Biology: Breathing and Respiration revision
Breathing is getting oxygen gas into the bloodstream and
removing carbon dioxide gas from the blood.
Gas exchange takes place in the air sacs (alveoli) that make up
the lungs
Breathing in (inhaling)
Muscles in the ribcage move the ribs up and out.
Diaphragm (sheet of muscle under the lungs) contracts and
goes flat
This makes more space in the chest and air moves into the lungs
Breathing out (exhaling)
The ribcage moves down and in
The diaphragm relaxes and moves up.
This makes less space in the chest and air moves out of the lungs.
Air sacs (alveoli)
Air sacs have the following design features to allow gas exchange:
Large surface area
Good blood supply (capillaries) around the air sac
Air sac has thin wall (one cell thick) – gases can exchange quickly
Moist lining around air sac dissolves gases and helps them diffuse into
the bloodstream
Amount of gas in air breathed in and breathed out
Gas Air Breathed in (approx.) Air Breathed out (approx.)
Nitrogen 79% 79%
Oxygen 20% 16%
Carbon dioxide 0.02% 4%
Note: The amount of oxygen decreases and carbon dioxide increases due
to the process of respiration
Respiration
Respiration is the chemical process of releasing energy from
glucose using oxygen.
Respiration takes place in all living cells. The process happens in
the mitochondria in the cell.
The reactants needed for respiration are glucose and oxygen.
The products made in respiration are carbon dioxide and water
and also energy is released.
The body uses the energy to carry out all its living processes (for
example, keeping the body at a constant 37oC; growing; moving
muscles)
Aerobic respiration word equation (must know)
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
Extra: Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration: this is respiration carried out using oxygen
(humans use aerobic respiration whenever possible)
Anaerobic respiration: this is respiration carried out without using
oxygen (humans use anaerobic respiration when they run out of
oxygen)
In muscles
If your muscles use up their supply of oxygen and they need
to carry on moving then anaerobic respiration is used.
A product of this process is lactic acid that can stop your
muscles from moving.
When you stop moving you carry on breathing at a fast rate
as extra oxygen is needed to remove the lactic acid.
Fermentation
Microbes (e.g. yeast) carry out anaerobic respiration and
produce alcohol (ethanol).
Fermentation is used for
making: Beer and wine
Baking (Carbon dioxide gas bubbles make the dough rise)
Biology: Cell revision
Cell theory states
• All living things are made up of cells
• Cells are living
Cells are made up of the following parts:
Cell part Function (job) Found in animal
or plant cell?
Nucleus Controls the cell. Contains genetic Animal and plant
material (DNA) which makes up
genes (coded instructions.
Cytoplasm Jelly-like liquid where chemical Animal and plant
reactions take place.
Cell surface Controls the entry and exit of Animal and plant
membrane substances in and out of the cell.
Mitochondria Respiration takes place here. Animal and plant
Chloroplasts Contains chlorophyll that absorbs Plant only
light energy for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis takes place here.
Cellulose Cell Provides support for the cell. Plant only
wall
Large Vacuole Store for chemicals Plant only
Starch storage Stores starch made during Plant only
granules photosynthesis
Diagram of a typical Animal & Plant cells
mitochondria
Specialised Cells: Cells that are designed to do a specific job.
Cell name Job (function)
Red blood cells Carries oxygen around the body
Ciliated cells (cilia) Traps and removes dust from the lungs
Nerve cells Carry electrical messengers
Leaf (palisade) cells Absorbs sunlight to help carry out
photosynthesis
Root hair cells Large surface area to absorb water and
minerals.
Groups of cells
Complicated organisms (like you) are made of billion of cells.
• A group of similar cells is called tissue. (e.g. muscle tissue)
• A group of similar tissue is called an organ (e.g. heart)
• A group of similar organs is called a system (e.g.
circulatory system)
• A group of systems is called an organism.
Cell slide preparation
Method
1. Obtain a thin layer of cells (one cell thick).
2. Place layer of cells on to slide.
3. Add drops of stain onto the cell in order to colour the cell (in
particularly, the nucleus).
• Use iodine solution for plant cells (e.g. onion cells)
• Use methylene blue for animal cells (e.g. human cheek cells)
4. Lower a cover slip carefully over the cells – this helps to prevent air
bubbles.
5. Place prepared slide onto microscope.
6. View the slide using the low power lens first moving onto higher
magnification.
Biology: Classification and Variation revision
Classification
Grouping together of living things is called classification
All living things can be put into large groups called Kingdoms
There are 5 kingdoms and every living organism belongs to one
of the kingdoms.
The 5 kingdoms are:
Bacteria – made up of a single cell that does not have a nucleus
Protists – made up of a single cell that does have a nucleus
Animals – made of many cells that do not have cell walls
Plants – made of many cells that have cell walls and can carry out
photosynthesis
Fungi – made of many cells that have cell walls but do not carry
out photosynthesis
The Animal Kingdom
The Animal kingdom is divided into invertebrates (without backbones)
and vertebrates (with backbones)
Invertebrates
One group of invertebrates are called arthropods (jointed legs) and
in this group are the insects and spiders (arachnids)
Feature Insect Spider
Number of legs 6 8
Number of body parts 3 2
Antennae Yes No
Vertebrates
The vertebrates (with backbones) are divided into five groups –
fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
Feature Fish Amphibian Reptile Bird Mammal
Backbone Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Body covering Wet Smooth, Dry Feathers Fur or
scales wet skin scales hair
Constant No No No Yes Yes
body
temperature
Produce Lay Lay eggs in Lay eggs Lay eggs Give birth
young eggs in water on land with hard to live
water shells young
Variation
Variations (characteristics) are differences between living organisms
These variations (characteristics) are caused by:
Information inherited from parents (genes); e.g. eye colour
The environment you live in; e.g. scars, accent
Different kinds of variation
There are two kinds of variation:
Discontinuous variation can be easily put into different groups. For
example, male or female, blood groups.
