BASIC GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 18CV54

MODULE- 2
Soil Structure and Clay Mineralogy Single grained, honey combed, flocculent and
dispersedstructures,Valence bonds, Soil-Water system, Electrical diffuse double
layer, adsorbed water,base-exchange capacity, Isomorphous substitution. Common
clay minerals in soil and theirstructures- Kaolinite, Illite and Montmorillonite and
their application in Engineering.Compaction of Soils: Definition, Principle of
compaction, Standard and Modified proctor’scompaction tests, factors affecting
compaction, effect of compaction on soil properties, Fieldcompaction control-
compactive effort & method of compaction, lift thickness and number ofpasses,
Proctor’s needle, Compacting equipments and their suitability.

Definition of Compaction
Compaction is the process of increasing the Bulk Density of a soil or
aggregate by driving out air. For any soil, at a given compactive effort, the
density obtained depends on the moisture content. An “Optimum
Moisture Content” exists at which it will achieve a maximum density.
Compaction is the method of mechanically increasing the density of soil.
The densification of soil is achieved by reducing air void space. During
compaction, air content reduces, but not water content It is not possible to
compact saturated soil. It should be noted that higher the density of soil
mass, stronger, stiffer, more durable will be the soil mass.

Hence, Compaction
1) Increases density
2) Increases strength characteristics
3) Increases load-bearing capacity
4) Decreases undesirable settlement
5) Increases stability of slopes and embankments
6) Decreases permeability
7) Reduces water seepage
8) Reduces Swelling & Shrinkage
9) Reduces frost damage
10) Reduces erosion damage
11) Develops high negative pore pressures (suctions) increasing
effective stress

Load
Compressed
γ >γ
Soil
b2 b1
Air Air
Water Water

Solid Solid

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Weight W Weight W
Volume V1 Volume V2
Density γb1=W/V1 Density γb2=W/V2

Applications of Compaction
The following are the situations in which compaction will improve the
existing field condition.
1. Compaction of foundation soil for house construction.
2. Compaction of soil/gravel/crushed rock/asphalt in road &
pavement construction.
3. Compaction of soil in earth embankments.
4. Compaction of soil behind retaining walls.
5. Compaction of soil backfill in trenches.
6. Dam construction
7. Construction of clay liners for waste storage areas
8. Ground improvement

Loose Soil
Compacted Soil

Before Compaction After Compaction

Distinction between Compaction & Consolidation

The following are the important distinctions between compaction and

consolidation.

COMPACTION CONSOLIDATION

Man made Natural

Expulsion of air Expulsion of pore water
Fast process Gradual process
Possible in dry or partially saturated soil Possible in saturated soil
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Results in increased density Results in dense packing

5.0 Mechanism of Compaction

Closure to 100
%
saturation
γ
dmax
(MDD)

Dry
Density

OMC
Water content

Flocculent to Dispersed

Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) is the moisture content at which the

maximum possible dry density is achieved for a particular compaction
energy or compaction method. The corresponding dry density is called
Maximum Dry Density (MDD). Water is added to lubricate the contact
surfaces of soil particles and improve the compressibility of the soil matrix.
It should be noted that increase in water content increases the dry density
in most soils up to one stage (Dry side). Water acts as lubrication. Beyond
this level, any further increase in water (Wet side)will only add more void
space, there by reducing the dry density. Hence OMC indicates the
boundary between the dry side and wet side. Hence the compaction curve
as shown in figure indicates the initial upward trend up to OMC and the
down ward trend.
Reasons for the shape of curve
1. On dry side of OMC, clayey soil shows high suction, lumps are
difficult to break or compact.
2. Increasing the water content reduces suction, softens lumps, lubricates
the grains for easy compaction.
3. As water content increases, lubrication improves compaction resulting
in higher dry density.
4. Now nearly impossible to drive out the last of the air – further

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increase in water content results in reduced dry density (curve follows

down parallel to the maximum possible density curve – the Zero Air
Voids curve)
5. MDD and OMC depend on the compaction energy and are not unique
soil properties
6. For sand, suction at low water contents also prevents compaction (but
not if completely dry)
7. In cohesionless soils, MDD is achieved either when completely dry,
or when completely saturated
8. At low water content, grains are held together by suction (water at
grain contacts only)
9. This prevents compaction
10. Laboratory test for MDD on sand requires fully saturated sample, and
involves vibration

