM.

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Characteristics of Main Memory

1) These are semiconductor memories.

2) It is known as the main memory.
3) Usually volatile memory.
4) Data is lost in case power is switched off.
5) It is the working memory of the computer.
6) Faster than secondary memories.
7) A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

(i) RAM

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and
program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon
as the machine is switched off, data is erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the memory
is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be
accessed randomly but it is very expensive.

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RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power
failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM
is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types −

• Static RAM (SRAM)

• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of
6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need
not be refreshed on a regular basis.

There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount
of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory
and has very fast access.

Characteristic of Static RAM

1) Long life
2) No need to refresh
3) Faster
4) Used as cache memory
5) Large size
6) Expensive
7) High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by
placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second.
DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory
cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

1) Short data lifetime

2) Needs to be refreshed continuously

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3) Slower as compared to SRAM

4) Used as RAM
5) Smaller in size
6) Less expensive
7) Less power consumption

(ii) ROM

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write
on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories
during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This
operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in
other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM
and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small
fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not
erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

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EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually,
an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in
an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no
leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window
(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is
sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM,
any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a
time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM

The advantages of ROM are as follows −

1) Non-volatile in nature
2) Cannot be accidentally changed
3) Cheaper than RAMs
4) Easy to test
5) More reliable than RAMs
6) Static and do not require refreshing
7) Contents are always known and can be verified

✓ Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.

Functions of this unit are −

1) It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
2) It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
3) It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.
4) It communicates with Input/ Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
5) It does not process or store data.

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✓ ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

1) Arithmetic Section
2) Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above
operations.

Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and
merging of data.

Output devices

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer system.

Those for softcopy

✓ Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

1) Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

2) Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

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The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole
character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into
a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed.
Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.

There are some disadvantages of CRT −

1) Large in Size
2) High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power
requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists.
Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer,
and graphics display.

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The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

• Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light.
For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
• Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or
light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal
Device).

Those for hard copy

✓ Printers

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers −

1) Impact Printers
2) Non-Impact Printers

1.Impact Printers

Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the
paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

1) Very low consumable costs

2) Very noisy
3) Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

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4) There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types −

i. Character printers
ii. Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

• Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

• Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of
pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out
to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

1) Inexpensive
2) Widely Used
3) Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

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1) Slow Speed
2) Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower) which
is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in
offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

1) More reliable than DMP

2) Better quality
3) Fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

1) Slower than DMP

2) Noisy
3) More expensive than DMP

Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

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These are of two types −

• Drum Printer
• Chain Printer

Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is
divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width
of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track. Different
character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation
of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages

1) Very high speed

Disadvantages

1) Very expensive
2) Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer

In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

1) Character fonts can easily be changed.

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2) Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

1) Noisy

Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types −

1) Laser Printers
2) Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

1) Faster than impact printers

2) They are not noisy
3) High quality
4) Supports many fonts and different character size

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.

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Advantages

1) Very high speed

2) Very high-quality output
3) Good graphics quality
4) Supports many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

1) Expensive
2) Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes
available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple
copies of printing also.

Advantages

1) High quality printing

2) More reliable

Disadvantages

1) Expensive as the cost per page is high

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2) Slow as compared to laser printer

Plotters

Those for sound

✓ Speakers
✓ Earphones/ Headphones

The memory

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory
is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For
example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types −

1) Cache Memory
2) Primary Memory/Main Memory
3) Secondary Memory

✓ Memory units

Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This storage capacity is
expressed in terms of Bytes.

The following table explains the main memory storage units −

No. Unit & Description

Bit (Binary Digit): A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state
1
of a component in an electric circuit.

2 Nibble: A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte: A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a data
3
item or a character.

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Word: A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a unit,
which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each computer. The length of a
4
computer word is called word-size or word length. It may be as small as 8 bits or may be as
long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in the form of computer words.

The following table lists some higher storage units −

No. Unit & Description

1 Kilobyte (KB): 1 KB = 1024 Bytes

2 Megabyte (MB): 1 MB = 1024 KB

3 Gigabyte (GB): 1 GB = 1024 MB

4 Terabyte (TB): 1 TB = 1024 GB

5 Petabyte (PB): 1 PB = 1024 TB

✓ Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high-speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts
as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and
program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can access
them.

Advantages

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The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

1) Cache memory is faster than main memory.

2) It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
3) It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
4) It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

1) Cache memory has limited capacity.

2) It is very expensive.

Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main
memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example,
disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

1) These are magnetic and optical memories.

2) It is known as the backup memory.
3) It is a non-volatile memory.
4) Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
5) It is used for storage of data in a computer.
6) Computer may run without the secondary memory.
7) Slower than primary memories.

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TOPIC 3: COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a

sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem. There are three types of software

1) Systems Software
2) Application Software
3) Developmental software

Sources of software
✓ In-house Developed Software

This approach requires a development team from within the organisation. The team is usually
comprised of programmers and analysts. The team members should be high calibre, highly trained
and reliable

Advantages

1) _ Internal professionals understand operations better and therefore can produce an

accurate solution.
2) _ The Software usually meets user requirements.
3) _ Management are in total control of the development process
4) _ More flexibility - there is more flexibility in making modifications.
5) _ Problem specificity - in-house developed software can give an organisation software
programs that are easily tailored to a unique problem or task.

Disadvantages

1) _ Time and costs of developing the program may be greater than other options
2) _ In-house staff may lack the expertise needed for the project.
3) _ Reliability of the resultant software program is highly questionable.
4) _ In some cases, the developers may attempt to gain fraudulently from the system.

✓ Off-the Shelf

This is a software program that can be purchased, leased, or rented from a software company that
develops programs and sells them to many computer users and organisations. Applications such
as financial accounting, business graphics and pay roll may be bought.

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Advantages

1) _ Cheaper - the software company is able to spread the software development cost over a
large number of customers, hence reducing the cost any one customer must pay.
2) _ Less risky - the software is existing; hence you can analyse the features and performance
of the package.
3) _ The program is a well-tried and tested product with few errors.
4) _ Less time - Off-the -shelf software is often installed quickly and easily.
5) _ The package is well documented
6) _ The packages require little maintenance
7) _ There is continued support from the supplier through upgrades.

Disadvantages

1) _ The organisation might pay for the features that are not required and never used.
2) _ The package may be for general needs and therefore not ideal for the user.
3) _ The user has no direct control over the package,

✓ Software from a Contractor

This involves contracting out software development to a software house - better known as
outsourcing especially where off-the-shelf packages are not available.

Advantages

1) _ Software houses employ professionals and this may benefit the organisation
2) _ Transfer of skills to the existing professionals in an organisation
3) _ Organization can get support from the contractor.

Disadvantages

1) _ There could be breach of confidentiality.

2) _ Contractor may go bankrupt and cease trading leaving the user with no support.
3) _ Contractor might not have sufficient experience or understanding of the problem thus the
solution might not be satisfactory.
4) _ It takes time for the contractor to understand the user's business and operations this
makes the approach expensive.

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Classes of computer software

Systems software

The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the
computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level
languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the
interface between the hardware and the end users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers,
Translators, CCPs, SUPs, DBMS etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of system software −

1) Close to the system

2) Fast in speed
3) Difficult to design
4) Difficult to understand
5) Less interactive
6) Smaller in size
7) Difficult to manipulate
8) Generally written in low-level language

(i) The Operating Systems

This forms the largest component of Systems Software.

_ It is a system of programs that run or control the execution of computer programs and act as an
interface with application programs.

_ It is an integrated system of programs that manages the operations of the CPU, controls the input,
Output and storage resources and activities of a computer system.

_ The primary purpose of the operating system is to maximise the productivity of a computer
system. It minimises the amount of user intervention required during data entry and processing.

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It helps application programs perform common operations such as entering data, saving, retrieving
files, printing and displaying output.

Examples of Operating Systems

✓ MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)

_ It has been widely in use especially before 1995 when the new Windows 95 took over.

_ It is a single user operating system – only one user can be using the system at a given time.

_ It is a single tasking operating system – It allows for the processing of only one task at a time

_ Use of short prompt commands – the user interfaces with the computer system through the use
of commands that are fed into the computer usually after the prompt sign (>) e.g. C:\>cls (Command
to clear the screen)

_ Instructions are put in only through the keyboard

_ Once a file is deleted it can never be recalled

_ The operating system is not user-friendly

✓ Windows

_ A windows-based operating system is more advanced than the MS-DOS based operating system.

_ It features graphical user interfaces (GUIs) – User can feed commands into the computer through
the selection of relevant icons, bars, buttons, boxes or other forms of images (mostly resembling
the intended device or operation).

_ True multitasking – the operating system allows for numerous tasks to be done at the same time.

_ Networking – the operating system is multi-usable – many users can use it at the same time. It is
capable of holding a number of computer systems networked together.

_ Multimedia Presentations- the operating system allows for the presentation of information in a
variety of media including text, graphic displays, voice and other audio, photographs and video.

_ Virtual Memory – It allows for the use of storage devices as extension of the main memory thus
giving the appearance of a larger main memory than actually exists.

_ Deleted files go to recycle bin

_ Makes use of easier input methods e.g. mouse, joystick

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_ Windows operating systems has MS-DOS option

_ In computer terms, a window is one section of a computer’s multiple section display screen that
can have a different display.

_ Examples of Windows Operating Systems packages include;

. Windows XP Professional Edition - A version used by many businesses on workstations. It

has the ability to become a member of a corporate domain.

· Windows XP Home Edition - A lower cost version of Windows XP which is for home use
only and should not be used at a business.

· Windows 2000 - A better version of the Windows NT operating system which works well
both at home and as a workstation at a business. It includes technologies which allow
hardware to be automatically detected and other enhancements over Windows NT.

· Windows ME - An upgraded version from windows 98 but it has been historically plagued
with programming errors which may be frustrating for home users.

· Windows 98 - This was produced in two main versions. The first Windows 98 version was
plagued with programming errors but the Windows 98 Second Edition which came out later
was much better with many errors resolved.

· Windows NT 1993 - A version of Windows made specifically for businesses offering better
control over workstation capabilities to help network administrators.

· Windows 95 - The first version of Windows after the older Windows 3.x versions offering a
better interface and better library functions for programs.

✓ OS/2

_ It is called the Operating System /2

_ It is an operating system developed by IBM and was introduced in 1994 with the OS/2 Warp
version as the latest one.

_ It provides graphical user interfaces (GUIs), multitasking, virtual memory and

telecommunications.

✓ UNIX

_ It was originally developed by AT&T but now being offered by many other vendors.

_ It is a multitasking, multi-user and net-work managing operating system

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_ Because of its portability, it can be used on mainframes, midrange computers and

microcomputers.

_ It is a popular choice for network servers.

-A system that has been around for many years and it is very stable.

-It should not be used by anyone who does not understand the system.

-It can be difficult to learn.

- UNIX must normally run on a computer made by the same company that produces the software.

✓ Linux

-Linux is similar to UNIX in operation but it is free.

-It also should not be used by anyone who does not understand the system.

- Can be difficult to learn.

✓ The Macintosh System

_ It is an operating system for Apple from Macintosh microcomputers

_ It is a popular GUI as well as multitasking and virtual memory operating system.

- Most recent versions are based on UNIX but it has a good graphical interface so it is both stable
(does not crash often or have as many software problems as other systems may have) and easy to
learn.

- One drawback to this system is that it can only be run on Apple produced hardware.

Functions of systems software (Operating system)

Generally, the operating system is expected to perform five basic functions

(a) User Interfacing – an Operating System allows a user to communicate with the computer in
loading programs, accessing files and accomplishing tasks through command driven, menu driven
or graphical user interfaces. In command driven interfaces, the user uses brief end commands, in
menu driven interfaces the user selects choices from menus of options, in graphical user interface
(GUI) the user selects icons, bars, buttons, boxes or other images to him get things done by the
system.

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(b) Operating Environment Management – Use of GUI enables the user to connect to other
separate application packages so that they can communicate and work together and share data
files. Operating environment packages provide icon displays and support the use of some input
devices to allow the running and output of several programs to be displayed at the same time.

The Operating System allows for multitasking – i.e. where several programs or tasks can be
processed at the same time.

(c) Resources Management – Resource management programs of the operating system manage
the hardware resources of a computer system including the CPU, memory, secondary storage
devices and input/output peripherals. For example, a memory program keeps track of where data
and programs are stored. They subdivide memory into sections and swap parts of programs and
data between main memory and secondary storage devices. This operation then can provide virtual
memory capability i.e. the real memory capacity in main memory is larger than the capacity of its
normal memory circuits.

(d) File Management – The file management programs in the operating system control the creation,
deletion and access of data and programs. The programs also keep track of the physical location of
files on secondary storage units. They maintain directories of information about the location
characteristics of files stored on a computer system’s secondary storage devices.

(e) Task Management – The task management programs of an operating system manage the
accomplishment of computing tasks as needed by the user. They give each task a slice of the

CPU’s time and interrupt the CPU operations to substitute other tasks. Task management may
involve multitasking – where several computing tasks can occur at the same time.

Multitasking may be in the form of multiprogramming (several programs are running at the same
time). The operating system allows for time sharing – where the computing tasks of several users
can be processed at the same time. Multitasking depends on the computing power of the CPU if too
many programs are running concurrently the system may be overloaded or processing slowed
down. Example of multitasking: printing and typing at the same time, word processing and financial
analysis, browsing the internet and word processing.

Modes of operation of O/S

✓ Real time processing

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When the computer has to react within a guaranteed time to an input, a real time operating system
is used. For example, the engine management system within a car uses a real time O/S in order to
react to all the things going on within the engine. A real time O/S does not necessarily have to be
fast. It simply has to be quick enough to respond to inputs in a predictable way. Embedded
computers often contain an RTOS as many are used to control something.

Computers operating in real time are often dedicated to the control of a system such as industrial
processes, planes and space flights. Another example of real time processing is computer games.
For example, when an action is selected in a game, the data is fed back to the computer and the
system is updated.

✓ Multi-programming

Multi-programming is a method of operation such that several programs appear to be running at

once.

The jobs are usually given priorities. The O/S switches jobs in and out of processor time according
to priority. For example, while one job is being allocated printer time, another will be being
processed in memory. The processor is so fast that it seems that many jobs are being processed at
the same time.

✓ Multi-tasking

This is not just about running more than one application at the same time. Multi-tasking allows
multiple tasks to run concurrently, taking turns using the resources of the computer.

This can mean running a couple of applications, sending a document to a printer and downloading
a web page.

However, O/S are not truly multi-tusking-in order to do this, you would need parallel processors,
which are now appearing on personal computers.

✓ Multi-processing

An O/S technique which can manage multiple instruction processors; assessing each to operate
upon a different instruction stream (program or job) concurrently.

Multiprocessing is the use of two or more CPUs within a single computer system. The term also
refers to the ability of a system to support more than one processor and/ or the ability to allocate
tasks between them. There are many variations on this basic theme, and the definition can vary

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with context, mostly as a function of how CPUs are defined (multiple cores on one die, multiple
chips on one package, multiple packages in one system etc.)