Continuous variations can take any value within limits. They are
generally measured on a scale. E.g. height, mass
Genes and Characteristics
A gene is a short section of DNA that carries information for a
characteristic (e.g. eye colour).
A chromosome carries many genes.
A nucleus contains many chromosomes – 46 (23 pairs) in
human body cells.
Biology: Feeding Relationships and Adaptation
Food chains
Always start with a green plant. Plants are able to use light
energy from the Sun to make their own food (chemical energy)
by the process of photosynthesis. Plants in a food chain are
called producers.
Animals get their energy from eating plants or other
animals. Therefore they are called consumers.
A food chain shows the flow of energy from one organism to the
next.
The original source of energy for all food chains is the Sun.
Flow of
energy Flow of energy
Grass Rabbit Fox
primary secondary
Producer consumer consumer
Note:
Primary consumer is always a herbivore (feeds on plants)
Secondary consumer is always a carnivore (feeds on other animals)
Decomposers are organisms (e.g. fungi, bacteria) that break down
dead organisms. Decomposers can be at any level of a food chain as
they breakdown dead material.
Populations
Predators and Prey: Predators are animals that actively hunt their prey.
The graph shows that when the prey population increases
the predator population also increases.
However, the increasing predator population will cause the prey
population to decrease.
Population size can also be affected by:
Food shortage.
Lack of space (overcrowding)
Spread of disease.
Increase in poisons / pollution
Quadrats and measuring the size of a population
A quadrat is a square that can be used to count populations.
Place quadrat randomly in an area
Count number of individuals of a species in the quadrat area
Repeat process (for example, ten times – as this then allows you to
calculate an average – making the results more reliable)
If the quadrat is 1 m2 and the area you are studying is 1000 m2.
Then multiply the number of individuals in a single quadrat by
1000. This gives you an estimated population for the 1000 m2 area.
Adaptation
These are the features animals and plants have to help them survive
in their environment.
Polar bears
White fur for camouflage in the snow
Thick layer of fat to insulate against cold
Wide paws (large surface area) to help walk across soft snow
and also helps with swimming.
Huddle together to keep warm
Camels
Feet have large surface area to help prevent them from
sinking into the sand.
Fat store in hump
Yellow colour to camouflage in sand
Long eyelashes to protect against sand storms.
Cacti
No leaves to reduce water loss.
Store water in stem – leaves developed into spines to
protect stored water.
Large, shallow root system to absorb any available water.
Biology: Health and disease
A healthy lifestyle depends on the following factors:
A balanced diet: eating the right amounts of the right types food (e.g.
carbohydrates, protein, fat, fibre, vitamins, minerals and water).
Overeating of fatty foods and sugary foods can lead to being obese
(overweight for your height) which can cause health problems (e.g.
heart disease, type 2 diabetes).
Taking regular exercise: improves working of heart; reduces heart
disease; strengthens muscles; reduces stress; decreases body fat.
Avoiding intake of harmful substances
Smoking: Can cause lung cancer; heart disease; emphysema (disease
related to the breakdown of air-sacs) and addiction to nicotine. Alcohol:
Slows reaction times; can damage the liver; stomach and brain. Drugs
(other than prescribed for medical reasons): Drugs are chemicals that
affect how the body works. Drugs can cause damage to the brain, heart,
stomach and liver.
Fighting disease
Disease can be either
Non-infectious (non-communicable) (not passed on from
something else – e.g. liver disease due to drinking alcohol).
Infectious (communicable) (disease passed on – e.g. through sneezing,
insect bites)
Infectious diseases
Microbes (e.g. bacteria, viruses) divide and reproduce rapidly
causing illness.
Virus Bacteria
Smaller than bacteria Larger than viruses
Reproduce inside living cells Reproduce by dividing into two
Viruses cannot be controlled by Bacteria can be controlled by
antibiotics antibiotics
Diseases caused by viruses include: Diseases caused by bacteria include
Influenza (flu), chicken pox, small Cholera, food-poisoning, tetanus
pox.
Immune system (fighting disease)
Skin; acid in stomach; wax in ears; tears in eyes all form barriers to keep
microbes away from entering the body.
White blood cells – two main types
Phagocytes: these white blood cells engulf (eat) microbes.
Lymphocytes – recognize and produce antibodies that make
the microbes inactive before being destroyed by phagocytes.
Cuts in the skin are protected by blood clots. Blood clots are formed by
platelets (fragments of cells in the blood). These form scabs which stop
microbes from entering the broken skin.
Human actions
Personal hygiene: regular washing removes microbes. Brushing
teeth helps prevent tooth decay.
Community hygiene: providing safe, clean drinking water.
The dangers of Smoking
Nicotine
Causes addiction
Increases blood pressure
Increases risk of heart disease
Smoke
Kills cilia (fine hairs) in windpipe and lungs. This leads to build up
of mucus and dirt.
Result can cause smoker’s cough and lead to more infections in
lungs.
Tar
Tar is the black substance that contains over 2000 chemicals, some
of these chemicals are known to cause cancer (e.g. lung cancer).
Carbon monoxide – gas produced when cigarettes burn
Carbon monoxide decreases the amount of oxygen carried by the
red blood cells.