Surface Tension
Particle Repulsion

Dry
Density

Bulking of sand

Water content

Problem 1
A laboratory compaction test on soil having specific gravity of 2.7 gave a
maximum dry density of 18 kN/m3 and a water content of 15 %. Determine
the degree of saturation, air content and percentage air void at the maximum
dry density. What would be the theoretical maximum dry density
corresponding to zero air voids at the optimum water content?
Data
G = 2.7
γd = 18 kN/m3 ω
= 15 %
Step 1 : Determination of Void Ratio

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Step 2 : Determination of Degree of saturation

Step 3 : Determination of Air Content

Step 4 : Determination of Percent Air Voids

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Problem 2
A cohesive soil yields a MDD of 18 kN/m3 at an OMC of 16 % during
standard Proctor’s Test. If G = 2.65, what is the degree of saturation? What
is the MDD it can further be compacted to?

Data
MDD = 18 kN/m3
OMC = 16 %
G = 2.65
Step 1 : Determination of Void Ratio

Step 2 : Determination of Degree of saturation

Step 3 : Determination of Theoretical MDD corresponding to

Zero Air Void

γd = 18.24 kN/m3
6.0 Laboratory Test on Compaction

1. Standard Proctor’s Test

2. Modified Proctor’s Test

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6.1 Objectives of Laboratory Compaction Tests

1. To simulate field condition
2. To provide data for placement conditions in field
3. To determine proper amount of mixing water
4. To determine the density in field

The fundamentals of compaction of fine-grained soils are relatively new.

R.R. Proctor in the early 1930’s was building dams for the old Bureau of
Waterworks and Supply in Los Angeles, and he developed the principles of
compaction in a series of articles in Engineering News-Record. In his honor,
the standard laboratory compaction test which he developed is commonly
called the Standard Proctor Test.

6.2 STANDARD PROCTOR’S COMPACTION TEST

Refer IS 2720 – Part VII – 1987
Apparatus
1. Cylindrical metal mould with detachable base plate (having internal
diameter 101.6 mm, internal height 116.8 mm and internal volume
945000 mm3)
2. Collar of 50 mm effective height
3. Rammer of weight 2.5 kgf (25 N) with a height of fall of 304.8 mm

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Procedure
1. About 3 kg of dry soil, with all lumps pulverized and passi ng
through 4.75 mm sieve is taken.
2. The quantity of w ater to be added in the first trial is decide d. (Less
for Corse grained soil and more for Fine grained soil).
3. Mould without ba se plate & collar is weighed (W 1).
4. The inner surfaces of mould, base plate and collar are greas ed.
5. Water and soil are thoroughly mixed.
6. Soil is placed in m ould and compacted in three uniform layers,
with 25 blows in each layer. Blows are maintained uniform and
vertical and height of drop is controlled.
7. After each layer, t op surface is scratched to maintain
integrity between layers.
8. The height of top l ayer is so controlled that after compactio n,
soil slightly protrudes in to collar.
9. Excess soil is scra pped.
10. Mould and soil are weighed (W2).
11. A representative s ample from the middle is kept for the
determination of water content.
12. The procedure is repeated with increasing water content.
13. The number of tria ls shall be at least 6 with a few after the
decreasing trend of bulk density.

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Compaction of Soils S. K. Prasad

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6.3 Modified Compacti on Test

In early days, compaction achieved in field was relatively less. With
improvement in knowledge and technology, higher compactio became a
necessity in field. Hence Modified Compaction Test became relevant. It was
developed during World War II by the U.S. Army Corps of Eng ineering to
better represent the comppaction required for airfield to support heavy aircraft.
6.4 Distinction between Standard & Modified Comp action

Standard Proctor T est Modified Proctor Test

305 mm height of drop 450 mm height of drop

25 N hammer 45 N hammer

25 blows/layer 25 blows/layer
3 layers 5 layers
Mould size: 945 ml Mould size: 945 ml
3 3
Energy 605160 N-mm per m Energy 2726000 N-mm per m

