Chapter 4. ACCELERATION SENSORS (ACCELEROMETERS) *® CHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.1. Measuring principles SUR wis « Accelerometers measuring the rate of acceleration or deceleration. = Common type: mass-type, q roller-type, and solid-state accelerometers. is « Application: stability systems, roll over mitigation, hill hold control, electronic steering, and navigational systems. = Specific functions other than forward acceleration and deceleration forces > direction change and rotation.CHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.1. Measuring principles Application ec + For knock control in gasoline ee Soe neck contra 7 : Passenger protection * For triggering restraint systems —_ pirag, seatbelt pretensioner 35 to 100g (e.g. airbag and seat-belt Fs eeteaioners) ~ Side impact, front sensing 100 to 400.¢ Pp — Roll-over detection 3to7g + For detecting the accelerations of “Esp, Hlc, ABs 08t018% the vehicle for the antilock brake system (ABS) or the electronic Chassis and suspension control stability program (ESP). meee 1g typ iain 0 » — Axle/damper 10 to 20¢ + For the evaluation of body Ss | acceleration for use by the chassis and suspension control systems Measuring range of acceleration sensors ‘The measured variable: Sete Acceleration a, often stated as a multiple of the acceleration due to gravity g (1 g = 9.81 m/s2) @ CHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.1. Measuring principles * Most forms of accelerometer consist of a mass suspended by a spring and damper inside a housing. + Rigidly fastened to the body undergoing acceleration + Acceleration sensors measure the force F executed on an inert mass m by an acceleration a: F=M.a=M.i “Aeceleromete case _- Displacement SSS r)CHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.1. Measuring principles + Constant acceleration (steady state) F=ma=c.x ort = 5 m > System's measurement sensitivity S x _ om S=-=— Sensitivity can be Ce expected to be How to increase S? reduced by factor 1/4 « Variable acceleration (az ¥) police acaba _ F=ma=cx+ px+mxX c 1 Resonance Frequency: W = Po = D0.S%=1 m CHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.1. Measuring principles * The sensitivity of the accelerometer (x/a) is proportional to (m/c) + Sensitivity can be expected to be reduced by factor 1/4 when the resonant frequency is doubled. + The condition to obtain optimal freq. response and avoid deterioration of the accelerometer when resonance occurs is given: > 2vV ‘ r p 2 2vk.m Sensitivity [ Resonance Xa, frequency sal Sanat i / [es %em'? t p= cm? FroquoncicsCHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.1. Measuring principles Accelerometer Measurement Applications Range Accelerometers measure acceleration ‘evels (as the name implies are a number of different applications that use accelerometers. For I've summarized all the different applications into three main types: - Motion. Motion is defined as "slow" changes in position or velocity. Some examples include human motion, orientation tracking, waves, and sustained accelerations like rocket takeoffs. - Vibration Vibration is defined as oscillating motion about a position of equilibrium. Some examples include an electric motor, turbine or bearing monitoring, health monitoring, and resonance detection. - Shock Shock is defined as a sudden change in acceleration that generally excites a structure's resonance. A few examples include drop testing, automotive crash testing, and dampeners/shock absorbers testing. @ CHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.1. Measuring principles Accelerometer Measurement Applications Range Depending on acceleration levels and frequency ranges; - Static and low-frequency acceleration: + Ranges: Frequency: from 0 :o 80 Hz, + Amplitude: from 0 to approx. 10 g. + High precision is usually required -Vibration: Vibration frequencies range from 7 Hz to 10 kHz, with amplitudes up to 100g. - Shocks: ‘Sensors for measuring mechanical shocks should have a frequency range from 500 Hz to 100 kHz and a full-scale range up to 100,000 g.CHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.1, Measui ig principles Measuring Principle Based Types and Range co ciple cand ick-off Piezoresistive Stress measurement via the change Silicon volume microme- Laboratory applica~ in resistance as a result of elongation chanics, thin-layer systems tions. previously also caused by acceleration on the spring- crash sensors mass system Piezoelectric Charge shifts in the crystal as a result of Ceramic material, PZT, Knock sensors, pre- the force applied (spring-mass system) quartz, PVDF viously also crash Capacitive Excursion of the spring-mass system is Silicon volume microme- Used throughout the determined through capacitance mea- chanics, surface microme- motor vehicle surement of a plate capacitor chanics CHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.1. Measuring principles ‘There are three main sensing technologies or types - Capacitive MEMS, - Piezoresistive - Piezoelectric a TT TT TT ors er aE