Multiprocessing sometimes refers to the execution of multiple concurrent software processes in a

system as opposed to a single process at any instant. However, the terms multitasking or
multiprogramming are more appropriate to describe this concept, which is implemented mostly in
software, whereas multiprocessing is more appropriate to describe the use of multiple hardware
CPUs. A system can be both multiprocessing and multiprogramming, only one of the two, or neither
of the two.

✓ Multi-access or multi-user

A multi-access system is one where a number of users are able to use the same system together.
Modern PC can allow multi user access i.e. more than one person can make use of the computer
resources at the same time via LAN. The central processor deals with users in turn; clearly the
more users, the slower the response time. Generally, however, the processor is so fast that the
response time at the most is a fraction of a second and the user feels they are being dealt with
immediately.

Multi-user is a term used to define an operating system or application software that allows
concurrent access by multiple users of a computer

✓ Single-user

It is commonly used when talking about an operating system being usable only by one person at a
time, or in reference to single-user software license agreement.

✓ Batch processing

It is when programs or data are collected together in a batch and processed in one go. Typically,
the processing of payrolls, electricity bills, invoices and daily transactions are dealt with this way.
Suits jobs with similar inputs, processing and outputs where no human intervention is needed.
Jobs are stored in a queue until the computer is ready to deal with them. Often done overnight.

(ii) Utility programs

They are a standard set of routines that assist the operation of the computer system by performing
some frequently required processes such as to sort and merge sets of data, copy and keep track of
computer jobs being run.

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(iii). Control programs

They are designed to manage the general functions of the processor, memory and terminal interface.

The programs are arranged in a hierarchy at the top of which is a kernel or executive program
that controls the running of the other programs. In microcomputers the supervisor is held in ROM
while on larger computer systems it is held on backing store. When the computer is switched on
the supervisor is loaded into main memory, the other programs are kept on disk and are transferred
to main memory when they are needed.

The kernel assists the following:

The job scheduler selects, initiates, terminates, queues and sequences the jobs that demand the
use of the processor and main memory.

The file manager has the responsibility of achieving the interleaving effect of Multiprogramming.

The Input/ Output manager has the responsibility of managing the interface with terminals and
backing store in response to the requirements of any applications program being executed.

(iv) Communications Programs

They support network computer systems by allowing different types of hardware to be linked and
to communicate with each other. The programs may help to select the best transmission medium
for the message, coding and sending the data.

(v) Language translators

Non-machine languages must be converted into machine language to be executed by the CPU. This
is done by systems software called language translators.

A language translator converts a statement from a high-level programming language into machine
language called source code whereas the machine language code is referred to as the object code.
The translator converts the command given in human language into the form the computer has
been programmed to understand before executing the instruction.

There are two types of language translators – Interpreter & Compiler

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i. Interpreter

This is a language translator that converts each statement in a program into machine language
and executes the programme statement one at a time.

ii. Compiler

This language translator translates a complete program into a complete machine language
program.

The result is a program in machine language that can be run in its entirety, with a compiler,
program execution is a two-stage process. First, the compiler translates the program into a machine
language; second the machine language program is executed.

Compilers run faster than interpreters so are more preferred.

(vi) Database Management systems

These are software programs that use standard methods of cataloguing, retrieving, and running
queries on data. They manage incoming data, organises it, and provides ways for the data to be
modified or extracted by users or other programs.

Application software

Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment.
All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application
software.

Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing and
editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package,
which work together to accomplish a task, such as a Spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are the following −

1) Payroll Software
2) Student Record Software
3) Inventory Management Software
4) Income Tax Software
5) Railways Reservation Software

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6) Microsoft Office Suite Software

7) Microsoft Word
8) Microsoft Excel
9) Microsoft PowerPoint

Features of application software are as follows −

1) Close to the user

2) Easy to design
3) More interactive
4) Slow in speed
5) Generally written in high-level language
6) Easy to understand
7) Easy to manipulate and use
8) Bigger in size and requires large storage space

i. Word Processing

A word processing package is designed to enable text to be typed in and manipulated.

It has many advantages over the type writer,

The ability to edit parts of the text without rewriting the whole document

Allows for spell checking from the computer's Dictionary File, if it assumes a word is misspelt if not
found in the dictionary) it highlights it or sometimes even correct it automatically.

Allows for centering text, bold, underline and use of variety of fonts (typefaces)

Allows for the production of multiple original copies from one softcopy.

Popular Word-processing packages are Microsoft Word, Lotus WordPro, WordPerfect, Quattro
Word, WordPad, Display Write, and AmiPro

ii. Spread sheets

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A spread sheet package is used to perform calculations that have been entered onto a grid.

Formulae are entered into the grid using the figures, if the figures change; the results of the
formulae are updated automatically.

It is also possible to filter (select only the required data), sort or perform other forms of data
manipulations.

It is possible to produce graphs, charts and other forms of comparison using the entered figures
from the spread sheet.

Popular examples of spread sheet packages are: Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Super Cal and
Quattro Pro

iii. Databases

- A database is an organised store of information, for example an address book, list of employees,
list of students, customers or items of assets.

- A database package is used to store records.

- Data can be sorted, filtered for separate viewing.

- Calculations and comparisons between data items can be done.

- Popular database packages are: Microsoft Excel, lotus Approach, Paradox, dBase IV, Data Ease,
FoxPro, FoxBASE and Microsoft Access.

iv. Graphics

- These are applications designed solely for designing graphs and text charts/posters.

- They are often used to produce slides for use on overhead projectors, or presentations on
computer-projectors.

- Various types of charts are also produced

- Examples of graphics packages are: Microsoft PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance, Corel Draw, Harvard
Graphics, True Space, 3D Studio, MS-Paint, and Adobe Photoshop.

v. Desktop Publishing

- Desktop Publishing (DTP) applications give users powerful and versatile page design capabilities.

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- The user can incorporate text and graphics on very exact page layouts.

- These applications produce magazines, catalogues, invitation cards, business cards and other
sophisticated documents.

- The application links up well with other applications as the user can import text and graphics
from the other applications.

- Examples of DTP packages are: Microsoft Publisher, PageMaker, Ventura Publisher, and Instant
art, Announcement 4.0, Print Artist and Frame maker.

vi. Suites

- Many applications are grouped together into suites which users can purchase as one product
containing, for example, Word-Processing, a Spread sheet, Graphics application, Desktop
Publishing, Database application.

Development software (Programming languages)

It allows the user to create software for various applications.

All software programs (systems and application) are written in coding schemes called programming
languages. The primary function of a programming language is to provide instructions to the
computer system so that it can perform an activity to achieve a set objective or solve a problem.
Program code is the set of instructions that signal the CPU to perform circuit-switching operations,

Low-level languages

✓ First Generation languages - Machine language

In machine languages programmers wrote their instructions in binary code (0 and 1), telling the
CPU exactly which circuits to switch on (1) and off (0). Machine language is considered a low-level
language because it is very simple to the computer. Machine language is the language of the CPU.
It is the only language capable of directly instructing the CPU.

Example of a machine code:

00100101 00000010 00001101

Means Add contents address location 1 to address location 2

Disadvantages of machine language

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1. Machine-language programming is extremely difficult, very few programs are actually

written in machine language.

2. Machine language is that they are machine specific.

✓ Second Generation - Assembly language

The commands are written in simple mnemonics (abbreviated form) instead of the binary coding.
E.g. example; A standing for ADD and MV for MOVE. It is therefore easier to work with assembly
coding than machine coding. However, the instructions have to be translated into machine code by
a program called an assembler. Although it is a step above machine language in terms of
sophistication, assembly language is still considered a low-level language,

Example: A, R 1.3 means add register 1 to register 3

High-level Languages

✓ Third Generation - (3GLs)

These use greater symbolic code. They are problem oriented. They specifically instruct the computer
on how to complete an operation. The instructions are English-like statements and have to be
translated into machine code by a compiler or an interpreter.

An example in COBOL is: DEDUCT TAX FROM SALARY GIVING NET SALARY

It is much easier to program using high-level language because the commands resemble their
meaning in everyday human communication and understanding.

Characteristics of high-level languages:

_ Each statement in the language translates into several instructions in machine language.

_ The Language is English like and uses abbreviations and words used in everyday
communication.

_ Each programming language has characteristics that make it appropriate for certain types
of problems or applications. For example, COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) for

Commercial problems, PASCAL for academic, FORTRAN (Formula Translator) for scientific
problems and V-BASIC (Visual Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) for small
business systems SQL (Structured Query Language) for databases.

_ The language is relatively independent of a given computer hardware.

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✓ Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs)

_ They are at a higher level than 3GLs. They demand few lines of code as compared to 3GLs.

_ They are easy to learn and their statements are close to natural language. Being easy they are
used to develop simple systems.

_ It emphasises what output results are desired more than how programming statements are to be
written.

_ Many managers and executives with little or no training in computers and programming are using
fourth generation languages for programming.

Features of 4GLs

1) _ Query database abilities

2) _ Code-generation abilities - these are abilities to automatically produce many of the
programming statements and instructions required to gain a specific output result.
3) _ Graphics abilities

✓ Fifth Generation Languages (5GLs)

_ These are used to create programs for artificial intelligence and expert systems.

_ They are sometimes called natural languages because they use English syntax.

_ They allow programmers to communicate with the computer using normal sentences.

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TOPIC 4: COMMUNICATION NETWORKS AND INTERNET SERVICES

A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows computers to
exchange data. In computer networks, networked computing devices pass data to each other along
data connections. The connections (network links) between nodes are established using either cable
media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the Internet.

Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate the data are called network nodes. [1]
Nodes can include hosts such as personal computers, phones, servers as well as networking
hardware. Two such devices are said to be networked together when one device is able to exchange
information with the other device, whether or not they have a direct connection to each other.

Computer networks support applications such as access to the World Wide Web, shared use of
application and storage servers, printers, and fax machines, and use of email and instant
messaging applications. Computer networks differ in the physical media used to transmit their
signals, the communications protocols to organize network traffic, the network's size, topology and
organizational intent.

✓ Components of a network

Data Communication systems are defined as systems for creating, delivering, and receiving
electronic messages. The communication system comprises of the following:

- A device to send the message

- The channel or communication medium

- A device to receive the message

Data transmission signals

There are various modes and codes of data transmission signals from the sending to the receiving
device.

✓ Analogue transmission

Analogue signals are continuous sine waves that send a continuous 5-volt signal on a channel but
the signal will vary continuously between +5 to -5 volts. The number of cycles per second is the
frequency of the signal and is expressed in units called hertz (Hz). The human voice forms oscillating
patterns of changes in air pressure. The vibrations act on the telephone microphone and are
converted to electrical voltage patterns that reflect the characteristics of the speech pattern.
Analogue transmission is used to transmit voice or data in analogue signals. It is used in telephone
systems and radio transmission.

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✓ Digital Transmission

This is the sending of data with digital symbols of 0 and 1 representing the switching on (1) and
switching off (0) pulses of electricity. Most computer systems use this to create bits that make up
bytes. One cycle is made up of two pulses. The number of pulses per second is called the baud rate.

Digital transmission offers less errors and noise in transmission especially over long distances.
There is little data fatigue as the data being sent does not lose power over the transmission so much
that the signal is weakened by the length of the transmission media. Digital transmission is
compatible with digital computers so there is no need to convert the data messages from analogue
to digital when computer systems are using digital transmission lines. However, the setting up of
digital transmission lines especially over long distances is considerably expensive.

Data Transmission Modes

These are ways through which organisations can communicate via the channel or transmission
media.

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✓ Simplex transmission

Transmission takes place only in one direction. These are not suitable for long distance
transmission because there is need for acknowledgement or error messages. It is used in the
computer – printer communication. This is also used in radio and television transmission.

Simplex transmission

✓ Half Duplex

Messages can be sent both ways but only one way at a time. The channel alternately sends and
receives data but these are not done at the same time. The same device is used for both sending
and receiving. This is used in two-way radio communication.

Half duplex

✓ Full Duplex

This permits simultaneous transmission of messages in both directions. Sending and receiving can
be done at the same time using the same devices. This is the mode used in modern
telephone/cellular transmission.

Full duplex

✓ Asynchronous Transmission

Each character is sent down the channel separately that each transmission unit is one unit in
length. The characters are sent character by character at irregular intervals. The character is
headed by a start bit and ended by a stop bit. These bits tell the receiving device that a character

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is coming and that the character has been sent. There may be a parity bit to verify correctness of
transmission. Even parity is used where the number of bits in the character is even and an odd
parity system for the character with an odd number of bits. This form is suitable for conversational
interactions and used in standard telephone lines using low transmission rates.

✓ Synchronous transmission

Prepared sets of characters are transmitted together as blocks at fixed rates. The message is
preceded by the parity bits to verify what has been received.

The beginning and end bits represent small percentages of the total bits sent thus reducing
overhead costs of communication. Synchronous Transmission is faster and less expensive as given
in that character are blocked and sent down as one message allowing for the transmission of a
fuller message.

Mobile technologies

Telephone Systems
Telephone lines are used with online systems. The lines can be divided into leased and dial service
lines.

✓ Leased Lines

These are telephone lines that are dedicated to the sole use by the user to support online systems
within the organisation. The telephone service provider (e.g. Tel One) then charges a flat monthly
rate for the service. In calculating the rate, the length of the line may be considered. A leased line
service provides for high-level online activities. It is much cheaper to use and provides better quality
transmission. The leased lines are much more flexible than dial service lines. Users in the system
have greater access through the many lines provided by the common carrier. However, leased lines
are suitable for use in one organisation or in one building/locality. The amount of data transmitted
depends on the capabilities of the communication channel. The capabilities may be classified as
bandwidth.

Bandwidth is the frequency range of the channel, representing the maximum transmission rate of
the channel. The bandwidth can be measured in bits per second (bps)

A narrow band - the channel offers the lowest transfer rate and supports transmission through
telegraph lines.

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Voice band - this is a low-speed analogue (offering a rate between 300 and 9600 bps)

Wideband - these offer the highest transfer rates with data communication through coaxial cables.

✓ Dial service

With this telephone line the user is charged each time the line is used for online processing. When
all the lines connecting the system are busy a user has to wait and an appropriate message is given
by the system. The rate charged depends on the distance, time of use (peak or off peak), time spent
during transmission. This is usually used for long distance communication between systems e.g.
the Internet

✓ Cellular Transmission

The local area under the transmission is divided into cells. As the cellular transmission user moves
from one cell to the other the connection is passed from one cell to the other. The signals from
individual cells are integrated into one regular telephone system.

✓ Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

It is an international effort to replace the analogue technology with digital technology through a
single set of standard interfaces.

Microwave Satellite Transmission

These transmissions are sent through the air. The transmission uses a line of light that must be
un-obscured. Usually these transmissions are from space satellites placed in stationary orbit and
earth satellites and are communicated from and to satellite dishes.

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Microwave satellite transmission

This form of transmission can transmit large amounts of data over wider areas. This is in much
use in wide area television broadcasting. Although transmission is of high quality, setting up the
system is very expensive.