6.5
Comp active Energy in Standard Proctor’s Test

Number of layers = 3
Height of drop = 0.305
Weight of hammer = 25 N
Number of blows = 25
Volume of mould = 945 X 10-6 m3
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Energy = 605160 N-m m per 1000 ml (m3)

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Compaction of Soils S. K. Prasad

6.6 Compact ive Energy in Modified Proctor’s Test

Number of layers = 5
Height of drop = 0.450
Weight of hammer = 45 N
Number of blows = 25
Volume of mould = 945 X 10-6 m3
Energy = 2726000 N-m m per 1000 ml (m3)

Compactive energy in Modified Proctor’s Test is 4.5 times bigger than in

Standard Proctor’s Test

Problem 3
The following are the res ults of compaction test.
Weight of mould + wet soil (N) 29.25 30.95 31.50 31.25 31.70
Water content (%) 10.0 12.0 14.3 16.1 18.2
Volume of mould =1X106 mm3, Weight of mould = 10 N, Spec ific gravity
of soil solids = 2.7. Fin d the OMC and MDD. Plot zero air voi d line. Find
the degree of saturation a t MDD.

Relationship betwee n dry density, percent air void and water content

Weight of mould + wet soil (N) 29.25 30.95 31.50 31.2 5 30.70
Weight of wet soil (N) 19.25 20.95 21.50 21.2 5 20.70
3
Bulk Unit Weight (kN/m )
19.25 20.95 21.50 21.2 5 20.70

Water content (%) 10.0 12.0 14.3 16.1 18.2

3
Dry Unit weight (kN/m )
17.50 18.71 18.81 18.3 0 17.51

γ
dZAV 20.83 19.98 19.09 18.4 4 17.74

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e = 0.43 ω = 14.3 %

Compaction Behavior o f soil is a function of

1. granular soil type
2. moisture content
3. lift thickness of c ompacted layer
4. number of roller passes
5. weight of compact ors

7.0 Factors affecting C ompaction

1. Water Content
2. Amount of Compa ction
3. Method of Compaction
4. Type of Soil
5. Addition of Admi xtures

7.1 Effect of Water Con tent

1. With increase in w ater content, compacted density increases up to
a stage, beyond whi ch compacted density decreases.
2. The maximum den sity achieved is called MDD and the
corresponding water content is ca lled OMC.
3. At lower water co ntents than OMC, soil particles are held b y
electrical forces that prevent s the development of diffused double
layer leading to low inter-partic le repulsion.

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4. Increase in water r esults in expansion of double layer and reduction in

net attractive force between particles. Water replaces air in void space.
5. Particles slide over each other easily increasing lubrication, helping in
dense packing.
6. After OMC is reac hed, air voids remain constant. Further i ncrease
in water, increases th e void space, thereby decreasing dry density.

7.2 Effect of Amount of Compaction

1. As discussed earli er, effect of increasing compactive effort is to
increase MDD And reduce OMC (Evident from Standard & Modified
Proctor’s Tests).
2. However, there is no linear relationship between compactiv e
effort and MDD

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Compaction of Soils S. K. Prasad

7.3 Effect of Method of Compaction

The dry density achieved by the soil depends on the following ch
aracteristics of compacting method.
1. Weight of compacting equipment
2. Type of compactio n - Impact, Kneading, Rolling, Static Pr essure
3. Area of contact of compacting equipment with soil
4. Time of exposure
5. Each of these a pproaches will yield different compactive effort.
Further, suitability of a particular method depends on type of soil.

7.4 Effect of Type of Soil

1. Maximum density achieved depends on type of soil.
2. Coarse grained soi l achieves higher density at lower water content and
fine grained soil a chieves lesser density, but at higher wate r content.

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Compaction of Soils S. K. Prasad

7.5 Effect of Addition of Admixtures

1. Stabilizing agents are the admixtures added to soil.

2. The effect of addi ng these admixtures is to stabilize the soi l.
3. In many cases the y accelerate the process of densification.

