Elkcricnd Par'Ves

Dfrnith o)
Man paats i the/ira) pneve ayse»
8locs ram of an e/echicns Daive

Sen shy
|ZnPut r r

Rdvanf j#s ana iradvantzges o c i a ) Daives

Tyye of yofoas use fer elhckrca Drsve
SeteCA)m e ENctvicay Drr'Vey
Seaay satt opezatien neftenements
Transi ent 0Pnah on negu'renen/s
A8unenens ne/afe to P Source
*
Capia an nunn1 ?} Cos Maunteoane nee, LFe ete.
REJas,ity
*EnVAonmm ans ocaibn
Spaut ang hoejA Aectvici o9
Staue if D:C an A'C. PAYG
( CYassification ef électv. c a 2 a r v
hroup Daive
Inviduoy PriYt
MU mo ton Pnve
TYpes f Loa/L0ad Toy uep
ACPYt On powntias Lvads
*Payss'y Lmads
Nadari lodo (Ckon co feyena
Vaiafin K spteg
ilconsant hoa 1o5 ut )Lad regue Speeo
Cii) Loaf Tegue syerd* u) La zu
Sreed
Vasial on atk 7me
D Conin uous an con farp Looy ) Cootinuout bus Van ialie oras
Pwafy (v) Imjat locas (v) Stort fimp inter a enA loaJ
 Consfant bvas Torgue Ci)

Load Tge ( Sn Cin))

Lood rugse xSPer) C)

oe C)

Spee
SeleCfion ef wefor
E/Lc/nca Choraeteritfies
)Syosty chodaetevistis (u) Ranrsnf
tn) speeg Control
) Braki
Charalfest*c
Mecka1ca Consi derat'ers
D7ype of encles mn mo 6tari
) Noist v) s ) Aanarye nent fa Xnauin f pover
Cool
*Sr2e an Aadiy Mo+os
U)Regunenr for Contin wus, inienmtrenf
i) Dvenoa Capaeity n Variak/e lane yc
Cost
Cap taf Cost
)Kunnry cosf
sfaon t7 CAtdaLtensties
In pil. metor

T: a 2wa)
SKunt MOFen

1 Runniy Ckavas tem sties Senies

ota
Syntrnos ang Inoluctjon ntrg

>
Ce. shunt mutes Arealunt (urntla)
IndechimamMts
(hurt Cha.)
PC: Seaej Meton

Torgue
SPeey Toue chantter 1st es o Shus met7

Re

zRz RA,

SPees 7ogul CAralternc+ics of Seuey Motet

Rexs

R> RR,

Tor ue
S k u Mofer
/- V lala V- Tna kg -
TRa
K K4

Serie Mite

V: + a r a k , JaN
%na Fa(at5,N) Gn T K, 22
V-17 (at K,N)D
on N 8
N VR- K,
K,T
 Startin .M/ec
a

Tw

Supl suyly
L suprhy

(1) Shun
Senies ( ) Comp oLng
nenilm ce s fhas
Veny
"
Veny smal {ve Syffhtient dnna/wre
2 Mefots
hey moy 6e Shaftd dreehy
Thlee-point ane fo- o n t Sfartet
for Dc shun tonpom Mokrs
Pnes ent trend f tutonatie stanteas in tnfuatrnes
8 f Snduepron metuy stareus kesisdo}tenefet, Awefuortso ,
Stn-pe/ya shpM} slats
,

19 Speed Conpro/ Mots

V-Ian
N V-%n

fied conre

V
( Yealt fild oohrt) (Topped fitjd conrn)
L
1/2

V CSenru /mode ton ro)

Anaadun HME mR
) Sers Motor

a nstastt Ptnalin.
 matunt lonhol
Lotd u y tonsiart
Ren 0
- R all sptedr

V th oor af
R78 *6ffcicery

n7uf i Cen s t a a n
utrut etrveí

70ru
S h w MahT) Toguc
B Sfe ed
dereas

Reat.0
-Ra2R
V (Stais Met) Totyue
VoltY Conho/
KGlrcelie Cenvel
Elechic B7at
Rheostatie on Dyoamic Bvaking

XKeyenena) ve B7ky

@)p -v.

Mw

Sen es Moton
S h u t yeton

e neveP
Hnnat ne connet HoM
1s4wt ok nwers kaA /+£ is app)ea e r
Dt tLe
VtE
E. B T.= k,2
EBT. =k,4 t E
R

0
ano
Senres Motor i r pnofo?p en
Noe:ncase of

Cuuve
conskan
Note: f shut Motor s
H en &e

EBT t KN
)Pt
7wohases ail 1leeChmyc
lo e
minm zP Ccmneih e z l r n a /
Ke osforce moy have
eatec i'n Hene toa on sfaton

) ple9giry 1 h syycrogous Moto

nevenseo yo
4y HHA
1 Dt. excitat,b) will Le

But 1) (ase of mepors hcuy

pamPe lo12
CY curauts ) dampens pno
Vroes a
KAe ostak'e o Iynamie Braky
V
-V +

Senves Motot
wwww

Mofon
Shunt M SapPty c y Conneeted
fom
" Pamtune is odistonneched
eteADAs Res sLar Ce
Cr an
Vamshes supply fauls in cuse
Brey etho laizy
riy n d y C 1Dsezteed
hmiy Mojbn Heo
ATaMCI
I= 7R
B-7 K,#I But
4,agN)
EBTK, R R
pon thnt Meton EB-T kN
)Syn chron us Motois e

fieeled exti'a manfounte amo Motor

v) b y
clsco ne cheol to supply 1 toonCee Jon
Celta conocche nep sfan ce
a rn

2t wosts a ama//enn ate

(c 1
vefuufpb ) MotefS
*
SFaor s ohtonnt chef ro aY
Curnent i paueef supplz D
Ae Shory ci'rtui bee n0fes
Ste aody flU,e m! 1ncaLtes Concduitors
in e
Cuts ms

Lraliy Torsue enttesGO

Reglnvav Brat
(a) c. Shmt Motor
i s Mad Teafer 7Kan

hry netuneer
kyenenaher a f 100stotf

V,P to SufPlY sPe ee

( Dt Sentes Mofo7
N

CC1nduetjon MOfet
Runs af a speed Mone hu) tynthron iuspetaf
H n d y ued forStPP Me maton but e speey
smon fhem Synchoruy speee
*
BU
powen 1s fee houlk fo #Ae soure
Synchhene s Mo tor ' Wo4 empleY eaf
Rege) enavt brasing wiK 7:C: Seaes Mofor
N

om-CO Toopt-EI-

,(N on)
PoSsib, 1ihy oo2 shsrt
sl..CAHentt fn neqenehaPi on)
Cri'r tup
French methe o
2APPticut le w syle seri es moter Lre in tolley-Lu
maln serie fe de winelrzg plauel in taradie! wih
uailia ry wi'nol71s
Mo) AUatn
Serie Fied Auliory
fiet windys field
wrnd

M04o
Ryeenat lve )
LoComotiVS
Suies ane useo
on mene no of motort

7Four on Six

A niliouy winay ne not eGui re

CReqenenahe Brak
Motor
)Syn Chron eus Motots
Freb ex ty bat ) Mu nfuntf mt Mo ton e y
dsco Dne cfes fo suppy ia tonn Ceheef fo
de lHa Cono Lche e
a
Son Pn
nepsfan ce
1 t wevts a an a/f ern ater
(l tndun:) Moters
Stater is eitegnt thef fror Suppl7 an2e p.e.
Cunne s pASe

hes shor} Cirtu+eo n0jed Concduters Cats

me
SFeadyflu, emf imctu ed tin h e
Lraty Torgue enstweGo

Reginvatvt Braty
a) :C. Shut Motor
EisMadt 11taten tha VV
t
t

E V Iury neturee Kenenarr af t00ttatf

to SufPifY SPe ce

L Pt Sertes Mofo7
N

E7V, wt ttnble odu Nermel Drt-

C 1ndwl tion MOfer
Runs af a spe eod Mene HAu) synchoon vuStetof
HndtY wed fer stoPPy he meton but he speef
I's
Is ment them Synckoru speed
BuF powen isfeo heek fo He Sowre
S y c o n e us Moto1 ' Nof mpley e af
 Ve)tge chf 1)
Colrel efD0 170for E tnnKesislance

wwww
ful
Fuli Sply
TE
Bauk V4l7t
E
EMP

Armahnt
JImes
70ta) enty suPplie VI7
EDy wastedl in external ne3t Dnce
Hnea ef shad to) J

Heott E{h cienty V17

3VETSo
OSeniey- panellel Contro)

