PETROLEUM
GEOLOGY
2
Origin and Generation
of Petroleum
Origin Of Petroleum
➢ The petroleum is composed principally of
hydrocarbons (H and C), and existing
underground in the gaseous or liquid
state. Because its association with rocks,
the petroleum is included among mineral
resources, that are potentially valuable.
➢ Kerogen is:
• Black, solid and insoluble “either in acids
or bases” macromolecular organic matter
dispersed in sedimentary rocks.
• This fossil material is of prime importance
as the source of oil and natural gas.
• Typical organic components of kerogen
are algae and woody plant material.
➢ Bitumen is:
• Black, highly viscous (heavy petroleum)
and soluble mixture of hydrocarbons
obtained naturally or as a residue from
petroleum distillation.
• Used for road surfacing.
• It results from thermal cracking of
Kerogen.
Origin of petroleum is based on two major
concepts (two assumptions):
1- Inorganic origin:
• This concept suggests that, the “primary carbon”
or its oxidized form was transformed into
Methane “CH4” after reduction at high
temperature.
• The Methane was then transformed into
Hydrocarbon of high molecular weight after
polymerization (process in which small
molecules combine chemically to produce large
molecules).
• The heat required for this process arises from
slow and continuous flow from the earth’s
interior.
2- Organic origin: “Evidences supporting
organic origin of petroleum”
Several chemical and geological objections
have been raised to the concept of inorganic
origin, and which support the organic origin
of petroleum, such as:
1) Presence of biological markers (such as
isoprenoids, steranes, ….).
2) Predominant associations of petroleum
with sedimentary organic matter.
3) The highly correlated carbon isotops
(geochemical characteristics) of crude oil
hydrocarbons “13Cn” and the related
organic rich rock (source rock).
4) Experimental conversion of buried organic
matter into petroleum.
➢ Factors influencing organic richness:
1- Productivity:
• Factors influencing productivity would
include (nutrient availability, light intensity,
and carbonate supply).
• Shallow marine environment more
productive than the open ocean, because
there is local recycling of nutrients from
decaying organisms and influx of fresh
nutrients from terrestrial sources.
• In case of unrestricted “open” marine
environment, nutrients dissolved in water
below photic zone, therefore, become
unuseful because under normal conditions
they can’t move upward into the zone of
photosynthesis, only where there is
“upwelling” of subsurface waters can these
nutrients return to the photic zone.
UPWELLING: WEST COAST OF NORTH
AMERICA
• Upwelling occurs when winds push surface water away
from the shore and deeper water rises to fill the gap
• Cold, nutrient rich water rises to the surface, then
• Prolific biomass production happens (productivity
increases).
2- Preservation:
• Areas where productivity of organic matter
is suitable (strong currents and high oxygen
contents), is low in preservation of organic
matter which require stagnant and anoxic
environments.
• Low Permeability
1. Production of organisms in photic
zone “oxygenated zone”
2. Preservation of organic matter in
low permeability and anoxic zone
3. Transformation of organic matter
into Kerogen
4. Transformation of Kerogen into
hydrocarbon and migration
5. Hydrocarbon accumulation then
production
HYDROCARBON GENERATION
(TRANSFORMATION OF ORGANIC MATTER)
From Kerogen to Petroleum
Biogenic Diagenetic
Methane
Zone
60oC
Catagenetic
160oC Zone
200oC
Metagenetic
Zone
Graphite
It is known that organic debris derived from
plants and algae is best preserved in fine
grained sediments (source rock) in the
absence of oxygen. This organic matter is
modified as follow:
1- Diagenesis:
• It involves chemical and biological reactions
occur at temperature below (<60oc).
• It is the first stage in the transformation of
organic matter that occur during early
burial in the depositional environment.
• Bacteria help breakdown of large
biological molecules into smaller reactive
products. These reactive products may
bond together to build complex molecules.
• The polymerization of these complex
organic molecules result in “Kerogen”. Most
of the organic matter are preserved in rock
in the form of Kerogen, which represents
the precursors for oil and natural gas.
• At the earliest stage of diagenesis, at low
temperature, the main hydrocarbon product is
“Biogenic Methane”, which is produced by
biogenic bacteria (Methanogenic Bacteria)
under anaerobic condition, and it is considered
to be commercial deposits.
• As burial depth increases, porosity and
permeability decrease and temperature
increases. These changes lead to a gradual
cessation of microbial activity, and hence a
second transformation phase (thermogenic
transformation).
2- Catagenesis:
• It involves thermal transformation of
organic matter at temperature between
(60oc - 200oc).
• With increasing temperature, the element
composition of kerogen loses (H and O),
then the large kerogen molecules thermally
decompose (crack) to yield smaller
molecules of petroleum called “Bitumen”
which increase in amount with increasing
temperature and depth of burial, and
hence decreasing amount of kerogen.
• In the early stage of Catagenesis, bitumen
migration from source rock is minimal, but
during later stages of Catagenesis,
migration and thermal degradation of
bitumen dominate.
Oil window: It is the depth – temperature
interval in which the petroleum source rock
generate and expel most of its oil, and it is
formed in the subsurface temperature range
of (60oc - 160oc), which are typically found
at depths of 2 to 4 km, while temperature
below 60oc is insufficient to cause petroleum
generation and only biogenic gas is possible,
and temperature above 160oc is too high for
oil to be preserved and it will be converted
into gas “Gas window” or “wet gas”.
3- Metagenesis:
• Occurs at temperature above (>200oc ).
• During the later stages of Catagenesis,
petroleum generation from kerogen stops
and the formed hydrocarbon become lighter.
• At Metagenesis stage, only Methane (dry
gas) is the main expected product.
• During the later stages of Metagenesis at
temperature above (>225oc), the carbon
residue (graphite) “Inert Kerogen” or “Type
IV Kerogen” is formed.
• Biogenic gas (≥ 95% methane), or “dry” gas, which was
formed by bacterial decay at shallow depth.
• Thermogenic gas (<95% methane), or “wet” gas, which
is a lower quality gas formed at high temperatures.
Wet gas on the other hand contains compounds such as
ethane and butane, in addition to methane. These
natural gas liquids (NGLs for short) can be separated
and sold individually for various uses, such as cooling
systems and to produce petrochemical products, like
plastics.
So, Which type of natural gas is more
economical, wet or dry?