8.0 Influence of compac tion on soil properties

1. Density
2. Shear strength
3. Permeability
4. Bearing Capacity
5. Settlement
6. Soil Structure
7. Pore Pressure
8. Stress Strain chara cteristics
9. Swelling & Shrink age

8.1 Influence on Density: Effect of compaction is to reduce t he voids by

expelling out air. This results in increasing the dry density of soil mass.

8.2 Influence on Shea r strength: In general, effect of comp action is to

increase the number of contacts resulting in increased she ar strength,
especially in granular soils. In clays, shear strength depends on dry density,
moulding water content, soil structure, method of compaction, strain level,
drainage condition etc. Shear strength of cohesive soils compacted dry of
optimum (flocculated str ucture) will be higher than those compacted wet of
optimum (dispersed stru cture).

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8.3 Effect of compactio n on permeability

1. Increased dry dens ity, reduces the void space, thereby
reducing permeability.
2. At same density, soil compacted dry of optimum is more p ermeable.
3. At same void ratio , soil with bigger particle size is more permeable.
4. Increased compacttive effort reduces permeability.

8.4 Influence on Bearing Capacity

1. Increase in compaction increases the density and number o f
contacts between soil particcles.
2. This results in incr eased .
3. Hence bearing cap acity increases which is a function of de nsity and .

8.5 Influence on Settlem ent

1. Compaction incre ases density and decreases void ratio.
2. This results in red uced settlement.
3. Both elastic settle ment and consolidation settlement are red uced.
4. Soil compacted dry of optimum experiences greater compr ession
than that compacted we t of optimum.

8.6 Influence on Compressibility: At low pressure, soil compacted wet of

optimum shows more compressibility than that on dry side. B ut at higher
pressure, behaviour is similar.

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Compaction of Soils S. K. Prasad

8.7 Influence on Soil Structure

In fine grained soil

1. On dry side of optimum, the structure is flocculated. The
particles repel and density is less.
2. Addition of water increases lubrication and transforms the structure in
to dispersed structure
In coarse grained soil, single grained structure is maintained In
composite soil, behaviour depends on composition.

8.8 Influence on Pore Pressure

1. Clayey soil compacted dry of optimum develops less pore water
pressure than that compacted wet of optimum at the same density at
low strains.
2. However, at higher strains the effect is the same in both the cases.

8.9 Influence on Stress Strain Characteristics: The strength and modulus

of elasticity of soil on the dry side of optimum will always be better than on
the wet side for the same density. Soil compacted dry of optimum shows
brittle failure and that compacted on wet side experiences increased strain.

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8.10 Influence on Swell Shrink aspect: The effect of comp action is to reduce the
void space. Hence the swelling and shrinkage are enormously reduced. Further, soil
compacted dry of optimum exhibits greate r swell and swell pressure than th at
compacted on wet side because of random orientation and deficiency in water.

Engin eering Properties-Summary

Dry side Wet side

Structure More random More oriented

(parallel)
Permeability More permeable Less permeable

Compressibility More compressible in More compressibl e in

high pressure range low pressure range

Swelling Swell more, higher Shrink more

wat er deficiency

Strength Hig her Lesser

9.0 Field Compaction C ontrol

It is extremely important to understand the factors affecting co mpaction in the field

and to estimate the correlation between laboratory and field compaction. Field
compaction control depends on (i) Place ment water
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Compaction of Soils

content, (ii) Type of eq uipment for compaction and (iii) Lift thickness and
(iv) Number of passes ba sed on soil type & degree of compaction desired

10.0

Placement water conte nt is the water content at which the ground is

compacted in the field. It is desirable to compact at or close t o optimum
moisture content achiev ed in laboratory so as to increase the e fficiency of
compaction. However, i n certain jobs the compaction is done at lower than
or higher than OMC (by about 1 – 2 %) depending on the desired function as
detailed in the table.