✓ Radio Transmission

This form of transmission uses radio waves. Transportation and taxi companies for easier
communication use it. The police and army to communicate also use this.

Physical Cables
Transmission uses physical cables which are connected to the communication points. There are
three types of these cables

1. Twisted-Pair Wire cable

This consists of a pair of twisted wires. The wires are insulated and twisted to avoid the bleeding of
signals from or into the each other.

There are shielded wires (with a special conducting wire) and unshielded twisted pair (UTP) that
has no insulation. It is the type used in home telephone connections.

The twisted pair wire cable is inexpensive. However, it does not allow high rates of data transfer,
and is prone to interference and too bulky.

2.Coaxial cable

Consists of an inner conductor coated with insulation called a dielectric (a layer of foil) that is
covered by nonconductive insulation called a jacket. This offers a cleaner and crisper transmission
than the twisted pair wire cable and has a higher data transfer rate. However, it is more expensive.

3. Fibre optic cable

This is made up of a glass or plastic core surrounded by a cladding material (paper, polyethylene,
twine or other sheathing). They use light which is turned on and off rapidly creating the on off bit.
The sheathing of the cable prevents loss of reflection.

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Advantages

1) High transmission capacities

2) Smaller cable size and lighter weight
3) Very little cross talk and spying
4) Little interference
5) Repeaters (to boast strength of the signal) are not required
6) Are ideal for hazardous conditions since there is no sparking.

These are however quite expensive to purchase and set up.

Wireless technologies
✓ WiFi
✓ WiMax
✓ Bluetooth
✓ Infrared
✓ Microwave
✓ Radio waves

Advantages of networking

1) Resources can be shared e.g. printers, computer files and programmes.

2) More even distribution of processing and other work by the computers and users.
3) More economic and fuller use of computers.
4) Allow for the provision of local facilities without loss of central control.
5) Mutual support and a spirit of cooperation exist.
6) Facilitates interpersonal communications. People can communicate efficiently and easily
via email, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video
conferencing.

Disadvantages of networking

1) There could be congestion at the shared resources.

2) Control of information and confidentiality may be lost.
3) The costs of the system may be considerable.
4) Viruses and other forms of corruption to programmes spread faster

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Types of networks
LAN
A local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a group of computers in close
proximity to each other such as in an office building, a school, or a home. A LAN is useful for
sharing resources like files, printers, games or other applications. A LAN in turn often connects to
other LANs, and to the Internet or other WAN. Most local area networks are built with relatively
inexpensive hardware such as Ethernet cables, network adapters, and hubs. Wireless LAN and
other more advanced LAN hardware options also exist. Specialized operating system software may
be used to configure a local area network. For example, most flavors of Microsoft Windows provide
a software package called Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) that supports controlled access to LAN
resources.

LAN Hardware and Software

✓ Network Workstations - these are usually microcomputers from where a user can work to
enter or receive data from the network. These could be dump terminals or diskless
workstations.

✓ File Servers - These are computer systems attached to a network that control access to
and other wise manage hard disks to allow the workstations to share disk space,
programmes and data and to control the network.

✓ Print Servers - these are computers that have the duty of managing the printer resources
that is allocating print time, and carrying out other print routines.

✓ Communication Servers - these manage communication devices in the network (modems,

multiplexors). A microcomputer or even the file server could do this job provided that it is
not too busy with its own functions.

✓ Cabling - these connect the different computer systems and devices in the network.
Sometimes LANs use radio waves and thus are wireless.

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✓ Network interface Cards- these provide the necessary translation of signals between the
devices in the network. They are sometimes called adapters.

✓ The Network operating System - These are programmes that manage the operations of
the network allowing the user to install the network, the application software, analyse and
solve network problems, manage the sending, routing and delivery of messages and do other
routine and housekeeping duties for the network.

LAN Topologies
Topologies are ways in which a network can be structured or arranged depending on the resources,
the needs and the structure of the given organisation.

1 Point to point topology

Network connecting two terminals together in a line using either cable or wireless media.

Advantages

1) Easy to set up
2) Easy to handle and maintain
3) Very fast in accessing files

Disadvantages

1) Not suitable for some networks like LOT.

2) Depends on the common channels.

2 Star Topology

On a star topology, each computer is connected by a cable segment to a central device / or a central
node - the file server / or host (which could be a minicomputer or microcomputer or a hub or a
switch or a repeater) to which all other computers in the system are connected. All the processing
and storage are done by the host (central computer). There is no direct inter-terminal
communication. The network is suitable for use in offices and homes.

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Star Topology

Advantages

1) It is easy to trouble shoot

2) It is economic and offers intensive use of the terminals
3) Requires a single intelligent computer, terminals could be dump there by saving on the cost
of the network.
4) Each terminal has direct and quicker access to the host
5) Network expansion and reconfiguration are relatively simple. For instance, new computers
can be added to the network
6) Failure of one computer does not affect the rest of the network.

Disadvantages

1) It is prone to failure - failure of the node mean loss and breakdown to the whole system.
2) The cabling may be costly because each computer must have a separate cable run from the
central device.
3) Viruses can be transmitted easily within the network

3. Bus (Multi-drop) Topology: All the computers are connected to a linear transmission medium
called a bus through the use of a tap. The tap is used to create a link up to the medium and to the
network. The bus topology is the simplest and most commonly used topology for networking
computers. Computers are attached or connected to a single linear cable called a trunk or
backbone. Computers communicate by sending packets of data to each other. A computer will send
packets of data to all computers on the network (broadcast). Each computer listens and examines
every packet on the wire to determine if the packet is intended for it, and accepts only packets
addressed to it. The topology is passive because computers on the network are not actively involved
in the movement of data. The number of computers on the network affects the network
performance.

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Bus Topology

Advantages

1) Costs of setting up and maintaining the network are low.

2) Each terminal can communicate directly with any other on the network.
3) It uses the least amount of cable and is easy to expand
4) It is relatively simple and reliable
5) Failure of one does not bring the whole network down
6) This network handles higher traffic.

Disadvantages

1) Risk of network malfunction if the main cable breaks

2) Are more troublesome than the star topology.
3) Trouble shooting is more difficult as the number of computers grows in a network.
4) There is the risk of data collision.

4. Ring Topology

It is made up of a series of nodes connected to each other to form a closed loop. Each loop can
accept data transmitted to it from an immediate neighbour and forward data not addressed to it to
the next neighbour. Messages are transmitted in packets or frames. Each node has an address and
packet is delivered to the node bearing the address required. Computers on the network use a
signal called a token to carry the data from one computer to the other. The method of
communication is called token passing. It is an active topology. Each computer on the ring acts as
a repeater to boost the signal and pass it to the next computer until it reaches the destination
computer. The receiving computer strips the data from the token and returns the token to the

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sending computer with acknowledgement. After verification, the token is regenerated and released
for use by any other computer requiring data transfer. While the token is in use by another
computer, other computers on the ring cannot transmit, because only the computer with the token
can transmit data. This ensures that there are no collisions and hence no times spend waiting for
computers to resend data after a collision.

Ring Topology

Advantages

1) There is by-pass technology so that messages can be passed on from a failed workstation -
breakdown of a workstation does not affect the network much.
2) It is easy to install
3) There is less risk of packet collision
4) More accurate and reliable
5) All computers have equal access to data.
6) During peak usage performance is even for all users
7) There is little signal degradation because each computer acts as a repeater

Disadvantages

1) There is poor response time

2) There is risk of data interception so there should be data encryption.
3) Unwanted data may continue to circulate the network, thus reducing traffic carrying
capacity of the network.
4) Network expansion or reconfiguration will disrupt network operations
5) If one computer fails, the whole network goes down.

5. Mesh Topology

This topology combines the ring and the star topologies. Bi-directional links are established.

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Mesh Topology

This offers better communication and reduces the risk of data collision because of the existence of
alternative routes. The network has quick response time and is very accurate. However, the costs
of the cabling are quite considerable. Each computer has a point to point connection to every other
computer on the network. For redundancy each computer has multiple connection paths to other
computers. A single cable break will not stop network communications between any two computers.
The number of connections required can be calculated using the formula:

Number of connections = n* (n – 1)/2; where n is number of stations.

6. Hierarchical (Tree) Topology

The nodes are connected to form a hierarchy. Messages are passed along the branches until they
reach their destinations. These networks do not need a centralised computer that controls
communications.

These are also very easy to troubleshoot and repair because the branches can be separated and
serviced separately.

Tree Topology

7. Mixed Topologies

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Various topologies are combined into one network.

Mixed Topology

LAN concerns for the Manager

Costs - of connection - cables and software

Compatibility of the hardware and software

Appointment of a network manager where necessary

MAN (metropolitan area network)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network in which two or more computers or
communicating devices or networks which are geographically separated but in the same
metropolitan city and are connected to each other. Metropolitan limits are determined by local
municipal corporations; the larger the city, the bigger the MAN, the smaller a metro city, smaller
the MAN.

How MAN works

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) usually falls between LAN and WAN. It is generally applied to
connect geographically dispersed LANs. Therefore, the goal of MAN is to develop a communication
link between two independent LAN nodes. A MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) is usually
established using optical fibre. The network is established using routers and switches. A switch is
a port which is active in handling the filtration of data usually coming in the form of frames. Any
switch acts as a dual port, at one end it is handling filtration of data and at the other end managing
connections. Router is another device for facilitating the networks connection. Router helps the
data packets to identify the path to be taken. Hence in other words it keeps an eye on the data
transfer. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) is usually operated over an area of up to 50 km.

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Types of MAN (metropolitan Area Network) Technologies

Most widely used technologies to develop a MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) network are

✓ FDDI (fibre distribution data interface)

FDDI is a standard for data transfer over LAN, which can be extended to the range of approximately
200kms. FDDI can help support the data transmission of many thousand users. This is the reason
why it is referred to as the MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) technology. FDDI uses optical fibre
for its basic infrastructure that is why it is referred to as fibre distribution data interface.

✓ ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) is the most frequently used of all. ATM (Asynchronous
Transfer Mode) is a digital data transfer technology. It was developed in 1980 to improve the
transportation of real time data over a single network. ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) works
just like cell relay system, where data is separated in the form of fixed equal sized packets and is
transferred overtime. The purpose of ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) was to access clear audio
and video results during a video conferencing. The attributes of ATM have enabled it to become a
base of wide area data networking. ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) combines the
characteristics of circuit switching and packet switching, which allows it to transfer even the real
time data.

✓ SMDS (switched multi-megabit data service).

When data is transferred through a connectionless service, we use the technology named as SMDS.
Connectionless service implies that data is transferred by storing the information in the header and
it reaches its destination independently through any network. When the data is transferred using
the technology of SMDS, it also forms small data packets just like in ATM. However, SMDS allows
the transmission of data over large geographical areas in the form of datagrams (the data packets
of an unreliable data service provider). Nowadays MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) links are
established using infrared and microwave signals.

Advantages of MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

✓ It therefore increases the efficiency of handling data while at the same time saves the cost
attached to establish a wide area network.

✓ MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) offers centralized management of data. It enables you to
connect many fast LANs together.

✓ Telephone companies worldwide have facilitated the transfer of data with the help of an
underground optical fibre network. These optical fibres increase the efficiency and speed of
data transfer. The optical fibres enable you to access a speed of almost 1000mbps.

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✓ If you develop a WAN of 1.45 mbps its cost is more than what it gives you. Whereas when
you establish metropolitan area network it offers you the speed of 1000mbps as a whole
with the lowest cost involved.

Wide Area Networks (WAN)

These are networks that are spread over large geographical areas. The telephone system is one such
WAN. It is a long distant network of interconnected computers on separate sites, cities or even
different countries. The best example of WAN is the INTERNET.

Purposes of Implementation of WAN

1. To get data from its source.

2. Improve on the productivity of the system by improving the speed of processing

3. Allow for instant feedback and expansion of the system.

WAN hardware and Software

✓ Hosts - This provides users with processing software and access. The host is usually a
mainframe computer with microcomputers connected to it.

✓ Front end Processors (FEP) & Back End Processors (BEP) - These are minicomputers that
are placed in front of (FEP) or at the back (BEP) of the main system CPU. These assist the
main system CPU with accepting input perform the operations on it before forwarding it to
the mainframe CPU for further processing or after the main system CPU to assist with the
output activities. They generally manage communications. The main system CPU
concentrates on process work without having to handle input and output activities.

✓ Modems - This is short for Modulate Demodulate. Telephone lines that are common link
media between computers use the analogue signal whereas computers use digital signals.
So, there is need to convert the signals. From the sending computer, the digital signal should
be modulated to analogue signal for transmission over the telephone link. At the receiving
end the analogue signal has to be demodulated (converted back) into the digital signal.
Modulation can be done using a number of methods. Amplitude modulation (AM) where the
amplitude is modified to represent binary digits 0 and 1. Frequency Modulation (FM) adjusts

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frequency to represent the bits 0 and 1. The Phase Shift Modulation adjusts a fixed amount
so that 0 and 1 can correspond to different phase shifts.

✓ Terminals - These are the microcomputers connected to the system on which the users can
work to send data or access information. Terminals may be dump or intelligent. Dump
terminals have limited memory and intelligence while intelligent terminals have processing
and memory capabilities that they can process data themselves.

✓ Multiplexor -it is a device that can subdivide one big channel so that many people can use
it at the same time. There are two types of multiplexors: time division and frequency division.
Time Division Multiplexors (TDM) - It slices multiple incoming signals into small time
intervals that are then transmitted over a channel and then split by another TDM at the
receiving end.

Time division multiplexor

Frequency Division Multiplexor (FDM) - incoming signals on different frequency ranges are sent
across a transmission medium at the same time. At the receiving end another FDM splits the
frequencies into multiple signals again.

Frequency division multiplexor

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✓ Terminal controllers/Concentrators- are used to connect many terminals to a single line,

they do not communicate directly with the FEP.

✓ Protocol Converters - Because of the diversity of technology in communication, WANs are

using various devices, channels, modes and codes. To allow for communication between
and among all these protocol converters are used to translate different signals from one
system to another. Typical protocol converters include HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
used on Internet communications, TCP/IP.

In order for the WAN hardware to operate there should appropriate software which should include
telecommunications access programmes that handle messages between the host's memory and the
remote devices, this programme could be in the FEP. There is also the network control programme
that has the work of running the network off the host by checking if terminals have messages to
send, do editing of incoming messages.

WAN Topology

Wan Topology

It is an interconnected group of minicomputers or other terminals within a small geographical area.

The area could be a room, a number of offices or a building.

Network concerns for the manager

1. Reliability of the network - there should be minimal breakdown and errors in the system.

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2. Response time of the Network - there should be less time spent on picking the required signals
when required.

3. Costs of the Network - costs of setting up and maintaining the system may be considerable, so
the manager should reduce these.

4. Compatibility of Software and hardware - hardware and the software should be compatible
(capable of working together) otherwise there should at least be some conversion of either the
software or the hardware to suit the other.

