STEEL AND IT'S ALLOYS Weightage of Marks = 14, Teaching Hours = 10 2.1 Concept of phase, pure metal, alloy and solid solutions. 2.2 Iron carbon equilibrium diagram various phases ()) Critical temperature and significance. (i) Reactions on iron carbon equilibrium diagram. 2.3 Broad classification of steels ()) Plain carbon steels : Definition, types and properties, compositions and applications of low, medium and high carbon steels. Alloy steels: Definition and effects of alloying elements on properties of alloy steels. (ii) Total steels : Cold work tool steels, hot work tool steels, high speed steels (HSS). (iv) Stainless steels : Types and applications. () Spring steels : Composition and applications. (vl) Specifications of steels and their equivalents. 2.4 Steels for following : Shaft, axels, nuts, bolts, levers, crank shatts, camshafts, shear blades, agricultural equipments, house hold utesnils, machine tool beds, car bodies, antiri and gears, ere Alter learning this chapter, students will be able to Interpret the given equilibrium diagram, Use the iron ~ corbon equilibrium diagram for the given application. Identity the given phase diagrams and reactions with justification. Identify the given fields of steels on iron carbon diagram with justification. 2 Select relevant steel for the given application with justification. 2.0 INTRODUCTION ‘+ Equilibrium diagrams are ‘the graphical representation of changes in state due to variations in temperature and concentration’. They indicate the phases existing in the system at any temperature and composition. = 2 2 2 ‘+ Definition : Phase is a form of material with identifiable composition (chemistry), definable structure and distinctive boundaries (interfaces) which separate it from other phases. ‘These diagrams are also known as ‘phase diagrams’ or ‘constitution diagrams’ = Phase diagram: (1) Phase diagram is drawn between temperature and composition (2) It defines an alloy system between two metals or two elements. {@) It gives relative amounts of phases in an alloy at a particular temperature, (4) It gives changes in the structure of an alloy with temperature, 21)Mechanical Engineering Materials 22 Steel and it's Alloys In: means slow cooling or slow heating. + Itis drawn at equilibrium condition. Equilibrium condi it inary and (ii) temary depending on the number of * Equilibrium diagrams are of three types (i) unary Gi components, * For plotting equilibrium diagrams, temperature is taken as ordinate (Y-axis) and weight per cent of second element (ie. solute) is taken as abscissa (X-axis). * Equilibrium diagrams indicate the following: 1, Temperature at which the solid alloy will start melting and finish melting. 2. Possible phase changes which will occur as the result of altering the composition or temperature Significance : 1. Theconcentration of solid solution in equilibrium in liquid phase is dete Solidification start temperature and end temperature can be determined, ed Solidification temperature, structure and composition of the material can be determined. Eutectoid point can be determined for the given solid solution. Transformation of different phases in solid state can be analyzed. 2.1 CONCEPT OF PHASE, PURE METAL, ALLOY AND SOLID SOLUTIONS 11. Phase: Phase is defined as ‘a homogeneous, physically distinct and mechanically separable part of the system under study. Phase has following characteristics: + Same structure throughout. = Roughly same composition and properties. = Ithas definite interface. 2. Pure metal : it is defined as ‘the element or substance that is available in its purest form ie. without containing impurity’. OR Pure metal or metals are elements to form metallic bonds and conduct electricity. For example, aluminium, copper, gold, silver. 3. Alloy : Alloy is a mixture of two or more elements having metallic properties, The element which is present in the largest proportion is called "base metal’ and the other are called a ‘alloying elements. For example, brass is an alloy of copper and zine, gun metal isan allay of copper, tin and zinc. 4. Solid solution : It isa solid state solution of one or more solutes in a solvent. It is defined as ‘an alloy in which the atoms of solute are distributed in the solvent and has the same structure as that of the solvent” 5. Solid solubility: Solid solubility is a mixing of two solids into a single phase, It occurs when the components have similarities in crystal structure and atomic diameter. |.1_ Types of Solid Solutions| * Solid solutions have different compositions with similar structures and are like liquid solutions such as sugar in water. Solid solutions are soft, ductile and malleable and therefore they can be easily cold rolled, pressed or worked. Solid solutions are of two types: 1, Substitutional solid solution 2. Interstitial solid solution. 1. Substitutional Solid Solution : ‘+ In this case, a part of the atoms at the points of the solvent crystal lattice (say 'A’) has been replaced by solute atoms (say''B') as shown in Fig, 2.2.Mechanleal Engineering Materials: 23 ‘Stoel and It's Alloys, ‘+ Depending upon the distribution of '8' atoms in A, substitutional solid solutions are classified into two types: (2) Regular or ordered, and (b) Random or disordered (a) Regular or ordered substitutional solid solution: ‘+ If the substitution of atoms‘ in atoms 'A’ is evenly distributed or by a definite order as shown in Fig. 2.1 (2), then itis called regular or ordered substitutional solid solution. Eg.Au-Cu (b) Random or disordered substitutional solid solution, ‘+ If the substitution of atoms 'B' in atoms'A" is random or not by a definite order as shown in Fig. 2.1 (), then it is called random or disordered substitutional solid solution, Eg.e-brass (b) Random Substitutional solid solution 2. Interstitial Solid Solution : ‘Interstitial solid solutions are formed only when the atoms of the solute element are very small compared with those of the solvent, thus enabling them ta fit into the interstices or spaces in the crystal lattice of the solvent: eg.Fe-C Interstitial solid solution .2 Solid Solubility| 1. Solid solution is formed when metals dissolve in each others crystal lattice. 2. Solid solution alloys depend upon solid solubility which Is irreversible mixing of two solids into a single phase. It occurs when the components have similarities in crystal structure and atomic diameter: 3. Examples : Ni-Cu alloy (monel), Cu-Zn (brass), Fe-C (Steel) 2.2 SOLIDIFICATION OF PURE METAL AND ALLOYS ‘+ Crystallisation or solidification is the process of transformation of a metal from liquid to solid state, in which the crystal lattice is formed and finally crystal appear. Crystallisation occurs in two stages. () Nuclei formation (i) Crystal growthMechanical Engineering Materials. 24 Stee! and I's Alloys. (Nuclei formation ‘+The atoms in liquid state are not steady. But when liquid is cooted to a sufficient level the atom movement decreases. Cluster of ators bonds together and nucleus is formed. Gi) Crystal growth: ‘+ When temperature of liquid is further dropped, many nuclei are formed at various points. These are centres of, crystallisation, Crystal develops by addition of atoms in 3-dimensions. Dendrite structure grows from each nucleus and grain boundaries are formed. ‘= Large grain size is generally associated with low strength, low hardness and low ductility. Solidification of Pure Metal: ' & 10076 Haid Solis crystals t Ne Liguia Temp, 7 e Trcititesin|- 8 100% solid crystals guia Liquid + Solid sou Oo, im > Note: Pure motal solidity at constant temperature. Fig. 2.3: Cooling curve of a pure metal ‘= Pure metals melt and solidify at the single temperature which may be termed as the freezing point or solidification point as shown in Fig. 23. The time versus temperature plot under normal conditions indicates that the liquid metal cools from A to 8. This is the liquid! shrinkage phase. Here the heat is liberated in the form of supetheat. ‘© Pure metal solidifies at constant temperature as shown in Fig. 2.4. i.e. solidification starts at point B and ends at point C. From C to D the solid metal cools and tends to reach room temperature. Solidification of Alloys: 100% solid crystals Time Note: An alloy solidifies over the range of temperature, Fig, 2.4: Cooling curve of an alloy ‘+ Alloys solidifies over the range of temperature (Ta ~ To) as shown in Fig. 2.4 .e. solidification starts at point 8 and ends at point ¢. From € to D the solid metal cools and tends to reach room temperature.Mechanical Engineering Materials. 