Lecture Notes: How Computer Keyboards Work

Introduction:

 Computer keyboards are input devices that allow users to enter text, commands, and other
characters into a computer system.

 Keyboards use a combination of hardware components and software protocols to convert

physical keystrokes into digital information that can be interpreted by the computer.

 A computer keyboard is an input device that allows users to enter text, commands, and other
characters into a computer system.

 Keyboards are one of the primary input devices used for interacting with computers, enabling
users to input data, navigate interfaces, and execute commands.

 Computer keyboards convert physical keystrokes into digital data that can be interpreted by the
computer.

 Key switches, controller circuit boards, connectivity interfaces, and software protocols work
together to enable efficient input and communication between the keyboard and the computer
system.

 Understanding the operation of keyboards is important for users to effectively interact with
computers and input devices.

 Computer keyboards are essential input devices used for entering text, commands, and other
characters into computer systems.

 They come in different layouts, types,

Keyboard Hardware Components:

1. Key Switches:

 Key switches are the individual mechanisms beneath each key on a keyboard.

 They determine the feel, response, and actuation of each keypress.

 Different types of key switches exist, including mechanical switches, dome switches, and
scissor switches, each with its own characteristics.

2. Controller Circuit Board:

 The controller circuit board is the electronic component responsible for processing the
signals from the key switches.

 It connects to the computer system and translates keypresses into digital data.

 The controller circuit board may include a microcontroller or a dedicated keyboard

controller chip.
 3. Connectivity Interfaces:

 Keyboards can connect to a computer using various interfaces, such as USB (Universal
Serial Bus), PS/2 (Personal System/2), Bluetooth, or wireless radio frequency.

 The connectivity interface allows the keyboard to communicate with the computer and
transmit the keystrokes.

Keyboard Operation:

1. Keypress Detection:

 When a key is pressed, the corresponding key switch is activated.

 Mechanical switches or dome switches register the physical actuation of the key.

 Scissor switches use scissor-like mechanisms to provide stability and register keypresses.

2. Signal Generation:

 When a key is pressed, the activated key switch sends an electrical signal to the
controller circuit board.

 The electrical signal indicates which key has been pressed.

3. Signal Conversion:

 The controller circuit board converts the electrical signal into a digital code.

 Each key on the keyboard is associated with a unique digital code, typically based on an
industry-standard protocol like ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) or Unicode.

4. Data Transmission:

 Once the keypress is converted into a digital code, the keyboard sends the data to the
computer.

 The data is transmitted through the selected connectivity interface, such as USB or
Bluetooth.

5. Operating System Interpretation:

 The operating system receives the digital data from the keyboard.

 It interprets the codes and associates them with specific characters, commands, or
actions based on the current input context.

6. Application Response:

 The input data is then passed to the active application or software.

 The application processes the input and responds accordingly, such as displaying typed
text or executing a command.
Keyboard Software Protocols:

1. Human Interface Device (HID) Protocol:

 The HID protocol is a standard protocol used by most modern keyboards.

 It defines the communication between the keyboard and the computer system, including
the data format, key codes, and control signals.

2. Keyboard Layout Mapping:

 Keyboard layout mapping is the process of associating the physical key locations with the
appropriate characters or commands.

 It depends on the selected keyboard layout (e.g., QWERTY, Dvorak) and the operating
system settings.

Keyboard Layout:

1. QWERTY Layout:

 The QWERTY layout is the most common keyboard layout used in English-speaking
countries and many other parts of the world.

 It is named after the arrangement of keys in the top-left row: Q, W, E, R, T, and Y.

 The QWERTY layout was designed to reduce the likelihood of mechanical typewriter keys
jamming by placing frequently used letters apart from each other.

2. Alternative Layouts:

 There are alternative keyboard layouts designed to optimize typing efficiency and
ergonomic comfort.

 Examples include the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard, Colemak, and Workman layouts.

 These layouts aim to reduce finger movement, increase typing speed, and minimize
strain on the hands and wrists.

Key Types:

1. Alphanumeric Keys:

 Alphanumeric keys include letters (A-Z) and numbers (0-9).

 These keys are used for typing text, numbers, and alphanumeric characters.

2. Function Keys:

 Function keys (F1-F12) are located at the top of the keyboard and perform various
predefined functions depending on the context.

 They are often used for accessing help, adjusting settings, or executing specific
commands in software applications.
 3. Modifier Keys:

 Modifier keys alter the function of other keys when pressed in combination with them.

 Common modifier keys include Shift, Control (Ctrl), Alt, and the Windows or Command
key.

 They enable users to perform actions such as capitalizing letters, invoking shortcuts, or
entering special characters.

4. Navigation and Editing Keys:

 Navigation keys include arrows (up, down, left, right), Home, End, Page Up, and Page
Down keys.