E E en eT) peered PCr rere) Barthguake, Waves, Bridges ey eres ey eae Sry x x x pene ed Cnr Frere grt cron x eee cra eral Testing, Shock Rbsorber x x cee Poetry Pe x x @CHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.1. Measuring principles Accelerometer characteristics: Acorrectly designed, installed, and calibrated accelerometer should have one clearly resonant (natural) frequency anda flat frequency response. + Frequency response: is the outputs signal over a range of frequencies where the sensor should be operating. (5%, ete) which the sensor will detect motion and report a true output. + Sensitivity: sensitivity is a measure of the minimum detectable signal or the change in output electrical signal per change in input mechanical change. This is is specified as 1 mV or V/g , where g= 9.80665 m/s2 + Resonant frequency: + Undamped sensor: clearly defined peak that can be 3-4 dB higher than the response at the reference frequency. + Critically damped device: the resonant may not be clearly vieible; therefore, the phase shift is measured. + Linearity: is specified over the dynamic range of the input signals CHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.1. Measuring principles Accelerometer characteristics: + Bandwidth (Hz): the bandwidth of a sensor indicates the range of vibration frequencies to which the accelerometer responds. + Voltage noise density (\g/SQRT Hz): voltage noise changes with the inverse square root of the bandwidth. The faster that we read accelerometer changes, the worse accuracy we get. * Zero-g voltage: this term specifies the range of voltages that can be expected at the output under Og of acceleration. * Dynamic range (g): this is the range between the smallest detectable amplitude that the accelerometer can measure to the largest amplitude before distorting or clipping the output signal.CHAPTER 4. ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.2. Piezoelectric accelerometer Quartz Piezoelectric sensor is used for the a measurement of pressure, acceleration and — dynamic-forces such as oscillation, impact. or high-peed compression or tension. Electrical Piezoelectric sensors are only used in the source motor vehicle in acceleration and yaw rate sensors. ‘The net charge q on the surface is proportional Compressed Quartz to the amount x by which the charges have been underthe application of displaced. The displacement is proportionto ternal force/pressure force. Therefore we can write, Principle of working of qzuke=SF Piezoelectric sensor where k is constant, and S is a constant termed the charge sensitivity CHAPTER 4. ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.2. Piezoelectric accelerometer Advantages: + Extremely wide dynamic range, low output noise - suitable for shock measurement as well as for almost imperceptible vibration + Excellent linearity over their dynamic range + Wide frequency range + Compact yet highly sensitive + No moving parts - no wear + Self-generating - no external power required + Great variety of models available for nearly any purpose + Acceleration signal can be intecrated to provide velocity and displacementCHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.2. Piezoelectric accelerometer Designs: Compression system « A piezoelectric element fastened hy a screw between a piece of weight and the base. + Measurement of large shock is possible beca of its advanced mechanical strength. * The resonant frequency is high for its sensitivity. + Used not only for general applications but also for measurements of the high-speed rotational machinery. » Materials for piezoelectric components: monocrystals, such as quartz, and ceramics. a Weight | Preoretechic elements Lessee Compression Type CHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.2. Piezoelectric accelerometer Designs: Bending system + Get the signal from the piezoelectric elements glued on a metal plate which is bent being applied an acceleration. + Small size, light weight, high sensitivity + Used for monitor earthquakes or small vibration of the testing models of dam, power station or small equipment. Piezoelectric Weight elements Base Bending TypeCHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.2. Piezoelectric accelerometer Designs: Piezoelectric elements Shear system — + Each piezoelectric element has shear that is proportional to applied acceleration between the poles. Weight = Suitable for measurements of high LS frequency or high acceleration vibrations = Tough against the temperature change Tiga, and disturbance caused by the strain in mounting section Shear Type + Covering small and light to high sensitivity CHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.2. Piezoelectric accelerometer Bender system (““KB” types) - Longitudinal effect Under the action of a force F, piezoelectric materials generate a charge Q on their surfaces to which electrodes are attached This charge (Longitudinal effect) is proportional to the mechanical stress generated by the force F Q=Fxd i | F is the applied force and d is the | ™x-/-7 