During the past decade, society’s expectations for schools have increased dramatically in virtually every country.

TEACHING

TEACHING FOR LEARNING

Stated simply, more students are expected to learn at higher levels than ever before. Accordingly, the roles and
responsibilities of teachers must change significantly to meet the new requirements. What are appropriate
learning objectives that ensure success for students now and in the future? How can we assess and evaluate
student learning, providing useful information to students and teachers alike? How should we design learning
environments and use technology? And can we meet the needs of all students? How can instruction focus more
on student learning, rather than on teacher behaviour? These questions and others are addressed in this F O R
reference guide for teachers. It does not provide prescriptions, but rather suggests alternate solutions, allowing

LEARNING
teachers to answer these vital questions for themselves.

A REFERENCE GUIDE
FOR RESULTS-ORIENTED TEACHERS

A REFERENCE GUIDE FOR RESULTS-ORIENTED TEACHERS

Center for Democracy and

Reconciliation in Southeast Europe

The European Union's Instrument for

Pre-accession Assistance (IPA)
“This publication has been produced with the assistance of the European Union. The contents of this publication are the Publisher Editor
sole responsibility of the Center for Democracy and Reconciliation in Southeast Europe and can in no way be taken to
reflect the views of the European Union.” Nenad Šebek Prof. Lorin W. Anderson
Center for Democracy and
Reconciliation in Southeast Europe

The European Union's Instrument 9 Krispou St., 54634 Thessaloniki, Greece Associate Editor
for Pre-accession Assistance (IPA) T + 30 2310 960-820/1
F + 30 2310 960-822 Corinna Noack-Aetopulos
www.cdsee.org

Copyright © Center for Democracy and Reconciliation in Southeast Europe

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 Why we wrote this guide

Learning expectations have increased over the years as have societal expectations. Increasing
numbers of students are expected to learn at more intense and ever higher levels. The 21st
century has set new agendas, added increasingly abstract concepts and ushered in educational
Preface reforms, all meant to cope with this increasingly complex and unpredictable world. It has
raised questions of what shall we learn and how do we learn best. What are the roles and
responsibilities of teachers in facilitating or enhancing learning? And, ultimately are there any
reliable answers to these questions that will remain valid for more than a decade? Learning can
Why we wrote this guide indeed be the spice of life, but depending on the excellence of the chef in mixing the “what” and
the “how”, it turns into either a sweet or bitter experience. Sustaining our learning also depends
For whom on our interest and on how comfortably we can accept that being asked to learn something
new does not necessarily put all of our current knowledge and abilities into question.
What we have to offer
Learning concerns everybody; we all go through times of intensive learning. Traditionally, we
Structuring the chapters associate learning with school - our very first contact with a conscious, intense and non-self-
determined way of learning. In school we didn’t always learn because we wanted to learn,
The idea because we were curious to find out more, or because we needed to develop that new skill
that made us No. 1 on the playground. In school we had to learn what the teacher wanted
The team us to learn and what the teacher was told or trained to tell us by his or her superiors and
educators. Learning often became abstract. Our learning was suddenly not induced by a real-
life requirement, and more often than not we failed to understand what we should do with
what we had learned and why we should learn something without knowing what it was for.
It was up to our teachers to make this vital connection and sustain our natural enthusiasm
for learning, for exploring, for inventing and for trying the unknown. Some teachers were very
successful, and others less so; we can all recall both.

The purpose of the following chapters is to identify those things – both big and little – that
enable teachers to impact greatly on their students’ learning. The interfaces of “teaching”
and “learning” seem ambiguous; the more you look at them, the more you realise that only
through multi-facetted lenses can one reach clarity of vision, short- and long-term. The clarity
we need in order to deal with the complexity.

For whom

This is primarily a reference guide for teachers, but also for school directors, both of whom
play a key role in determining what knowledge and memories students gather in school.
However, we also want to emphasise that it is not only the teacher who is responsible for
improving learning, just because he or she is in charge of the teaching. Everybody involved
in what is known as the “education supply chain” can help to sustain the enthusiasm for
learning. The secondary audience are parents, students, the administrational apparatus
behind education in ministries and those who decide about the investments into education.
Everyone can benefit from a better understanding of teaching and the teachers’ job. It is a
serious, complex and demanding work, a fact we tend to overlook and a profession we tend
to underestimate in its societal value. It requires not only skills and competencies, but also a Once the environment is set – learning happens with the following tools that you have at
dedication from those who dare to engage in it. Just as much as learning concerns all of us, your disposal. The learning objectives -- What should your students to be able to do? The
the teaching/learning process depends on everybody’s input. instruction -- How will they get there? The learning resources -- What will help them to get
there? And the assessment – How do we measure whether they got there?