-OCO
motoTs in Senes CMoFors i Phree

T- 1-Zt
me2
ae1y wauit dur7 Stdr7 pen Moer X

P Dwn 2e1et+P?d y £acl Moto Pnea ef 1tiarg 1ë O£T LVtT

owen Input to each Hotos : VLT VZT = 3 VIT

Hente penten tfe 6ftieney V1T/2 x Jao 6C 62%

34 VIT
 si mi l1 wr
OunA oHb and OF1 ane
1Hen e
:. CH-CG
f E1-EF
V aV2IR
V-1R V-T )
T- conke/ is tu
Olfaun a
seres-paradlt/
re:
My01 difficully f
n u h ef annn
tA orgut on allvko'y keayin
4Ffectry
pana//e/ 71a42 0n
EFfechvt MEPhods for St2/es-
B 7 e j e Trarn tr'on
ISkmt 71mmstien

SAwnt Trsit1en

wwwww M mA

wwn -
Cc)

ww ww ME 00

ww wwe 00

( 6 ) Panalel
L
 1619 T1aust o0)

ww m- w .w m
w -w plens
www
(a

w-w w-ww w

w-
(C
www

9Prun Conkellen

Con ko//ens ane bery y e l fen

Senies- 2 oa lle)
DRU

Sknt and Brie Itantioon

anna)e tnts fon
I n Consollns, apant frem Stot71
Motors Gne alto here.
Reversiy and b rak y f
Meaynecyt/em f Cantrel fo Dc. MoteTs
2lonsiofenastt l o s af e n y y n ljupas neosiam ee
In (ase o Seves-pmalel Conrot
Jesy siuahrers uniay nofch chanpes i eztern as re,itn
o
1 aCkin&to1h mone han 7wo brusA Sers fer pav of
ane Callty yefaalynu

Mefadyne Converps pouwn af tonstomt voHeye Van al V

CuunenF in Ont wrt Constont Cunot an Leaiaste vPey

Pogs T

in)
 7rattn Motel

Now
7nput V7 E, z, CE V)

TE,1, ,12 k,7

1nput Outpu

1 f y i Conctnut, EwlI ie Constnus amc he net i I,

7M/c acte a Motod as fan a bausheS AA' at tonte
mcl as ennator as far ay Be' ane tostenned

Regenennty uey tan 6e 0Ltaine d tanly: ay

hevnj eiel of raetioa Meto dinechin
EWill nverse Which in tumn wil) Chamye He drveuey
o.
MuliPle Uut Coonre
MOt Coackes ane ber tmplayed n Gty ane hian rvis
Eak motev Kwe
Ceach mny ou 7a0o
oDe raulen Coack
Mofor Coaches m usp se Carasle e oae) frew a
lunif ef Traun esunents Conosts of afroup F 7 *or
m o t r s in
everyY metot-Coach anod pra v YeaOA
sevies-Pra lle/ CorelNen nevery meckemsm,
Sfomty nes't/an e an@ cant ean
Contrellens an neexser ane conho/leef y mastO
ConWole in te cal
ef anry moto Coath
Vanous unuis are
joimcd thnro espk Cocyg callec.
OSpeed-Tme Canves fer 7rau) Movemeo

Acc 6
nee Runny C o s t n o n

R w n n i fD V K

Spere (Ye Ponh CutHf

Brak
Ace du Refenaf1on
ne pehant u

O
A
Time

LSF
7me OP Tracti en Meton atce letateg r0)
effers ne
Cunnesnt foke ane Ae raltYC
Pnaethtally Consfmt

Const ont acelren Perio

Stortf PÅs
Time A18
T T un Still Conhae to acIeferate

7079ue clelre cd es am Spee 1nCIt e s aS Per r e

Speeed fo1g ut CAart of fle raubon M0fos

*DeCTen } accele'utie?)eniv
F1naf Seee neackes fo te Yadue whe he JoTsue
Pho uerd is esucl to fh neoizanee hof l rasn expea ieong
 Time Be Juin nuns at Constanmt spee
rel nunninf Conehn

Tne C
A or2d 3, O wwO i Cut ef
TTun nuns
netandatr on
Co ostif eodue
o frichun

Brakes opph eos

Retaolaion Pevee
Hence ram e C/awf.ea/aaf
Mo tieo ef Can

( Rceteratien uy Coostmt Seeof n se0 Ruruy

Costi: Ranmery oA P0wen Soihed}f

v )Refanofaton he Bakiny

1YPical Speed-Time Cuwses of dtf Locometives

a)City sen iee wunken Senvice
Cabo ut 0SkD Stope) sy )
Clot 3-s ko
Coast
Coosy
6
Ho

2 ctefuahan A Ce ferati v) Brakif

Tint (sec)
TineCsec)
e eRumiey

Coasth

3Adesbi Brakiy
Tne (Sec:)-
Srmpfito Ste ech- Trwe Cuve

-E

Tmt (se) Tamelse)

Tnae 2or daf Steeod- Tome luve
T
Let
D
dis ntt in Km bet Stops
1 - Actual tne f trwet

btt s>oPs (in SeC

d A C elecatjsn in km?hPs

netandatian jn kmphPs

VnMO" SPeef in km?a nne Cstc)9

Va AVnaje speeol in knPA
360oD

T/3400
in sec V
Accel eration time
AA,
fon fret nu
in seC =
T-(t, +A)
t Tumt
in VmB
fon netanofation
sec
Tmt
Distonce be) Me stoPs 1s

Cuwve =AAea of 4 0AF + Anea RBFL

A r e a uned e fhe
hrea ef ripgtr Bc5

D4V 3600
V Vn
36o
 TVn(+
n
) V- TV t 3600D 7e

ket + : K

LkV TYnt36 o4 D
so

5 V -2T Vn + 2200 D
. T ) 473 - (4R) (3200)
Vm

yale af

Tkoy com' 6t achievrel

Uun
Frem efuaon D
2200
Vn Vm
Va 360o T 3600D
Va
Suwsti futy (in )
(+) 2200D
(6) gcuaclr laterccp Srerol-T1me Ccunve

et
chst wm ce in Km
&tSHP
1Actud ime ef nun ber sope
n sec)
Acelerati oon jn KnpAPS
Brtukiy returedat io n
kmPhPS
Be Cocgty net anofakiv in kmpPS
Sptol in Km ph at te enf ace Punao Croimt o)
V SPetol in Kmp at e eno) ef coast71 Peine) Point a)

V, -
, ,

NOW -Anes oA the puad nlatera ODBC

+ 3600 (V*) 360

+)+ 9200
C+)
Snce + T- tno T-
C7-4s) + CT-h)
7Ro0

92009(V, +V)T- VY (k+h) 0

 Pjun
V,-V2
VV, -Pt
4V,- [T-Ct,1t5)]-V-Fe T-C+
V, -Pe7 + Pe be

V2
VC1 -pT
-Pe

urel Seltoluwe spretd

PVensyp Sfeee
Distonc Let Stakions
AVUn Spetd = nun lT)
hCtua time f
P i s t a n c bes Statiors

Schedue SPetd Lrnt

timL
SHops

Achua me

spetd
Scheodude sperd < AveyE
Sunice
19 caut ef uno ang Sulwhon
Diff is lorgt
main Lvnu
SmaU 1 ca
fr Reod shiduye sjea StoP tmag Shpu te at Jun
Effect p tmt i nglgElt 1n c t ef muun- Liou

stheduwt sPeed especiadly hs urionf sul-ure

+fon hu
Strviu, accelecseD sho ud he g ValuuA o
Vn Shoudu be mgk
Mechoms 7 Tra Movemtrt

MOton Armatunt
r Mtor Pinjor

heun h e e /

Dairing wAeel/Read u

y e truubon Moton
TTerg ue erentfo

h7raefrVe effont a he Pinuon

SPeeod 9 Mohs Pintoo

Th Le Yglon naho y

geeel efIaiy
NL
N
jain PR Fn7 F
2f: Y N
Na G

f9T aR
N Consuamp) on

7ee atcwr al y fon cnuyy neguaren eis tptnols ypu

C) SChecluwe spe tof () dstm e le Stept
(hi)
fre ueny
ueny snv't v) weet fR loconol
9yret f ne tioue)ity
E y Cepplitd e t in.
Acce/erasy H trasn on level fratx
Dcceler y M ntwd"y pan
(1)) Dony Ob ocgau67Jrony(arcen afradsent
W17Kjaingt nesito)u o moten

nay
suppl) pses 1h Me~rt ofoy elecf. eguiyuts

ne wt nt dep foa df: acrmties

foa wndexst an el M tr tw mechim es on to eaf
wIth P olyf tasks i 1raun mechwes followr
sn alys f es entia/
(1rau/IY efo1t fon acce/erafies
)Tracnt efhrt fon prepelny etra en a

n a ent

V) powa outptt fiom te Duvng Axles

(V Ene}Y p tem gnv7 tales

(VSpecifie éney facfert ffeefry

V) Cotfeicient of 4Ahe enerp
Taachve b/ont fonA cceferalye

eb s Lsnandl en a traun AWeuAF toonoes been

accelerafee a KmPs

eigt 1run o 00 k/TDhnes=Mas XG

-

Man /7uun /000 NXj CKá-f/100o hw

ort negurtd 9 n ae
M K x alte lerati'on J00o WX 4
3600
9 W Newton

Note. on Anguler atee leratie MZ f 14E oLaA

r t s Ave to 2 Conap l r f

ACeteratng wesh ef a t r a t i's (g-1s )