5. Access and Security of the System - with WAN there is greater risk of data being accessed by
unauthorised people, there should be measures to reduce this risk e.g. use of passwords, physical
access protection or through encryption (coding of data so that in the event that it is intercepted it
may not be understood)

Data communications protocols

A communications protocol is a set of rules for exchanging information over network links. In a
protocol stack (also see the OSI model), each protocol leverages the services of the protocol below
it. An important example of a protocol stack is HTTP running over TCP over IP over IEEE 802.11.
(TCP and IP are members of the Internet Protocol Suite. IEEE 802.11 is a member of the Ethernet
protocol suite.) This stack is used between the wireless router and the home user's personal
computer when the user is surfing the web.

Whilst the use of protocol layering is today ubiquitous across the field of computer networking, it
has been historically criticized by many researchers for two principle reasons. Firstly, abstracting
the protocol stack in this way may cause a higher layer to duplicate functionality of a lower layer,
a prime example being error recovery on both a per-link basis and an end-to-end basis. Secondly,
it is common that a protocol implementation at one layer may require data, state or addressing
information that is only present at another layer, thus defeating the point of separating the layers
in the first place. For example, TCP uses the ECN field in the IPv4 header as an indication of
congestion; IP is a network layer protocol whereas TCP is a transport layer protocol.

Communication protocols have various characteristics. They may be connection-oriented or

connectionless, they may use circuit mode or packet switching, and they may use hierarchical
addressing or flat addressing.

There are many communication protocols, a few of which are described below.

✓ Ethernet

Ethernet is a family of protocols used in LANs, described by a set of standards together called IEEE
802 published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. It has a flat addressing
scheme. It operates mostly at levels 1 and 2 of the OSI model. For home users today, the most well-

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known member of this protocol family is IEEE 802.11, otherwise known as Wireless LAN (WLAN).
The complete IEEE 802 protocol suite provides a diverse set of networking capabilities. For example,
MAC bridging (IEEE 802.1D) deals with the routing of Ethernet packets using a Spanning Tree
Protocol, IEEE 802.1Q describes VLANs, and IEEE 802.1X defines a port-based Network Access
Control protocol, which forms the basis for the authentication mechanisms used in VLANs (but it
is also found in WLANs) – it is what the home user sees when the user has to enter a "wireless
access key".

✓ Internet Protocol Suite

The Internet Protocol Suite, also called TCP/IP, is the foundation of all modern internetworking. It
offers connection-less as well as connection-oriented services over an inherently unreliable network
traversed by datagram transmission at the Internet protocol (IP) level. At its core, the protocol suite
defines the addressing, identification, and routing specifications for Internet Protocol Version 4
(IPv4) and for IPv6, the next generation of the protocol with a much-enlarged addressing capability.

✓ SONET/SDH

Synchronous optical networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are
standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber
using lasers. They were originally designed to transport circuit mode communications from a variety
of different sources, primarily to support real-time, uncompressed, circuit-switched voice encoded
in PCM (Pulse-Code Modulation) format. However, due to its protocol neutrality and transport-
oriented features, SONET/SDH also was the obvious choice for transporting Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM) frames.

✓ Asynchronous Transfer Modes

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a switching technique for telecommunication networks. It

uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing and encodes data into small, fixed-sized cells. This
differs from other protocols such as the Internet Protocol Suite or Ethernet that use variable sized
packets or frames. ATM has similarity with both circuit and packet switched networking. This
makes it a good choice for a network that must handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic,
and real-time, low-latency content such as voice and video. ATM uses a connection-oriented model
in which a virtual circuit must be established between two endpoints before the actual data
exchange begins. While the role of ATM is diminishing in favor of next-generation networks, it still
plays a role in the last mile, which is the connection between an Internet service provider and the
home user. For an interesting write-up of the technologies involved, including the deep stacking of
communications protocols used, see.

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Internet services

Types of Internet Access

Before you can connect to the Internet, you need to determine the type of Internet access you
would like, and which Internet Service Provider (ISP) you want to provide you with this access.
An ISP is the company that provides you with your connection to the Internet for a fee. Often ISPs
offer different types and tiers of access, so it is a good idea to consider the common types of
service before exploring specific companies.

Dial-up Access

Dial-up access is usually the least expensive way to access the Internet; however, it is also the
slowest. With dial-up service, you need a phone line and PC modem to dial-up and be connected
to the Internet by your ISP. A modem ties up the phone line so can't use the phone and computer
at the same time. While dial-up access can be an affordable option, the web pages load slowly due
to the limitations of the modem. Some websites with a lot of videos or graphics may have a difficult
time loading, if they load at all.

Additionally, with dial-up access, your Internet connection isn't immediate. Since you have to use
the telephone line to dial into a server, it can take from several seconds to minutes before you can
access the Internet.

If you only use the Internet to check your email and occasionally view other websites, a dial-up
connection may serve your needs. If you are going to spend any significant amount of time online,
you should consider another option. Keep in mind that some ISPs have increased the fee for dial-
up access in an effort to transition more people to broadband access.

DSL Access

DSL, or Digital Subscriber Line, provides high-speed, Internet access through a phone line. With
DSL service, you can talk on the telephone and access the Internet at the same time. It is considered
a type of broadband Internet access, which refers to high-speed Internet connections that allow for
transmission of data at rates 10 to 50 times faster than dial-up service. Verizon and AT & T are two
popular DSL providers.

A DSL modem and an Ethernet card are required for installation. A splitter may also be required
to filter the DSL signal from the low frequency voice signal; however, this is handled by the Internet
Service Provider.

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Cable Access

Cable access is provided through your local TV cable company and transferred through your TV
cables. Like DSL access, it is considered broadband, high-speed Internet access. If you don’t have
cable TV, you can still purchase cable Internet service as long as it is available in your area.

With cable access, web pages load quickly and you will find it easy to download and upload files.
One thing to be aware of though is that cable access is a shared service and can be affected by
others who use the same cable lines. For example, if it is a holiday and everyone in your
neighbourhood is at home surfing the web, you may notice that some aspects of service are slower
than normal. In most areas, this won’t be an issue.

Satellite Access

Satellite access can be used in locations where there is no broadband cable or DSL Internet
available. Satellite access is available across the world and can provide you with a broadband
connection that is equal to a high-speed connection. Satellite service is the most expensive and
will require costs such as installation and satellite equipment, which will cost several hundred
dollars.

Choosing an Internet Service Provider (ISP)

Once you have decided which type of Internet access you are interested in, you can determine
which ISPs are available in your area that offer the type of Internet access you want. Then, you
need to choose the ISP that best meets your needs based on their prices and service packages, and
secure Internet access through that company. Talk to friends, family members, and neighbours to
see what ISP they use.

Some things to consider as you research ISPs:

1) Speed
2) Price
3) Billing
4) Installation Software
5) Physical Service
6) Service Record
7) Extras such as email accounts and web space
8) Technical Support
9) Remote Access

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10) Contract Terms

Hardware Needed to access the Internet

Modem

Once you have your computer, you really don't need much additional hardware to connect to the
Internet. The primary piece of hardware you need is a modem. The type of Internet access you
choose will determine what type of modem you need. Dial-up access uses a telephone modem,
which may come installed on your computer. DSL service uses a DSL modem, cable access uses
a cable modem, and satellite service uses a satellite adapter. These modems are usually included
as part of the start-up hardware from your ISP when you sign a contract for service.

Network Card

A network card is a piece of hardware that allows computers to communicate over a computer
network. Most newer computers have a network card built into the motherboard, so it probably is
not something you will need to purchase. Some modems use an Ethernet connection and network
card to access the Internet, while other modems may use a USB port.

Router

A router is a hardware device that allows you to use several computers on a single Internet
connection from your ISP. With a router, all the computers in your home can connect to the
Internet and all you pay for is one account with an Internet Service Provider and one IP address.
Additionally, cable, DSL, and satellite users can use a router as a hardware firewall. Some people

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believe that a router provides better protection from hackers than a software firewall. Many routers
are easy to install, priced reasonably, and can be used for wired or wireless networks.

Internet Browser

A browser is the tool that allows you to view and interact on the Internet. Once you have an account
with an ISP and can access the Internet, you'll need to use a browser to access web pages. Browsers
can be referred to the window of the web because they allow you to view all the pages on the
Internet.

Most computers come preloaded with Microsoft Internet Explorer, so you don't have to worry about
purchasing a browser; however, you don't have to use Internet Explorer. If you would prefer to try
another browser option, you can. For example, Mozilla Firefox is a free browser that you can
download and use.

What is a URL?

URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator, or in other words, the web address of an online resource,
i.e. a web site or document.

Web browsers display the URL in the address bar

Every website you visit has a URL. The following URL points to this article:
https://doepud.co.uk/blog/anatomy-of-a-url.

The URL is created in one of two ways

1. after clicking a link in a web page, bookmark or email

2. by typing the URL directly into the address bar

The protocol' is connected to the domain name and the domain name' is connected to the file path...
♫

Using the URL of this article as an example, the three basic parts of a URL you should understand
are the protocol, the domain name and the path.

And, based on the example URL from Matt Cutts' URL definitions, here's an example of a more
complex-looking URL:

URL anatomy explained

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Protocol
The protocol declares how your web browser should communicate with a web server when sending
or fetching a web page or document. The most common protocol is http which stands for Hypertext
Transfer Protocol.
Another common protocol is https which stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. You'll see
this on secure pages, like shopping sites and log in pages. If you're visiting a site where you need
to enter sensitive information, like bank details and passwords, make sure the protocol is declared
as https. This means your web browser encrypts any information you provide so it can't be
understood by any phishers who try to intercept the page during transfer.
Some protocols you're less likely to see include ftp (File Transfer Protocol) pop (Post Office Protocol),
smtp (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) and imap (Internet Message Access Protocol). If you want to
know more here's a list of protocols.

Subdomain
A subdomain is a sub-division of the main domain name. For example, mail.doepud.com and
calendar.doepud.com are subdomains of the domain name doepud.com.

Domain name
A domain name is a unique reference that identifies a web site on the internet, for example
doepud.co.uk. A domain name always includes the top-level domain (TLD), which in Doepud's case
is uk. The co part is shorthand for commercial and combined .co.uk is called a second-level domain
(SLD).

Port
The port number is rarely visible in URLs but always required. When declared in a URL it comes
right after the TLD, separated by a colon. When it's not declared and in most cases where the
protocol is http, port 80 is used. For https (secure) requests port 443 is used.
Read more about port numbers in URLs.

Path
The path typically refers to a file or directory on the web server, e.g. /directory/file.php.
Sometimes the file name won't be specified, e.g. https://doepud.co.uk/blog/ so a web browser will
automatically look inside the /blog/ folder for a file called index or default. If neither can be found,
a 404 Not Found error will usually be returned by the server.

Query
A query is commonly found in the URL of dynamic pages (ones which are generated from database
or user-generated content) and is represented by a question mark followed by one or more
parameters. The query directly follows the domain name, path or port number.
For example, have a look at this URL which was generated by Google when doing a search for the
word URL:

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http://www.google.co.uk/search?q=url&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&aq=t&rls=org.mozilla:en-
GB:official&client=firefox-a.
The query part is

?q=url&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&aq=t&rls=org. mozilla: en-GB:official&client=firefox-a.

Parameters
Parameters are snippets of information found in the query string of a URL. With reference to the
Google query above, the parameters follow the question mark and are separated by an ampersand
(&) character so they can be understood individually and used to display content on that page. The
parameters are:

• q=url
• ie=utf-8
• oe=utf-8
• aq=t
• rls=org.mozilla:en-GB:official
• client=firefox-a

Fragment
A fragment is an internal page reference, sometimes called a named anchor. It usually
appears at the end of a URL and begins with a hash (#) character followed by an identifier.
It refers to a section within a web page.

Uses of internet

✓ E-commerce
✓ E-learning
✓ Communication (E-mail, social media-Facebook, twitter, Instagram, YouTube)

Data sharing and processing in organisations

It is the process of collecting data and converting it into information. It may be manual (where only
human effort is used), semi-manual where human effort is aided by an electronic device or
mechanical /electronic, where computers replace human effort.

It involves recording, analysing, sorting, summarising, calculating, disseminating and storing data.
Because data is most useful when well-presented and actually informative, data-processing systems
are often referred to as information systems. Nevertheless, the terms are roughly synonymous,
performing similar conversions; data-processing systems typically manipulate raw data into

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information, and likewise information systems typically take raw data as input to produce
information as output.

Data processing may or may not be distinguished from data conversion, when the process is merely
to convert data to another format, and does not involve any data manipulation.

DP is used for:

✓ Stock control – keeping track of what a shop has to sell.

✓ Calculating wages and making up payslips

✓ Keeping track of orders

✓ Producing invoices

✓ Monitoring payments and withdrawals

✓ Processing application forms

✓ Producing statements

DP makes it possible for businesses to keep accurate, up-to-date records of thousands of customers
that can be accessed straight away. This ensures that a company operates as efficiently as possible.

Advantages of Electronic Data Processing

1) Data is processed much more quickly than in a manual system.

2) Errors are much less likely – data is more accurate.
3) It is easier to store large amounts of data than with a manual system.
4) Information can be accessed very quickly and by many people at the same time.
5) Computer systems do repetitive tasks without getting bored, slowing down or making error

Centralised data processing

This is where data is sent to and processed at a central place.

Advantages of centralised data processing

1) All required information can be got from one place

2) Little distortion of information
3) Easy to manage and control
4) Cheaper to implement
5) Easier to enforce standards
6) Is not complicated

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Disadvantages

1) The whole system is disturbed when the computer is down.

2) Users of the system have little control over the data even their own.
3) Loss of data by the processing computer may mean loss of data at other points.
4) Needs specialists to set up and maintain the system and its environment.
5) Processing of data may be slow due to congestion at the central computer.

Distributed processing
Data is processed at different points in the organisation. Branch or department may have a
microcomputer or minicomputer that processes the information. The minicomputer in the branch
then sends to a host computer after processing.

Distributed processing

Advantages

1) Data lost at any point may be recovered from the host

2) Faster processing of data
3) Processing may occur even if the host computer is down
4) User have some control over their data
5) Problem can be solved at the different points

Disadvantages

1) The system needs expensive equipment and has high maintenance costs.
2) Management and control difficult
3) There is dada duplication at the different points
4) No uniformity of data
5) There is no overall control time

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Batch processing
A central computer system normally processes all transactions against a central data base and
produces reports at intervals. In batch processing transactions are accumulated over a period of
time and processed periodically. A batch system handles the inputting, processing, job queuing
and transmission of the data from the remote sites with little or no user intervention. Batch
processing involves.

✓ Data gathering from source documents at the remote site through the remote job entry (RJE)

✓ Recording the transaction data onto some medium e.g. magnetic tape or disk.

✓ Sorting the transactions into transaction files

✓ Processing of the data

✓ Updating the master file.

Advantages

1) It is economical when large amounts of data are being processed

2) Suitable where reports and information is needed periodically.
3) Reduced risk of error due to the time involved in validation and verification.