Dry side Wet side

Highway embankment c ompacted dry Cohesive subgrades u nder pavements

of optimum to achieve high strength, compacted wet optimu m to eliminate
low volume compressibility and good swelling and swelling pressure upon
resistance to deformation submergence

High earth dams compacted at 1 to 2.5 Impervious core of earth dam is

% less than OMC to reduce pore compacted on wet side to achieve low
pressure development permeability, greater safety against
cracking due to differential settlement

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Proctor’s Needle

1. Used for rapid determ ination of water content of soil in field.

2. Rapid moisture meter is used as an alternative.
3. Proctor’s needle consists of a point, attached to graduated needle shank
and spring loaded plunger.
4. Varying cross sections of needle points are available.
5. The penetration force is read on stem at top.
6. To use the needle in field, Calibration in done on the specific s oil in
lab and calibration curve is prepared and the curve is used in the f ield
to determine placement water content.

11.0 Compaction contr ol in field

There are many varia bles which control the vibratory compaction
or densification of soils.
Characteristics of th e compactor:
(1) Mass, size
(2) Operating frequen cy and frequency range
Characteristics of th e soil:
(1) Initial density
(2) Grain size and sha pe
(3) Water content
Construction proced ures:
(1) Number of passes of the roller
(2) Lift thickness
(3) Frequency of oper ation vibrator
(4) Towing speed

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Compaction of Soils S. K. Prasad

Degree of Compaction
Relative compaction or degree of compaction
γ d − field
R.C.  100%
γ d max − laboratory
Correlation between relative compaction & relative density R.C.  80  0.2Dr

It is a statistical result based on 47 soil samples.

Typical required R.C. >= 95%

12. 0 Types of field Compaction Equipment

1. Smooth Wheeled Steel Drum Rollers

2. Pneumatic Tyred Rollers
3. Sheepsfoot Rollers
4. Impact Rollers
5. Vibrating Rollers
6. Hand Operated Vibrating plate & rammer compactors

12.1 Smooth wheeled steel drum rollers

1. Capacity 20 kN to 200 kN
2. Self propelled or towed
3. Suitable for well graded sand, gravel, silt of low plasticity
4. Unsuitable for uniform sand, silty sand and soft clay

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Compaction of Soils S. K. Prasad

12.2 Pneumatic Tyred Rollers

1. Usually two axles carrying rubber tyred wheels for full width of track.
2. Dead load (water) is added to give a weight of 100 to 400 kN.
3. Suitable for most coarse & fine soils
4. Unsuitable for very soft clay and highly variable soil.

12.3 Sheepsfoot Roller

1. Self propelled or towed
2. Drum fitted with projecting club shaped feet to provide
kneading action.
3. Weight of 50 to 80 kN
4. Suitable for fine grained soil, sand & gravel with considerable fines.

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12.4 Impact Roller

1. Compaction by static pressure combined with impact of pentagonal
roller.
2. Higher impact energy breaks soil lump and provides kneading action

12.5 Vibrating Drum

1. Roller drum fitted with vibratory motion.
2. Levels and smoothens ruts

12.6 Plate & Rammer Compactor: It is used for backfilling

trenches, smaller constructions and less accessible locations

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Equipment Applications

Granular Soils Sand and Clay Cohesive Clay Asphalt

Not Testing Not

Rammers Best Application
Recommended Recommended Recommended

Vibratory Testing Not

Best Application Best Application
Plates Recommended Recommended
Reversible Testing Not
Best Application Best Application
Plates Recommended Recommended
Vibratory Not Testing
Best Application Best Application
Rollers Recommended Recommended
Rammax Testing Not
Best Application Best Application
Rollers Recommended Recommended

How Does a Contractor Modify Compaction in the field?

1. Adjust Water Content

2. More Passes
3. Thinner Lifts
4. Bigger Rollers
5. Right Compactor for the Soil Type

13.0 Dynamic Compaction

1. Used to compact both cohesive and cohesionless soils.

2. A crane is used to lift a concrete or steel block weighing up to 500
kN up to a height of 40 to 50 m.
3. From this height, weight is allowed to freely fall on the
ground surface.
4. The process is repeated over the area.
5. Soil at surface is disturbed. It is then refilled and levelled.
6. Depth of compaction is up to 12 m.

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7. The method is quick and produces uniform settlement.