28 Stee! and I's Alloys 2.3 COOLING CURVES EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAMS FOR ISOMORPHOUS, EUTECTIC, EUTECTOID SYSTEMS ‘+The equilibrium diagrams in wide use are binary diagrams. Binary phase diagrams are constructed when only two elements are present in the alloy. + Binary alloy systems are classified as follows: 1, Components completely soluble in liquid state, (0) Completely soluble in the solid state ~ Isomorphous system. (b) Insoluble in the solid state — Eutectic system (Type D. (@)_ Partially soluble in the solid state ~ Eutectic system (Type 1). (8). Peritectie system 2. Transformation in solid state (2) Eutectoid reaction (b)_ Peritectoid reaction These all are explained below: 1. Components Completely Soluble in Liquid State (@) Cooling curve equilibrium diagram for isomorphous system: ‘+ In isomorphous system, the two components are completely soluble in both the liquid and solid state + Examples of an isomorphous binary alloy system are Cu - Ni, Au- Ag, Au~Cu, Au Ni 2.5 : Cooling curve for isomorphous system Mot one point of Mating point of A 0%B 20 40 60 80 100%8 100%A — Weight percents —> O%A Fig. 2.6: Equilibrium phase diagram for isomorphous systemMechanical Engineering Materials 26 Stoo! and I's Alloy: +The area above the liquid curve isa single phase region and corresponds to the region of stability of the liquid phase, The alloy n this region consists of a homogeneous liquid solution, +The area below the solidus curve is also single phase region and represents the region of stability ofthe solid phase, The allay in this region consists of a homogeneous solid solution (a). +The region in between the liquidus and solidus represents a two phase region where liquid and solid phases covenist. The alloy in this region consists of both liquid solution and solid solution. {b) Cooling curve equilibrium diagram for eutectic system (Type I): is system is considered as a simple eutectic, in which the metals are completely soluble in the liqui and is entirely insoluble in the solid state. The phase diagram is developed from a series of cooling curves. state + The examples ofthis system are Bi ~ Cd, Pb ~ As, AU~Si. A binary Bi ~ Cd phase diagram is shown in Fig, 2.7. Uiquia(D 2 g x i z : 8 lo320 00} 2 2 ite ome im ie 4 : | | ' & 200+ . Ty ' ' G | cee | Lexan 5” r € t F i 1001 Bi + Eutectic ' Cd + Eutectic n fs i ae i d | i i | onca 20 a oa a 100% Bl Weight per cant cadmlum ——> 0% Bi Hypoeutectic Hypereutectiec Fig. 2.7: Eutectic phase diagram - Type I (Bi-Cd) * Inthe diagram, C and G are melting paint temperatures of Bi and Cd respectively. On adding Cd to Bi or Bi to Cd the melting point is lowered. CE and GE are liquidus curves. They intersect at eutectic point '€. The composition melts at lowest temperature than any other composition. At eutectic temperature, the solidification ends. Ths is shown by solidus line DF. The alloys to left of eutectic composition are hypoeutectic alloys and to the right are hypereutectic alloys (6) Cooling curve equilibrium diagram for eutectic system (Type If): + In this system, the mutual solubilities of two metals are limited in the solid state. Alloys of a a solid solution or mixtures of solid solution. system solidify + The solid solution of B in A is « and solid solution of A in B is B. The examples of this system are Ag - Cu, Pb —Sn, Al~Si. ‘+ In the Pb - Sn phase diagram, the melting points of pure metals Pb and Sn are indicated by C and G. Eis the eutectic point. CEG is the liquidus line and CDEFG is the solidus line. The maximum solubilities of Pb in Sn and Sn in Pb are indicated by D and F respectively. The solubility depends on temperature and decreases with the lowering of ternperature. This is represented by curves DH and FK. These curves are called soluvus linesserch 17 tte Te { quia) | { wf aa g Mp g i t a + eutectic 1 100} { ‘ ' ! k 2Sn 20 0 60 & 100% Sn sn o Weight per cent Sn —e 0% Pb Hyposutecte Hyperautectc (d) Paritectic system: Fig. 2.8: Eutectic phase diagram ~ Type Il (Pb ~ Sn) + This alloy system is less common, Two phases are liquid and one solid which are already present interact at a fixed temperature to produce an entirely new phase. This is peritectic reaction. For example, silver ~ platinum system, 2. Transformation in Solid State (a) Eutectoid reaction : + In eutectoid reaction, one solid decomposes into two different solids at constant temperature during cooling, Itis expressed as Solid 1 eg. Fe-C,Cu-$n, 2n—Al, Al—Mn etc. Temperature —> Cooling / Heating Weight per cont 8—» Solid 2 + Sold 3 008 oA Fig. 2.9: Hypotectical phase diagram for eutectoid and peritectoid reaction «The alloy exists as single phase a solid solution until eutectoid point & At eutectoid temperature, eutectoid reaction occurs and forms two solid phases B and y. a oy Heating Eutectold miture + Alloys to the left are hypoeutectoid alloys and to the right are hypereutectoid alloys.Mechanical Engineering Materials 28 Stee! and I's Alloys (b) Peritectoid reaction: Cooling Heating Solid 1 + Solid 2 Solid 3 For example, Cu~ Sn, Ni-Ho etc. Table 2.1 : Types of reaction in binary phase diagram Name of reaction Equation Eutectle L = asp Pertectic | atl=—* p Eutectold a = Bey Pantectis | a+p—— y 2.4 IRON CARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM : VARIOUS PHASES ‘Iron carbon equilibrium diagram provides basis for understanding the properties and heat treatment of steel The part of iron - carbon phase diagram plotted for concentration upto 6.67% C is of commercial importance. This part between pure iron and iron carbide (Fe,C) is called as iron - iron carbide diagram, Lig (L) Eutectic Fee Ledaburite ma + Pearle b— stoats: Cast rons ——+ Fig. 2.10: The iron-carbide phase diagramMechanleal Engineering Materials 20 Steel and it's Alloys: + Itis divided into two parts: The alloys containing solid phases with less than 2% carbon are known as steels and those with greater than 2% carbon are known as cast irons. ‘+ This is not a true equilibrium diagram because iron carbide is not a true equilibrium phase. Under proper condition iron carbide decomposes to form more stable carbon graphite. But the decomposition is almost never observed in ordinary steel. So iron carbide is considered stable and therefore treated as equilibrive phase. 