Disadvantages

1) Master files are often out of date

2) Immediate updated responses cannot be made.
3) Unsuitable where decisions and follow up transactions depend on the results of earlier
4) Transactions e.g. in bank withdrawals and deposits.
5) Once the system fails all output is delayed.

On-line Processing
It is the input of transactions while the input device is connected directly to the main CPU of the
system. There is no necessity of a batch.

Advantages

1) Items can be input much easier and quicker.

2) Many errors are dealt with by the operator at entry
3) Time is saved because a batch does not have to be produced first.
4) User can recognise anomalies in the data being entered

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Disadvantages

1) The system may be more expensive than batch processing.

2) Sometimes accuracy of data depends on the operator who might fail to detect or prevent
some errors.
3) Sometimes source document is not used e.g. in the case of telephone orders.

On line Real time processing

It is the continual receiving and rapid processing of data as to be able to feedback the result of that
input to the source of that data. There is no delay between the input of a transaction and the
updating of the master files for the transaction. The only delay is for the necessary validation and
verification of the data. This allows for immediate processing of data and results generated to
provide immediate output to users. Data does not have to wait, as is the case under batch
processing.

Data is fed directly into the computer system from on-line terminals without the storing, sorting
(these are done on-line)

Advantages

1) Processing is instantaneous
2) Files and databases are always up to date

Disadvantages

1) The systems are expensive to and complex to develop and put up.
2) Data with errors may be processed with damaging effect.
3) Hardware costs are high; there is need for on-line terminals, more CPU power, large on-line
storage and back up facilities.

Time Sharing Processing

Processor time is shared between users to provide multi-access (many users accessing data at the
same time). This can be done by minicomputers and mainframe computer systems.

Advantages

1) Each user is given a chance

2) More than one person can use the computer processor at the same time.

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Disadvantages

1) The user may not require a service at the time his slice is given - this results in too much
excess capacity at some periods.

The data processing cycle

Data processing cycle

Stage 1: Data acquisition/ Data origination

This is the collection of data from source documents for input into the computer system. Data
origination is the process of transferring data between storage types, formats, or computer systems.
It is usually performed programmatically to achieve an automated migration, freeing up human
resources from tedious tasks. It is required when organisations or individuals change computer
systems or upgrade to new systems, or when systems merge (such as when the organisations that
use them undergo a merger or takeover. The stage minimally involves data extraction and data
loading.

Stage 2: Input/Capture

This is the putting of the acquired data into the system e.g. through typing, scanning, or other
forms of input. It basically involves data verification and data validation

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✓ Data Verification – is a process wherein data is checked for accuracy and inconsistencies
(mistakes) after data origination in copying, so that it is correct. It helps to determine
whether data was accurately translated, is complete, and supports processes in the new
system. During verification, there may be a need for a parallel run of both systems to identify
areas of disparity and forestall erroneous data loss.

✓ Validation – this means ensuring that a program operates on clean, correct and useful data
i.e. the quality of the data is checked before it is entered or processed and errors detected
and eliminated. There may be garbage in and garbage out (GIGO) meaning that information
systems will produce erroneous output if provided with erroneous input data or
instructions. To avoid GIGO common validation is done:

a. Checking data reasonableness, e.g. pregnancy for a three-year-old would be unreasonable.

b. Checking data consistency - e.g. it would be inconsistent to record a pregnant male.

c. Checking range units e.g. it would be impossible to have 30hours worked by one worker in a day.

d. Timeliness - that data is not out of date.

Validation methods

✓ Allowed character checks: these are checks that ascertain that only expected characters are
present in a field. For example, a numeric field may only allow the digits 0-9, the decimal
point and perhaps a minus sign or comma. A text field such as a personal name might
disallow characters such as < and >, as they could be evidence of a mark-up-based security
attack.

✓ Batch totals: this checks for missing records. Numerical fields may be added together for all
records in a batch. The batch total is entered and the computer checks that the total is
correct.

✓ Cardinality check: checks that record has a valid number of related records. For example,
if contact record classified as a customer it must have at least one associated order
(cardinality >0). If order does not exist for a customer record then it must be either changed
to seed or the order must be created.

✓ Check digits: used for numerical data. An extra digit is added to a number which is
calculated from the digits. The computer checks this calculation when data are entered,
e.g., the ISBN for a book. The last digit is a check digit calculated modulus 11.

✓ Consistence checks: checks fields to ensure data in these fields corresponds, e.g., if title =
“Mr” the gender = “M”.

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✓ Control totals: this is a total done on one or more numeric fields which appears I every
record. This is a meaningful total, e.g., add the total payments for a number of customers.

✓ Cross-system consistency checks: compares data in different systems to ensure it is

consistence, e.g., the address for the customer with the same id is the same in both systems.

Stage 3: Data Processing

This is the key part of the cycle where data is converted into information. This is where calculations
and other logical and manipulative operations on the data are done. Specific applications are used
to process the data e.g. word processing, spread sheet, payroll packages etc.

Stage 4: Storage

Information is stored on various storage media including hard disks, floppy disks, magnetic tapes
etc. awaiting future use or to be communicated to other areas where it is supposed to be used as
feedback or as input.

Stage 5: Output

The processed information (results of the preceding processing step are collected) is eventually
displayed for use by the user through the various output systems - printers, VDUs, sound cards &
speakers.

Data processing personnel

The job involving the capture, processing and output of data and information involves a number of
people. Sometimes there may be one person to do this and often there may be a department solely
responsible for data processing or for Information technology.

The data processing department interacts with all other departments from where it gets data and
for whom it processes and eventually provides the information to.

The main functions of a DP department are:

1) Design and install a custom-built system of data capture and processing.

2) Provision of advice to the organisation on matters regarding the processing of information

e.g. the selection of the correct devices for input, process, storage and output.

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3) Provides advice on the installation of a package or information system

4) Manage the organisation's data processing resources.

1. Data processing Manager

He is the head of the IT or DP department covering the three main areas of system development,
programming, and operations management.

The Main Duties of the DPM

1) Development and assisting in producing data processing policy for the organisation.
2) Execution of the defined data processing policy
3) Management of the data processing function
4) Liaising with data user departments
5) Working with management to identify problem areas and areas of improvement.
6) Ensuring proper systems development, system maintenance and computer operating
standards exist, are kept up to date.
7) Ensuring proper security and back-up arrangements are in existence and are tested
regularly.
8) Ensuring that the systems are adequately documented.
9) Ensure proper evaluation of the implemented systems.
10) Providing suitable training for the data personnel.
11) Coordination of all activities in the department
12) Resolution of conflict within the department and between the department and other
departments.
13) Provide guidance on issues of data processing
14) Recommends on staffing issues.

2. Application programmer

He writes programmes or adapts software packages to carry out specific task or operations for the
computer users e.g. a sales analysis programme for the marketing department.

Duties

1) discuss the programme specification with the analyst.

2) To write the sources program module.
3) To test the programme and debug it.
4) To maintain programmes correcting errors, making improvements & modifications to allow
for changing business methods, circumstances or equipment.

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5) Encode the procedure detailed by the analyst in a language suitable for the specified
computer.
6) Liaise with the analyst and other users on the logical correctness of the programme.
7) Handles and operates the computer hardware.
8) Handles computer input and output.
9) Responds to messages on the operator's console prompted by the operating system that
monitors the user's requests and the status of the peripherals.
10) Watching the process of individual jobs and of the computer in general.
11) Keeping a log of what happens to supplement the log that the computer produces.

3. Data Preparation/Entry Clerk

This is the key station operator who transcribes source data into computer sensible form.

Duties

1) Prepares data for input into the computer

2) Enters the data into the computer for processing.
3) Monitors the processing and output.
4) Does some operations of the computer operator?

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TOPIC 5: SECURITY, ETHICS, HEALTH AND SAFETY STANDARDS

Computer room equipment security

There is need to look after the computer hardware well to avoid loss of data or the computers
themselves.

1) Lockable doors – doors should be lockable to avoid unauthorized access to the computers
or theft or vandalism of the computer systems. The key should be kept with some
responsible person.

2) Metal Bars and Shutters – Fit room with metal bars and shutters.

3) An alarm system – an alarm system may be installed to warn of an intrusion. • Critical

alarms related to the functioning of the A/C system and physical environment of the room
must be mapped into the Facilities Management Energy Management System.

4) ID badges – all users to use ID badges for access to the room or building.

5) Security guards – have a twenty-four hour guard to the room.

6) Attach computers permanently to desks using clamps to avoid theft of the computer(s).

7) Have all equipment serial numbers for use if equipment is stolen.

8) All entrances to the room should be properly secured and alarmed where appropriate.

Computer viruses
A computer virus is a harmful program that copies itself onto other programmes and destroys them
or interferes with their proper functioning. Viruses are transmitted from computer to computer.
They copy themselves quickly. Effects of viruses may be mild to severe. Some viruses are harmless
and computers may operate normally.

Presence of viruses can be noticed by:

1) Displaying of messages

2) Deleting data and programme files

3) Failure of computer to detect peripherals

4) Display of irritating messages or images

5) Exaggerated file and document sizes.

6) Unwanted formatting of hard disk

7) Playing music

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8) Computer fails to boot up

How to reduce the risk of viral infection?

1) Use genuine software

2) Install a reliable and up to date antivirus program

3) Install anti-spyware

4) Avoid suspicious websites

5) Set up automatic scans

6) Install and set up a firewall

7) Never open spam

8) Never open e-mail attachments without scanning them first.

9) Write protect all

Computer crimes
In order to protect yourself you need to know about the different ways in which your computer can
be compromised and your privacy infringed. In this section, we discuss a few common tools and
techniques employed by the cyber criminals. This isn’t an exhaustive list by any means, but will
give you a comprehensive idea of the loopholes in networks and security systems, which can be
exploited by attackers, and also their possible motives for doing so.

Below are some of the more common cybercrimes every business is subject to, and some ideas to
prevent them.

1) Malware

Malware from the Internet

Malware from the Internet is obtained either by downloading free programs (which small-business
owners often use) or by browsing the Web with a vulnerable computer. Think your computer isn't
vulnerable? If you have ever declined to update Java for any period of time, your computer was
probably vulnerable to cyber-attack.

Once malware downloads onto the computer from one of these two sources, your computer may
now be controlled by a billion-dollar crime industry. These crime organizations sell access to your
computer, data acquired from it (credit cards, passwords, SS numbers, email addresses,
proprietary company information, addresses, bank account information, access to your bank

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account, etc.) and they can even lock down your computer to ransom it. They can do this by
encrypting the data or restricting access and requiring you to pay hundreds of dollars with a
MoneyPak card.

Malware from Email

This is obtained by an incredibly well put together phishing attack. Crime organizations obtain
email lists and send emails that appear to be from legitimate domains and from legitimate
companies. Why is this form of attack so successful? Because if you get an email from FedEx about
the details of your tracking information or shipped package, you would expect it to come from
[email protected].

The fake emails actually come from the fedex.com domain, or so it appears. Crime organizations
actually spoof the email to show the legitimate domain. Then they put together a very well-written
email about the details of your package and persuade you to open an attachment or follow a link
(as companies often request via email).

Like any business owner, you probably know that a lot of companies have your email, and you
often buy, ship, and sell a lot of things. So if you get an email saying your shipment needs your
attention and a customer might be affected by it, you are likely to open it. This email could contain
malware which may then infect your machine, and it can become exploited much like malware from
the Internet.

Emails for this type of attack are not just from FedEx; they will typically appear from well-respected
companies like UPS and even the Better Business Bureau.

Social Engineering

This is an older style of attack that has been occurring more frequently. A business will receive an
urgent call from a person (often a male and sometimes speaking with a western Asian accent) who
will generally associate himself with Microsoft. They usually have some story about the business
owner's computer being compromised and that it needs to be fixed. The caller then will direct the
business owner to take actions on their computer to rectify the issues. This generally ends in this
scam company getting your credit card details and access to your computer. After all, they want to
be paid for fixing your issue and need access to your computer to fix it.

2) Hacking

In simple words, hacking is an act committed by an intruder by accessing your computer system
without your permission. Hackers (the people doing the ‘hacking’) are basically computer
programmers, who have an advanced understanding of computers and commonly misuse this
knowledge for devious reasons. They’re usually technology buffs who have expert-level skills in one
particular software program or language. As for motives, there could be several, but the most

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common are pretty simple and can be explained by a human tendency such as greed, fame, power,
etc. Some people do it purely to show-off their expertise – ranging from relatively harmless activities
such as modifying software (and even hardware) to carry out tasks that are outside the creator’s
intent, others just want to cause destruction.

Greed and sometimes voyeuristic tendancies may cause a hacker to break into systems to steal
personal banking information, a corporation’s financial data, etc. They also try and modify systems
so that they can execute tasks at their whims. Hackers displaying such destructive conduct are
also called “Crackers” at times. they are also called “Black Hat” hackers on the other hand, there
are those who develop an interest in computer hacking just out of intellectual curiosity. Some
companies hire these computer enthusiasts to find flaws in their security systems and help fix
them. Referred to as “White Hat” hackers, these guys are against the abuse of computer systems.
They attempt to break into network systems purely to alert the owners of flaws. It’s not always
altruistic, though, because many do this for fame as well, in order to land jobs with top companies,
or just to be termed as security experts. “Grey Hat” is another term used to refer to hacking activities
that are a cross between black and white hacking.

Some of the most famous computer geniuses were once hackers who went on to use their skills for
constructive technological development. Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson, the creators of the
UNIX operating system (Linux’s predecessor), were two of them. Shawn Fanning, the developer of
Napster, Mark Zuckerberg of Facebook fame, and many more are also examples. The first step
towards preventing hackers from gaining access to your systems is to learn how hacking is done.
Of course it is beyond the scope of this Fast Track to go into great details, but we will cover the
various techniques used by hackers to get to you via the internet.

a. SQL Injections: An SQL injection is a technique that allows hackers to play upon the security
vulnerabilities of the software that runs a web site. It can be used to attack any type of unprotected
or improperly protected SQL database. This process involves entering portions of SQL code into a
web form entry field – most commonly usernames and passwords – to give the hacker further access
to the site backend, or to a particular user’s account. When you enter logon information into sign-
in fields, this information is typically converted to an SQL command. This command checks the
data you’ve entered against the relevant table in the database. If your input data matches the data
in the table, you’re granted access, if not, you get the kind of error you would have seen when you
put in a wrong password. An SQL injection is usually an additional command that when inserted
into the web form, tries to change the content of the database to reflect a successful login. It can
also be used to retrieve information such as credit card numbers or passwords from unprotected
sites.

b. Theft of FTP Passwords: This is another very common way to tamper with web sites. FTP
password hacking takes advantage of the fact that many webmasters store their website login
information on their poorly protected PCs. The thief searches the victim’s system for FTP login

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details, and then relays them to his own remote computer. He then logs into the web site via the
remote computer and modifies the web pages as he or she pleases.

c. Cross-site scripting:

Also known as XSS (formerly CSS, but renamed due to confusion with cascading style sheets), is a
very easy way of circumventing a security system. Cross-site scripting is a hard-to-find loophole in
a web site, making it vulnerable to attack. In a typical XSS attack, the hacker infects a web page
with a malicious client-side script or program. When you visit this web page, the script is
automatically downloaded to your browser and executed. Typically, attackers inject HTML,
JavaScript, VBScript, ActiveX or Flash into a vulnerable application to deceive you and gather
confidential information. If you want to protect your PC from malicious hackers, investing in a good
firewall should be first and foremost. Hacking is done through a network, so it’s very important to
stay safe while using the internet. You’ll read more about safety tips in the last chapter of this book.