Nerm ead Vnue Ares betwety (1o- 12) %

Henie
Treetry elfetsr accefvat e

wi
We Acteleratry egld f frug s1./ t 12 W
 77achrt EFfoal fu pnape( ry airun sn the

Tota 1nebive eort negund to nter

77un orn level track
TractY effort funiy Cceeferao

Trathye efort us eol in

oVertonuy
PTichonal lenstance

fh
Ler le he speupiefrun resnstomCein Neoens/tome
the dtac hie'ghA heo
w n Nesab

Fe a?2:f WAtWn) Wewton

FTom e aleyt figune
a_groap ept t e tfect rf ruwi ty
when t i nun Is meV/7 lz
neJanofeien
Prboluues acee leratio)
OL
IF
achs o
un
a4
Foace oue to rawiy 1Aven
WAsine xio
10000 X 9 91 W nne hra oli ent a

1008 x9 s/ W *
/o0
levoten

cliston ce Mory
99-1 WG
Hente for this siuafien tota/ t g e . l 4e
Sina
2978 W,tWn +l000 hW Sino x9g let bradre
a7?s h thJn + 9s-1 Wh 0 l0o Sine
1 te trun 1tjo29 0okoo)

Fe 77-8 We+WR98-1 WG
gene ne eafTt9$% 0) 1s

29 g We + Wn t 93:/ WG
Tacht Elat for neestane
Netoo/ foonu
f ik OSPecpE }ru renstone in
te twauy +Aer 1e rautYt Yfo7
0 le agf Weeb a
s
e unto to vLrtome e neso s>AMP

fles
POwen 0ut put om tht Du Yin
forte X s t a o t
WeK
Power rate of doizy
4JotkE
Tme

fonce x SPees
oudPUT from the frivng
n s t a t the powen
Henee at any
tles hoill be
Speef h x Sreed/veleiy
trupve effort X
=

P
FX V looo
3600

Pa0 2>sEV watts (N-m Pen sec)

Me 1 epty of e tronsma hen geen pewer outPu ep
1f 1
the motors O:R7S V

1 s he efftienty fM 1itr *9) motors, pwn input to

Mo fors hoafts
Enepgy otutput7em Da/ vy Azeg
ateg

TOnngalesy Treepezodal spet toe cowe, 7AP enegy l

from ter y anles Opy acceleran Peueo
V3t00
n t, kW-see = , 7e-a 78h V
wodt-sSec
a free nunn g pouo a f t, setonas, enany eff /*9)
Me ri vpy ALleg wil be

t Vm t, KW-see 0:378 h V, wtt-See.

3600

ris te traefve ffprt loury ret nenny uA0of

wutt- hruns Pea tonne K -

tEnmy 0/P i erpre seel t

s f a n t e trtutlns
f Wegpt ano
1nculcate the 1npacth
t OutPut
ana
eneyy
15 k D o v o
u SPe cifit
7uG Jetity
b0" A ynom eyom aue
lompanse) tiee
forms a has ef paLt yen Capetieg
pasyegen Cap
y fere
V i m o u frunr
1
nef Operatr} sehtclules

1)
GDWOef 1-Aou
Henee Outpup
eney 7reuetd
yofstante
SPt tpi energyfeuf 1wee7 11u)
K K
n ton

Ourtt oD Levei 77a u 19

DEterunadio Spe cific Enemy
Smpbhieol Spticl Frmt Cav
w

Speeol-Trme Ceunve
Ket y wnycler 17tplzoida)
bny neGuurtolon dcce/eratren
E x Vn k, kw -see
3tov AB
But t, Vn Sped

FeVm xw-tee
3too
TIme
V (43 Van) kW-sec
3Loo

0-01092Vn W Waft- hamy

Specifie eneny m y alLe leratro)s

a o1/092 V We 0-o1092VG We wwat)-h ws

e t te Powa i 0 for a distmee of D KM

Netttng Pe tonne
7Tun Nensttne i CooC+Am
a
ney n
eg uu're ol fOn free ntenniry
WrD) k Whr
3l0o

SSecific eneny expencle d duy Free nuny

Wh pe #onD Km
3 6 00 Wo

WA Wh Pen tonne - km
te Conplete
Conglete num
r u
eneyy ofP for
TOta/ spe cifrc
O:o102 V e +0:228n hlh Pa 7onne-k
D
Afekry SecREDyy Contamptia)
() Distaymet coveit
Steeipt enegy Comsumph ion f a fudunban cervey Lres be)

Pen fonnt km
(Se-95) wannis
Fon Mti Lne seayrcof (18-32) wwa Apns Pen lon ot - to

Taouin ns)ghdsn
Ace levation ona/ Reranoa Jio)
(w) hraof'ent
( 7nain- gcupment
Bdke s v weis

Co-ei tnt ef sdAt eoon

wtushs cenamy ue) tAp dm vy Whesf and uin aleón

ie racx
Trachve efoat to Sh> ooek
MCot/rient f Ahe woon Adkeen ve wep&t

t NornaYa/u f Mi025 Cchon oly nauas)

Moximun vale e is o:3 CTrucr Cleant wifk Sano)
We ano Ttasy nail, Mlies be/ate) o 1S h
o.
Elecrolyos t In Plecro)ye, Me/e cujel cat olktotioted
art vKLD n t o afoNs
hnodt
Cahood
Meleu/et
DAATGN L/ fret afenms patreg fren)
ALDye
okeL e
melt tiikfo
one

frte alomt are eech aly DAsrog edf

and

Dhe Gey cated tont

es
Me fa/ 1on ant poi tu Vely chy ae
Luso
Non- me faie are neJas vely cingeof
Mene ollute s f Sehon, me i t zahen
 APpheatons of £lechalyeos
) Elechrop/aAk1 )ilhrho 4p 2y ) Reiy f Merl
Earat tion Mebas ron ek one
)syanugfalaLfby f hemicak
Vi) e/etfro. C1eary
anaclay's Lave Elech-adf9a
-1nst Law
The wejnt ef a tustance Lberateo rom an ly 1eo r

en m paoporh onQ! ne gwan hy Eec/iciy

f
ckoye in coulunb
cec
Cuap 1 Ang ert, nee in

7 hen, Wag It
W 21t
caPtto Eectvophemicaeg
ue vales
Cons t
2 ant

Sl con aa).
f Same Curent aK pa heugk odAfant l e r o r s
ii

4he weygS MSudciancet l ione) Ciherared art preporbwana/

to hei Clemica/ eguiyaltnts
Ptomre wesgs
Chemicaegua/ent = /a/ene y
Some tnpos font Tesmin olaiet an ery OfniHopf

ACua2tantiy o tads/anet LiéerUfes

Theoritica uantuy
Theoribica/ bney
A)Eney 4titnty
Cua tntg)y njeyirey
G) 1/tbeye ngurem ent vollaye orops enthojet £lhc broly te
ONIT-Z: 1//umi9atien Epgineer
Some Tn Pon bant Dini4ions:

Pain
Plane Pyle rlare anglt
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Sultenole
i
af
ne
a

Same Pone

noy c enclsseol 4y ty Sildepl Radius

(rasdrans
radiu

Loig I+ it Cultepaleol at a povt in syaet e

he VeleesE fo7m lal
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a f ofrte41on
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I
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o
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Brghtoe s : 1} is elefeel as rhe )tensaiy a ce
i seCfots) oYr Cltdy dahepon aly prejetbt0/
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h f lreebion - he tat i t 4amber
anee e tae Cowet )
L I t 's alsp betny Cedlee Leunan ce
I ti' denored y
 azea
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Sufaue
Per len alea
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mete
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One Li = Ont Lmens fee
Ktunen ru sEne
s Aeotcommolle
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Carndte Pewer M H C ) ;
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TA£ SOmg lpee
Aor/2 0nt/ p/aDt Contal>ey

1 lan spherrcaf Canalle pgi erCMs.c.P)

a Pn e
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feduehen fautor
MSCP
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Lump eflicieny /LDmp Picaty:
7tis P necfre ltmneus ftu to the Powen p u
Our 1 Luer Pr uJoG
SPetif Cenkump t: 09:
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Otrbzatron fatosr]co lli o t of VAbzaio