Can lead to lack of energy – due to a lack of aerobic respiration
Fetus developing in the uterus cannot get enough oxygen (can lead
to reduced birth weight).
Emphysema
Emphysema is a disease that is caused when the walls of the air-sacs are
destroyed due to smoking. This reduces the surface area of the air-sacs
and decreases the amount of oxygen getting into the blood.
Biology: Nutrition and Digestion Revision
Balanced diet. We need to eat the right amounts of the right types of food.
This is called a balanced diet.
Important Food Groups
Carbohydrates
Two main groups are:
Sugars (e.g. glucose) – Glucose has chemical energy and is used in the
process of respiration. Note: Respiration is the process of releasing
energy from glucose using oxygen. Sugars are found in fruits, soft
drinks and sweets.
Starches – starch is good as it releases its energy more slowly than
sugars. Starches may be found in potatoes, rice, cereals, pasta and
bread.
1. Crush solid foods into small pieces. 2. Add a few drops of iodine solution
3. A colour change from brown to blue-black shows starch is present.
Protein
Protein is used for growth and repair of cells.
Protein can be found in meats, fish, milk, eggs, nuts, and green
vegetables.
Extra: Protein is made from amino acids. Protein is also used to make
enzymes (chemicals that speed up reactions in your body)
Fats
Used as a store of energy and also as a layer of insulation.
Fats are found in dairy products (milk, cheese, butter) and fried food.
Too much fat in your diet can lead to problems such as obesity
(being overweight) and heart problems.
Vitamins and Minerals
These are needed in small amounts to keep you healthy as they help
important reactions take place.
Name Needed for Where found Lack of it (deficiency)
Vitamin C Cell and tissue Fresh fruit Scurvy (bleeding gums)
repair, resistance (lemons, oranges)
to disease and vegetables
Calcium Strengthen bones Dairy products Poor, weak bones
(mineral) and teeth (milk), green
vegetables
Iron Making red blood Meat, green Lack of red blood cells
(mineral) cells vegetables results in lack of
energy
Fibre
Helps food to travel along the digestive system. A lack of fibre can
cause constipation. Fibre is found in cereals, wholegrain bread and
vegetables.
Water
Makes up about 70% of our bodies and is found in all living cells.
Blood system moves materials that have been dissolved in water.
Humans lose about 1.5 litres of water each day in urine, sweat and
our breath. Water can be replaced through drinks (e.g. water,
milk).
Digestion
The food we eat needs to be broken down from large, insoluble food
molecules into smaller, soluble food molecules so that it can be absorbed
into the blood.
Physical digestion: teeth breakdown food which is mixed with saliva in
the mouth.
Chemical digestion: Chemicals called enzymes breakdown large,
insoluble food into smaller, soluble food that can be absorbed into the
blood.
Enzymes are chemicals that speed up reactions in your body such as
the breakdown of food (digestion).
There are different types of enzymes for each reaction in the body.
Enzymes do not change in a reaction, so they can be used again.
Digestive enzymes can be found in the saliva, stomach and the
small intestine
Absorption
Small, soluble food molecules move through the walls of the small intestine
into the bloodstream which carries them to the liver for sorting. Note: Food
is absorbed in the small intestine and water is absorbed in the large
intestine
Villi in Small intestine: Villi are finger-like projections that help absorb
food from the small intestine into the blood.
Villi have a large surface area
Have a good blood supply
Have thin walls to speed up the absorption of food into the blood
Assimilation
The liver sorts out all the food molecules so they can be sent to the cells of
the body to be used for things such as growth, repair and providing energy.
Egestion
Unwanted food is mixed with fibre to become faeces and is passed out of
the body.
Biology: Photosynthesis Revision
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use light energy to make
glucose (food) and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water.
Word equation:
Light
Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
chlorophyll
Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts
Most cells containing chloroplasts are found in the leaves
(upper side).
Chloroplasts contain the pigment chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy needed for photosynthesis.
The carbon dioxide is taken in from the air through tiny holes
called stomata in the leaves (lower side).
The water is absorbed from the ground by the roots. Minerals
(e.g. magnesium, nitrates) are also absorbed by the roots.
Products of photosynthesis
Glucose: Plants use glucose for respiration. Remember, respiration is the
process of releasing energy from glucose using oxygen.
Glucose that is not used for respiration can be used as the following:
Stored as starch
Made into fats and oils.
Made into proteins, which are used for growth.
Made into cellulose, which is used to make cell walls.
Oxygen is also made and is used by the plant for respiration.
Plants are adapted (designed) to carry out photosynthesis.
Leaves are flat and broad to trap sunlight.
Leaves are thin to allow gases to exchange quickly
Roots have root hair cells to increase the surface area for
absorbing water.
Leaves have tiny holes called stomata that allow carbon dioxide
to enter and oxygen to leave the leaf.
Gas exchange in leaves
Daylight: Plants take in more carbon dioxide during daylight for
photosynthesis and release more oxygen.
Night time: Plants take in more oxygen for respiration and release more
carbon dioxide
Testing a leaf for starch
Method Reason
Step 1 Leaf is placed in boiling This kills leaf, stopping starch
water for 2 minutes being turned back into glucose.
It also breaks down the cell
walls allowing access to cell
content.
Step 1 Leaf is placed in a tube Ethanol dissolves the chlorophyll
containing ethanol and - removing the green pigment
warmed in a water bath for from the leaf.
5 minutes.
Safety: Can not use a
Bunsen burner as ethanol is
highly flammable and
Step 3 Leaf is taken out of the The water softens the leaf after
ethanol and placed into the ethanol has made the leaf
warm water. brittle.
Step 4 Place leaf on white tile. Iodine solution tests for starch.