3) Virus dissemination

Viruses are computer programs that attach themselves to or infect a system or files, and have a
tendency to circulate to other computers on a network. They disrupt the computer operation and
affect the data stored – either by modifying it or by deleting it altogether. “Worms” unlike viruses
don’t need a host to cling on to. They merely replicate until they eat up all available memory in the
system. The term “worm” is sometimes used to mean self-replicating “malware” (MALicious
softWARE). These terms are often used interchangeably in the context of the hybrid viruses/worms
that dominate the current virus scenario. “Trojan horses” are different from viruses in their manner
of propagation.

They masquerade as a legitimate file, such as an email attachment from a supposed friend with a
very believable name, and don’t disseminate themselves. The user can also unknowingly install a
Trojan-infected program via drive-by downloads when visiting a website, playing online games or
using internet-driven applications. A Trojan horse can cause damage similar to other viruses, such
as steal information or hamper/disrupt the functioning of computer systems.

How does this happen? Well, the malicious code or virus is inserted into the chain of command so
that when the infected program is run, the viral code is also executed (or in some cases, runs
instead of the legitimate program). Viruses are usually seen as extraneous code attached to a host
program, but this isn’t always the case. Sometimes, the environment is manipulated so that calling
a legitimate uninfected program calls the viral program. The viral program may also be executed
before any other program is run. This can virtually infect every executable file on the computer,
even though none of those files’ code was actually tampered with. Viruses that follow this modus
operandi include “cluster” or “FAT” (File Allocation Table) viruses, which redirect system pointers
to infected files, associate viruses and viruses that modify the Windows Registry directory entries
so that their own code is executed before any other legitimate program.

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Computer viruses usually spread via removable media or the internet. A flash disk, CD-ROM,
magnetic tape or other storage device that has been in an infected computer infects all future
computers in which it’s used. Your computer can also contract viruses from sinister email
attachments, rogue web sites or infected software. And these disseminate to every other computer
on your network.

All computer viruses cause direct or indirect economic damages. Based on this, there are two
categories of viruses:

1) Those that only disseminate and don’t cause intentional damage

2) Those which are programmed to cause damage.

However, even by disseminating, they take up plenty of memory space, and time and resources that
are spent on the clean-up job. Direct economic damages are caused when viruses alter the
information during digital transmission. Considerable expenses are incurred by individuals, firms
and authorities for developing and implementing the anti-virus tools to protect computer systems.

4) Logic bombs

A logic bomb, also known as “slag code”, is a malicious piece of code which is intentionally inserted
into software to execute a malicious task when triggered by a specific event. It’s not a virus,
although it usually behaves in a similar manner. It is stealthily inserted into the program where it
lies dormant until specified conditions are met. Malicious software such as viruses and worms often
contain logic bombs which are triggered at a specific payload or at a predefined time. The payload
of a logic bomb is unknown to the user of the software, and the task that it executes unwanted.
Program codes that are scheduled to execute at a particular time are known as “time-bombs”. For
example, the infamous “Friday the 13th” virus which attacked the host systems only on specific
dates; it “exploded” (duplicated itself) every Friday that happened to be the thirteenth of a month,
thus causing system slowdowns.

Logic bombs are usually employed by disgruntled employees working in the IT sector. You may
have heard of “disgruntled employee syndrome” wherein angry employees who’ve been fired use
logic bombs to delete the databases of their employers, stultify the network for a while or even do
insider trading. Triggers associated with the execution of logic bombs can be a specific date and
time, a missing entry from a database or not putting in a command at the usual time, meaning the
person doesn’t work there anymore. Most logic bombs stay only in the network they were employed
in. So in most cases, they’re an insider job. This makes them easier to design and execute than a
virus. It doesn’t need to replicate; which is a more complex job. To keep your network protected
from the logic bombs, you need constant monitoring of the data and efficient anti-virus software on
each of the computers in the network.

There’s another use for the type of action carried out in a logic bomb “explosion” – to make
restricted software trials. The embedded piece of code destroys the software after a defined period

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of time or renders it unusable until the user pays for its further use. Although this piece of code
uses the same technique as a logic bomb, it has a non-destructive, non-malicious and user-
transparent use, and is not typically referred to as one.

5) Denial-of-Service attack

A Denial-of-Service (DoS) attack is an explicit attempt by attackers to deny service to intended users
of that service. It involves flooding a computer resource with more requests than it can handle
consuming its available bandwidth which results in server overload. This causes the resource (e.g.
a web server) to crash or slow down significantly so that no one can access it. Using this technique,
the attacker can render a web site inoperable by sending massive amounts of traffic to the targeted
site. A site may temporarily malfunction or crash completely, in any case resulting in inability of
the system to communicate adequately. DoS attacks violate the acceptable use policies of virtually
all internet service providers.

Another variation to a denial-of-service attack is known as a “Distributed Denial of Service” (DDoS)

attack wherein a number of geographically widespread perpetrators flood the network traffic.
Denial-of-Service attacks typically target high profile web site servers belonging to banks and credit
card payment gateways. Websites of companies such as Amazon, CNN, Yahoo, Twitter and eBay!
are not spared either.

6) Phishing

This a technique of extracting confidential information such as credit card numbers and username
password combos by masquerading as a legitimate enterprise. Phishing is typically carried out by
email spoofing. You’ve probably received email containing links to legitimate appearing websites.
You probably found it suspicious and didn’t click the link. Smart move.

7) Email bombing and spamming

Email bombing is characterised by an abuser sending huge volumes of email to a target address
resulting in victim’s email account or mail servers crashing. The message is meaningless and
excessively long in order to consume network resources. If multiple accounts of a mail server are
targeted, it may have a denial-of-service impact. Such mail arriving frequently in your inbox can be
easily detected by spam filters. Email bombing is commonly carried out using botnets (private
internet connected computers whose security has been compromised by malware and under the
attacker’s control) as a DDoS attack.

8) Web jacking

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Web jacking derives its name from “hijacking”. Here, the hacker takes control of a web site
fraudulently. He may change the content of the original site or even redirect the user to another
fake similar looking page controlled by him. The owner of the web site has no more control and the
attacker may use the web site for his own selfish interests. Cases have been reported where the
attacker has asked for ransom, and even posted obscene material on the site.

The web jacking method attack may be used to create a clone of the web site, and present the victim
with the new link saying that the site has moved. Unlike usual phishing methods, when you hover
your cursor over the link provided, the URL presented will be the original one, and not the attacker’s
site. But when you click on the new link, it opens and is quickly replaced with the malicious web
server. The name on the address bar will be slightly different from the original website that can
trick the user into thinking it’s a legitimate site. For example, “Gmail” may direct you to “gmai1”.
Notice the one in place of ‘L’. It can be easily overlooked.

Every single type of fraud listed here resulted in a financial impact to the business owner with
potentially lasting consequences. So how can a business protect itself?

1. Backups. Ensure backups are regularly paid for, that they are performing without fail, and
that they are stored offsite or in the cloud.

2. Pay for antivirus. Get the good stuff. For antivirus to be worth anything there needs to be
a team of security professionals scouring the Web and creating definitions of different types
of malware to be wary of. If you have a well-paid team, you generally end up with better
antivirus.

3. Pay for both email and spam protection. Having your own email domain generally makes
a business seem more professional in the first place, rather than relying on the free spam
filter that a free email comes with. If you pay for email and spam protection, you look more
professional and receive a spam filter that works better.

4. Updates. Always keep your computer up-to-date with the latest version of any program you
have on it. If you don't, it can create security holes.

5. Ignore unexpected calls or emails. Never consent to give away information or perform
actions if the person called you or if you weren't expecting their email.

6. Have a well-trusted IT company on hand to deal with these issues when they pop up.
Paying an IT company to manage all of these things for you in the first place is probably the
safest way to go.

7. Have A Firewall. Any computer network should be protected by a firewall. A firewall is a

virtual barrier that disallows information from making its way into the network without
authorization. The firewall will block out any data that has not been intentionally permitted

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by the network administrator. While this is an extremely helpful preventive measure, it can
be circumnavigated and it does nothing to protect the network from an internal problem.

8. Anti-Virus Software. The spread of computer viruses can be responsible for major losses
of data and sometimes money or machinery. There are a number of anti-virus software
options that will help prevent these harmful programs from getting onto a network or a
single computer.

Safe and unsafe sites

The copyright act

Data protection measures

Ethical issues from online activities

Health and safety

Computer and computer equipment have negative health effects on the users. Research is still
being carried out to determine the extent of the effects on the health of users.

The main effects are:

a) Repetitive Strain Injury

This refers to disorders that affect the hands, wrists, arms, shoulders or neck of computer
operators. It is inflammation of the joints and is caused by making the same small movements over
and over again. This can cause pain, numbness, swelling and the inability to lift or grip objects. In
some cases, operators have become permanently disabled.

To reduce RSI

1) make sure the desk and chair are at suitable heights

2) sit at a comfortable distance from the keyboard

3) Make sure that lower arms are horizontal and wrists straight when using a keyboard or
mouse.

4) Use a wrist rest if necessary so that you do not rest you wrists on the edge of the table or
keyboard.

5) Take frequent breaks to stretch your arms and fingers

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b) Eye Strain from VDU

Using the VDU for long periods at a time may affect a user’s eyes and in some instances cause
headaches.

To reduce eye strain:

1) Desks and VDUs area arranged to avoid glare or bright reflections on the screen.

2) Arrange desks so that user is not looking at windows or lights

3) Use curtains and window blinds

4) Sharply focus VDU so that characters do not move and flicker

5) Have regular eye tests

6) Adjust screen brightness and contrast to suit lighting conditions

7) Adjust the angle of the screen to your sitting height

8) Keep the screen clean

9) Use a document holder so that you do not lean over to read documents.

10) Take a break every 20 to 30 minutes.

c) Posture

Sitting incorrectly or without right support at a computer terminal for long periods may result in
back, neck and upper arm pains.

To reduce posture related problems:

1) Use adjustable chairs to adjust height

2) Use adjustable backrests

3) Use swivel chairs

4) Use footrest

5) Always sit well

6) Change sitting positions regularly

7) Take frequent short breaks

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d) Risk of Accident

If it may be necessary to shift a computer, if not done properly may result in injury to the worker.
There may also be problems relating to power and falling over of computer equipment that is not
put up properly.

e) Risk of Exposure Radiation

Some computer equipment produces radiation that has long-term effects on users or on unborn
babies.

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TOPIC 6: WORD PROCESSING - (Ms Word)

Open Microsoft Word. Your screen will look like the one shown here.

Parts of the Ms Word window

The Title Bar

Title bar, which is located at the very top of the screen. On the Title bar, Microsoft Word displays
the name of the document on which you are currently working. At the top of your screen, you
should see "Microsoft Word - Document1" or a similar name.

The Menu Bar

The Menu bar is generally found directly below the Title bar. The Menu bar displays the list of Tabs.
You use the menus to give instructions to the software. Click the left mouse button to open a Tap.
The Tab displays several panels for example the Home Tab is shown below:

Toolbars

The Standard Toolbar (quick access)

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The paragraph formatting Toolbar

The Ruler

The ruler is used to change the format of your document quickly. To display the ruler:

1. Click View on the Menu bar.

2. The option Ruler should have a check mark next to it. If it has a check mark next to it, press
Esc to close the menu. If it does not have a check mark next to it, continue to the next step.

3. Click Ruler. The ruler now appears below the toolbars.

Document View

In Word, you can display your document in one of five views: Normal, Web Layout, Print Layout,
Reading Layout, or Online Layout.

Normal View

Normal view is the most often used and shows formatting such as line spacing, font, point size, and
italics. Word displays multiple-column text in one continuous column.

Web Layout

Web layout view enables you to view your document as it would appear in a browser such as
Internet Explorer.

Print Layout

The Print Layout view shows the document as it will look when it is printed.

Reading Layout

Reading Layout view formats your screen to make reading your document more comfortable.

Outline view

Outline view displays the document in outline form. Headings can be displayed without the text. If
you move a heading, the accompanying text moves with it.

Tables

✓ How to insert tables

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✓ How to navigate in the table

✓ Adjusting the width of a column
✓ Row height
✓ Text alignment
✓ Text Direction
✓ sort data

Importing objects

How to Insert Excel Data into Word

Step 1: Open the Excel spreadsheet that contains your data, or create a new spreadsheet and enter
your information.

Step 2: Select all of the cells in your Excel spreadsheet that you want to insert into your Word
document, and press Ctrl + C to copy the entire selection.

Step 3: Switch over to your Microsoft Word document and place the cursor at the point in the
document where you want to insert the data. Open the Home tab on the Word ribbon, and click on
the arrow underneath Paste. Select the Paste Special option.

Step 4: In the Paste Special dialog box, choose the paste as Microsoft Office Excel Worksheet
Object option.

NB

If you later decide that you want to make any changes to this information, you don’t have to go
through these steps again. You can edit the Excel spreadsheet directly within Microsoft Word simply
by double-clicking on the object. You’re not restricted to just formatting edits either – you can make
any changes to the table, including adding formulas and calculations, that you normally would
make in Excel.

Using Tables and Charts in Microsoft Word

Mail Merge

You use mail merge when you want to create a set of documents, such as a form letter that is sent
to many customers. Each letter has the same kind of information, yet the content is unique. For
example, in letters to your customers, each letter can be personalized to address each customer by
name. The unique information in each letter comes from entries in a data source.

The mail merge process entails the following overall steps:

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1. Set up the main document. The main document contains the text and graphics that are the same
for each version of the merged document — for example, the return address or salutation in a form
letter.

2. Connect the document to a data source. A data source is a file that contains the information to
be merged into a document. For example, the names and addresses of the recipients of a letter.

3. Refine the list of recipients or items. Microsoft Office Word generates a copy of the main document
for each item, or record, in your data file. If your data file is a mailing list, these items are probably
recipients of your mailing. If you want to generate copies for only certain items in your data file,
you can choose which items (records) to include.

4. Add placeholders, called mail merge fields, to the document. When you perform the mail merge,
the mail merge fields are filled with information from your data file.

5. Preview and complete the merge. You can preview each copy of the document before you print
the whole set.

You can also perform a mail merge by using the Mail Merge task pane, which leads you step by
step through the process. To use the task pane, in the Start Mail Merge group on the Mailings
tab, click Start Mail Merge, and then click Step by Step Mail Merge Wizard.

Set up the main document

1. Start Word.

A blank document opens by default. Leave it open. If you close it, the commands in the next step
are not available.

