EE462: AI Enabled Digital

Communications
Week # 6

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 Contents

• Source of error besides AWGN:

• Inter-symbol interference (ISI)
• Nyquist theorem
• The techniques to reduce ISI
• Pulse shaping
• Equalization
The contents of this material are based on
• Chapter 3, Sklar, B., 2001. Digital communications (Vol. 2, p. 1011). Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA::
Prentice hall.
The following video is very precise in defining the concepts:
Prof. Ian : How to Avoid ISI in Digital Communications: Nyquist Zero ISI Theorem
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sgyTlI9BsKc
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 Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
Introduction

◼ ISI in the detection process is due to the filtering effects

of a system
◼ Overall equivalent system transfer function

H ( f ) = H t ( f )H c ( f )H r ( f )
◼ creates echoes and hence time dispersion
◼ causes ISI at sampling time
zk =sk + nk +  i si 3
ik
 Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
Models
◼ Baseband system model
x1 x2
x 
k
Tx filter
ht (t)
Channel
hc (t)
r(t) Rx. filter
hr (t)
zk
x̂ 
k
t = kT Detector
T Ht ( f ) Hc ( f ) Hr ( f )
x3 T n(t)

◼ Equivalent model
x1 x2
x 
Equivalent system
k h(t)
z(t) zk x̂ 
k

H( f )
Detector
T t = kT
x3 T
n̂(t)

H( f ) = Ht ( f )H c ( f )H r ( f ) 4
 Nyquist Bandwidth Constraint
Nyquist Bandwidth Theorem
◼ Nyquist bandwidth constraint:
∞
𝑛
෍ 𝐻 𝑓− = 𝑇 ; ∀𝑓
𝑇
𝑛=−∞

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 Nyquist Bandwidth Constraint
Introduction
◼ Nyquist bandwidth constraint:
◼ The theoretical minimum required system bandwidth to detect Rs [symbols/s]
without ISI is Rs/2 [Hz].
◼ Equivalently, a system with bandwidth W=1/2T=Rs/2 [Hz] can support a
maximum transmission rate of 2W=1/T=Rs [symbols/s] without ISI.
1 Rs Rs
= W   2 [symbol/s/Hz]
2T 2 W

◼ Bandwidth efficiency, R/W [bits/s/Hz] :

◼ An important measure in DCS representing data throughput per hertz of
bandwidth.
◼ Showing how efficiently the bandwidth resources are used by signaling techniques.
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 Ideal Nyquist pulse (filter)
Introduction
Ideal Nyquist filter Ideal Nyquist pulse
H( f )
T h(t) = sinc(t / T )
1

−1 0 1 f
− 2T − T 0 T 2T t
2T 2T
1
W= 7
2T
 Nyquist pulses (filters)

◼ Nyquist pulses (filters):

◼ Pulses (filters) which results in no ISI at the sampling time.
◼ Nyquist filter:

◼ Its transfer function in frequency domain is obtained by convolving a

rectangular function with any real even-symmetric frequency function
◼ Nyquist pulse:

◼ Its shape can be represented by a sinc(t/T) function multiply by another

time function.
◼ Example of Nyquist filters: Raised-Cosine filter 8
 Pulse shaping to reduce ISI

◼ Goals and trade-off in pulse-shaping

◼ Reduce ISI
◼ Efficient bandwidth utilization
◼ Robustness to timing error (small side lobes)

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 The raised cosine filter

◼ Raised-Cosine Filter
◼ A Nyquist pulse (No ISI at the sampling time)

1 for | f | 2W0 −W
  
2  | f | +W − 2W0
H ( f ) = cos   for 2W0 −W | f | W
 4 W −W0 
0 for | f | W
Excess bandwidth: W −W0
cos[2 (W −W0 )t]
h(t) = 2W0 (sinc(2W0t))
1− [4(W −W0 )t]2 W −W0
Roll-off factor r =
W0
0  r 1
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 The Raised cosine filter – cont’d

| H ( f ) |=| H RC ( f ) | h(t) = hRC (t)

1 r =0 1

r = 0.5
0.5 0.5 r =1
r =1 r = 0.5
r=0

−1 − 3 −1 0 1 3 1 − 3T −2T −T 0 T 2T 3T
T 4T 2T 2T 4T T

Rs
Baseband W sSB= (1+ r) Passband W DSB= (1+ r)Rs
2
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Pulse shaping and equalization to remove ISI

No ISI at the sampling time

H RC ( f ) = H t ( f )H c ( f )H r ( f )H e ( f )

◼ Square-Root Raised Cosine (SRRC) filter and Equalizer

H RC ( f ) = H t ( f )H r ( f )
Taking care of ISI
H r ( f ) = H t ( f ) = H RC ( f ) = HSRRC ( f ) caused by tr. filter

1
He ( f ) = Taking care of ISI
Hc ( f ) caused by channel

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◼Square-root Raised-Cosine (SRRC) pulse shaping
Amp. [V]

Baseband tr. Waveform

Third pulse Example of

pulse
t/T shaping
First pulse
Second pulse

Data symbol

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◼ Raised Cosine pulse at the output of matched filter
Amp. [V]