Add iodine solution to the Iodine solution turns from yellow
leaf. to blue / black with starch.
Rate of photosynthesis
The gas is oxygen – a product
of photosynthesis.
Test for oxygen = glowing
splint relights.
Number of bubbles (or volume
of gas) can be used to measure
rate of photosynthesis.
Count the number of bubbles of oxygen given off in a minute.
Can move the light closer – this increases the process of
photosynthesis, more bubbles of oxygen given off.
Factors that speed up rate of photosynthesis
Increase light intensity (move light closer)
Increase concentration of carbon dioxide
Increase temperature (only to approx. 40oC) – thermal
energy increases the photosynthesis reaction.
Biology Revision: Skeleton and Muscles
The skeleton has three main functions:
To support the body (keep you upright)
To protect vital organs (e.g. ribcage protects lungs and heart;
skull protects the brain)
To allow movement (e.g. joints)
Facts
There are over 200 bones in the human body.
The mineral calcium makes the bones very hard.
In the centre of the bone there is bone marrow – a substance that
makes red blood cells.
Note
Ligaments: attach bones to bones.
Tendons: attach muscles to bones.
Types of joints
Hinge joint – found at the elbow and knee
Ball and socket joint – found at the shoulder and hip.
Diagram of a Knee joint
Note: Cartilage allows the bones to move smoothly. If the cartilage
wears out it can lead to osteoarthritis.
Ligament
Muscles
Muscles are made of protein.
Antagonistic pairs of muscles
Muscles can only contract (shorten) and relax (lengthen).
Muscles work in pairs in order to move bones (e.g. bicep and
tricep in the upper arm).
Example: Upper arm movement
To pull the arm up
The bicep contracts and the tricep relaxes
To pull the arm down
The bicep relaxes and the tricep contracts
Chemistry: Acids and Alkalis Revision
• All chemicals can be either Acid, Alkali or Neutral.
• All acids have a sour taste and all alkalis have a soapy feel.
To tell if something is an acid or alkali, you use an indicator. An indicator
changes colour with an acid or alkali.
Litmus – Changes red in acid / blue in alkali
Universal indicator – uses a range of colours; Red for acid /
green for neutral / Blue for alkali.
The colour with universal indicator can be used to give a value on the
pH scale.
pH scale: the scale runs from pH 1 to pH14. pH1 is a strong acid / pH7 is
neutral / pH14 is a strong alkali.
pH1 pH3 pH5 pH7 pH9 pH11 pH14
Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Dark Purple
blue
Strong Weak Neutral Weak Strong
acid acid alkali alkali
Can use certain vegetables (e.g. blackberries, red cabbage) to
make indicators.
Method
Grind up vegetable to extract juice (adding a little water can help)
Filter juice and use as an indicator
Neutralisation
Acid and alkali can cancel each other out to produce a neutral
solution (pH7) of a salt and water.
(must know neutralisation equation)
Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide → Sodium chloride + water
(acid) (alkali)
Neutralisation is a chemical reaction – the solution will heat up
(increase in temperature) and new products are formed (salt + water)
More neutralisation
• Lime (calcium oxide) is an alkali that is used by farmers to treat
soils that are too acidic. The lime neutralises the acidic soil.
• Indigestion is caused by excess acid being produced by
the stomach.
• Antacid tablets (indigestion tablets) contain an alkali that
neutralises the excess acid.
Acids and metals
Acids react with metals to produce hydrogen gas and a salt.
E.g.
Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Remember the test for hydrogen gas = a lighted splint goes “pop”.
Acids and carbonates
Acids react with carbonates to produce a salt, water and carbon dioxide.
E.g.
Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric → Calcium chloride + water + Carbon
acid dioxide
Extra
• All acids contain hydrogen. Acids release hydrogen ions (an ion is a
charged particle e.g. H+). Note: The pH scale measures the
concentration of hydrogen ions.
• Alkalis are also called bases. An alkali is a base that dissolves in
water. Therefore, a base neutralizes an acid.
• All metal oxides are bases e.g. magnesium oxide, calcium oxide.
Chemistry: Chemical Reactions revision
Key Points in chemical reactions
The starting materials are called the reactants and the new
materials made are called the products.
There is always an energy change (e.g. thermal energy given off)
The reaction is difficult to reverse.
How to recognise a chemical reaction:
New products are made.
There may be a colour change
Bubbles or fizzing as a gas is made
Energy given out. Usually, thermal energy is released and this
increases the temperature. Or light energy may be given out.
Conservation of Mass: note the mass of the products made is the same
as the mass of the reactants; e.g.
magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
5 g 0.1 g
5.1 g
Some important reactions
Oxidation – This is adding oxygen to a substance.
Heating a metal in air will make a metal oxide (you have added
oxygen to the metal)
E.g. magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
Copper + oxygen → copper oxide
Thermal Decomposition – Using thermal energy to breakdown a
large chemical into smaller chemicals; e.g.
copper carbonate → copper oxide + carbon dioxide
(green powder) (black powder)
(colourless gas)
Neutralisation - a chemical reaction between a acid and an alkali (base).
The acid and alkali cancel each other out to make a salt and water (a
neutral solution); e.g.
hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water
(acid) (alkali) (water)
(salt)
Combustion – This is a chemical reaction where energy (thermal and
light) is released from a fuel when it reacts with oxygen gas.
When a fuel (e.g. candle wax) burns (combusts) two products are
formed. The products are Carbon dioxide and Water.
Hydrocarbon fuel + oxygen → water + carbon dioxide
Fuels (e.g. coal, oil, gas, wood, candle wax) are called Hydrocarbons
because they contain the elements Hydrogen and Carbon.