2. On the Mailings tab, in the Start Mail Merge group, click Start Mail Merge.

3. Click Letters.

You can also use mail merge to create:

A catalog or directory The same kind of information, such as name and description, is shown for
each item, but the name and description in each item is unique. Click Directory to create this type
of document.

A set of envelopes The return address is the same on all the envelopes, but the destination address
is unique on each one. For more information, see Create and print envelopes for a mass mailing.

A set of mailing labels Each label shows a person's name and address, but the name and address
on each label is unique. For more information, see

Create and print labels for a mass mailing.

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A set of e-mail messages The basic content is the same in all the messages, but each message
goes to the individual recipient and each message contains information that is specific to that
recipient, such as the recipient's name or some other piece of information. For more information,
see Use mail merge to send personalized e-mail messages to your e-mail address list.

Resume a mail merge

If you need to stop working on a mail merge, you can save the main document and resume the
merge later. Microsoft Office Word retains the data source and field information. If you were using
the Mail Merge task pane, Word returns to your place in the task pane when you resume the
merge.

1. When you're ready to resume the merge, open the document.

Word displays a message that asks you to confirm whether you want to open the document, which
will run a SQL command.

2. Because this document is connected to a data source and you want to retrieve the data, click
Yes. If you were opening a document that you did not realize was connected to a data source, you
could click No to prevent potentially malicious access to data.

The text of the document, along with any fields that you inserted, appears.

3. Click the Mailings tab, and resume your work.

Connect the document to a data source

To merge information into your main document, you must connect the document to a data source,
or a data file. If you don't already have a data file, you can create one during the mail merge process.

If you use an existing list, make sure that it contains the information that you want to use, including
all the columns and the rows. You can make some changes during

Practice questions

Q1. As a manager, type a memorandum to other members of staff to inform them on the
organisation’s dressing policy. You should pay attention to the following details:

a. Use two different fonts (3 marks)

b. Font size should not be the same throughout (3 marks)

c. Use dotted underling on appropriate text (3 marks)

d. Line spacing should be 1.5 lines throughout the document (3 marks)

e. All text should be justified (3 marks)

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f. Somewhere at the top location of your document, your organisation’s logo should appear (3
marks)

g. Proper use of bullets is required (3 marks)

h. Sign the memorandum by drawing your signature using shapes (3 marks)

i. Insert a page border (3 marks)

j. Insert a picture watermark related to the information that is not washed out and that is
reduced to 20% of its size (3 marks)

k. Include a relevant table of at least three columns. The last row of the table should have a
column span of just one column (the last column) (10 marks)

l. The memorandum should be carefully created with no spelling and grammatical errors. All
the necessary details of a memorandum must be present (8 marks)

m. All work must fit on one page (2 marks)

Total marks: 50

NB: there are penalties for typographical errors

Q2

1. Key in the letter below on an A4 paper using appropriate margins.

2. Type the following statement as a Letterhead. Polymech Engineering, Harare Polytechnic, P

Bag CY 407, Causeway Harare and centre it at the top of the letter.

3. Use today’s date

4. Set appropriate tab stops for tabular area

5. Correct any misspellings

6. Use the correct complimentary close and finish off letter as you should

7. Save as Letter-T2 (Candidate Full Name) - Class- (Mode of Study).

8. Font size 12 for normal text and 14 for headings

9. Font type is Bookman Old style

10. Line spacing is 1.5

11. Submission is in the Hardcopy

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12. Insert page numbers (20)

Ref PM/Hre/A345

Mr Karl Newton

56 The Park

LISMORE

Co Waterford

Dear Sir

Fax Machine Accessories

Enclosed please find our current booklet detailing our selection of fax machine accessories.

We feel sure you will find many items of interest in this booklet and would like to draw your
attention to the following special effects:

Code Item Description Sale Price

432809 Trim Fax Stand £85.00

0984231 Eurotek Fax station £25.99

809432 Epson Machine Trolley £35.00

984321 Twinlock Fax Holders £45.50

You will note that our products are listed in 15 sections.

For your convenience, section numbers are listed for easy of reference on page 2. We will be pleased
to quote you for any special requirements you may have.

Yours faithfully

C.I Tsakemb.

General Manager (Polymech Engineers)

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TOPIC 7: SPREADSHEET-(Ms Excel)

In the following exercises you will learn some of the necessary steps to create a spreadsheet. You
will learn not only how to type various items into the spreadsheet, but also how to copy columns,
widen columns, fill columns, add, subtract, multiply, divide, do graphics and a variety of other
“things.”

To begin, load the spreadsheet by quickly clicking twice on the Excel Windows Icon in the
Windows Screen. If you do not see an Excel Icon, click-on the Start Button in the lower left
corner of the screen, move the cursor up to Programs, and then move to Microsoft Excel 2003
and click-on it.

A spreadsheet is a “number manipulator.” To make the manipulation of numbers easier all

spreadsheets are organized into rows and columns. Your initial spreadsheet will look something
like the one below:

Notice that the “main” part of the spreadsheet is composed of Rows (Labeled 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) and
Columns (Labeled A, B, C, D, etc.). There are a lot of rows and columns in a spreadsheet. The
“intersection” of each row and column iscalled a cell. In the image above the cursor is on the
“home” cell – A1. Notice Row 1 and Column A are “bold,” and colored “orange.” This indicates
what is called the “address of the cell. Notice right above cell A1, that A1 is displayed in a small
box called the Name Box. Whenever you “click” on a cell the address of that cell will be shown in
the Name Box.

You can move around the spreadsheet/cells by clicking your mouse on various cells, or by using
the up, down, right and left arrow movement keys on the keyboard. Or, you can move up and
down by using the “elevator” bars on the right and bottom of the spreadsheet. Go ahead and
move around the spreadsheet. Hold down the down arrow key on the keyboard for a few seconds
– then click-on a cell. Notice how the Name Box always tells you “where you are.” Now hold
down the right arrow key on the keyboard for a few seconds. Notice how the alphabet changes
from single letters (A, B, C,. …. Z) to several letter combinations (AA, AB, AC). There are
hundreds of columns and thousands of rows in a spreadsheet. Anytime you desire to return to
the Home Cell (A1) simply click-in the Name Box and type-in A1. Then tap the Enter key and
you will go to cell A1. You can go to any cell by this method. Simply type-in a row and column, tap
the Enter key, and you’ll go to that cell.

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Practice questions

Q1

Cell Type-in Cell Type-in

A3 Income A10 Expenses

B4 Parents B11 Food

B5 Job B12 Beverages

B6 Investments B13 Parties

B7 Total B14 Miscellaneous

B15 Total

Cell Type-in

C4 300

C5 50

C6 150

When you type-in the 150, tap Enter.

We would like to place an underline at the bottom of the three figures so that we can indicate
a total below – in cell C7. Point to cell C7 with the mouse. That's where we want the line -- always
move the cursor to the place where you want to insert a line. With the Arrow on cell C7 tap
the RIGHT mouse button.

A sub-menu with a caption Format Cells appears. The right click will “always bring up” a menu
that is “tailored” to the “place” where you click. This will work in any Microsoft Windows product.
You can always tell “where” you click the right mouse button for the cursor arrow will always
be in a corner of the menu that appears – exactly where you clicked the right mouse button..
Select Format Cells.

When the Format Cells menu screen below appears, select Border.

Look at the Line Style box in the lower right.

There are several types of lines that you can choose. Point to the thick single line in the Style
Area (see arrow) and click the left mouse button. A box will go around the line. Look at the area
which says Border. Point to the upper part of the Text box (see arrow) and click the left mouse
button. A thick black line will appear at the top of the Text box.

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If the thick line does not show-up at the top of the Text box, click-again at the “top line area in
the Text box” and the line will “disappear”. Then click-on the thick, single line in the Line Style box
again and repeat the previous instructions.

If, somehow, you make a mistake, simply click “on and off in the Text line boxes.” You will
notice that the lines appear and disappear. This is called a “toggle” in computer jargon. So, work
at this until you get the line on the top or where you want it. We have just indicated that we want
a single thick underline at the top of the cell C7. Point to OK and click the left mouse button.

When you return to the spreadsheet, click somewhere other than cell C7.

This is called “clicking away.” You should now see a line at the top of cell C7.

Sometimes the box highlighting a cell hides the lines. If you “messed-up”, try again.

Now type in the numbers in the cells indicated.

Cell Type-in

C11 30

C12 50

C13 150

C14 70 (After you type 70, tap the Enter key)

Now, underline the top of cell C15 like you did cell C7.

Widening Columns

You probably noticed, as you typed in the numbers, some of the words were just too wide for the
default cell width (Investments and Miscellaneous). Let's widen column B to take care of this.

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Slowly move the mouse arrow to the right edge of the B cell (between the B and the C). The
cursor will turn into an arrow pointing right and left with a small vertical line in the middle
(see arrow below). Hold down the left mouse button and move (drag) the line to the right.

Q2: Use the worksheet given in Table 2 to answer the questions that follow:

Table 2

Expenses for the month of January vs. Budget

Budget Savings
Salaries and wages 156675.00
Rent 4300.00
Electricity 1000.00
Telephone 200.00
Advertisements 20000.00
Freight and clearing 15650.00
Security 3800.00
(i) Insert a new column between Budget and Savings column.

(ii) Enter the Title ‘Actual’ in cell C3.

(iii) Enter the following figures in the new column

Actual
Salaries and wages 145200
Rent 4300
Electricity 1207
Telephone 142
Advertisements 18550
Freight and clearing 13400
Security 3800
(iv) Calculate the savings in cells D4:D10

(v) Format the sheet title to Arial Black, size 14, and Bold.

(vi) Save the file as Audit T2 – (Candidate Full name) – Class – (Mode of study)

(vii) Format the range B4:D10 to two (2) decimal places

(viii) Adjust column C such that all the values are displayed.

(ix) Add the title Savings % in cell E3 and calculate the savings as a percentage of the budget.

(x) Format the range E4:E10 as a percentage

(xi) Enter the row title Total in cell A12 and obtain totals for budget, Actual, and Savings
columns.

(xii) Copy the formula in E10 to E12

(xiii) Format the new heading to match the existing headings and align the heading to Right.

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(xiv) Save and Close the worksheet (20)

Q3: EXCEL: Sure Balance Checkbook (20)

i. Enter the text below in the cells indicated.

A1: Sure Balance Checkbook, A3: Ck. #, B3: Date, C3: Item Description

D3: Debit, E3: Credit, F3: X, G3: Balance

ii. Modify column widths for columns A through F. Use the following widths for each column.

Column A: 5 Column B: 8 Column C: 30 Column D: 10 Column E: 10 Column F: 1

Column G: 12

iii. Format the numbers to show dollars and cents for all entries in columns D, E, and G.

iv. Format column B to enter the date of transactions.

v. Enter the formulas below in the cells indicated.

G4: =D4 + E4, G5: =G4 - D5 + E5

vi. Enter the information below in the rows indicated.

vii. Copy the formula from cell G5 to cells G6 through G13.

viii. Print and submit the completed worksheet.

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TOPIC 8: DATABASES- (Ms. Access)

Starting Access

Double click on the Access 2003 icon on the Windows desktop, or click-on the Start button in the
lower left corner of the screen, then click-on Programs, and then click-on Microsoft Access.

In the Open area of the Access Getting Started Task Pane, click the on blank database to Create a
new file.

Saving your work:

One of the unique things about Access database is that it requires you to save your database as
soon as you enter the program.

Browse through for a folder to save your database

Click create

You are taken to the start window

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The Ms. Access window has the features that are found on other Microsoft application windows,
that is: -

The caption or title bar

This shows the name of the database that is in use and minimize, maximise or restore and close
buttons for that database window are displayed on the far-right side of the bar

1) The menu bar,

2) The tool bar,
3) The status bar,

The other features on the database window are;

Creating a Table

You will notice, in the person: Database menu screen, in the left border: Tables, Queries,
Forms, Reports, Pages, Macros, and Modules. You will notice at the top of the screen: Open,
Design and New. You may create multiple Tables (Databases), as well as multiple other items
associated with the items in the left border. As you create them, they will be shown in the "white"
area. In other words, the PERSON database can be made-up of, or contain, many other databases
(tables), reports, queries, etc.

Data Type

Type Description
Text You may type in any alphabetical/numerical data that you desire – up to a
maximum of 255 characters. As indicated, this is a text field, so you can't do
mathematical calculations. Examples of Text data are: names, addresses, stock
numbers, room numbers, zip codes, etc.
Memo This field is for lots of text. You can have up to 32,000 characters.
Number This field is for numbers where you want to add, subtract, multiply, divide, average,
and do numerical calculations. This field can be a very large size, so when we get to

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Field Properties, we'll talk about "sizing" this field so it doesn't take up to much
"space" in storage.

Date/Time You may format these later, as you may desire.

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TOPIC 9: PRESENTATION-(Ms PowerPoint)

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TOPIC 10: AUTOCAD

Introduction to AutoCAD
What is AutoCAD?

AutoCAD is a general-purpose computer aided drafting (CAD) package, which can be used to
create all kinds of line drawings. It is one of the most widely used CAD packages and is used for all
types of drawings in a variety of different disciplines. CADKEY, REVIT, INEVENTOR, SOLID WORKS
etc. are some of the widely used CAD package, but for the purposes of this course we shall
concentrate on AutoCAD. Some of the few applications for which AutoCAD is being used are:

1. Architectural drawings of all kinds

2. Interior design and facility

3. Work-flow charts and organisational diagrams

4. Proposals and presentations

5. Graphs of all kinds

6. Drawings for electronic, chemical, civil, mechanical, automotive and aerospace engineering
applications.

7. Topographic maps and nautical charts

8. Plots and other representations of mathematical and scientific functions

9. Technical illustrations and assembly diagrams

AutoCAD is run in an interactive, menu-driven way and is designed to be reasonably easy to learn
and use. It provides help to the user when requested which is very useful for self-teaching. This
course will cover an introductory approach to AutoCAD. Examples in this course will enable you to
use AutoCAD and gain experience of the basic features of the software.

Up to now most of you may have attended a CAD course in one way or another. As a result, you
may be aware of so many reasons and advantages for using CAD systems. The most significant
reason or advantage for using CAD is the ease and speed with which editing or modifications of
drawings or designs can be done. Numerous other advantages may have been mentioned to you
but one that is also of vital importance is parametric programming. This is particularly useful for
companies producing batches of products or standard engineering components.

Some of the other advantages for using CAD software packages such as AutoCAD are:

1. A CAD system can be used to produce any kind of engineering or technical drawing that can be
done by hand.

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2. CAD systems produce such drawings very quickly once one has grasped the techniques required.
With experienced CAD Draftspersons speeds such as 10 times of that done manually are quite
common.

3. Using CAD systems is less tedious and more accurate especially if you consider such things as
hatching or producing standard engineering components.

4. Drawings or parts of drawings can be copied, scaled, rotated, mirrored, or moved with ease. They
can also be inserted into sections of other drawings with ease.

5. New details can be added to a drawing, or detail within a drawing can be altered with ease
without having to make any mechanical erasers.