2.4.1 Solid Phases Present in C Diagram] + atFerrite : This is solid solution (interstital) of carbon in a-iron (Associated Crystal Structure is Body Centered Cubic Structure ie. BCC). The solubility of C in a-iron at 0°C is 0.008% and it increases with temperature, reaching a maximum of 0.02% at 723°C. It is soft and ductile phase. ‘+ Austenite (7) : This is solid solution (interstitial) of carbon in y-iron (Associated Crystal Structure is FCC ie. Face Centered Cubie Structure). The solid solubility of carban in austenite is maximum of 2.08% at 1147°C and minimum of 723°C at 0.8%. It is soft, ductile and malleable phase. + &-Ferrite : This is solid solution of carbon in 8-iron (BCC). The maximum solid solubility of carbon is 0.1 % at 1492°C. ‘+ Cementite (Fex¢) : This is a compound having fixed carbon content of 667 % C. It is extremely hard and brittle. Associated crystal structure is orthorhombic. + Pearlite : It is an intimate mixture of ferrite and cementite. It has a distinct lancellar structure and consists of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite. The name pearlite is specially given, because of lustrous mother-of- pearl appearance in the microscope. Pearlte contains 88.5% ferrite and 11.5% cementite. It is obtained from austenite when the later is cooled slowly; below 727°C + Ledeburite + As pearlte, itis also 2 micro-constituent consisting of a misture of two phases, austenite and cementite. Its obtained when the liquid alloy containing 4.3% carbon is cooled below 148°C. Below 727°C, austenite of Ledeburite changes to pearlite giving it a characteristic appearance under microscope. + Martensite : Water quenching of a steel containing sufficient carbon produces an extremely hard, strong and britle structure called martensite. It is a supersaturated solution of carbon in a-iron formed by rapid cooling of austenite. It possesses a shining needle lke structure. is very hard and brite. The transformation of austenite to martensite is difusionless and there is no change in chemical composition. ‘austenite to martensite transformation never completes, and unstable austenite present at room temperature is called as retained austenite, Martensite structure is obtained by very fast cooling rate (rapid quenching 350°C/sec). Every steel above critical range is having a constituent known as austerite. Ifa steel is cooled slowly to below lower critical temperature, it changes back to pearlite and ferrite or pearlite, or pearlite and cementite, epending upon its carbon content. If such a heated steel is cooled rapidly by immersing in @ cooling medium (known as quenching medium) like water, oll, brine etc, then austenite does not get sufficient time to change back into its softer constituents like pearlt, ferrite etc. Itis then changed into a new constituent known as martensite. Martensite is a supersaturated solid solution of carbon in aciron. It is supersaturated in the sense that itis retaining almost the same percentage (ie. more percentage than its capacity as e-iron) of carbon in a-iron at room temperature which it had in y-iron and above critical range. Martensite is not ordinarily at elevated temperature and starts changing back to softer constituents. Associated crystal structure is BCT ie. Body Centered Tetragonal Structure. + Bainite : Bainite is a fine pearlite and contain very fine distribution of ferrite and cementite phase. The bainite formed just below the nose of TTT curve is called upper bainite and has feathery appearance.Mechanical Engineering Materials 210 Stool and it's Alloys 2.4.2 Important Phase Transformation| ‘The following three important phase transformation accur in Fe ~ FeiC phase diagrarn. (2) Peritectic transformation: Liquid, Sterita 492°C austenite (0.83% C) * (0.1%C) ~Cooing ” (0.18 %C) Weight % Carbon —s Fig. 2.11 : Peritectic region of Fe ~ FexC diagram (2) Eutectoid transformation 7290 aera, Comente Cooling * (0.02%) * (6.87 %C) —— Pease Steels having 0.8% C are known as eutectoid steels. Less than 0.8% C are hypoeutectoid and phases present are ferrite and pearlte, Steels having greater than 0.8% C are hypereutectoid steels, phases present are pearlite and cementite (3) Eutectic transformation: Liquid —-_147°C_| austenite, Fac 43%) “Cooling ~~ (2%C)* 6.67% 0) eee Ledeburite Cast iron that has 4.3% C is eutectic cast iron, less than 4.3% is hypoeutectic and greater than 4.3% is hypereutectic, 2.4.3 Critical Temperatures and Significance ‘© These are defined as ‘the temperatures at which a phase change occurs during heating or cooling’. + Various critical temperatures are given as follows: 1) Ro: Cememtte changes from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic at temperature of 210°C. 2) Ax: During heating, at this temperature, peatlte transforms to auestenite. This transformation occurs at a constant temperature of 727°C called as ‘eutectoid temperature. It has importance in various annealing processes. itis called as lower critical temperature line’ 3) Ay: At 768°C (Curie temperature) ferromagnetic ferrite becomes paramagnetic.Mechanical Engineering Materials: 211 Stoo! and I's Alloys 4) 5) As : This line, in hypoeutectoid steels shows the completion of ferrite to austenite transformation during heating, The line declines from temperature axis with increasing carbon content. It starts at 910°C with 0% carbon and comes to 727°C with 0.8% carbon. Hereafter Ay line goes parallel to X-axis, at 727°C, till 2% carbon. For various heat treatments, the hypoeutectoid steel should be heated above this line. Aye: At this line, in hypereutectoid steels the cementite to austenite transformation is completed during heating, This line shows increasing slope from 727°C to 148°C. It starts at 727°C with 0.8% carbon and ends at 148°C with 2% carbon. This line represents upper critical temperature for hyper cutectoid steel 2.5 BROAD CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS Introduction : 0 Steel is an alloy of iron and iron carbide in which the maximum percentage of carbon is 15%. The difference between cast iron and steel is the percentage of carbon present. The percentage of carbon in steel is intermediate between that of the cast iron and that of wrought iron. It is not only the quantity of carbon which makes the difference, but also the form in which itis present. In steel, carbon is present completely in the combined form. Higher the percentage of this carbon, harder and tougher is the steel. Carbon content cannat be increased in the metal in chemically combined form beyond 1.5 %. If this proportion is increased beyond this limit, it moves the metal into the category of cast iron, Thus, steel can be said to be an alloy of iron and carbon with the carbon content to a maximum of 15 % ‘These steels are called plain carbon steels, because they owe their properties mainly to the percentage of carbon present in them, The steels are classified by various methods and each method is based on a definite criteria. The various criterions for the classification are as follows Amount of carbon. (i) Amount of alloying elements and carbon. (ii) Amount of de-oxidation, (iv) Grain coarsening characteristics. (¥) Method of manufacture. (i) Depth of hardening, (vii) Form and use. 0 (On the basis of carbon: (A) Low carbon steels (8) Medium carbon steels (©) High carbon stee! Gi) On the basis of amount of alloying elements and carbon: (A) Low alloy steels (8) High alloy steels i) On the basis of deoxidation : (A) Rimmed stee! (8) Killed steel (©) Semi-tilled ste!Mechanleal Engineering Materials 292 ‘Steel and it's Alloys. {iv) On the basis of grain coarsening characteristics : (A) Coarse grained stee! (8) Fine grained steel (¥) On the basis of method of manufacture : (A) Basic open hearth, (B) Electric furnace (C) Basic oxygen process (©) Acid open hearth (©) Acid bessema (vi) On the depth of hardenin: (A) Non-hardenable steels (8) Shallow hardening steels (C) Deep hardening steels, (vii) On the bas (A) Boiler steels {B) Corrosion and heat resistant steels (C) Deep hardening steels, (©) Deep chawing steels (©) Electrical steels (F) Free cutting steels (G) Structural steels (H) Machinery steels of form and use : Tool steels W) Spacing steels In General, Steels Low Alloy High Alloy Low Medhum High Carbon Carbon Carbon Plain High Strength, Plain Low Alloy Plain Tool Stainless 1 Plain Garbon Steel| ‘© Plain carbon steels are classified into three groups based on the carbon content. (A) Low Carbon Steels oF Mild Steels (0,008 - 0.30 % C) (B) Medium Carbon Steels (0.30 ~ 0.60 % C) (C) High Carbon Steels (060 - 200% ¢)Mechanical Engineering Materials: 213 ‘Stoel and it's Alloys. (A) Low Carbon Stee! = + Steels with 0.01 % to 0.3 % carbon are mild steels. Steels with 0.15 - 0.30% carbon are widely used as structural steels. When amount of carbon varies from 0.05% - 0.15% then it is known as Dead Mild Steel. Properties : + This steel is soft, ductile and malleable. + Good forming properties. + Itean be easily forged and welded. ‘+ Mild steel can be magnetized permanently. ‘© Itcannot be easily hardened and tempered. + Ithas bright fibrous structure. ‘+ tis