Zf k a l nafno t o t a / luwes neaclay rl
Ae
Workr plane fo tae fo ta! ltntns eneebyo
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hira ane ptnfLHHY CHear eof

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M07um nfs eFc.
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allorpiern fo phe ora twCd enutle y thA

S0mce
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Clne
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Chewarey au /o Caus n7oyomte, teoa Lor
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lwe
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Lamp tule Filleef w so olyuun an Neon /jo

capatitor

Tramtfrmen wK
i p leakge
enetotae
Doul /e- watle nlutante

E
7as lemP Kowigen uneuaniy Aen ce lepgK
maofe lot
T keep the teMperafure ohun workiy eapp /oue
wolee encloter i bspe er
1ruw e
low Poes
low Fal For
r fatfor

s Ceon e e o
to 1mp re* he
CapaCifod
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ue to kgh Lenkegi
e minutes ef 1ar lamr sort gvIy full
Afte -15
Latts
RatyS: 4o - w: 15, 60, 19o
450) V negui'red fot (so-4)o
S r t y vole s o
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is ollcueneet fro m hpk

Stwky vfgP
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fead, vef bege kigk one) flls own as

ii
e lanp
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Since e ngwaton f Ae Xnen is p07.

Stds y1gur
LHiCien ti mcfen pnaeh caf cone trers 4o-So lunens lnt

Avnge fe: 300e houns

Ne affecto A Voliy vera apon
Gennal/y wel ih l w a and en vna euteeoss
Nofe: Lam shule be hung Verti tolly, orhezwse Seium i l
 Hfh pregurt Mer ccuny Vapeun Lamp
Congnsh ef twe bulhs
1nnen tut! prt tule:
-Masn etrchoe
Meude of gunt2/kond glas
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ECenty 3o-40 ALen.eonswatt

ReupS ase , yoo W
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hwoik artas, thpp ng Cestres ete

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lamp bu
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Xme

Coyacsfov
Nepn

A-C
Gullly

0415ts a
Co gla tubi'ny f upto gm AegtA ond con fauns
TO electwesdes inon steef tepren (nesmaly Y17afspe)
ou

lectsod one n he fesn of Shetk and ant loattd

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a

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Helrun and Deo) } h d

Veniely f fect.

EFfiei eney: Is -yo Aumeufuat

Dces: 1nodi cat lamPs, nizht lamps fon efetermunaten f
folonnly PC maund Advertis 7y tr

fluones te)t Tule CLenp) Stortu

Choke Tule

AC Supp'
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fluen
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Ses)ts Choke 's

P/ebeiy
Enftgy Aigk slontbg velt9
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S Sn)a/) Capautor i Conyttheo acte e fhe sffeN to suppres
Nadio /nte fe entl .

A 7 SFnty, S t pseyieJes a peK theyh He elec hoeles oue

Choge
Phe Cungt PaA 17ntekupHte Touk fernuPhon evelepee

Cennn trty tmo Ctse pnvbnize ude f Chike.

T h e y PeS ef siasens: ilew sto-ter Cwieh ) 7iesna

S+Out en Cuit
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nefuireo for
.

IPrOx maPely /000 Veljr i

ffPleauy yo lumens/waft
hife: 7500 Ao uy Lomys
S710fescepic Cfec} ffluwAeSLen
I is C euuseed olue to tp perieolie P/uuswnbibos 17 He l g l
olp he lamp Cuses 1y ne tycie Vervahe f Pie ewnent
0D C: Ciscuut
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emeviY 06jec tune) pmakes ie meveve aPPeanF4 ky
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ueng f Piegenn t wrce A sprl'y rgu eney.
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y wong fhwee amp on e
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S}uuf r
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ww
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le Curat,
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To make
a he Jra/ic and
/uDefe cafely amo
OLCrultoo Cleorly Yollt
70
coeië Dee
eD konte AL Convyuiry value ef fhe SHLEP
7 T make e Shett mone afraetrt
TW eoern Princplee ont ennploy tof
1 Chreep yetiy
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amps fitmd wk LutulIe nEf1econ ee eoptayey
Rlectote lesojn eel in sueh a Oay taa pn
ne

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toaf
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See} AI me dhiatt yulnbe ahree.
Tt i les tcon onmcea al
co0par t te SPeCufor
neftecien patyople
 SPecelar geeten Printiplt : (SY)
23n thus case, ne/lettors ane Cwyto pw era So A hek

1C des ee ano Aence e nesleCton also t e t pleuee

at Cores pon /ge agle

OLseven
A

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h u s nethoof s
pnerr o metioe

1s b2gec1 ols aclvcn tge Aa Jlane is fel 6y

Instullætro I11Luwnahon levet

Clas A (Shoprpg Centers

Koce t i ens eh
4 m/m2
Subwnhtun Streek

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 Norma Spaci ng fod SHonelanal lamp 5 o mfeut twp
Mo usn try hegt V me fers
Soonun ofichose Kamps an JNENAy
7eatury Vepoln ane lrsrurphe

ul to ein ew pewer
bepf bsco masnl r0acf
bepizt a4 he jun cen
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1 i s enployes f folouerry

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boands tno Show-
To
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i/twwsptte nautwug Yands,
T T0 efc.
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Loiploye Fer s ttomet detoee) 30-30 m
wide aple Prejecfen: beam Sread 1epween yo - go
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CHAPTER2
738 POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING

enclosed in one cabinet. Such room conditioners are

Electric welding
available in sizes 1/4, 1/2 and 3/4 h.p. Water-cooled
room conditioners are also available.
Resistance welding Arc welding
The working of the residential
air-conditioning
equipment can be undérstood from the various Metal arc
Butt
processes as given in Fig. 2.14.
Flash butt Carbon arc
Accumulator Spot
Atomic
Projection
hydrogen
Compressor Seam Helium or
Room - Energy storage
argon arc

Outside air
air
Fig. 2.15 Classification of Electric Welding processes.
Strainer
od (a) Butt Welding. Rods, pipes and wires are
Capillary welded in this way. One part is held in a fixed clamp
and the other is held in a moving clamp. The two parts
Fig. 2.14 Action in a typical window
are brought together and pressure is applied along
the
air-conditioning unit.
axial direction by a spring. A heavy current is passed
Air is drawn in through the evaporator cooling from the welding transformer which creates the
coil. The refrigerant, liquid freon, is made to evaporate necessary heat at the joint due to the comparatively
which causes the air to cool considerably. The air gives high resistance of the contact area. Due to the pressure
up some heat in evaporating liquid freon. The gas of the spring, molten metal is forced out producing a
from the evaporator goes to the accumulator through bulged joint.
which only dry gas passes on to the compressor. In the
compressor the gas is compressed and led into the
condenser. The outside air drawn into the condenser 00000000 Welding
cools the compressed gas and it changes into liquid 0000000 transtormer

form. The liquid gas passes through strainer and then

through a capillary which allows it to pass at the
requisite rate.

Most equipment of this type produces cooling Fig. 2.16 Butt-Welding.

effect. But some manufacturers employ a reversed-
cycle system in which the evaporator becomes the (6) Flash But-Welding. The ends of the two bars
condenser and vice versa. An automatic switching to be welded are put together under light pressure.
valve reverses the normal direction of flow of the Arcing at the joint is allowed to take place. This
refrigerant. The heat of compression of the refrigerant removes any unevenness at the joint. Flashing conti-
nues till the two ends reach
is distributed in the room by the internal air welding temperature
circulation fan. when pressure is applied. A weld having a thin fin
around the joint is obtained which is easily removed to
2.10 ELECTRIC WELDING produce a flash weld.
In an electric welding process two pieces of metal Figure 2.17 illustrates the process. In order that
are brought to a plastic state by generating heat and the expulsion of the molten metal should be the least
then are fused together. Electric welding may be
carried out by one of the processes shown in Fig. 2.15.
00000000 Welding
2.10.1 Resistance Welding
O000 transformner
A heavy current is passed through the joint
required to be welded. The resistance of the joint
generates enough heat due to IFR loss to melt the metal
Pressure Pressure
and causes fusion at the point of contact. Various
resistance welding processes arebriefly stated below: Fig. 2.17 Flash Butt Welding.
 PART IV

HEATING AND WELDING 739

aunng the filashing period, voltage should be low. A trise to seam welding. Wheel or roller type or erec
voltage in the range of 1 to 20 volts is used. Most of the
trodes are used. The mechanical pressure
metals except lead, zinc, Intermittent
antimony, bismuth and their electrodes on the work is kept constant.
alloys can be flash-welded. Current is used, the current on for a
being definite time