Baseband received waveform

at the matched filter output
(zero ISI)
Example of
pulse
t/T shaping

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 A useful tool for the qualitative analysis of
signal used in digital transmission.
Eye pattern
Voltage

Time
How is it created?
Voltage

Time

Bits
Superimposed
1 Unit Interval (UI) 15
 Displays on an oscilloscope which sweeps
the system response to a baseband signal at
Eye pattern the rate 1/T (T symbol duration)

Distortion
due to ISI Noise margin
amplitude scale

Sensitivity to
timing error

Timing jitter
time scale
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 Example of eye pattern
Binary-PAM, SRRC pulse

Perfect
channel
(no noise
and
no ISI)

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 Example of eye pattern
Binary-PAM, SRRC pulse

AWGN
(Eb/N0=20 dB)
and no ISI

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 Example of eye pattern
Binary-PAM, SRRC pulse

AWGN
(Eb/N0=10 dB)
and no ISI

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Example of eye pattern with ISI
Binary-PAM, SRRC pulse

Non-ideal channel and

no noise
hc (t) =  (t) + 0.7 (t − T )

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Example of eye pattern with ISI
Binary-PAM, SRRC pulse

AWGN (Eb/N0=20 dB)

and ISI
hc (t) =  (t) + 0.7 (t − T )

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Example of eye pattern with ISI
Binary-PAM, SRRC pulse

AWGN (Eb/N0=10 dB)

and ISI
hc (t) =  (t) + 0.7 (t − T )

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 Demodulation and Detection
Receiver tasks
Step 1 – waveform to sample transformation Step 2 – decision making

Demodulate & Sample Detect

z (T ) m̂i
r (t ) Threshold
Frequency Receiving Equalizing
comparison
down-conversion filter filter

For bandpass signals Compensation for

channel induced ISI

Received waveform Baseband pulse

Baseband pulse Sample
(possibly distored)
(test statistic)

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 Equalization

◼ ISI due to filtering effect of the communications channel

(e.g. wireless channels)
◼ Channels behave like band-limited filters
j ( f )
Hc ( f ) = Hc ( f ) e c

Non-constant amplitude
Non-linear phase

Amplitude distortion Phase distortion

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Equalization:
Channel examples

Example of a
frequency
selective, slowly
changing (slow
fading) channel for
a user at 35 km/h

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Equalization:
Channel examples

Example of a
frequency
selective, fast
changing (fast
fading) channel for
a user at 35 km/h

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 Equalizing filters
Baseband Model
◼ Baseband system
a
model
1
 a  (t − kT )
k Tx filter Channel r(t) Equalizer Rx. filter z(t) zk âk 
k
ht (t) hc (t) he (t) hr (t) Detector
t = kT
Ta a Ht ( f ) Hc ( f ) He ( f ) Hr ( f )
2 3
n(t)

◼ Equivalent model H ( f ) = H t ( f )H c ( f )H r ( f )
a1
 a  (t − kT )
k
Equivalent system z(t) x(t) Equalizer z(t) zk âk 
k h(t) he (t) Detector
t = kT
Ta a H( f ) He ( f )
2 3 n̂(t)
filtered noise
n̂(t) = n(t)  hr (t) 27
 Equalization

◼ Equalization using
◼ MLSE (Maximum likelihood sequence estimation)
◼ Filtering
◼ Transversal filtering
◼ Zero-forcing equalizer
◼ Minimum mean square error (MSE) equalizer
◼ Decision feedback
◼ Using the past decisions to remove the ISI contributed by them
◼ Adaptive equalizer

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 Equalization
Equalization by transversal filtering

◼ Transversal z(t) =  c x(t − n )

n n = −N,..., N k = −2N,...,2N
n=− N
filter:
◼ A weighted tap
x(t)
   
delayed line
that reduces c−N c−N +1 c N −1 cN
the effect of ISI
by proper z(t)
adjustment of 
the filter taps.
Coeff.
adjustment
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 Equalization
Equalization by transversal filtering
◼ Zero-forcing equalizer:
◼ The filter taps are adjusted such that the equalizer output is forced to be
zero at N sample points on each side of the desired pulse:

Adjust 1 k =0
z(k) = 
cn n=−
N
N
0 k = 1,...,N

◼ Mean Square Error (MSE) equalizer:

◼ The filter taps are adjusted such that the MSE of ISI and noise power at the
equalizer output is minimized.
Adjust
c n n=N − N

min E (z(kT) − ak ) 2  30
 Example
of ◼ 2-PAM with SRRQ
◼ Non-ideal channel
Matched filter outputs at the sampling time

hc (t) =  (t) + 0.3 (t − T )

equalizer ◼ One-tap DFE
ISI-no noise,
A decision No equalizer
feedback equalizer
ISI-no noise,
(DFE) is a DFE equalizer
nonlinear equalizer
that uses previous ISI- noise
detector decisions No equalizer
to eliminate the ISI
on pulses that are ISI- noise
currently being DFE equalizer
demodulated. 31