Acid rain
Burning coal can also produce the gas sulphur dioxide.
Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water in the clouds to form acid rain
Acid rain can damage limestone buildings; make soil to acidic to
grow crops; kill fish in lakes.
Acid rain damages limestone. Limestone is made of calcium
carbonate that reacts with acid.
Calcium carbonate + Sulphuric acid → Calcium sulphate + carbon dioxide +
water
Rusting and oxygen
Corrosion is the where metals are damaged due to reacting
with oxygen.
Rusting is where iron is damaged when it reacts with oxygen
Rusting happens when iron is exposed to oxygen and water.
Rusting can be speeded up by adding salt or acid to the water.
The chemical name for rust is iron oxide.
Methods to prevent iron from rusting
Use paint or oil to stop oxygen and water getting to the iron (barrier
method)
Galvanise the iron: Galvanising is the iron is coated with a layer of
the more reactive metal Zinc. The zinc will react with the oxygen
instead of the iron.
Remember: Lab Tests for -
Hydrogen: a lighted splint goes “pop”
Oxygen: a glowing splint relights
Carbon dioxide: Bubble through limewater. The limewater goes
cloudy.
Water: white (anhydrous) copper sulphate turn to blue (hydrous)
copper sulphate crystals when water is added or cobalt chloride
paper turns from blue to pink.
Extra: Rates of Reaction
Rates of Reaction : This is the time taken for a reaction to happen.
Reactions happen when the particles in the reactants collide
with each other.
More collisions between particles mean an increased rate
of reaction (a faster reaction)
The following can speed up the rate of reaction:
Increase the thermal energy (heating the reactants).
This gives the particles more energy.
The collisions will be higher energy (more chance of a reaction)
There will be more collisions between the particles as they are
moving faster. The rate of reaction increases.
Add more of the reactants.
This will increase the number of particles.
More particles will result in more collisions. The rate of reaction
increases.
Increase the surface area of solid reactants
There will be more collisions between the particles
Use a catalyst:
A catalyst is a chemical that speeds up a reaction but is not used
up itself.
A graph showing a rate of reaction
Time taken for reaction
Section A to B – this is where the reaction is fastest. The steep line
shows a lot of product is being produced in a short amount of time.
Reactions are fast at the start because there are lots of particles to
collide into each other. More collisions mean an increased rate of
reaction.
Section C onwards – the reaction has stopped. No more product is
being made so the line is flat.
Chemistry: Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Revision Key points
Elements are the simplest particles found in matter. They are made up of
only one type of atom.
There are about 100 different elements found naturally on Planet Earth.
Molecule: a substance made up of more than one atom joined together. E.g.
Oxygen molecule = O2 Carbon dioxide = CO2
Compound: is a substance that is made of two or more different types of
atom chemically joined together (chemical bonds) E.g. Water = H2O Carbon
dioxide = CO2
Mixtures: different types of elements (or molecules) that are mixed
together (not joined by chemical bonds) and are easily separated.
E.g. Air is a mixture of gases, the amount of each gas in the air
is approximately:
• Nitrogen = 78%
• Oxygen = 21%
• Other gases = 1% (of which Carbon dioxide = 0.04%)
Pure substance: is a substance that contains only one type of chemical
(e.g. pure water only contains water molecules). Note: Pure water has
a set melting point, 0oC and boiling point, 100oC.
Periodic table: a chart that arranges all the elements into
groups according to their properties.
Differences between Mixtures and Compounds
• A mixture has the properties of the substances it is made of.
• A compound has properties of its own.
• Iron (Fe) is a shiny metal that conducts electricity and is magnetic.
• Sulfur (S) is a yellow powder that does not conduct electricity and is not
magnetic.
• A mixture of these can be separated by using a magnet
• Iron sulfide (FeS) is a compound that can only be separated by chemical
reactions.
More on elements
Elements are divided up into two groups: Metals and Non-metals Metals have
the following properties:
• All are good conductors of electricity.
• All are good conductors of thermal energy (heat).
• All are malleable (can be shaped) and ductile (pulled into a wire).
• All are shiny when first cut.
• All are sonorous (make a dinging sound when hit)
• All produce alkaline oxides.
• All are solids at room temperature (except Mercury, which is a liquid)
• Only some metals are magnetic (e.g. iron, nickel, cobalt)
Non-Metals have the following properties:
• Are insulators of electricity and thermal energy (heat)
• Note: the only non-metal that conducts electricity is Carbon.
• Are brittle (snap easily)
• Most are dull in appearance.
• Produce acid or neutral oxides.
Symbols for some common elements:
Hydrogen = H Sodium = Na. Potassium = K
Oxygen = O Helium = He. Aluminium = Al
Nitrogen = N Iron = Fe. Gold = Au
Carbon = C Chlorine = Cl Copper = Cu
Magnesium = Mg Sulfur = S. Zinc = Zn
Symbols for some common compounds:
• Water = H2O
• Carbon dioxide = CO2
• Sodium chloride = NaCl
• Iron Sulfide = FeS
• Hydrochloric acid = HCl
• Magnesium oxide = MgO
• Copper sulfate = CuSO4
• Sulfuric acid = H2SO4
Chemistry: Metal Reactivity Revision
Metals reactions
Metal Reaction with water Reaction with acid
Potassium Reacts violently – produces purple Too violent – can not
flame and hydrogen gas do in School lab.
Sodium Reacts violently – produces Too violent – can not
hydrogen gas do in School lab.
Magnesium Slow reaction with cold water. Very reactive –
Reacts more with steam. produces hydrogen gas.