(c) Spot Welding. Welding is carried out at certain and then off for another fixed interval. This process
points producing a local joint. It is applied to welding can produce continuous pressure tight seams at high
of sheets. A
spot welding machine is shown in speeds.
Fig. 2.18. The plates to be welded are placed over-
Secondary of
lapping each other between two electrodes by the foot welding s
pedal. The welding current flows through electrode transformer
tips producing a spot weld. The electrode-tips are Rotating
electrode
made of copper or
copper alloy and are water-cooled.
The welding current depends on the thickness and the
composition of the plates. It varies from 1,000 to 10,000
amperes and this current may flow from a fraction of a LO)
second to several seconds.
Fig. 2.20 Seam Welding.
-Electrode
2.10.2 Machines for Resistance Welding
Sheets The machine for resistance welding consists of a
transformer, electrodes for transmitting the current to
the portion to be welded and arrangement for
controllingthe mechanical pressure may be exerted
through levers and clutch by an electric motor it or

varies
may be done by compressed air. The pressure
according to type of work. It may be a few kilograms
Timer| for thin plates whereas for ropes or wires it may be a

tonne or so.
Pedal
The older type of welding machine employed
electrodes operated by a pedal. The application of

pressure and the time for the

flow of current was
controlled by the operator and this required expe-
Fig. 2.18 Spot Welding
Machines. e pereop
rienced and skilled operators. The modern practice is
a modified form of
(d) Projection Welding. It is to pass heavy currents for short intervals (about 1/100
Flat electrodes are used and the work to
spot welding. to 1/10 of a sec).
or mechanical projection on the
be welded has pressed For this purpose equipment of three typesis used:
contact surface to
concentrate pressure at these points.
) Constant time,
Thisis seen in Fig. 2.19.
(Upper electrode (i) Current actuated, and
(ii) Energy actuated

Secondary Constant time equipment is used in high speed

of welding
Work transtormner production where the work has a clean surface.
Constant time equipment may be provided with
mechanical control or electrical control. In mechanical
Lower electrode 0 control for up to 300 welds per minute, the device
used is a cams-operated switch which is driven from
the welding machine and is placed in the primary
Joint made by projection welding
circuit of the transformer which supplies current to the
Fig. 2.19 Projection Welding. machine. For number of welds per
larger
welding a

unsuitable as
minute the mechanical arrangement is
(e) Seam Welding. If the spots in spot-welding
are

each other, it gives accurate cannot be obtained. The other

timings
spaced so closely that they overlap
CHAPTER2
740 POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERINO

2.10.3 Electronic Control

In TABH
method is to control the timing through gate ResIsTand elding
COntrolled thyristors. Fig. 2.21 shows an arrangement We shall now discuss some of the types of
using thyristors in the secondary circuit of series
transformer. When the thyristors are conducting since electronic controls employed in resistance weldi
the series transformer Electronic controls are very acCcurate and precico in
secondary is almost short are used in all precision
Circuited, the series transformer secondary is almOst operation. Usually ignitrons
shortcircuited, the series transformer impedance 1sS welders
controls are:
very low and the whole of the supply voltage 1s Some of the electronic
available across the primary of the welding trans () Line contactor and heat control. The welding
former. When the thyristors do net conduct, the series transformer is connected to the line when a control
transformer primary winding offers a high impedance achieved by the accurate
signal is given and the heat is
in the circuit of the welding transformer and the certain duration in each half
firing of ignitrons for a
current isreduced to a low value. The
negligibly grids cycle.
of the tubes are controlled by other valves so as to
(Gin) Non-synchronous weld timer. This controls the
achieve proper timing number of cycles for which the line contactor has to
remain closed.
Welding (in) Synchronous weld timer. It can count accurately
transformer
the number of cycles for which the line contactor
AC remains closed. Also it can control the instant at which
>Electrodes the line contactor should be closed to avoid transients
supply
in the welding transformer.
0000 (iv) Sequence timer. This incorporates weld timer
O000
and other timers for determining the time during
Th which the pressure builds up before the closing of the
contactor. This is known as 'squeeze' time. It also
determines the time taken for the cooling of the
material before pressure is withdrawn. This is known
as 'hold' time. It can further determine the time for
Tocontrol
circuit which the electrodes are not conducting before the
welding sequence is repeated in the next cycle. This is
Fig. 2.21 Valve-operated control for Constant-Time known as 'off time.
Welding Equipment. () Pulsation timer. This allows the current to
flow for a definite number of cycles and stops current
Current-actuated control has not been successrul
flow for another definite number of
for high speed welding cycles.
The energy-actuated control wherein a definite 2.10.4 Energy Storage Welding Processes
amount of energy is fed into the weld is used when Aluminium, magnesium and a few other materials
there are variations in welding conditions for succesive require high currents for short intervals for welding. If
welds like variations in supply voltage or
mechanical these are welded
by taking power from the supply
pressure or wear of electrodes, etc. and the constant lines in the usual manner the
time method does not produce good welds.
following drawbacks
However, would occur
the control equipment is quite complicated.
(1 The abnormally large demand of current
The kVA drawn from the supply varies over wide causes series voltage fluctuations in the line
limits-from a few kVA to about 1,000 kVA- witha during the interval the weld is being made
very poor power factor say about 0.3 lagging. This 7) If the welding interval is shortened it will
causes abnormal voltage drop in
supply feeders and reduce the energy to the
greatly supplied
also may lamp flicker. Capacitors may be used
cause weld and will not be
for power factor
satisfactory.
improvement. Series capacitors may In the energy storage system, energy is stored
be used with
welding transfornmer to compensate for from the line and then released suddenly to the
the reactance drop.
welding electrodes. Aluminium, magnesium and their
 :n1.11.Aassi305. 23267437

PART 1V
HEATING AND WELDING 741
alloys have the following characteristics when it comes in transformer secondary for welding
current
towelding these heavy
purposes. A circuit for magnetic energy-storage
301. Since they have low specific resistance, they system is shown in Fig. 2.23.
e require heavy current to melt.
2. Their thermal
conductivity
therefore they conduct
is high and Contactor coil

away the heat very

quickly from spots to be welded.
3. On Contactor
melting, they become very thin liquids
and have a
tendency to run off. Welding
4. At low
temperatures, stick to electrodes
they transformer
having copper.
The solution of the above Fig. 2.23 Magnetic Energy-storage Wetling.
problems is that
welding should be done under high pressure in a very
short time interval and The demand for kVA on the line in magnetic
a using
volume of very high to
current, two types of energy storage and discharge energy-storage system is higher as compared
systems are used. capacitor discharge welding but a high voltage rectifier
and costly capacitor-bank are not needed.
1.
Capacitor-discharge Welding. Fig. 2.22 shows a
capacitor-discharge welding circuit. The capacitor 2.10.5 Arc Welding
bank is of 2,000 to 3,000 micro-farad
capacity and is An electric arc is the flow of electric current
charged to 3,000 volts. The no-load voltage of the
rectifier is about 6,000 volts. A voltage through gases accompanied by heat and bright glow
regulating (due to ionisation and dissipation of energy of the
circuit cuts off the rectifier from the bank when the
surrounding medium). The electric arc is struck by
bank voltage is 3,000 volts. Through an ignitron
short-circuiting two electrodes and then withdrawing
switch the capacitor bank discharges into the primary
them apart. Electrons emerge from the separated tip
of the welding transformer and the high transient
(depending on its polarity), move to the other tip by
Current set up in the secondary supplies power to the
colliding and ionising the surrounding medium in
weld.
between the tips.
The arc is of negative resistance characteristic i.e.,
with increase of arc current, voltage across it decreases
(i.e., resistance of the arc decreases). Increase of arc
length also reduces the arc and further increases the
resistance.
Welding Stability of electric supply i.e., existence of voltage
stransformer gradient is thus necessary for stability of the arc;
however, an arc requires more voltage to strike than to
Fig. 2.22 Capacitor-discharge Welding. be maintained. The arc is an extremely flexible con
ductor. Moreover, it produces a magnetic field and
is
2. Magnetic Energy Storage Welding. Energy hence it is subjected to be blowrn away due to its own
stored in the magnetic field of the transformer, the field.
value of stored energy being Li The d.c. voltage of To have a proper welding, the ground connection
current in should be far away otherwise the arc stability may be
the rectifier is suitably controlled so that the
without affected.
the primary of the transformer rises gradually
This avoids
inducing high current in the secondary. Various arc welding processes are given below :
in aluminium
preheating of the material. Preheating (a) Metal arc welding. See Fig. 2.24. Current flows
it causes
magnesium, etc. is undesirable
as
via the electrode through the arc to the work and back
deformation. When sufficient energy has been stored
the contactor opens and
to the supply via the earth connection. Due to the heat
up in the transformer core,
the flux must collapse now. The decay of flux induces generated by the arc, a little portion of the work melts
CHAPTER 2
POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING
742
must thererore
be Such that it
or the electrode. When the electrode is The supply voltage rise in current. This will
Hremoved, thep metal cools and solidifies. with a
should fall off rapidly
current from increasing.
check the
consist of a motor.
Sets. These
(a) D.C. Welding
a squirrel-cage one. The
the motor being
generator set,
Electrode be of the constant voltage type orof
d.c.generator may
type in which the series
the dropping-characteristic
To each other. D.C. sets may
and the shunt fields oppose
supply or multi-operator
sets. Single-
Arc be single operator
operator sets have sharply drooping voltage-current
Molten metal
curves so that a large
change in arc voltage results in a
current. For multi-operator sets,
Fig. 2.24 Metal Arc Welding.
small change in arc
be available to each operator.
the striking voltage must
of level compounded
(b) Carbon arc Welding. The electrode is of carbon Therefore the generator is
which is made negative with respect to the work if d.c. voltage of 60 volts. Each operator is
type having a