tougher and more elastic than wrought iron ‘+ Its melting point is 140°C. + Ultimate compressive strength varies from 8 ton/cm to 12 tor/cm?. + Tensile strength is better than cast iron and wrought iron, while compressive strength is better than ‘wrought iron but less than cast iron. ‘+ They are good for cold working purposes such as rolling into thin sheets required for galvanizing, tinning or press work. Applications. + Steel having carbon percentage less than 0.1% is used for wires and oil pans, steel having carbon from 0.1% to 0.15% is used for boiler plate and seamless boiler tubes. ‘+ Steet having carbon from 0.15% to 0.25% is used for crank axle, steel having carbon from 0.25% to 0.3% is used for gears, valves, railway axle and connecting rods. (8) Medium Carbon Steel : ‘+The amount of carbon varies from 0:30% to 0.70% Properties: ‘+ These have intermediate properties to those of low carbon and high carbon steel ‘+ They are medium hard, not so ductile and malleable. ‘+ They are medium tough, slightly difficult to machine, weld and harden. ‘+ They are stronger than mild steel, ‘+ Ithas greater tensile strength and more hardness than mild steel. ‘+ This is easily workable and can be easily rolled and forged. + They are also called as machinery steels. © Steel having carbon from 0.35 to 0.45% is used for rails, springs, brake levers, steel having carbon from 0.45 to 0.55% is used for rifle barrels, gun parts and gear wheels. ‘+ Medium carbon steel is used for forging like turbine, bucket, pinions, shaft coupling, nut and bolt etc. (©) High Carbon Steel = ‘+ This is the steel in which carbon percentage varies from 0.70% to 15%. These steels can be heat treated to improve the properties.Mechanical Properties : ‘+ They are hard, wear resistant, brittle, dificult to machine. ‘+ High carbon steel can be easily hardened and tempered. + This can be magnetized permanently. neering Materials + Ithas granular structure. + High carbon steel cannot readily forged and welded. + Ithas less impact resistance. + They are also called as tool steels. Applications : ‘+ Itis used for wood working tools, metal cutting tools, punches, dies, small drils, reamers etc, ‘© High carbon steel having carbon composition from 0,55% te 0.65% is used for die block, gears and wheel tyres, ‘© Steel having 0.65% to 0.75% earbon is used for hammers, crusher rollers, general tool and thrust washers, 0.75% to 0.85% carbon steel is used for chisels and clutch disks, 0.85% to 1% carbon steel is used for drills, taps, springs, keys, leaf and cail spring, 1.0% to 1.6% carbon steel is used for razor, tools, dies and knives. ‘Table 2.2 : Applications of plain carbon steel! 244 Stool and It's Alloys, Sr.No.| Types of steel | _% of carbon Applications 1,_| Dead mild stee! | Less than 0.15% | Welded and solid drawn tubes, thin sheets and wire rods 2, | Mild steel 0.15% | Forgings, stampings, structural sections such as angles and a channels, plates for boilers and ships, bars and rods, wires, tubes and castings. 0.3% 3. | Medium 030% | Drop forgings, boiler drums, marine shafts and axles, rotors and carbon steel a discs, agricultural tools and implements, aero engine cylinders, high tensile tubes and wire, bright drawn bars, castings for 08% automobile engine components, laminated springs for automobiles, helical springs, locomotive tyres, wire ropes, steel spokes hich; latex oops Sing Hes! hocriwersanel snaps ft: pneumatic riveters etc. 4. | High carbon ore Spring, shear blades, chisels, cold sets, hammers, small forging steel dies, boiler maker's tools. 09% | Cold chisels, cold working dies, punches and dies. 1.0% Springs, broaches, drifts, eamers. 11% Press dies, punches, milling cutters, anvils, taps, wood working tools. 12% Taps, dill screwing dies. 13% [Files, razors, metal cutting tools for lathe, planer and slotter, mandrels and drawing dies 14-15% | Lathe tools for machining harder metals, gauges, engraving tools.Mechanical Engineering Materials 245 Stool and It's Alloys, 2.5.2 Alloy Steels| + Steel is considered to be alloy steel when the maximum range given for the content of alloying elements exceeds one or more of the following limits : Mn 1,65 % |Cu 0,60 % | Si 0.60% + Alloy steels may be defined as ‘steels to which elements other than carbon are added in sufficient amount to get improvement in properties’. Commenly added elements are Al, B, Cr upto 3.99%, Co, Mo, Ni, Ti, W, V, Mn, Cu. Each of these elements confers certain qualities upon the steels to which its. added. + Alloying elements alter the properties of steel and put it into a slightly different class fram ardinary carbon steel, + Alloying elements are added to accomplish on (To impact fine grain size to steel. (il) To strengthen the ferrite. (li) To improve case hardening properties. (iv) To improve elasticity. |v) To improve corrosion and fatigue resistance. (vi). To harden, toughness and tensile strength. (vil) To improve machinability and weldability. (vili) To improve high or low temperature stability. a To impart better wear resistance. To improve cutting ability. meEy] Advantages and Disadvantages of Alloy Stee! ‘Advantages : (0) tthas greater hardenabilty (itt has less distortion and cracking. (i) Greater stress release at given hardness. (iv) Less grain growth, (W) Higher elastic (ui). Greater strength at high temperature also (ui) Better machinability at high hardness more of the following : and endurance strength. ( Costis comparatively high (i) requires special handling, (iy ts tendency is towards austerite retention. (ivy tempers brittleness for certain grades. Effects of Alloying Elements on Properties of Steels 1. Carbon : Carbon content in steel affects © Hardness. Tensile strength + Machinabiliy + Melting poiMechanical Engineering Materials. 2.16 ‘Steel and it's Alloys, a 10. nL Nickel : ‘+ Itincreases toughness and resistance to impact ‘+ Lessens distortion in quenching. * Lowers critical temperature of steel and widens the range of heat treatment. (Chromium : ‘+ _Itjoins with carbon to form chromium carbide. ‘+ Itadds to depth hardenabilty. ‘+ IRimproves resistance to abrasion and wear. Silicon. ‘+ Rimproves oxidation resistance. ‘+ Restrengthens low alloy steels. + Racts as deoxidizer. ‘Thesadiaa3 ‘*_ Rtprevents localized depletion of chromium in stainless steel during long heating. ‘© Itprevents formation of austenite in high chromium steel + Breduces martensitic hardness. Molybdenum : ‘+ promotes hardenabilty of steel. ‘+ enhances corrosion resistance in stainless steel. ‘+ Itforms abrasion resistance particles. + Itmakes steel fine grained. Vanadium : ‘+ Itpromotes fine grains in steel. ‘+ Itgives strength and toughness to heat treated steel. ‘+ increases hardenability. ‘+ Risa wery good carbide former. ‘+ Mtstabilizes cementite and improves the structure of chil, Tungsten : ‘+ Rincreases hardness. ‘+ improves heat resistance. ‘+ It promotes strength at elevated temperature. Manganese; ‘+ Mincreases strength and hardness. + Mowers ductility and weldabilty. Copper: ‘© increases resistance to atmospheric corrosion, ‘© Macts asa strengthening agent. Aluminium + Macts asa deoxidizer. ‘+ Itproduces fine austenite grain siz.Mechanical Engineering Materials. 27 Steel and t's Alloys 12. Cobalt : ‘* Itimproves much properties. ‘© Itrefines the graphite and pearlite. ‘+ Itimproves heat resistance. ‘= Ttretends transformation of austenite. 