Aluminium Reacts with steam but not cold Medium reactive –
water produces hydrogen gas.
Zinc Reacts with steam but not cold Medium reactive -
water produces hydrogen gas
Iron Reacts with steam but not cold Small reaction
water
Copper No reaction with water No reaction
Gold No reaction with water No reaction
Note:
Potassium and sodium are stored under oil to stop them
reacting with water / oxygen in the air.
Aluminium should react with water, but appears less reactive
due to it quickly reacting with oxygen in the air to form a
protective layer of Aluminium oxide around the metal.
Copper is used to make water pipes because copper does not
react with water.
Gold stays shiny because it does not react with water or oxygen.
Word equations
• Metal with water:
Potassium + water → potassium hydroxide + hydrogen
• Metal with acid:
Magnesium + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Metal Reactivity Series
Potassium (K) Most reactive
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)
Aluminium (Al)
Carbon (C) non-metal
Zinc (Zn)
Iron (Fe)
Lead (Pb)
Hydrogen (H) non-metal
Copper (Cu)
Silver (Ag)
Gold (Au)
Platinum (Pt) Least reactive
Notes: Hydrogen and Carbon are not metals but they are placed in
the reactivity series to help explain reactions. On some reactivity
series, Carbon will be placed below Zinc: Above 1000°C Carbon will
displace Zinc from Zinc Oxide, below this it won’t.
Displacement
Displacement reaction: a more reactive metal taking the place of less
reactive metal from its compound.
Iron + Copper sulphate → copper + iron sulphate
Iron is more reactive than copper so it takes the place of copper
to make iron sulphate and the copper is pushed out.
Note:
• The blue copper sulphate solution becomes pale. Reason is due to
the copper making the solution blue therefore as copper is pushed
out the solution becomes less blue.
• The pink solid that appears is copper.
Metals and oxygen – metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides
e.g. magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
• A reaction when oxygen is added is called oxidation.
• Metal oxides form alkali solutions. Gold does not react with oxygen
so it can be found as pure lumps of gold in the ground.
Chemistry: Separation techniques revision
• Dissolving is a physical process, which means the substances
can be separated easily.
• Decanting: Carefully pour off a liquid and leave the insoluble solid
at the bottom of the beaker.
• Filtering: separates insoluble solids (e.g. sand, chalk) from liquids.
• Evaporating: Evaporate the solvent (e.g. water) leaving the solute
(e.g. salt) behind in the beaker. Used for obtaining pure salt from
salt water.
Distillation: Used to obtain the liquid (solvent) from a solution (e.g.
obtain pure water from saltwater).
Process involves
• Evaporation: Heat solution (e.g. 100oC if water) to evaporate the
liquid (solvent)
• Condensation: Cool the vapour (solvent) back down into a liquid.
Distillation can be used to separate out mixtures of liquids. For example,
4. mixture of ethanol (boiling point 78oC) and water (boiling point
100oC) can be separated by:
1. Heating the mixture to 78oC. The ethanol (alcohol) will evaporate off.
2. Cool down (condense) the ethanol vapour back into ethanol liquid.
This process can also be used to separate out crude oil (is a mixture
of liquids. Process is called Fractional Distillation.
Distillation equipment
Thermometer Water out
Cold water in
Mixture, e.g. sea water
Water
(close to pure)
Thermal
energy
Chromatography
Used to separate out mixtures of dyes (e.g. ink colours). Police
use it to identify inks found at crime scenes.
Process works as each substance (ink colour) has a
different solubility. More soluble colours move higher up
the chromatography paper than less soluble colours.
Chromatography method
Most soluble ink
Important: At the start; the ink spot must be above the level of the
solvent – this allows the solvent to move up the paper carrying the
dissolved inks.
Chemistry: Solutions Revision
Solutions Key terms
Solvent: The liquid (e.g. water, propanone) that dissolves the
substance.
Solute: The substance that dissolves (e.g. salt, sugar)
Soluble: a substance that can dissolve (e.g. salt, sugar)
Insoluble: a substance that can not dissolve (e.g. chalk, sand)
Solubility: the amount of substance that will dissolve.
Saturated solution: a solution in which no more solute can dissolve
Example:
Salt + Water
Salt solution
→
(Solute) (Solvent)
(Solution)
(20g) (100g)
(120g)
Dissolving
The solute particles (e.g. salt) mix in the spaces between the solvent
(e.g. water) particles.
Speed up dissolving by:
Increasing the temperature: thermal energy makes particles
move faster
Stir solution: helps particles to mix
Decrease solute particle size: Higher surface area means
more solute is in contact with the solvent
More solvent: More spaces for solute particles to dissolve
Chemistry: States of Matter Revision
Matter is the scientific word used to describe all of the
different substances and materials found on the Earth. We call
solid, liquid and gas the three states of matter.
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Shape Shape stays the Takes the shape Change shape to
same (fixed) of the container fill any space
Volume (amount) Volume stays the Volume stays the Volume changes
same same (gas can spread
out)
Can it flow? No Yes Yes
Can you No No Yes
compress it?
Density Have high Less dense than Very low
densities solids densities.
(generally)
Changing states
Most substances can exist in all three states (e.g. water can be ice
(solid), liquid or gas (water vapour).
The state of a substance depends on the temperature.
Changes of state are brought about by changes in temperature.
Increasing thermal energy (temperature increases)
Solid (melting) Liquid (evaporating) gas
Decreasing thermal energy (temperature decreases)
Solid (freezing) Liquid (condensation) gas
Note: some substances (e.g. Carbon dioxide) can change straight from a
solid to a gas – this is called sublimation.