is used. If the carbon electrode is made positive, the equipped with an independent resistance unit which
carbon particles have a tendency to go into the welded can absorb the
difference between the striking voltage
joint and cause brittleness. The electrode should and the operating voltage of the arc.

therefore be negative and the work positive. Only d.c. consist of welding
(b) A.C. Welding Sets. These
can be used. The heat from the arc forms a molten pool transformers. Here the difference of voltage is
and the extra metal required to make the weld is
absorbed by a reactor. The reactor also helps in
supplied by filler rod of the same composition as that
a
power factor
account of the low
or the molten metal. This process is also used in
stabilising the arc on

which is nearly 0.35 lagging. The open circuit voltage

welding copper and its alloys.owl ge
volts. A.C. sets may also be
ranges from 85 to 100
(c) Atomic Hydrogen Welding. An arc is created
single-operator or multi-operator sets having a
between tungsten electrodes and hydrogen is blown single-phase and 3-phase transformer respectively.
through the arc zone. The gas changes into atomic Current control is obtained by regulating reactors. The
form on account of the high temperature of the arc.
single-operator set causes unbalance and low power
When the atomic hydrogen travels to cooler regions in
the vicinity of the arc, it tries to regain its molecular
ractor on the supply whereas the multi-operator set
will cause only partial unbalance. The power factor
form and in doing so gives up the energy which it had
remains poor unless compensated for.
extracted from the arc. A very intense heat is
generated which welds the work. A filler rod may be
used if additional metal is needed for making a joint.
2.11 MODERN WELDING TECHNIQUES
(d) Helium or Argon Arc Welding. An arc is Conventional welding processes suffer from the
formed between a tungsten electrode and work and drawbacks of excessive melting, diffusion, formation
helium or argon is used only as a shield to protect the of intermetallic compounds, tower ductility and lower
work form the oxidising eftect of atmospheric oxygen. shock resistance capability. Moreove, by conven-
It is used for welding magnesium, magnesium alloys tional methods it is difficult to weld some metals and
and aluminium alloys. their compounds. Development of modern methods is
thus necessary in welding technology.
2.10.6 Electric Arc Welding Equipment
It may be a.c. or d.c. The basic requirement is that 2.11.1 Ultra-sonic Welding
it should have a high open circuit voltage to enable In this method, union between similar or
striking the arc. This voltage is from 50 to 100 volts. A dissimilar metals or non-metals is performed utilising
voltage of 20 to 30 volts is needed to maintain the arc. the ultrasonic vibration generated
by piezo-electric
The arc has a negative resistance characteristic. effect or magneto-striction. Due to absence of common
The resistance of the arc decreases as the current problems of conventional welding process e.g, fusion,
increases. This in its turn will increase the arc recrystallisation, grain growth etc., the ultrasonic
further. A steady arc, therefore, cannot be obtained. welding method is highly applicable in sophisticated
 PART IV

HEATING AND WELDING

743
welding requirements e.g., welding of intricate and stored energy is built up to a critical limit. A portion of
delicate parts of electronic boards/components, it bursts through the partially reflecting surface,
to a tinyand
spot
is
bonding of
plastics, bimetals, foils and in even focussed by a system of optical lenses to a tiny spot
welding of animal or human bones in medical (less than 0.25 mm in size) on the work piece.
The
sciences. becomes very
energy concentration on this tiny spot
Laser (Light high which can be used for welding job. Laser is
amplification stimulated emission
of radiation) Welding effectively used in the welding of chromium, nickel,
aluminium, tungsten, titanium etc.
rIn this method, bombardment of an atom by a The salient features of this process are:
proton of
adequate energy (while in excited state)
stimulates it to emit another (a) low energy requirement
the one bombarding it. This
proton and thus augment (6) possibility of both spot and seam welding
gives rise to stimulated
emission (which is () facility for microminiature welding.
synchronous with the inducing
radiation in direction, phase and wave include cost, limited
length) and The disadvantages high
amplifies the incident radiation. In a matter of average power, low efficiency and difficulty in
milliseconds, a laser beam is built, amplified (by controlling the characteristics of the laser beam.
bouncing the light back and forth between the However, laser welding has already gained a
reflecting surfaces on the ends of a crystal) till the prominent place in the welding of micro equipments.
olobeee
 REFRIGERATION

4.1. INTRODUCTION TO "REFRIGERATION"

Refrigeration is the science ofproducing and maintaining temperatures below that of the
surrounding atmosphere. This means the removing of heat from a substanceto be cooled.
Heat always passes downhill, from a warm body to a cooler one, until both bodies are at
the same temperature. Not only perishables, today many human work spaces in offices
and factory buildings are air-conditioned and a refrigeration unit is the heart of the system.
Before the advent of mechanical
refrigeration water was kept cool by storing it in semi
porous jugs so that the water could seep through and evaporate. The evaporation carried
away heat and cooled the water. This system was used by the Egyptians and by Indians
in the Southwest. Natural ice from lakes and rivers was often cut during winter and
stored in caves, straw-lined pits, and later in sawdust insulated buildings to be used as
required. The Romans carried pack trains of snow from Alps to Rome for cooling the
Emperor's drinks. Though
these methods of cooling all make use of natural
phenomena,
they were used to maintain a lower temperature in a space or product and may properly
be called refrigeration.
In simple, refrigeration means the cooling or removal of heat from a
system. The equipment
employed to maintain the system at a low temperature is termed as refrigerating system
and the system which is kept at lower temperature is called refrigerated
system.
Refrigeration is generally produced in one on the following three ways
) By melting of a solid,
156
REFRIGERATION AND R-CONDITIONING
157

(i) By
sublimation of a solid, and
of a liquid.
(iii) By evaporation
Most of the commercial refrigeration is produced by the evaporation of a liquid called
refrigerant. Mechanical refrigeration depends upon the evaporation of liquid refrigerant
and its circuit includes the equipments, naming evaporator, compressor, condenser and
expansion valve. It is used for preservation of food, manufacture of ice, solid carbon
dioxide and control of air temperature and humidity in the air-conditioning system.

4.2. APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION

Important refrigeration applications are given below:
1. Ice making
2. Transportation of foods above and below freezing
3. Industrial air-conditioning
4. Comfort air-conditioning
5. Chemical and related industries
6. Medical and surgical aids
7. Processing food products and beverages
8. Oil refining and synthetie rubber manufacturing
9. Manufacturing and treatment of metals
10. Freezing food products
11. Miscellaneous applications
(i) Extremely low temperatures
(i) Plumbing
(ii) Building construction ete.

4.3. ELEMENTS OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

All refrigeration systems must include atleast four basic units as given below
(i) A low temperature thermal "sink" to which heat will flow from the space to be cooled.
(i) Means of extracting energy from the sink, raising the temperature level of this energy,
and delivering it to a heat receiver.
(ii) A receiver to which heat will be transferred from the high temperature high pressure
refrigerant.
(iv) Means of reducing pressure and temperature of the refrigerant as it returns from the
receiver to the "sink"

4.4. REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

The various refrigeration systems may be enumerated as beloW:
1. Ice refrigeration
2. Air-refrigeration system
3. Vapour compression refrigeration system
4. Vapour absorption refrigeration system
5.
Special refrigeration systems
) Absorption (i) Cascade refrigeration system
refrigeration system
(i) Mixed refrigeration system (iv) Vortex tube refrigeration system
(o) Thermoelectric refrigeration (vi) Steam jet refrigeration system.
 158 UTILISATION OFELECTRICCAL
POW
co-EFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (C.O.P.)
a term known as the Co-effit
of perfopertormance of a refrigeration system is expressed by
the refrigerant while nent
Co-efficie
ormance which is defined as the ratio heat absorbed by
of
eeheat
through the evaporator to the work input required to compress the
the units).
refrigerant
refrigerant in th compressorsing
the compressor
the
;
S tihe ratio between heat heat
extracted and work done (in unltS)
D e t refrigerating effect,and W=work expended in by the machine during the ga8ame
interval of time, then,

cOP.