 They allow users to move the cursor within documents, web pages, and other interfaces.

 Editing keys include Backspace, Delete, Insert, and Enter/Return, which facilitate text
editing and input operations.

5. Special Purpose Keys:

 Special purpose keys vary depending on the keyboard design and intended use.

 Examples include multimedia keys (volume control, play/pause, etc.), Windows key,
context menu key, and power/sleep keys.

Keyboard Technologies:

1. Mechanical Keyboards:

 Mechanical keyboards use individual mechanical switches beneath each key.

 They provide tactile feedback and audible click sounds, making typing more satisfying
and precise.

 Mechanical keyboards are favored by enthusiasts and professionals for their durability,
customization options, and responsive feel.

2. Membrane Keyboards:

 Membrane keyboards use a flexible membrane with embedded circuits beneath the
keys.

 When a key is pressed, it contacts the circuit, registering the keystroke.

 Membrane keyboards are often found in standard desktop and laptop keyboards due to
their cost-effectiveness.

3. Wireless and Ergonomic Keyboards:

  Wireless keyboards use wireless communication (Bluetooth or radio frequency) to connect with
the computer, providing freedom of movement.

 Ergonomic keyboards are designed to provide better hand and wrist posture, reducing the risk of
repetitive strain injuries (RSIs) and promoting comfort during extended typing sessions.

How Computer Keyboards Work

1. Inside the Keyboard
A keyboard is a lot like a miniature computer. It has its own processor and circuitry that carries
information to and from that processor. A large part of this circuitry makes up the key matrix.

The key matrix is a grid of circuits underneath the

keys. In all keyboards (except for capacitive models,
which we'll discuss in the next section), each circuit is
broken at a point below each key. When you press a
key, it presses a switch, completing the circuit and
allowing a tiny amount of current to flow through. The
mechanical action of the switch causes some
vibration, called bounce, which the processor filters
out. If you press and hold a key, the processor
recognizes it as the equivalent of pressing a key
repeatedly.

When the processor finds a circuit that is closed, it

compares the location of that circuit on the key matrix to the character map in its read-only memory
(ROM). A character map is basically a comparison chart or lookup table. It tells the processor the position
of each key in the matrix and what each keystroke or combination of keystrokes represents. For example,
the character map lets the processor know that pressing the a key by itself corresponds to a small letter
"a," but the Shift and a keys pressed together correspond to a capital "A."

A computer can also use separate character maps, overriding the one
found in the keyboard. This can be useful if a person is typing in a language that
uses letters that don't have English equivalents on a keyboard with English
letters. People can also set their computers to interpret their keystrokes as
though they were typing on a Dvorak keyboard even though their actual keys are
arranged in a QWERTY layout. In addition, operating systems and
applications have keyboard accessibility settings that let people change
their keyboard's behavior to adapt to disabilities.

2. Keyboard Switches

Keyboards use a variety of switch technologies. Basically, there are two types oof switches: capacitive an
mechanical switches.

(i) Capacitive switches:

Capacitive switches are considered to be non-mechanical because they do not physically complete a
circuit like most other keyboard technologies. Instead, current constantly flows through all parts of the
key matrix. Each key is spring-loaded and has a tiny plate attached to the bottom of it. When you press a
key, it moves this plate closer to the plate below it. As the two plates move closer together, the amount
of current flowing through the matrix changes. The processor detects the change and interprets it as a
key press for that location. Capacitive switch keyboards are expensive, but they have a longer life than
any other keyboard. Also, they do not have problems with bounce since the two surfaces never come
into actual contact.

(ii) Mechanical switches:

In mechanical switches, each provides a different level of audible and tactile response -- the sounds and
sensations that typing creates. Mechanical key switches include: Rubber dome, Membrane, Metal
contact and Foam element

Rubber dome switches

Rubber dome switches are very common. They use small, flexible rubber domes, each with a
hard carbon center. When you press a key, a plunger on the bottom of the key pushes down
against the dome, and the carbon center presses against a hard, flat surface beneath the key
matrix. As long as the key is held, the carbon center completes the circuit. When the key is
released, the rubber dome springs back to its original shape, forcing the key back up to its at-rest
position. Rubber dome switch keyboards are inexpensive, have pretty good tactile response and
are fairly resistant to spills and corrosion
because of the rubber layer covering the
key matrix.

Rather than having a switch for each

key, membrane keyboards use a
continuous membrane that stretches from
one end to another. A pattern printed in
the membrane completes the circuit when
you press a key. Some membrane
keyboards use a flat surface printed with representations of each key rather than keycaps.
Membrane keyboards don't have good tactile response, and without additional mechanical
components they don't make the clicking sound that some people like to hear when they're
typing. However, they're generally inexpensive to make.