a N WN picsoclectric coofficient of the ah \\\ material, Q is generated charge. sae Materials for piezoelectric | (_ ea components: monocrystals, such as Pe quartz, and ceramics. Accelerometer using longitudinal Piezoelectric effectCHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.2. Piezoelectric accelerometer The charge (transverse effect) generated in this configuration i ___ is yiven by. O=Pxdx® 4 F is the applied force and d is the piezoelectric coefficient of the material, Q is generated charge, b/a ratio of the dimensions (>1) are. The transverse effect produces a—7— any te) = ) longitudinal effect. | C+» \/ greater charge CHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.3. Piezoresistive accelerometer * Aseismic mass is placed on an elastic return blade equipped with two or four piezoresistive gauges in a Wheatstone Bridge. + The blade flexion is translated into gauged 2 deformation conversion of the acceleration into an electric quantity [esos + Displacement-measuring instrument used in = accelerometers. ——— + Measuring slowly varying accelerations and low-frequency vibrations in the rarge of 080g = Strain gauges and piezoresistive sensors are also used in accelerometers for measuring accelerations up to 200g.CHAPTER 4, ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.3. Piezoresistive accelerometer + The accelerometer fitted on body whose acceleration measured. + Vibration, displacement of the mass occurs > cantilever beam to be strained. * The strain gauges mounted on the cantilever beam > strained resistance chanted. + Measure of the change in resistance of the strain gauge = measure of the extent to which the cantilever beam is strained. + Resulting strain of the cantilever beam is proportional to the vibration/acceleration > a measure of the change in resistance of the strain gauges becomes a measure of vibratior/acceleration. + The leads of the strain gauges are connected to a wheat stone bridge whose output is calibrated in terms of vibration /acceleration. RR | causes [ack CHAPTER 4. ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.3. Piezoresistive accelerometer * A practical accelerometer using strain gauge At zero acceleration: each gauge experiences a tensile strain e0 and has a resistance RO(1 + Ge). ze L___| are At acceleration (a): the resultant t displacement (x) of the seismic mass (m) Fo x=0 relative to the casing i x=tasta 4 gages are connected into a deflection bridge circuit. kis the effective stiffness of the strain gauges Gage 1, 3: (L)=(L + x); Gage 2, 4: (L) = (L- x). The tensile strain in gages 1,3 increases to (e0 +e), in gages 2, 4 decreases to (e0-e): = Measuring range limitation: amax _ & so wL 2CHAPTER 4. ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.4, Capacitive accelerometer ‘Capacitor + PZT actuators can be modeled electrically as a capacitor. The principle equation that describes a capacitor in terms of geometry and material properties is::C = €.4/p where C is capacitance (F), A is the cross-sectional area of the capacitor (m®), T is the thickness (m), and is the material permittivity of the dielectric material. The material permittivity is described as: £ = &.£9 where ¢, is the permittivity of a vacuum (~8.85 x 10"! F/m), and , is the relative permittivity of the material (also called the dielectric constant). « The thickness of each layer (T,,,.,), active length of the piezo actuator (L,) divided by the number of layers (n). The piezo stack capacitance of a multi-layer actuator is expressed as follows: ¢ =n’.¢.4/,, rrent (i) flowing through a capacitor (C) is proportional to the change in voltage with respect to time. This is mathematically represented 7 C.dv/dt CHAPTER 4. ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.4, Capacitive accelerometer MEWS stands for Micro-Electro Mechanical System. It is the technology which is based advanced technologies used to form small structures with dimensions in micrometer scale. MEMS technology is now being employed to manufacture state-of-the-art MEMS-based accelerometers. Initially, MEMS accelerometers was designed using piezoresistors. Since piezoresistors are less sensitive than capacitive detection, the majority of MEMS accelerometers nowadays use capacitive sensing principle. MEMS-based accelerometer typically consists of: + Aproof mass with plates attached through a mechanical suspension system to a reference frame. + Movable plates (part of the seismic mass) + The outer plates in stationary state form differential capacitor. Because of the forces due to acceleration, the seismic mass deflects; the deflection is measured in terms of capacitance changeCHAPTER 4. ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.4, Capacitive accelerometer ‘The mass with its comb-like electrodes is connected via spring elements (2) to the anchor points in the core of the sensor. There are fixed comb-like electrodes (3,6) on the chip on each side of these movable electrodes. A capacitance in the range of 300 fF to 1 pF by the fixed and maving electrade fingers. The two rows of electrode fingers connected in parallel result in two useful capacitances (C1 - CM)and C2 - CM), which change in opposite directions as the central mass is deflected. The a applied to the spring-mass system deflects it by an amount linearly related to the acceleration applied over the spring return force. An electrical output signal that is linearly dependent on the acceleration is obtained by evaluation of this differential capacitor | Spring-mountedeoiemic mass with electrodes 2Spring 3 Fixed eleczodes with capacity cr 4 Printed Al conductor track SBond pad 6 Fixed electrodes with eapacty C2 1 Silicon oxide ‘Acceleration inthe sensing direction CM Measuring capacity @ CHAPTER 4. ACCELERATION SENSORS ae 4.4. Capacitive accelerometer Gq (2V,)=—1 2 V Gt 2 1 Spring-mounted seismic mass with electrodes 2 Spring 3 Fixed electrodes with capacity C1 4 Printed Al conductor track 5 Bond pad. 6 Fixed electrodes with capacity G2 7 Silicon oxide a Acceleration in the sensing direction CM Measuring capacityCHAPTER 4. ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.4. Optical deceleration The deceleration sensor providing input to the ABS ECU about the vehicle's rate of deceleration The deceleration sensor is composed of two pairs of LEDs phototransistors. a slit plate. and a signal conversion circuit Operation: When the vehicle’s rate 0 deceleration changes, the slit plate swings in the vehicle's rear-to-front direction. The slits in the slit plate act to expose the light from the LEDs to the phototransistors > the slil plate swilches the phototransistors ON and OFF . Siit plate sit pate Pe $F QW ow 0a SD ts ae orr .aelotrenalters CHAPTER 4. ACCELERATION SENSORS 4.4. Optical deceleration The combinations formed by these phototransistors switching ON and OFF distinguish the rate of deceleration into four levels. The chart below indicates the rate of deceleration based on input from the two phototransistors. Deceleration Rate Level Rate of et Lows Lowa, Medium High Wo. § Photo on OFF OFF on Cn on oN oF OFF corr) om | oF) or) | (om (OFFCHAPTER 4. ACCELERATION SENSORS Extra — Case study The SMA660 is a dual channel, high-g accelerometer with bi-directional SPI interface. The sensor is intended for airbag systems, providing front or side crash information or for verifying satellite sensor readings. Location: Central sensor in airbag ECUs ‘Type Dual axis high-g acceleration sensor Package soicen Soncing axes xx ez Range #1204 Interface SPI, supporting Bosch SPI or open SPI protocol Data resolution leit _ Sensitivity 16 1SB/g ‘Tolerance 28% Supply voltage 3.3.0r6.7V Supply current <8mA Operating temperature ~40PC to 128°C CHAPTER 4. ACCELERATION SENSORS Extra — Case study Application OUTPUT o Auto Crash Test o Suspension Testing o Deceleration/Brake Test Features © Operates +8g to +500g o Wide Temperature Range (- 84°C to 121°C) o Low Cross Axis Sensitivity (0.01 g/g) INPUT Acceleration Ranges: +5 g to +800 g Standard Ranges (g): +5, +10, £15, +25, +50, +100, +250 and +500 Input Resistance: 350 ohms £18% - Full Range Output: 32mV +2: 10% for 8 g range 40mV +25%/-10% for 10-800 g range - Typical Frequency Response: +5%, Hz to 1/3 natural frequency - Residual Unbalance: Within 5% of FRO at zero acceleration - Linearity and Hysteresis: do not exceed 40.75% . - Damping: 0.7 +0.1 of critical - Output Resistance: 350 ohms +15% Resolution: Infinite Thermal Zero Shift: Within 0.01% full range output/oFCHAPTER 4. ACCELERATION SENSORS Extra — Case study + Piezo element to detect ‘Kiosk Sensor pressure wave. - Sensors to meet OBDII emissions e Restore meat or control requirements. reise Open load detection - Knock sensors are piezo-electric A _ Signal tums and cable eloments & Tho vibrations of tho “cathe shield engine are converted into electric signals on Operation: - Due to its inertia, a mass excited by a given oscillation or vibration exerts > a compressive force on a toroidal piezoceramic element (1) at the same fas the excitation 1 Piczoveramic element 2 Seismic mass With compressive forces F oscillation. erat - An electrical voltage is generated 8 Contact washer between the top and bottom of the 6 Electric ceramic element which is picked off bemnesaroaaret via contact washers (8) and Serinaieaiil processed in the Motronic control unit. CHAPTER 4. ACCELERATION SENSORS Extra — Calibration of Accelerometers + The primary method of calibratirg accelerometers is to mount them ona table rotating about a vertical axis such that the sensing axis of the accelerometer is pointing toward the axis of rotation of the table. * The acceleration, a, is then given by: =r.(2nv%2) Where r is the radius of rotation measured from the center of the rotating table to the center of the accelerometer mass and v is the velocity of rotation of the table (in r/s). « This obviously requires that the rotational speed of the table is measured accurately by a calibrated sensor. + Provided that this condition is met, various reference acceleration values can be generated by changing the rotational speed of the table.