Melting point: the temperature at which all solid changes to a
liquid. (e.g. water = 0 oC)
Boiling point: the temperature at which all liquid changes to a gas
(e.g. water = 100 oC)
Particle theory
All solids, liquids and gases are made of very small particles.
Particles are always moving.
Particles are held together by forces (bonds)
State Forces How freely can How far Model
between particles move? apart are the diagram
particles particles?
Touching –
regularly
Solid Strong Do not move from arranged
place to place:
vibrate
Touching –
Can move past each randomly
Liquid Weak other arranged
Gas Very weak Very freely – move Very far
quickly apart.
Expansion (getting bigger on heating): Particles gain thermal energy
when heated. This makes the particles move more – making the particles
move further apart from each other – the substance expands.
Compressing (squashing): Solids and liquids do not compress because
there is no space between the particles. You can compress (squash) a gas
because there is lots of space between the particles, so they can be
pushed together.
Density (how heavy something is for its size): Very dense materials (like
metals) have lots of particles paced together into a small space (volume).
The density of a substance tells us how much of a substance is packed
into a certain volume. To calculate density of an object you need to know:
mass (g) and the volume (cm3)
Density = Mass
volume
Units for density are g/cm3
Physics: The Earth and the Solar System Revision
The star in our Solar system is the Sun. We can see stars because
they are luminous sources and give out light. We see planets
because they reflect light from the Sun.
The planets in our Solar System orbit the Sun due to the force
of gravity. The Sun has the largest force of gravity due to it
being the most massive object in the Solar System.
Order of the planets, starting with the closest to the Sun:
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
Note: Venus is the hottest planet due to extreme global warming.
Neptune is the coldest as it is furthest away, it also has a
very long year due to it taking the longest to orbit the Sun.
Earth
The Earth spins on its own axis in 24 hours (1 day). This causes
the Earth to have day and night.
The Earth takes 365 ¼ days to orbit the Sun. The Earth has an
elliptical orbit (this means takes an oval route around the Sun)
The Moon takes 28 days to orbit the Earth (the Moon is a natural
satellite – satellites are objects that orbit a planet – artificial
satellites orbit the Earth and provide GPS and TV signals).
Earth Seasons
The Earth’s axis is tilted by about 23 degrees. This means that at any one
time, therefore a part of the Earth’s surface receives more sunlight (tilted
towards = Summer) than another part (tilted away = Winter)
Eclipse of the Sun (Solar eclipse)
This happens when the Moon is between the Earth and the Sun.
Eclipse of the Moon (Lunar eclipse)
This happens when the Earth is between the Moon and the Sun.
Solar systems, Galaxies and the Universe
Our solar system contains the Sun and the planets (e.g. Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
and Pluto)
Galaxies are made up of many Solar systems. The galaxy we are in
is called the Milky Way.
The Universe is made up of billions of galaxies.
Distances are so vast in space that they are measured in
light years (the distance that light travels in one year)
Order of Size smallest, first.
Sun → Solar system → Galaxy (e.g. Milky Way) → Universe
Physics: Electric circuits and current revision
Key points
Electrical current – is the flow of electrons (charge) around a complete
circuit.
Note: Current is not used up as it flows around a circuit (the current
going back to the battery (cell) is the same as the current leaving the
battery.
Amperes (A) – unit used to measure electrical current
Ammeter – component used to measure electrical current
Adding more cells increases the flow of current around a circuit.
Adding more components (e.g. lamps) makes it harder for
the current to flow (increases the resistance).
Conductors – materials that allow electrical current to flow
through (e.g. metals and carbon are good conductors of electricity)
Insulators – materials that do not allow electrical current
to flow through (e.g. plastic, rubber)
Component symbols
Ammeter Readings
Series circuit
The current is the
same everywhere in
a series circuit.
Parallel circuit: In a parallel circuit, there are junctions in
the circuit so the current can split up.
Example of readings
for a parallel circuit:
A1 =0.6A
A2 =0.3A
A3 =0.3A
A4 =0.6A
Note: Current is not used up as it flows around a circuit (the current
going back to the battery (cell) is the same as the current leaving the
battery.
Resistance
Increasing resistance decreases the current in a circuit
Copper and gold (good conductors) have low resistance.
Thin wire and longer wire can increase the resistance in a circuit.
Types of Resistors (components designed to reduce current)
• Fixed Resistor
• Variable Resistor (e.g. used in dimmer switches for lights)
LDR (Light Dependent Resistor):
Increase Light = Decrease Resistance
Therefore, increase current flow and
ammeter reading goes up.
LED (Light Emitting Diode)
An LED acts like a one-way system, only
allowing current to flow through in one
direction. Also, gives out lots of light
without using much electricity.
Fuse
Used as a safety device – the fuse
wire will break if the current gets
too high.
Switches
• Complete or break circuits
• A closed switch – completes a circuit and the current flows
An open switch – breaks the circuit and the current stops flowing
Note: Reed switch uses a magnet to close the switch
Parallel circuits and switches
Switch A
Lamp Y
Switch B
Lamp X
Switch C
From the above parallel circuit – truth table:
Switch a Switch b Switch c Lamp X Lamp Y
closed closed closed on on
closed closed open off on
closed open closed on off
closed open open off Off
open Closed Closed off off
open Closed Open off off
open Open Closed off off
open open Open off off
Physics: Energy and Energy sources
Key points
Most of the energy on Planet Earth comes originally from the Sun.
“Law of the Conservation of Energy” = Energy cannot be made or
destroyed, it is just transferred from one store to another.