13, Phosphorus : ‘= Addition of phosphorous in large amount increases brittleness and cold shortness of steel ‘= Phosphorous also increases machinability of steel 2.5.3 Tool Steels| BwNe When carbon steel does not provide sufficient tool life alloy steels are used, They are of two types 2) Lowalloy steels retaining high hardness upto 250°C. (2) Medium and high alloy steels which can retain high hardness upto 600°C. They acquire high cutting properties only after suitable heat treatment. The well known example is high speed tool steel. Normally, a large amount of heat is produced due to friction between the tool and the work piece. Only high speed tool steel can withstand this heat without losing hardness. Tungsten provides toughness, wear resistance and cutting ability. Chromium serves to increase the hardenabilty. Vanadium is for grain refinement. Cobalt is added to impart additional red hardness. Tool steels are used specially for working, shaping and cutting of metals. Large number of steels are available for this purpose. They are classified as below Cool work tool steels, Hot work tool steels, High speed tool steels, Special purpose tool steels. The above names indicate some of special properties of these steels. itis desired that all the tool steels should be hard, tough and wear resistant. The exact requirement will depend upon the service conditions required. The tool steels should be machinable and grindable. Also during heat treatment, the tendency for decarburization, oxidation and grain growth should be minimum. Tool and die steels are defined as ‘special steels which have been developed to form, cut or otherwise change the shape of a material into a finished or semnifinished product’ Properties of Tool Steels : 1 Naw eawn Slight change of form during hardening. Little risk of cracking during hardening. Good toughness. Good wear resistance. Very good machinability. Resistance to softening on heating. Resistance to decarburization.Mechanical Engineering Materials 2.18 Stoo! and I's Alloys 2.5.3 (a) Cold Work Tool Steels These steels are used for cold working of metals ‘+ They have good loudness and wear resistance at low temperatures, ‘+ Some steels from this group, cantain very little or no alloying elements and hence are less expensive, + Based on their hardening characteristics, they are classified into sub-groups such as water hardening steels (W-series), oil hardening steel (O-series), air hardening steel (A - series) and high carbon high chromium (0- series), ‘+ These steels are particularly used for master tools, gauges and dies which must not change size after heat treatment. 5.3 (b) Hot Work Tool Steels| + They have good strength, toughness, hardness and wear resistance at elevated temperature, ‘+ They have excellent resistance to tempering softening at elevated temperature. + They are of low to high alloy content with relatively less carbon (0.35 to 0.65%). ‘+ They are classified into three types depending upon the principal alloying element, ‘+ These are chromium type, tungsten type and molybdenum type hot work tool steels. ‘+ Hot work tool steels are designated by H-series. + These steels are mainly used for hot working of metals such as stamping, drawing, forming, piercing, extruding, upsetting and swaging. ‘+ Chromium type steel contain 3 to 7% Cr with small amount of one or more of the elements such as W, Mo and V and carbon content between 0.35 to 0.55%, © They have high ductility, toughness and resistance to splitting. © They are used for aluminum and magnesium die casting dies, extrusion dies, forging dies, mandrels and hot sheers. ‘© Tungsten type steel contain 9 to 18% W and 2to 12% Cr. With carbon content between 0.3 to 0.5%. © They have excellent red hardness and resistance to wear at elevated temperature. © They are used for dummy blocks, hot extrusion dies for brass, nickel and steel, forging dies and hot punches. ‘+ Molybdenum tool steel contains 14 to 20% alloying elements such as Mo, Cr, V and W and slightly higher carbon (0.55 to 0.65%) as compared to other two types. 0. These are intermediate in properties and used where compromise in resistance to high temperature and toughness is required. (e) High Speed Tool Stee! ‘+ These steels maintain high hardness upto a temperature of about 550°C. So these steels can be used for cutting metals of high speeds. They have high wear resistance and cutting ability. ‘+ High speed steel constitute the most important class of too! steels. + High speed steels are divided into two types, depending upon principal alloying element. 1. Tungsten High Speed Steels : These steels contain high amount of W with other elements such as Cr, Vand Co. They are designated by T-series. ‘+ Tungsten is added upto 18% along with vanedium and chromi im in high speed steelMechanical Engineering Materials 2. Stee! and it's Alloys ‘= Asthe name suggests, these steels are used for high speed cutting at such a high speeds that the tool tip becomes red hot. This is based on tungsten addition to steel in proper amounts, because this ‘element gives red hardness to stee! Le. the capability of maintaining high hardness and a keen cutting ‘edge even upto the red hot temperature of 600°C. ‘+ Red hardness isthe ability of the high speed steels to maintain thelr high hardness of Rc67 even at the red hot temperature of 550°C to 600°C. During high speed cutting, the tool tip becomes red hot, but ‘even then the too! continues to be hard and goes on cutting. This is due to red hardness. ‘+ Red hardness is obtained due to the fine precipitation of complex alloy carbides of tungsten during the tempering of martensite in high speed steels. So tungsten is very important constituent of high speed steels. 2. Molybdenum Steels : A part of tungsten from group of W-high speed steels is substituted by molybdenum and so these steels contain W, Cr, V and Co in addition to Mo. This reduces cost. Though molybdenum tool steels are cheaper, they are difficult to heat treatment. These steels are known as M- ‘= High speed steel is heat resistance steel having properties like high hardness, good wear resistance and high compression strength. ‘= The tools operating at high speed are made of high speed steel. Such steels are very hard at high temperature ‘= These are resistant to wear, distortion and deformation. To provide red hardness elements like Co, W, V and chromium are added in the steel, The micro structure of high speed steel contains a network of, ‘martensitic crystals surrounded by carbide. ‘Types of High Speed Stee! Following are the different types of high speed steels. 1. 18: 4:11 High Speed Steel : This steel on an average, contains 18% tungsten, 4% chromium and 19% vanadium. It is considered to be one of the best of all purpose tool steel. It is widely used for drills, lathe, planer and shaper tools, milling cutters, reamers, broaches, threading dies, punches ete. While an increase of vanadium to 0.2% produces 18 : 4 : 2 steels. Cobalt is often added to 18: 4:1 and 18:4: 2 steel as it improves the red hardness and cutting ability from 5 to 10% is used. Applications of 18-4-1 Tool Steel : () For manufacturing shaping cutters. (i) For manufacturing hobs (used for gear cutting). Gil) For manufacturing broaches (pull broaches as well as push broaches). (iv) For manufacturing used and throw inserts of CNC lathes and VMCs. 2. Cobalt High Speed Steel : This stee! is also called as super high speed steel. Cobalt is added from 2 to 15 % in order to increase the cutting efficiency especially at high temperatures. This steel, on an average, contains 20% tungsten, 4% chromium, 2% vanadium and 12% cobalt. Since the cost of this steel is more, therefore, it is principally used for heavy cutting operations which impose high pressure temperature on the tool 3. Vanadium High Speed Steel : This steel contains more than 1% vanadium and 0.7% carbon. High vanadium with carbon high speed steel is superior to 18 : 4 :1 type because it can cut the materials which are difficult to machine. It has the excellent abrasive resistance. Vanadium improves strength, toughness and hardness. This type of steel is used in manufacturing of springs, chasis etc, 4, Molybdenum High Speed Steel : This steel, on an average, contains 6% tungsten, 6% molybdenum, 44% chromium and 2% vanadium. It has excellent toughness and cutting ability. The molybdenum high speed steels are better and cheaper than other types of steels. It is particularly used for driling and tapping operations.Mechanical Engineering Materials. 