Actual C.O.P.
Relative C.O.P. =
;
Theoretical C.O.P.
where, actual C.O.P. = ratio ofR. and Wactually measured during a test and, theoretical C.0.P,
ratio of theoretical values and W obtained applying laws of thermodynamics to the
of R, refrigera
tion cycle.

4.6. STANDARD RATING OF A REFRIGERATION MACHINE

The rating of a refrigerating machine is obtained by refrigerating effect or amount of heat
extracted in a given time from a body. The rating of the refrigeration machine is given by a unit of
refrigeration known as standard commercial tonne of refrigeration which is defined as the
refrigerating effect (RE) produced by the melting of 1 tonne ofice from and at 0°C in 24 hours. Since
the of ice is 336 kJkg, the refrigerating effect of 336
latent heat offusion
rated as one tonne, i.e.,
x 1000 kJkg in 24 hours is

A tonne of refrigeration = 336 x 1000

= 14000 kJ/h.
24
Note. Ton of refrigeration (TR). A ton of refrigeration is
basically an American unit of RE. It orig
nated from the rate at which heat is required to be removed to freeze one ton water
of from and at 0°C. Using
American unit this is equal to removal of 200 BTU of heat per minute, and in MKS units
it is adopted as 50 kcal
min or 3000 kcal/hour. In S.IL units its conversion is
rounded off to 3.5 kJ/s (kW) or 210 kJ/min.
1 ton of refrigeration may be taken
equal to 0.9 tonne of refrigeration)
4.9. DOMESTIC REFRIGERATOR
4.9.1. Construction and Working
Refrigerators, these days, are becoming the common item for household use, vendor's shop,
hotels, motels, offices, laboratories, hospitals, chemist and druggist shops, studios ete. They are
manufactured in different sizes to meet the needs ofvarious groups of people. They are usually rated
with internal gross volume and the freezer volume. The freezer space is meant to preserve perishable
products at a temperature much below 0°C such as fish, meat, chicken etc., and to produce ice and
ice-cream as well. The refrigerators in India are available in different sizes of various makes, i.e., 90,
100, 140, 200, 250, 380 litres of gross volume. The freezers are usually provided at top portion of the
refrigerator space occupying around one-tenth to one-third of the refrigerator volume. In some
refrigerators, freezers are provided at the bottom.
A domestic refrigerator consists of thefollowing two main parts:
1. The refrigeration system.
2. The insulated cabinet.
Fig. 4.3 shows a flow diagram of a typical refrigeration system used in a domestic refrigera-
tor. A simple domestic refrigerator consists of a hermetic compressor placed in the cabinet base. The
condenser is installed at the back and the evaporator is placed inside the cabinet at the top.
The working of the refrigerator is as follows
The low pressure and low temperature refrigerant vapour (usually R-12) is drawn through
the suction line to the compressor. The accumulator provided between the suction line
and the evaporator collects liquid refrigerant coming out of the evaporator due to incom
plete evaporation, if any, prevents it from entering the compressor. The compressor then
compresses the refrigerant vapour to a high pressure and high temperature. The com

pressed vapour flows through the discharge line into condenser (vertical natural draft,
wire-tube type).
In the condenser the vapour refrigerant at high pressure and at high temperature is
condensed to the liquid refrigerant at high pressure and low temperature.
 ND
FRIGERATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING 163

Condenser (wire-tube type)

-

Low pressure gas

Accumulator

Evaporator
High
pressure
liquid Low pressure
liquid

Sound deadner

Expansion device
(Capillary tube)
Filter-

Compre
sSor
Suction line

LDischarge line
Fig. 4.3. Domestic refrigerator.
The high pressure liquid refrigerant then fows through the filter and then enters the
capillary tube (expansion device). The capillary tube is attached to the suction line as
shown in Fig. 4.3. The warm refrigerant passing through the capillary tube gives some of
its heat to cold suction line vapour. This increases the heat absorbing quality of the liquid
refrigerant slightly and increases the superheat of vapour entering the compressor.
The capillary tube expands the liquid refrigerant at high pressure to the liquid refriger
ant at low pressure so that a measured quantity of liquid refrigerant is passed into the

evaporator.
I n the evaporator the liquid refrigerant gets evaporated by absorbing heat from the con-
tainer/articles placed in the evaporative chamber and is sucked back into the compressor
and the cycle is repeated.
4.9.2. Electrical Circuit of a Refrigerator
Fig. 4.4 shows a schematic diagram of electric circuit of a refrigerator.

Components:
1. Lamp and switch. The arrangement is made in such a way that lamp remains off' as the
doorisclosedand becomes 'on' whenever door is opened. When the lamp is 'on' it is easy to trace the
commodities placed in the refrigerator
2.Thermostat switch. A thermostat switch maintains a requisite temperature in the
refrigerator.
Freezer. Temperature remains between-7°C to 5°C approx.
C to 15°C.
Remaining part of the refrigerator. Temperature remains between 7
3.Thermal overload release. This component is a protective device for compressor motor
unit.It operates when temperature of the compressor rises beyond a certain value or excessive
 164 UTILISATION OF TRICAL POWER
Current ilows in the motor ; under such conditions the bimetallic strips disconnect the supply to th.

motor.
4. Starting relay. A starting relay starts the motor by the putting starting winding/auxil
iary winding of split phase induction motor across the supply
Thermostat
switch

Thermal
overload
release

Heating-
resistancei ww
Switch
Starting
relay

Contact

Plunger-
- Main Lamp
winding
of motor
Motor
(For running
compressor)
O0000000
Auxiliary winding
of motor

Fig. 4.4. Electric circuit of a refrigerator.

5. Electric motor. Electric motor used is single phase induction motor, split phase type. Itis
a fractional horse power induction motor; its size depends upon the capacity of the refrigerator.
Working:
When electric supply is given to the refrigerator, current passes through the thermostat switch,
thermal overload release, coil of starting relay and main winding of the motor. To start with, when
the motor is at rest it draws a very heavy current. When this heavy current flows through the coil ot
the starting relay, the coil gets energised and it pulls up the plunger, short circuiting the contacts
and putting auxiliary winding also in the circuit. Now since both the main winding and auxiliary
winding are energised, motor starts running. When the motor gains normal speed, the current drawn
by the main winding of motor becomes normal. At normal current plunger in the coil of starting
relay cannot remain pulled and it is released down, opening the contacts, thus auxiliary winding
gets out of circuit. The main function ofstarting relay is to put auxiliary winding in the circuit at the
time of starting the motor and to disconnect it when the motor gains normal speed. In case starting
relay fails to close, motor will not start (as explained above). But once it closes and it fails to open,
then either thermal overload shall trip out or fuse shall be blown off.
REFRIGERATION AND AIR-CONDITIONIN
165
4.9.3. Maintenance of Domestie Hefrigerator
In order to achieve proper results in the maintenanee of the refrigerator, the following poin
should be aken into consideration
1. Refrigerator must be levelled properly
. Refrigerator should be operated on 230 volts, 50 Hz supply, 1fthe voltage fucuatos widey
it isadvisable
dv to switch off the refrigerator otherwise comprewsor motor may burn out
3. Refrigerator should be close to an electrícal outlet as averload or lightíng ertensiOn eor
reduce the line voltage to a dangerously low level,
4. Refrigerator should not be exposed to direct rays of sun beeause this will add to the load of
operation.
5. There should be a gap of at least 25 cm between the condenser (back of the refrigerator)
and the wall.

6. Refrigerator should be operated without load at least two hours before loading it.
7. Dust of condenser should be removed períodically and made sure that no material evers
the portion.
8. If there is urgent need ofice turn the knob of thermostat to 5 or more and turn the bafle
tray deflection to the out position. Don't forget to change these to their normal position afterwards.
9. Defrosting should be done periodically as frost is a barrier vihich hinders cooling and adds
to the load operation.
10. Never use harsh leaners to hasten the defrosting proeess by striking at or chipping off
the ice as it will result in leakage of gas.
11. Baffle tray should be kept out when it is desired to colleet the dripping water from freezer
chest at the time of defrosting.
12. Moist food shouid be placed in a closed container or wrapped in polyrthene or auminiun foil
13. To safeguard against electric shock the refrigerator should be properly earthed with green
wire and operated only on three point plugs. Improper earthing may result in fatal accidents.
4.9.4. Troubleshooting of Refrigerator
In a refrigerator, following troubles are often found
S. No. Symptoms Causes
1 Motor fails to start on giving supply. .Thermostat contacts open.
Blown fuses in the main switeh.
.Overhead release open.
Open cireuit in the main winding.
Open circuit in the auxiliary winding.
.Grounded winding.
Burnt or shorted winding.
.Worn out or tight bearing.
.Bent rotor shaft.
Motor runs slower than normal speed. Low voltage.
Overload.
Shorted main winding
Defective electro-magnetic relay.
.Worn out bearings.
 UTILISATION OF ELECTRICAL PO
166 owE
Low voltage
3 Motor runs hot Overload.
Shorted or grounded winding.
Worn out bearings.

noise,
Low voltage.
hurmming
Motor does not start and gives Overload.