Energy is measured in Joules (J) or Kilojoules (kJ)
Types of Energy (or energy stores)
Energy stores Examples
Light Sun, stars, fire, light bulbs
Thermal Fires. Sun, hair dryer, light bulbs
Sound Objects that are vibrating
Chemical Food, battery cells, chemicals (e.g. coal)
Kinetic (movement) Moving objects (falling skydiver)
Gravitational potential Objects that are high up (e.g. diver at the top
(GPE) of a cliff)
Electrical Current flowing through a complete circuit
Strain or elastic Stretched objects (e.g. elastic band)
Nuclear Obtained from nuclear reactions
Magnetic Magnets placed close to each other
Energy transformations
Whenever we use energy, it transfers from one store to another.
E.g.
Start energy Energy changer Finish energies
Chemical Burning candle Thermal and Light
Concentrated energy: energy that is easy to use, e.g. chemical
energy in coal.
Most energy eventually changes into thermal energy and is
dissipated to our surroundings – we can no longer easily use it.
Energy Resources
There are two main types of energy sources:
Renewable and Non-renewable
Renewable sources of energy
Renewable sources of energy: these types of energy can be replaced, so
will not run out.
e.g. Wave, tidal, hydroelectric, solar, geothermal, biomass (e.g. wood
– note, although the piece of wood burns away, it is possible to replace
by growing another tree), tidal.
Problems with non-renewable include;
Expensive to set up projects
Not always reliable (e.g. the wind does not always blow hard
enough)
Non-renewable sources of energy
Fossil fuels (e.g. Coal, Gas and Oil) contain chemical energy
These fuels cannot be replaced – once they are burnt they cannot
be used again.
Note:
The energy in fossil fuels has originally come from the Sun.
e.g. Coal is made from fossilized plants. These plants were once
living and will have carried out photosynthesis changing light energy
into chemical energy.
Energy changes in Power Station to generate electrical energy
Burn fuel to Steam turns Turbine turns
heat water turbine generator making
electricity
Chemical energy Thermal energy Kinetic energy
To To To
Thermal energy Kinetic energy Electrical energy
Physics: Forces, Moments and Pressure Revision
Weight and Mass
Mass is the amount of matter (stuff) in an object and is
measured in kilograms (kg) or grams (g).
Weight is the force exerted on an object due to gravity and
is measured in newtons (N)
Remember: your weight will be less on the Moon as the Moon has a
smaller gravitational force than the Earth, however, your mass will
be the same (the amount of matter has not changed).
Moments
Forces can cause objects to turn (e.g. spanner turning a nut; door handle).
This turning effect is called a moment.
A lever can be used to multiply (increase) the size of a force.
A pivot (fulcrum) is the name given to the point the lever (force)
turns around.
To calculate a moment you need to use the following:
Moment = Force x distance from the pivot
Units for moments are Ncm or Nm
The further the force is from the pivot = the larger the moment (turning
force)
Pressure in fluids
Pressure in liquids and gases increases with depth (the deeper
you dive the more pressure acting on you)
The pressure in a fluid acts equally in all directions.
Physics: Light and sound Revision
Light key points
Light travels very fast – at a speed of 300 million m/s. This is
much faster than the speed of sound (340m/s in air). This is why
you will see lightning before you hear the thunder or see
somebody hit a cricket ball before you hear the sound of the ball
being hit.
Light travels in straight lines
Light will not travel through opaque materials (e.g. concrete wall).
A shadow is formed when light is blocked.
Reflection of light
When light rays hit a surface, they bounce off it – this is
called reflection.
Smooth, shiny surfaces (e.g. mirrors) reflect all of the light in
one direction.
Rough surfaces (e.g. paper) reflect light in many
different directions – scatter the light
The angle that a light ray is reflected (angle of reflection) is the
same as the angle of light hitting the mirror (angle of incidence).
E.g.
If the angle of
o
incidence = 30
Then the angle of
o
reflection = 30
Refraction of light
Light travels a different speeds – it will slow down in more dense
materials.
Therefore, when light travels into glass or water it slows down.
When light travels back into air it speeds up
Refraction is the bending of light as it travels from one
material into another material (e.g. air into water)
Diagram of Refraction Diagram showing how refraction can
affect how you see objects under water
Dispersion of Light
Dispersion – is the splitting of white light into a spectrum
of colours.
White light is made up of red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo and violet.
The splitting of light (dispersion) happens when light is shone
through a prism. This can be seen when a rainbow forms – as the
raindrops act as prisms that split the sun’s rays into a
spectrum (the colours of a rainbow).
Note: Blue is refracted more than red
Sound
Sound is caused by vibrations
Vibrations are passed through air as sound waves
Sound waves cannot travel though a vacuum – as there are no
particles in a vacuum to vibrate
Sound travels fastest through solids – as the particles in a solid
are close together and so can pass on vibrations quickly
Sound travels slowest through air – as the particles in air are
far apart and so it is harder to pass on vibrations
Loudness of Sound (Amplitude)
The size of a vibration is called its amplitude
The greater the size of the wave (bigger the amplitude) the
louder the sound
Pitch of sound
The number of vibrations is called the frequency. Frequency is measured
in Hertz.
More vibrations (higher frequency) make a higher pitched sound
Slower vibrations (lower frequency) make a lower pitched sound
Hearing and sound
We hear a sound by the following:
Object vibrates → vibrations passed on by air particles
→ vibrations enter the ear and vibrate the ear drum.
Humans can hear frequencies in the range of 20 – 20 000Hz
(approx.)
Ultrasounds are frequencies that are not audible to humans – above 20 000Hz