220 Stoel and I's Alloys Properties of High Speed Steel : Retain hardness and cutting ability at temperature as high as 540°C. Excellent red hardness. Good wear resistance. Good shock resistance. Fair machinabilty. Good non-deforming property. Poor resistance to decarburization. Effect of Alloying Elements on H.S.S.: 1 a 6 7 a 9, All the elements: added in proper proportions produce desired effect on the HSS. Carbon produces carbides and a hardness matrix. Metting point of steel is decreased with increase in carbon content. ‘A low carbon content increase the impact strength, but reduces matrix hardness. Chromium reduces tendency to scaling. It is mainly present in the feritic matrix and is largely responsible forthe air hardening of HSS. Vanadium increases the abrasion resistance. It also increases cutting quality of the tools and also the tendency to air hardening. Tungsten produces hot hardness by forming carbides and form stability. ‘Molybdenum increases hardenabilty Cobalt improves hot hardness and makes the cutting tools more wear resistant. Cobalt improves the red hardness and cutting ability at high temperature. Vanadium improves strength, toughness and hardness. Tungsten promotes fine grain. Tungsten promotes strength at elevated temperature. [2.5.3 (d) High Carbon High Chromium Steels (HCHC)| These steels are one of the types of cold work tool steels of D-series. These have high hardenability and so can be hardened by oil or air quenching. Their distortion during hardening is less. They contain carbon above 1.5% (some contain carbon above 2%) with chromium about 12% and other elements such as W, Mo and V in small amount. They have high dimensional stability. They have more hardness and wear resistance properties. They have sufficient hardness upto about S00°C due to the presence af alloy carbides, They are deficient to machines. They are used for drawing dies, blanking dies, forming dies, coining di sheer blades, punches, cold farming rolls, cutting tools, gauges etc. , thread rolling dies, bushings,Mechanical Engineering Materials 221 Stoel and it's Alloys [2.5.3 (e) Oil Hardening Non-shrinking Steel (OHNS) These steels contain small amount of alloying elements such as W, Mn, Cr, Mo and V. Their hardenability is better than the water hardening tool steel. They can be hardened by oil quenching. Distortion during hardening is less. A cheapest oll hardening non-shrinkage steel (OHNS) contains 0.9 % C and 1.6 % Mon, A better steel contains 1.0 % C, 0.95 % Mn, 0.5 % W, 0.75 % Crand 0.2% V. They are not so expensive as ather tool steels. They are used for blanking and forming dies, shear, blades, master tools, cutting tools and gauges. They are used for stamping dies, punches, thread cutting tools, milling cutters, reamers, measuring tools, wood working toals, broachers and chasers. 2.5.4 Stainless Steels| 3 ‘As the name suggests, it is STAIN’ less. They are highly resistant to corrosion and oxidation in environment and media The carrosion resistance of stainless is derived from the presence of hydrous oxide film on the surface of alloy. This oxide film is very thin and stable. It is continuous and impervious to further attack. The film is passive and stops further reaction between the metal surface and the surrounding medium. The most important constituent of this film is chromium oxide Cr:0s, which is obtained from the presence of chromium in the alloy. So, chromium is the most important element of iron-base stainless steels, Other elements (such as nickel, molybdenum, manganese etc. are added to enhance the properties and improve the corrosion resistance. Chromium : It gives passivity to ferrous alloys by formation of oxide film, when present more than 12 %.If oxide film is damaged, itis immediately repaired or reformed in oxidizing media. Corrosion resistance of stainless steels increase with increase in the chromium content beyond minimum required quantity for passivity. Nickel : Addition of nickel ta iron-chromium alloys improves ductility and impact strength by stabilizing austenite phase. Corrosion resistance of stainless steels increase with increase in the nickel content against neutral chloride solutions and weakly oxidizing acids, Upto 20 % nickel may be added to stainless steels. Molybdenum : Addition of molybdenum to stainless steels improves their resistance to different acids like sulphuric acid and organic acid. It also increase resistance to corrosion and to halogen salts. It also gives resistance to pitting in sea water. ‘Manganese : About 1 to 2 % manganese is added to all stainless steels. Manganese gives good results for hot workability, without reducing resistance to corrosion. Nitrogen : It is present from 0.03 to 0.2 %. This increases inter-granular corrosion resistance, Carbon is present upto 0.2 %. In addition to this, small amounts of titanium, niobium or columbium may be added to stabilize carbon in austentic stainless steels Stainless steels contain chromium together with other elements such as nickel. Stainless stee! have the following properties : Wide range of strength and hardness. High ductility and formabilty High corrasion resistance. Good creep resistance, Good thermal resistance. Good thermal conductivity, High resistance to scaling and oxidation at elevated temperature.Mechanical Engineering Materials 222 Steel and I's Alloys 8 Easy weldabilty 9. Good machinabilty. 10. High cold and hot workability 111, Excellent surface appearance and finish. 2.5.4 (a) Classification of Stainless Steel| Stainless Steel : © When 11.5% or mare chromium is added to iron, chromium oxide film forms on surfaces exposed to air, which acts as a barrier to oxidation. Such steels are Stainless stee! ‘Types of Stainless Steel : L 3 ‘Austenitic Stainless Steel = ‘+ They possess austenitic structure at room temperature. ‘+ They have greatest strength and scale resistance at high temperarture. + They are non-magnetic. ‘+ They have the following composition C +003 10 0.25%, Cr= 16 to 26%, Si = 1to 2%, Mn = 2 to 10%, Ni = 3.5 to 22%, P, S. + They are used in aircraft engine parts, heat exchangers in chemical industry, tanks of food processing, cooking utensils, milk cans of dairy industry, railway carts of transportation. Ferritic Stainless Steel : + They possess ferritic structure at raom temperature. «They are more corrosion resistant than martensitic © They are magnetic. ‘+ They have the following composition : C= 0.08 to 0.2%, Cr= 11 to 27%, Sin i%, Mn = 1 to 15%. * Due to low carbon to chromium ratio, it prevents hardening by heat treatment. ‘+ They are used in lining for petrol industry, heating elements or furmaces, screws and fittings, oil burner parts. Martensitic Stainless Steel : ‘+ Martensitic stainless steel is suitable material for surgical instruments. Martensitic stainless steel has high harciness, high wear resistance and corrosion resistance, which are the properties required for surgical instruments. '* The composition of this steel is C = 0.15 to 1.2%, Cr = 12 ta 18%, § = 1% and Mn = 1%. '* In this, Cr in solid solution form is less than 13%. This steel shows austenite at high temperature and can be hardened by hardening process to form martensite in it.Mechanleal Engineering Materials 223 ‘Steel and it's Alloys. ‘+ Atroom temperature the structure shows needle of martesnite along with chromium carbide particles. + They possess martensitic structure at room temperature. ‘+ They have the best thermal conductivity ofall stainless steel types. © They are magnetic Due to high carbon to chromium ratio, hardening by heat treatment can be done. + They have the following composition: ¢ = 015t012%, Cr = 11510 18%, S=1% Mn = 1%. ‘© They are used in pumps and valve parts, turbine buckets, surgical instruments, rules and tapes. .5.5 Spring Steels| + Thisis one of the types af alloy steel Different types of Spring Steels are given below: (i) Carbon-Manganese Spring Steels : €- 045 to 065% Si- 01 0.035% Mn -0,5 to 10%, ‘+ These steels are quenched and tempered to give a brineel hardness of about 