Open circuit in
the auxiliary winding,
Defective electro-magnetic (starting)
relay-contacts being not closed.

Shorted winding.
Motor runs with noise Improperly connected poles.
5.
Loose rotor bar.
.Worn out bearings.
.Too much end play.
Foreign material in the rotor.

. ( i ) No refrigerant gas in the system

Motor heeps on running but
indicated by the unit, tubing and
(a) cooling is nil condenser being at ambient temperature)
(b) cooling is insufficient
ii) Complete choking of capillary.
i) Less refrigerant gas in the system.
(ii) Partial choking of capillary.

7. Motor keeps on rurning even though .Wrong setting of thermostat.

it is very cold inside the refrigerator. Defective thermostat-shorted wiring
or sticking contacts.

Motor starts very frequently. Bad doorseal.

Wrong setting of thermostat.
9. Motor operates normal with normal Bad door seal.
cooling in freezer but cooling in the rest Opening of door too frequent.
portion is unsatisfactory.

10. Motor operates normal with good cooling Presence of moisture in the refrigerant
but defrosting starts all of a sudden. cycle.
Cooling again starts after some time.

11. Too much frosting around the freezer. High atmospheric humidity or steaming
hot liquids stored.

4.10. WATER COOLERS

è toa

Water is one of the most needed thing for a man. In summer season cold water givesa
thirsty man. At 10°C water is most refreshing. Thus cooling of water in'summer becomes neto
Water coolers are used to produce cold water at about 7 to 13°C. The temperature ofwater 15

led with the help of a thermostatic switch.

 ATION AND AIRCONDITIONING 167
REPRIG

follows:
Water cooler may be classified
as

water coolers:
1. Instantaneoustype
Bottletype cooler -Bottle or
Pressure type cooler. reservoir
(i)
or remote type cooler.
(i) Self-controlled
water coolers
2. Storage type
1. Instantaneous type water coolers. In
fcoolers the cooling coil is wrapped round
thistypeline such that by the time water reaches the - Faucet
thepipe to desired temperature. The descrip
tankit
iscooled
various types of instantaneous type water
tion of
below:
coolers 16given
cooler. In this type water to
0 Bottle type
be cooled is stored in a bottle or reservoir. - Wast water
For filling glass tumblers or containers basin
faucet or similar means are provided. The
dripping water from the faucet is collected
in the waste water basin or water drip as
shown in Fig. 4.5. Its usualsize is 25 litres
Drainage
and is suitable for places where plumbing
installations is expensive and drains are Fig. 4.5. Bottle type cooler.

available.

) Pressure type cooler. Refer Bubbler

to Fig. 4.6. Here water is
Bupplied under pressure. For
filling glass tumblers or
containers faucets or similar EWater tank
means are provided. A valve
Cooling
coil or Pipe coil
is employed to control an (Evaporator (Counter-
tube) flow heat
appropriate flow of water or
exchanger)
projected stream of water from
a bubbler. An arrangement
should be made to collect
water and allow complete
collection of water spreading
from the bubbler. The
Drainage
temperature of waste water is line
low,itisused for cooling the
supply water by passing
through a pipe coil wrapped
roundthe drainage line. By
Drainage
doingso, the cooling load for Fig. 4.6. Pressure type water cooler.
cooler is reduced. Since the
water is supplied under press-
of the cooler. In
urethe cold water can be obtained from the top mounted at any height
caseofbottle type, faucet has to be at a height upto which syphoned water can be obtained
fromthe tank of the cooler. The refrigeration system is usually mounted at the bottom
 FRIGERAT) AND AIR-CONDITIGNING 169

a
filled in the storage tank and level of the water is kept same by the use of a float valve.
water is
Here flows a low iquid
he storage tank 1s surrounded by an evaporator coil through which When thepressure water attains
refrigerant which takes away the heat of water and thus makes it cold. the motor. The
asired temperature the thermostat operates and disconnects the power supply to
ntor sed is capacitor-start capacitor run single-phase induction motor
4.11. REFRIGERANTS

4.11.1. Introduction

A refrigerant is defined as any substance that absorbs heat through

expansion or
va
porisation and loses it through condensation in a refrigeration system.
to such secondary cooling
The term refrigerant' in the broadest sense is also applied
include only those working
mediums as cold water or brine, solutions. Usually refrigerants
conden.sation
mediums which pass through the cycle ofevaporation, recovery, compression,
at louw temperature level
and
and liquefaction. These substances absorb heat at one place
and pressure. The rejection
reject the same at some other place having higher temperature cold mediums
heat takes at the cost of some mechanical work. Thus circulating
place
of refrigerants.
and cooling mediums (such as ice and solid carbondioxide) are not primary
Ammonia (NH2), Carbondioxide (CO,),
In the early days only four refrigerants, Air,
and thermodynamic properties
Sulphur Dioxide (S0,), possessing chemical, physical
service in the practical design of refrigeration
permitting their efficient application and
from liquid state to vapour state during
equipment were used. All the refrigerants change
the process.
non-toxic and non-flammable substances.
Refrigerants have to be physiologically
characterised by their respective normal boiling
Thermodynamically, they are essentially lower than the evaporator
refrigerant should be little
points. The normal boiling point ofa both in the cordenser and the evaporator,
temperature. This will ensure positive pressure desirable so
Positive pressure in the system is
and as such in whole refrigeration system. shaft
acroSs compressor
the system through gap
that atmospheric air may not enter into
seal.
in terms of:
of a particular refrigerant depends
upon the application
The choice
small, small, medium or large);
(i) The refrigerating capacity (very or screw);
used (generally reciprocating or centrifugal
(ii)The type of compressor cold storage or food
required (whether for air-conditioning,
iii) Therefrigeration temperature
freezing).
4.11.2. Classification of Refrigerants
follows:
Therefrigerants are classified
as

1. Primary refrigerants;
2. Secondary refrigerants. which directly take
those working mediums or heat carriers
are
Primary refrigerants heat e.g.,
system and cool the substance by the absorption of latent
part in the refrigeration Ethyl
dioxide, Methyl chloride, Methylene chloride,
Ammonia, Carbondioxide, Sulphur
chloride and Freon group etc. substances which are first cooled
with the
refrigerants are those circulating
Secondary e.g, ice,
and are then employed for cooling purposes,
help of the primary refrigerants of their sensible heat.
carbondioxideetc. These refrigerants cool substances by absorption
170 UTILISATION OF ELBCTRICAL
w
4.11.3. Desirable Properties of an Ideal Refrigerant
An ideal refrigerant should possess the following properties
A.Thermodynamie properties :
() Low boiling point
) Low frezing point
i ) Positive pressure (but nor very high) in evaporator and condenser
v) High saturation temperature
(w) High latent heat of vapourisation.
B. Chemical properties8
G) Non-toxicity
() Non-flammable and non-explosive
(ii) Non-corrosiveness
iv) Chemical stability in reacting
() No effeet on the quality of stored (food and other) products like flowers, with other mate
rials, i.e., furs and fabrics.
(vi) Non-irritating and odourles8.
C. Physical properties
)Low specific volume of vapour
() Low specific heat
(i) High thermal conductivity
(iv) Low viscosity
() High electrical insulation.
D. Other properties:
()Ease of leakage location
(i) Availability and low cost
ii) Ease of handling
(iv) High C.o.P.
(v) Low power consumption per tonne of refrigeration
(vi) Low pressure ratio and pressure difference.

4.12. REFRIGERATION COMPONENTS AND CONTROLS

In vapour compression
a system the following are
the major refrigeration components
1. Compressors
2. Condensers
3. Evaporators
Refrigeration controls are the devices used to control the flow of refrigerant at varou
points throughout the refrigeration cycle. The following are the six basic types of refrigerant fou
controls:
(i) Hand expansion valve
(ii) Automatic expansion valve
(ii) Thermostatic expansion valve
(iv) Capillary tube
(u) Low-side float
(vi) High-side float.