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Compaction of Soils S. K. Prasad

14.0 Vibrofloatation

1. Used for compacting granular soil in the field.

2. Consists of cylindrical tube, eccentric weight and water jet.
3. Vibrofloat is sunk in to the ground and vibratory motion develops
an enlarged hole.
4. Hole is backfilled with suitable granular material.
5. Applicable up to about 30 m.
6. Spacing of vibrofloatation depends on initial density and desired
density. Usually 2m spacing can enhance relative density up to 70 %.

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Typical examination Questions

1. Distinguish b/w Standard & Modified Proctor’s Tests

2. Distinguish b/w Compaction & Consolidation
3. Factors influencing compaction
4. Effect of compaction on Engineering properties of soil
5. Problem on Lab compaction
6. Problem on quantity of soil required from borrow pit to fill in
compacted ground
7. Field compaction methods
8. Placement water content
9. Dynamic compaction
10. Vibrofloatation

Questions from past examinations

1. Sketch a typical compaction curve for a cohesionless soil and explain

the characteristic features of it. In what way this is different from
that of a cohesive soil? (8 Marks- Feb 2002)
2. What are the different compacting equipments used for compacting
the soil in the field? Explain briefly. (6 Marks - Jan 2005)
3. Discuss the effect of compaction on soil properties. (6 Marks - Jan
2005)
4. Differentiate between compaction and consolidation. (6 Marks
Jan 2005 Old)
5. Calculate the compactive energies applied in modified proctor test
and standard proctor test. (6 Marks Jan 2005 Old)
6. Distinguish between standard and modified proctor tests. (3 Marks
Jan 2006)
7. Briefly explain the use of proctor needle in field compaction control.
(5 Marks Jan 2006)
8. List the differences between standard proctor compaction test and
modified proctor compaction test. (06 Marks - Jan 2007)
9. List the factors affecting the degree of compaction. How does
compaction differ from consolidation? (06 Marks - Jan 2007)
10. List the differences between standard proctor compaction test
and modified proctor compaction test. (4 Marks - July 2002)

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11. List the factors affecting the degree of compaction. How does
compaction differ from consolidation? (6Marks - July 2002)

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Compaction of Soils S. K. Prasad

12. Calculate the compaction energy corresponding to standard

proctor and modified proctor compaction.(6 Marks - July 2004)
13. With a neat sketch, define the term "line of optimums". (03 Marks -
July 2007)
14. Obtain the value of compactive energy imparted to the soil
during modified proctor compaction test. (04 Marks - July 2007)
15. Discuss the effect of compaction on soil properties. (08 Marks -
June 2009)
16. Explain Vibro-floatation technique for in-situ densification
of soils.(06 Marks - June 2009)
17. Calculate compaction energy used in Standard Proctor test
and modified Proctor test. (06 Marks - June 2009)
18. Explain the use of Proctor needle in the field compaction control.
(5 marks - March 2001)

Solution to numerical problems from examination

Problem 4

The results of a compaction test on a soil are set out below.

Moisture Content (%) 9.0 10.2 12.5 13.4 14.8 16.0
3
Bulk unit weight (kN/m ) 19.23 20.51 22.20 22.20 21.79 20.96
Plot the dry unit weight - moisture content curve and determine the
maximum dry unit weight and corresponding optimum moisture content. If
the particle specific gravity is 2.68, determine the air void percentage at
maximum dry unit weight. (10 marks - Jan2003)

Water Bulk Density Dry Density Dry Density

Content (kN/m3) (kN/m3) Zero Air Void
(%) (kN/m3)
9.00 19.23 17.64 21.16
10.20 20.51 18.61 20.63
12.50 22.20 19.73 19.67
13.40 22.20 19.58 19.32
14.80 21.79 18.98 18.81
16.00 20.96 18.07 18.38

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Compaction of Soils S. K. Prasad

na = - 0.336 %

Problem 5
The following are the observations of a compaction test.
Water content, ω (%) 7.7 11.5 14.6 17.5 19. 5 21.2

Weight of wet soil W (N) 16.67 18.54 19.92 19.52 19. 23 18.83

If the volume of compac tion mould is 950 C.C, assuming G=2.65, Draw
compaction curve. Repo rt maximum dry unit weight and optimum
moisture content (OMC). Draw 10 0% saturation line (zero air voids line).
What is the degree of saturation at OMC?
(12 Marks - Jan 2006)

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