350, ‘+ They are widely used for laminated springs for railways and general purposes. (i) Hyper Eutectoid Spring Steels : €-09t012% Si- 0.30% maximum Mn - 0.45 to 0.70% ‘+ These steels are oil quenched and tempered at a low temperature, ‘+ They are used for volute helical springs. icon-manganese Spring Steels : €-033 t0 06% Si- 15 to. 2% Mn -0.6 to 10% ‘+ These steels are hardened and tempered to gj ‘+ They are used for the manufacturing of railways and road springs generally. erties of Spring Steel It should have (High impact strength, hardness and toughness. (ii) High yield strength Higher fatigue and creep strength. a brinell hardness of about 450. (iv) High modulus of elasticity. ” (vi) Higher load per unit deflection ie. resilience. ligh tensile strength.Mechanical Engineering Materials 224 Stoo! and i's Alloys, 2.5.6 Specifications of Steels and Cast Irons| Steels are specified on the basis of certain criteria like method of manufacture, chemical composition, heat treatment, mechanical properties, quality etc. There are different ways of specification for every country. ‘Most of the specifications are based on chemical composition because chemical composition gives idea for probable heat treatment that can be given and the resulting mechanical properties. Designers and customers have to specify their requirements according to these specifications. Knowledge of these specifications help in selecting a proper type of steel from the available steels in the market which wil satisfy particularly service requirement. BEER) sureau of indian Standard (Indian Standard Designation System : Indian standard code of designation of steel was adopted by the Indian Standards Institution (IS!) in 1961. This standard was revised in two parts in 1974, © 1" part covers the designation of steel based on letter symbols. 0 2" part covers the designation of steel based on numerals. For code designation, steels have been classified on the basis of mechanical properties and chemical composition, Code designation an the basis of mechanical properties is based on the tensile or yield strength. ‘Symbol Fe is used to designate minimum tensile strength and ‘FeE' to designate minimum yield strength in N/m’, ‘Symbol 'St' is used when tensile strength is in kg/mm? and 'St€! for yield/ strength in kg/mm’. Its followed by a special characteristics covering method of deoxidation, steel quality, degree of purity, surface condition, weldabilty, heat treatment and low and high temperature properties. (On the basis of chemical composition, designation of steel consists of a numerical figure indicating 100 times the average of carbon content. Letter ‘Cis used for plain carbon steels and letter T' is used for tool steel. 'C' or T'is followed by a figure indicating 10 times the average per cent of manganese content. Symbols 'S''Se', Te’ Pb! or 'P* are used to indicate free cutting steels followed by a figure indicating 100 times the average per cent content of the respective element. Alloy steels are designated in the symbolic form or on the basis of their alloy content by first specifying the average content of carbon in hundredths of a per cent, followed by the chemical symbols of the significant elements in the descending order of percentage contents. The nominal or average percentage of each alloying element is indicated by an index number just after its chernical symbol. If itis a tool steel, letter T shall also be prefixed before carbon content, When average alloy content is upto 1%, the inclex number is expressed upto 2 decimal places underlined by a bar except for 8, N etc. where they will be indicated by alloy symbol only. Eg. if the Mo content is between 0.5 to 09 its represented by Mo 70. When alloy content is between 1 and 10%, the index number is rounded to the nearest whole number (upto 0.5 is rounded down and 0.5 and above is rounded up). The decimal digit is underlined by a bar, e.. ifthe Mo content varies between 1.20 and 1.60, it may be represented either as Mo 1 or Mo 1.4 When alloy content is over 10%, the index number is rounded to the nearest whole number, e.g. if Mo is between 12 and 18% itis represented by Mo 25, When two or more allaying elements have the same alloy index, their chemical symbols may be grouped together followed by their alloy index es, ifa steel contains Ni between 0.90 and 1.30% and Cr between 1.20 and 1.60% both may be represented as NiCr1.Mechanical Engineering Materials 2.25 Stee! and I's Alloys ‘Table 2.3 : Some typical examples with their compositions are given below 1. | Fe 400K Killed steel with minimum tensile strength of 400 N/mm? 2 | saz Steel with minimum tensile strength of 42 kg/mm? 3. | Fee 270 Steel with minimum yield strength of 270 N/mm? 4. | c30 Steel with average carbon 0.3% 5. | 25¢6 Steel with average cartoon 0.25 and Mn 0.6%. 6. | sora2 Plain carbon tool steel with average 0.8% carbon and 1.2 % manganese. 7. | 15 Ni23 Cr 21Mo | Steel with average composition as below : v Co- 15%, Ni- 1.3%, Cr-2%, and Mo 0.12% 8. | 35 518 Steel with average cartoon 0.35% and $ 0.18%, 9. [35Mn1S19 _| Steel with average carbon 0.35% manganese 1% and surphur 0.19%. 10. | 20 Mn cr2 Steel with average carbon 0.20% manganese 2%, and chromium 2%. aa. | 20Mn2 Steel with average cartoon 0.20% and manganese 2%. 12. | 40¢r4Mo2 __| Alloy steel with average carbon 0.4%, chromiuim 4% and molybdenum 2%. 13. | 95 ¢r5 Mol Steel with average carbon 0.95% chromium 5% and molybdenum 1%. 14, | 35Ni21Cr50 _| Steel with average carbon 0.35%, nickel 1% and chromium 0.5%. 15. | 20 Ni 55 Cr 55 Mo 20 0.20%. 16. | 17Mn1Cr90__| Steel with average carbon 0.17%, manganese 1% and chromium 0.90%. 17. | T 75 W 18 Cr 4 | Tool steel with average carbon 0.75%, W - 18%, Cr = 4%, W- 1%, vi (i) AISY/SAE Designation System : ‘+ American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), London have similar method of designation of steel and is bared on the chemical composition of steel the type This method has designated the steel with four or five numerical digits. The first digit (from left) indicates of steel as follows Carbon Steels Nickel Steels 2 3, Ni-Crsteels. 4, Molybdenum steels. 5, Chromium steels, Si- Mn st Cr-Vsteels. Tungsten steels. Ni-€r- Mo steels (ow) Steel with average carbon 0.20%, nickel 0.559%, chromium 0.55% and molybdenumMechanical Engineering Materials 2.26 Stoo! and I's Alloys + For simple alloys, the second digit indicates the approximate percentage of the predominant alloying element and for others, it indicates modification of the alloy in that alloy group. Last two or three digits divided by 100 usually indicates the average per cent of carbon in the steel, ‘+ 1040 indicates a plain carbon steel with average 0.4% carbon. ‘+ 2440 indicates a nickel steel with approximately 4% nickel and 0.4% carbon, + 9260 indicates a steel with 6% silicon and 0.6% carbon. ‘+ AISI specification also include a letter prefix to. A Basic Open Hearth Alloy Steel + Acid Bessemer Carbon Stee! > Basic Open Hearth cartoon Stee! + Acid Open Hearth Carbon Stee! Electric Furnace Steel, te the manufacturing process of that steel as below: mone SAE system do not use a letter prefix. Table 2.4 : Some important AISI/SAE steel designation group Sr.No. Details of Stee! AISI/SAE Group 1 | Carbon Steet XX (i) Plain carbon 10XX (i) Free Cutting Stee! ‘UX, 12K (ii) Manganese Steel ‘13XX 2 | Nickel Steels 2 xXx (0.50% Ni 20Xx (i) 1.5% Ni 2UxX (ii) 3.5 % 23 XX (iv) 5.0% Ni 25 XX 3. Nickel-Chromium Steels 3 XXX () Various combinations of BLK to 34XK 4, | Molybdenum Steel Axx (@Cr-Mo 41 XX (i) Cr-Ni-Mo- (high) 43xx Gil) Ni - Mo ABXX to 4BXX 5. | Chromium Steels SKXX 6. | Chromium Vanadium Steels 6x. 7. | Tungsten steels TOK 8. Ni-Cr-Mo steels (low) B XXX 9.