Metal contact

Metal contact switches simply have a spring-loaded key with a strip of metal on the bottom of
the plunger. When the key is pressed, the metal strip connects the two parts of the circuit.

Foam Element
The foam element switch is basically the same design but with a small piece of spongy foam
between the bottom of the plunger and the metal strip, providing a better tactile response.

Metal and foam element keyboards

are increasingly less common. Both
technologies have good tactile
response, make satisfyingly audible
"clicks," and are inexpensive to
produce. The problem is that the
contacts tend to wear out or corrode
faster than on keyboards that use
other technologies. Also, there is no
barrier that prevents dust or liquids
from coming in direct contact with the
circuitry of the key matrix.

Different manufacturers have used

these standard technologies, and a
few others, to create a wide range of non-traditional keyboards. We'll take a look at some of
these non-traditional keyboards in the next section.

Non-Traditional Keyboards
The SafeType keyboard places the two halves of the
keyboard perpendicular to the desk surface.

A lot of modifications to the traditional keyboard

design are an attempt to make them safer or easier to
use. For example, some people have associated increased keyboard use with repetitive stress
injuries like carpal tunnel syndrome, although scientific studies have produced conflicting
results. Ergonomic keyboard designs are intended to keep a person's hands in a more natural position
while typing in an attempt to prevent injuries. While these keyboards can certainly keep people from
holding their hands in a "praying mantis" position, studies disagree on whether they actually prevent
injury.

The simplest ergonomic keyboards look like traditional keyboards that have been divided down the
middle, keeping a person's hands farther apart and aligning the wrists with the forearms. More complex
designs place the two halves of the keyboard at varying angles to one another and to the surface on
which the keyboard rests. Some go even further, placing the two halves of the keyboard on the armrests
of chairs or making them completely perpendicular to the desk surface. Others, like the Datahand, don't
look much like keyboards at all.

Saitek Truview backlit keyboard buttons

Some modifications, while not necessarily ergonomic, are designed to make keyboards more portable,
more versatile or just cooler. Examples:

 Das Keyboard is a completely black keyboard with weighted keys that require more pressure
from a person's strongest fingers and less pressure from the weaker ones.

 The Virtual Laser Keyboard projects a representation of a keyboard onto a flat surface. When
used successfully, a person's fingers pass through the beam of infrared light above the projected
surface, and a sensor interprets it as a keystroke.

 The True-touch Roll-Up Keyboard is flexible and can be rolled up to fit in a backpack or bag. Blue
backlit keyboard 'on' Blue backlit keyboard 'off'

 Illuminated keyboards, like the Ion illuminated keyboard, use light-emitting-diode or

electroluminescent film to send light through the keys or the spaces between keys. Photo
courtesy www.artlebedev.com Optimus keyboard programmable hot keys

 The Optimus keyboard has organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) in the keys. Users can change
what letter, command or action each key represents, and the OLED can change to display the
new information.
 This Optimus keyboard is set for keystrokes used to play Quake.

With the exception of the Virtual Laser Keyboard, which has its own sensing system, each of these
keyboards uses the same type of technology as traditional models do to communicate with the
computer. We'll look at that technology next.

From the Keyboard to the Computer

A PS/2 type keyboard connector.

As you type, the processor in the keyboard analyzes the key matrix and determines what characters to
send to the computer. It maintains these characters in its memory buffer and then sends the data.

Many keyboards connect to the computer through a cable with a PS/2 or Universal Serial Bus connector.
Laptops use internal connectors. Regardless of which type of connector is used, the cable must carry
power to the keyboard, and it must carry signals from the keyboard back to the computer.

Wireless keyboards, on the other hand, connect to the computer through infrared (IR), radio
frequency (RF) or Bluetooth connections. IR and RF connections are similar to what you'd find in a
remote control. Regardless of which sort of signal they use, wireless keyboards require a receiver, either
built in or plugged in to the USB port, to communicate with the computer. Since they don't have a
physical connection to the computer, wireless keyboards have an AC power connection or use battery for
power.

Microsoft wireless keyboardThis Microsoft wireless keyboard is battery-powered.

Whether it's through a cable or wireless, the signal from the keyboard is monitored by the
computer's keyboard controller. This is an integrated circuit (IC) that processes all of the data that
comes from the keyboard and forwards it to the operating system. When the operating system (OS) is
notified that there is data from the keyboard, it checks to see if the keyboard data is a system level
command. A good example of this is Ctrl-Alt-Delete on a Windows computer, which reboots the system.
Then, the OS passes the keyboard data on to the current application.

The application determines whether the keyboard data is a command, like Alt-f, which opens the File
menu in a Windows application. If the data is not a command, the application accepts it as content,
which can be anything from typing a document to entering a URL to performing a calculation. If the
current application does not accept keyboard data, it simply ignores the information. This whole process,
from pressing the key to entering content into an application, happens almost instantaneously.