6. Drawings can be dimensioned automatically with accuracy, greatly reducing the possibility of
dimensional error.

7. Obviously saving drawings on disk will save that cabinet space and expense.

8. Drawings can be plotted or printed to any scale required without having to redraw to a different
scale.

9. Data from CAD packages such as AutoCAD can be exchanged between different systems such
as databases and spreadsheets using such tools as DXF or IGES.

Hardware Requirements and Devices

Input Devices

Several devices can be used to input information into the computer. Some of the most commonly
used are:

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Processors

To run AutoCAD 2000 or later you will need at least a Pentium Processor with at least 128 MB of
RAM. However, it will be better with a processor with more RAM.

Desktop OR Mini-Tower

Output Devices

1. Monitors as shown above.

2. Printer 3. Plotter

Getting started with AutoCAD

STARTING AUTOCAD xxxxxxx

1. Double click AutoCAD desktop icon

2. Click Start or in the task bar > programs > Autodesk > AutoCAD xxxxxxx
> double click or enter.

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GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (GUI)

Learning objective: To identify the basic layout and features of AutoCAD interface

Quick access toolbar Info centre

Ribbon

File Tabs

Tool Tips

Application menu Drawing window

Navigation bar

Crosshairs and prompts

Command line

Status bar

Application menu: provides access to AutoCAD file commands, settings, and documents.

Crosshairs and prompts: indicate the current cursor location. Prompts explain how to complete
each command.

Drawing window: The area of the screen in which the drawing is displayed, it might display the

UCS icon to indicate the current drawing plane.

Quick access toolbar: provides access to commonly used commands and the workspace drop-

down list.

Ribbon: contains the AutoCAD tools in a series of tabs and panels. The panels contain a variety of
tools, which are grouped by function.

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Info centre: enables you to quickly access the online Help system (search)

Tool tips: displays the item’s name, a short description, and sometimes a graphic. They give
information about tools, commands, and drawing objects.

Command line: a text window located at the bottom of the screen. It is the active line where
commands appear, regardless of whether they are typed or triggered from the GUI. The complete
history of commands scrolls upward as new commands are entered. Press <F2> to open an
extended version of the command line.

Status bar: enables you to change many of the AutoCAD drafting settings.

Open the customization menu by clicking the rightmost icon on the status bar and deselect Clean
Screen, Coordinates, Isometric Drafting, and Annotation Monitor from the context menu that
appears. You can control which buttons appear on the status bar using this menu.

File tabs: They are a quick way to switch between open drawings or to create a new one.

Navigation bar: enables you to access the various methods of moving around in the drawing, such

as zoom and pan . If the Navigation Bar is not displayed, go to the View tab > User
Interface panel > expand > select

Hint: By default, toolbars and pull-down menus are not displayed in the AutoCAD 2016 and later software.
However, if you want to use them you can add them to the INTERFACE.

✓ In the view tab > User interface panel > expand > TOOLBARS > select

✓ Click in the Quick Access Toolbar > select SHOW MENU BAR

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Drawing settings
Setting units

Before you start drawing, it’s important to decide what one drawing unit represents in the real
world. You need to choose a unit type that matches your country’s industry standard.

Type <units> enter to bring up the Drawing Units dialog box

Metric users should select Decimal length units from the Type drop-down menu.

Click the Length Precision drop-down menu and select 0.

Click the Insertion Scale drop-down menu and select millimetres for metric.

Click OK to close the Drawing Units dialog box.

Drafting settings

a. Limits

Select drawing limits command using one of the following:

Type: Limits <enter>

Pull Down: Format→ Drawing Limits.

Command: Specify lower left corner or ON/OFF <0.00, 0.00>

Command: Specify upper right corner <12.00, 9.00>

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NB You can specify one of the following papers sizes the coordinates of the upper right corner:

Paper Sizes

A4 210 * 297 mm

A3 297 * 420 mm

A2 420 * 594 mm

A1 594 * 841 mm

A0 841 * 1189 mm

b. Grid

It displays dotted lines on the screen at defined spacing. These dotted lines act as a graph used as
reference lines in drawing. You can change grid spacing as you require.

Command: Grid

Grid spacing or ON/OFF/SNAP/ASPECT<0>: 0.5 <ENTER>

c. Snap

It is used to set increments for cursor movement. If the screen is on snap mode, the cursor jumps
from point to point only. This jumping distance can be set to any value, say 0.5 units.

Command: SNAP

Snap spacing or ON/OFF/Aspect/Rotate/Style <current>: 0.5 <ENTER>

You can select drafting setting by using one of the following:

a) Typing: DS <ENTER> or OS <ENTER>

b) Pull Down: Tools→ Draughting Settings

- The dialog box appears

Select the GRID and SNAP tab

d. Layer states

i. On/ Off

A layer can be turned on (displayed) or turned off (not displayed). Off temporarily remove the layer
from the drawing. Turned off layers are not displayed and cannot be plotted. AutoCAD warns you
with an alert box if you turn off layers. Off is used to turn off a layer that is to remain dormant for

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long periods of time. A turned off layer that is not displayed (visible), but they are still part of the
file, thus they are turned off temporarily.

NB: Objects on a layer that is turned OFF can be accidentally erased even though they are
invisible. When you are asked to select objects in the erase command, if you type ALL <enter>
all objects will be selected; even the invisible ones.

ii. Thaw/ Freeze

These are very similar to ON and OFF. Freezing is similar to turning off, except that the layer does
not require calculation time when regeneration occurs. Current layers cannot be frozen and frozen
layers cannot be made current. Freeze makes a layer inaccessible (invisible) and this saves time
during regenerations and redraws when working with complex and large drawings because the
information is not active. Objects on a frozen layer cannot be accidentally erased by typing ALL

Thawing requires regeneration to make the layer visible. Thaw turns off freeze. Only thawed layers
can be edited and plotted additionally.

iii. Lock/ Unlock

Locked layers are visible but cannot be edited. They are slightly greyed out by default.

User coordinate system

1. Cartesian coordinates

Cartesian coordinates are useful for drawing rectangles with specific length and width
measurements. In the Cartesian system, every point is defined by three values, expressed in terms
of distances along the x-, y-, and z-axes. In two-dimensional drawings, the z-coordinate value of all
objects is 0, so objects are expressed solely in terms of x- and y-coordinates.

2. Polar coordinates

Polar coordinates are used most often for drawing lines with specific lengths and angles, with
respect to horizontal.

Coordinates can be absolute or relative, no matter which coordinate system is used.

3. Absolute coordinates

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Require calculating where every object is in relation to the origin point. The origin point of Euclidean
space has coordinates 0 in x and 0 in y, which is written as 0, 0.

4. Relative coordinates

You will use the last point entered as the first point in a new line. The @ symbol tells AutoCAD to
consider the previous point as the origin point, relatively speaking.

Type <@> < specify line length> < specify angle>

5. Polar coordinates

Polar coordinates are another useful way of measuring Euclidean space. In polar coordinates,
points are located using two measurements: the distance from the origin point and the angle from
zero degrees. East is the default direction of zero degrees. The < or less than symbol (hold Shift and
press the comma key) represents angular measure in AutoCAD. Think of the < symbol as a graphic
representation of an angle.

6. Direct distance entry

Direct distance entry is the relative coordinate method of using the cursor to determine an angle,
rather than typing in a specific number of degrees following the < symbol. Direct distance entry is
most efficiently used with Ortho and Polar modes. Dynamic input mode and polar tracking mode
should be switched on.

Working with commands

Learning objective: To locate commands and launch them.

The main way to access commands in the AutoCAD software is to use the Ribbon. Several of the
file commands are available in the Quick Access Toolbar or in the Application Menu. Some are
available in the Status Bar or through Shortcut Menus. There are additional access methods, such
as Tool Palettes. All commands can also be typed in the Command Line.

When typing the name of a command in either the Command line or Dynamic input, the
AutoComplete option automatically completes the entry when you pause as you type. It supports
mid-string search by displaying all of the commands that contain the word that you have typed.

If a command has options, there are several ways to specify the one you want to use:

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▪ At the Dynamic input prompt, Arrow indicates that more options are available. Click
the < down arrow> to expand the list > select.

▪ The shortcut menu opens when you right click. It includes the same selections as the
Dynamic input, and several standard options that display with every command.

▪ In the command line, the command name, its default prompt, and a list of options are
displayed. The options are highlighted in blue. You can select the required option or type
the option’s capitalised letter to activate it.

▪ All AutoCAD commands can be typed in the command line. Press < enter > after typing to
start the command. You can also press the < Spacebar > to duplicate the < enter > function.

▪ If you press <enter > when no command is active, it launches the last command.

▪ Pressing < F2 > opens the AutoCAD text window. In this window, the software records each
command and prompts from the beginning of your drawing session. Press < F2 > again to
return to the drawing window.

Method of selecting commands

a. The Ribbon

The Ribbon provides easy access to the tools, which are organised in tabs and panels. The tabs
contain a series of panels and the panels contain tools organised by function, such as Draw, or
Modify. The Ribbon can float and be docked to the side. To float the Ribbon, < right click> in the
open/ empty space at the end of the Ribbon and select < Undock >

Individual panels can also be floated in the Drawing window. < Drag > it by the title and < drop >
it in the Drawing window.

b. The Application Menu

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It focuses on file tools. It includes a search field in which you can type command names to find
their locations in the Ribbon, Quick Access Toolbar, or the Application menu and a place to browse
for recent and open documents.

c. The Quick Access Toolbar

It provides fast access to the common tools: New, Open, Save, Save As, Cloud Options, Plot,

Undo, Redo, and Workspace. You can customise it by adding and removing commands. Click
to expand the list and select from a list of typical commands. When no drawings are open, only
New, Open and Sheet Manager are displayed.

d. Shortcut Menus

When you right click, a menu usually displays next to the cursor, this is called the shortcut menu.
The menu that displays depends on what you are doing in the AutoCAD software and where you
right click in the AutoCAD interface.

1. In the Quick Access Toolbar

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When you right click, a list of options is displayed, which enables you to customise or locate the
Quick Access Toolbar.

2. In the Ribbon

If you right click on a tab in the Ribbon, you can select which tabs or panels to display. You can
change the visibility and docking status of the Ribbon.

If you right click on an icon in a panel, you can select which tabs and panels are displayed in the
Ribbon. You can also add the icon to the Quick Access Toolbar.

3. In the Command Line

When you right click on the Command Line, you can select from a list of recent commands and
from the Copy and Paste commands. You can also access the AutoComplete options using the Input
Settings selection and the Options dialog box in which you can change many of the AutoCAD
settings.

4. In the Drawing Window

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When you right click in the Drawing Window when no command is active, you have the option of
repeating the previous command or recently used commands (Recent Input), selecting Zoom, Pan,
and the Standard Windows clipboard functions and accessing several other utilities.

BASIC DRAWING & EDITING COMMANDS

Practical 1: Drawing lines using Dynamic Input.

Click < line > type < 120, 120 > enter,

Move crosshairs up and to the right, type < 250 > press < tab>, type < 45 > press enter.

Move crosshairs above the last point, type < 100 > press < tab > type < 90 > press enter.

Move crosshairs to the right, type < 150 > press < tab > type < 0 > enter

Move crosshairs down, type < 100 > press < tab > type < 90 > enter

Move crosshairs down and to the right, type < 250 > press < tab > type < 45 > enter

Select close for the last segment

Practical 2: Drawing Lines, Rectangles and Circles using Polar Tracking

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Drawing Lines

Start < line > type < 0, 0 > enter

Move crosshairs straight to the right, when the tracking line displays type < 750 > enter

Move crosshairs straight up, when tracking line displays, type < 500 > enter

Move crosshairs straight to the left, when tracking line displays, type < 250 > enter

Move crosshairs straight down, when tracking line displays, type < 120 > enter

Move crosshairs straight to the left, when tracking line displays, type < 250 > enter

Continue drawing the diagram until finish

Drawing Rectangles

Start < rectangle > type < 50, 50 > enter

Type < d > enter

Specify length < 150 > enter

Specify width < 280 > enter

Enter

Start < rectangle > type < 450, 100 > enter

Type < d > enter

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Specify length < 200 > enter

Specify width < 120 > enter

Enter

Drawing circles

Start < circle > option < tan, tan, tan >

Specify first tangent, click < line 1 >

Specify second tangent, click < line 2 >

Specify third tangent, click < line 3 > enter

Start < circle > option < tan, tan, radius >

Specify first tangent, click < line 1 >

Specify second tangent, click < line 2 >

Specify radius, type < 50 > enter

Start < circle > option < centre, diameter > type < 625, 405 > enter specify diameter < 100 > enter.

Practical 3: Drawing simple Drawings (estimated times 5 minutes)

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CREATING NEW DRAWINGS USING TEMPLATES

A Template is a drawing that contains all of the objects and settings that you want to include in
new drawings. Some of the settings stored in a template file include units, limits, and layers with
border and title block, text styles and dimension styles.

Practice questions

Q1: Redraw the component using AutoCAD software, put a suitable title block and save the Drawing
as Drawing T2 – (Candidate Full Name) – Class – (Mode of study). (60)

Q2: i. Redraw the figures given below.

ii. Insert a suitable title block with relevant information (20)

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Q2: i. Redraw the figures given below.

ii. Insert a suitable title block with relevant information (20)

Q3: i. Redraw the figures given below.

ii. Insert a suitable title block with relevant information (20)

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✓ Access to AUTOCAD

✓ Beginning a new drawing

o D-settings

o Layers

o Saving a drawing

✓ Working with commands

o Draw commands

o Modify commands

✓ Drawing management

o Dimensioning

o Hatching

o Text

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✓ Getting information/ Inquiry

o Layouts

o Plotting/ Printing of CAD drawing

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TOPIC 11: MISCELLANEOUS

✓ Abbreviations
Abbr Meaning Abbr Meaning
ALU Arithmetic Logic Unit PDA Personal Digital Assistant
CU Control Unit PC Personal Computer
CPU Central Processing Unit OS Operating System
CRT Cathode Ray Tube RAM Random Access Memory
CD ROM Compaq disc read only memory ROM Read Only Memory
DBMS Database Management Systems RSI Repetitive Strain Injury
DBA Database Administrator NIC Network Interface Card
DVD-R Digital video disc-recordable Tb Terabyte
EPROM Erasable & Programmable Read ISBN Integrated Services Digital
Only Memory Network
GUI Graphical User Interface CD-RW
HDD Hard Disk Drive
FTP File Transfer Protocol
GIGO Garbage-In-Garbage-Out
IT Information Technology
IP Internet Protocol
IAS Immediate Access Services
LED Light emitting diode
LCD Liquid Crystal Display USB Universal serial bus
LAN Local Area Network VDU Visual Display Unit
FDDI Fibre Distribution Data Interface VIRUS Very Important Resource Under
Siege
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol WAN Wide Area Network
MICR Magnetic Ink Character Reader WORM Write Once Read Many
MAN Metropolitan Area Network WYSIWYG What you see is what you get
MIDI Musical Instrument Digital
Interface

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