__| Silicon Steels 92K (ii) British Standard Designation System : This system is known as En series (En stands for emergency no, since the system was developed during ‘emergency period of World War Il). + En numberof steel has no co-relation with the composition of the steelMechanical Engineering Materials 227 Stool and t's Alloys Table 25 En © Mn Ni cr Mo Others No. 1a [oovois |oso20 |- - - $ -020/0.30 P-007 Si-0.10 2 [020 0.80 7 = = Sand P- 6.06 025 1.00) - = - Sand P- 0.06 Si-0.05/0.35 4 [030 1.00 - - - Sand P- 0.06 Si-0.05/035 7 [oio/30 |o7oi30 |- = - $-0.10/0.18 P-0.06 3 [035/045 |osoi0o | - ~ - Sand P- 0.06 Si-0.05/0.35 2 [osoreo |ososo |- - - Sand P- 0.06 Si-0.05/035 24 [oassro4s [045/70 |i30n80 [osnao [0200.35 | Si-0.10/035 31 [oson20 |o3soo7s |- ioo.6o | - S and P- 0.05 Si-0.10035 36a | 015 030/060 [300375 |osonio [- Si-0.10/0.35 42 [o70/08s [ass/o7s | - - - S and P- 0.05 Si-0.10/0.40 (* Two value are inating the range single vale indicates the maximum amount) Table 2.6: Composition and uses of plain carbon steels Is. % Composition Uses Designation c si Mn C04 0,08 max, - 0.4 max. Electrical industry. 07 (0.12 max. = 0.5 max, _ | Automobile body, hoods, frames, panels etc. cu 01-08 = 04-07 | Shafts, cam shafts, worms, spindles etc 25 02-03 - 03-06 | Automobile forgings, bolts, nuts, studs, levers, etc c35mn75 | 03-04 - 06-09 | Railway coupling, driving rings, flanges, hand ‘tools ete. zy 04-05 = 06-09 _ | Machine tool spindles, larger gears, bolts ete cssmn75 | 05-06 - 06-09 | Crankshatts, keys, cams, rifle barrels, mill bas ete ces 06-07 - 05-08 | Laminated springs for railway vehicles, support and foundation springs ete. cas 08-09 - 05-08 | Spring steel for general engineering usage not subjected to severe condition,Mechanical Engineering Materials 228 Stool and it's Alloys Table 2.7 : Composition and uses of alloy steels i ‘4 Composition Designation c 8 Mo Ni cr Mo v Case Hardening Alloy Steals 11Mn 2 ‘O16 max. | 01-035 13-47 Gudgeon pins, rifles, couings and rope socks sores | oxzare | 01-035 | os-os | - | 0508 | - | — | Rotardeaings, measuring lnsturarls le zovncrt [ow-o2] 1-036 | to-14 | - | s0-13] - | - | Medum stn gar whods ated shafts for vehicles ate Ls. % Composition Designation c si Mo NL or Mo v wow | arzoz | o1oss | 06-10 | os-s2 |os-to] - | — | Geartonancianamicsion oro comgorans, cams, carnshatts, pinion ete, ssma | orz-or | or-o3s | os—or | sues [10-24] - | - | Haverty components in on twcoangoas, gaan, ay worms Nitin ters, | 01-02 | or-o38 | o4—o7 | osm | 29-84] o4soes | - | Aran and moto car Mo 85 tegioa ylodes, twee mactines, plastic mokis tc, crs 035045 | 01=0.35 | O4—07 | O3max | 30-35 | 09=14 | 015 | Heavy duty aicrat and Motv20 = | motor car cankshats, 1025 | compressor dics, gears, ica eamponats 4s, %Comportion Designation c Si Ma NL Cr Mo Low Medium Alloy Steels ssi 15-20 | os-10 | - - - Laminates srogs ww so 35Mn2 03-04 | 01-035 13-18 = t 035-055, Crankshafts, axle shafts, ols, sus, lovers Mods 035-045 | 01-035 06-09 - 09-12 La ‘Agricultural machine parts, doce gear, canacing rod, crank sats S5N1Cr60 | 035-045 | 01-035 06-09 | 10-15 | 0450.75 - ‘Motor car whael-studs, ear sats, etches, cam shat et.Mechanical Engineering Materials. 229 Steel and it's Alloys, Ls. % Composition Designation | ¢ 8 Wn Ni C3 Mo Creep Resisting Stole toWoss | 018max. | 01-035 | 04-07 | 03mm | 028max | 045-068 | Steam peingboller ting te sscrg0 | 01-02 | 01-035 | 4-07 | o3max | a7-11 | 045-065 | Boler and super neater plats and ngs toces | orsmax | osmax | o4-07 | 03max | 4-6 | 045-065 | Tubes, pe tings and Moss Plates in chaical nd petroumnindustig Corrotion Rosatant Stele overs | o1amax. | 01-07 | 03-07 | o6max | 12-14 = | Naan tines steel used for ara ets, compass and swam turin bade ee soos | 02s- | 01-07 | 03-07 | toma | 12-14 = | Meushol etary, ane 038 and machine kes, sured ad cena Inserts ee. orers? | of2max. | 01-08 | 03-07 | 05max | 16-18 ~ | Feri anes iol ead ot demon ant eatatngappanes, ie si plant and ecupmt we orcrsoma | os2mu. | 02-10 | 05-20 | 75-95 | 175-195 ~ | Austr stains sas to aera hr wal, ada and mira antannas household spplancas, etignator tayseto us % Composition Designation | ¢ st Mo Ni cr Mo osortomoni | ocemax. | 02-10 | 05-20 | 8-0 | 175- Aker engi exaust 0 195, antl, ale stil, sxc catectr og te in orcrigus | o12max | 02-10 | 05-20 | 840 | 1rsi95] mots—20 | Pans andequementior Mo2 chai, paperalin, tel and ing Indus te. Val Steal wersss | 04-05 | 325-375 | 03-06 | o5max | 75-95 ute vahes no eng, res and car, val sealsMechanical Engineering Materials 2.30 Stoel and It's Alloys 1s. % Compostion Daignation | € si Mo Ni cr ‘Toot Stels ™ ogs-o7s | 01-03 | 02-035 - + Toa or end work such 18 wood wok, enoravig, press toss, punches vss2 | 08-08 18-20 | 08-10 - |- Chis, punchas, shear ina lade oe riser | 09-12 | a1-o35 | 02-08 - Lat corns cold forring ros, poss ols te rsws | 025-04 | 1-035 | 02-04 = | 28-33, | es erecraton, tring, e338 vo2s-o8, | hetheading ote =10 1s, ‘% compotion Designation | 8 Me cr High Speed Sto! sw | 05-08 | or-035 | 02-06 128~33, Naliog and werm cuter, oravas vo3-08, Lanseialaradasi hack saws Wis eee 18. % Compostion Designation | si Ma cr tows | oss-o7s | or-o3s | 02-04 ora 48, High speed and heavy eut owt vt0~18, too, wom a iting as daphne ste wirs-19 =< Moos (Optona taswe | 075-09 | o1-o3s | 02-04, cr375—45, Dl, eamars, beaches, weer VAT5~20 W55—65, omens ey cuts. ava Mo 55—65 As, % Composition Designation | si Me 8 P wostt | 0tsmax 005-03 | 06-09 | 006013 | 006max | Forsmallparts tobe cyanded of carton wsis | 035045 | 025mm 08-12 | o1-122 | o0smax | Bots, hats, axes, connecting reds te aomn2si2 | 035045 | 025max ta-t7 | 008-018 | 006 max | Haat vated gun pas, ruts, bls, eka, cranks te.Mechanical Engineering Materials 231 Stool and It's Alloys, 2.6 SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE STEELS AND CAST IRON FOR ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS Table 2.8 Sr. | Engg. Applications Selection of Appropriate Steels and Cast Iron No. 1 | Shafts Mild steel, medium carbon steel, alloy steel such as nickel, chromium - nickel or vanadium steel, chromium and vanadium, plain carbon free cutting steel, 2 | Axles Malleable cast iron, mild steel, medium carbon steel, plain carbon free cutting steel 3. | Nuts ‘Nickel, stainless steel, mild steel, medium carbon steel, plain carbon free cutting steel 4._| Bolts Feretic stainless steel, stainless steels, mild steel, plain carbon free cutting steels. 5. | Levers Stainless steel, tool steel, chromium steel, high carbon steel. 6.__| Crank shafts Malleable cast iron, mild steel, nitriding steel, alloy cast iron. 7_| Cam shafts Mild steel, case hardning alloy steel, low and medium alloy steel. 8._| Shear blades High carbon steel, tool steel 9. | Agricultural Cast iron, stainless steel, malleable cast iron, nodular cast iron, manganese steel. equipments 10. | Household utensils | Stainless steel, hindalium, corrosion resistant steel. 1, | Car bodies Steel, plastic, fibre glass, carbon, fibre Kevlar, valve steels, 12. | antifiction Babbits, gears. bearings 13._| Machine tool beads | Grey cast iron. Equilibrium diagrams are the graphical representation of changes in state due to variations in temperature and concentration. Phase is defined as ‘a homogeneous, physically distinct and mechanically separable part of the system under study’. Alloy is a mixture of two or more elements having metallic properties. Solid solution is a solid state solution of one or more solutes in a solvents. Ferrite is practically pure iron and contains only 0.006% carbon at room temperature. Austenite is a solid solution of carbon in iron, Cemetite isa interstitial compound of iron containing 6.67% of carbon. Pearliteis an initiate mixture of ferrite and cementite. Ledeburite is a micro-constituent consisting of a mixture of two phases, austenite and cemetitle. Critical temperature is defined as ‘the temperature at which a phase change occurs during heating or ‘Steet is an alloy of iron and iron carbide in which the maximum percentage of carbon is 1.5% The difference between cost iron and steel is the percentage of carbon present. Steet can be said to be an alloy of iron and carbon with the carbon content to a maximum of 1.5 %.