What we have to offer Once you have these tools in place, the alignment is what matters – just like with a puzzle,
the process will result in the desired picture only if all the parts are assembled and aligned in
a coherent way.
For this reference guide, we have collected a wealth of different experiences and perspectives
on learning and teaching. It is the joint result of a multidisciplinary team and an example
of transnational co-operation. All of us had been engaged either in reforming education, The idea
in developing teacher-training seminars, or in human resource development. The process
included speaking with many teachers in different countries in order to collect and analyse
their know-how and experience. It includes good practices and all that hinders them. “Our process was similar to that of piecing together a puzzle.” We started from the global
societal needs for learning and the opportunities for self-development that we want our
The result is a systematic collection of best practices for reference, a range of tools that have society to offer us. Considering that brain drain and the aging of society are real threats,
proven successful in overcoming barriers that are inherent in any controlled learning process. we took into account that education opportunities are amongst the key determining factors
These barriers can be both self- or externally induced. They range from obvious financial that make countries origins of emigration or destinations for immigration. This depends
constraints to what many perceive as a prevailing societal disillusion, a loss of interest and on whether they lose their human resources or gain by attracting talent from around the
values, as well as a belief that success isn’t necessarily based on merit. All of these barriers world. Our team of authors was diverse in nationalities and in background. In three plenary
accumulate and create difficult working conditions, which inevitably challenge the motivation sessions, we developed a concept that would assemble as many perspectives as possible in
of students and teachers alike. order to be innovative but also relevant and feasible.

Skimming through the table of contents, many teachers might think that there is not that much Our first meeting resulted in a consensus on the influence of the parameters of education
new to be found in this book. All sounds familiar at first sight. There is a reason for this; it is on teachers in Europe and in particular in Southeast Europe; on the interface between
meant to sound familiar. Once you have had a closer look at the chapters, you will see that the the society, the political arena and the classroom. The second meeting was dedicated
contents are quite different from the commonplace educational reform materials that we all to determining the learning objectives that our reference guide would need to have and
know by now. You might find that these very practical suggestions make your daily job more what would be the best way to get there; what resources could we use? We placed specific
enjoyable and fascinating. Some of you might think that this all sounds like utopia and might attention on assessment; we wanted to know if our ideas would stand the test in front
say that obviously the authors have not spent a single hour in a classroom with 40 students. of teachers. We organised wide-ranging focus-group testing in seven cities of Southeast
That is only partly true; some of us have been there, others have not, and it is exactly this mix Europe with a mixed group of 100 teachers of social and natural sciences, and also of
that pushed and enabled us to leave old thinking paths without trailing away completely. practical and optional courses. It was just as we had envisioned a good assessment –
formative, allowing us to learn and to improve.

Structuring the chapters This reference guide is the result of aligning all those parts into a coherent puzzle. Our
main concern was to produce a guide that is practical and at the same time reflects the
growing complexity of the teacher’s job. We are aware of the fact that education reforms
The structure of our guide already tells you about our way of thinking. We started from themselves very often cause misalignments. These education systems often send out a
an abstract policy level where the teacher has little direct influence and travelled to the range of conflicting messages regarding what teachers are expected to do and quite often
grassroots level where the teacher is the main actor. All teachers operate in a societal context do not give them the means to do it.
and in a school culture. These are the parameters of education that are given and that can’t
be changed in the short term; the more you, as the one interested in teaching, understand Our goal was to produce a guide that can help teachers overcome misalignments and
how significantly they impact classes, the better you will be able to act within these weaknesses in the system, and through consistency in their own work achieve the best
parameters, experience less frustration and gain more influence. Within the social context possible impact on their students. In the end, the education system is also only a puzzle in
and the school culture you find your classroom; here you are free to make a range of your which all of us are small pieces. It is also upon us to achieve the best possible alignment of
own decisions and you CAN turn it into a learning environment. internal and external demands and actors in the best interest of our societies.
 The team practice and policy in the German education system with the specific context of the region.
Her particular interest lies in advocating inclusive education with equal opportunities.
Crucial to our work were also the contributions from the teachers, who delivered the practical
Our team was led in the most inspiring way by Prof. Lorin Anderson. His vast knowledge, examples for Chapter 9. In particular, we want to acknowledge Dr. Jörg Dieter from the German
excellence and amazing personality turned our cooperation into an exceptional experience. School of Thessaloniki for his unique example of what a mathematics lesson can look like.
Working with Professor Anderson was a thoroughly enjoyable learning experience, one that
generated tremendous enthusiasm in a very short time. He left an invaluable impact on all In addition to the authors that made this guide happen, I want to express my gratitude to
of us and I hope that through this guide you will be able to share this experience with us. He the whole team at the CDRSEE and in particular to Antonis Hadjiyannakis for assisting and
started his career as a student of Benjamin Bloom at the University of Chicago, widely known co-ordinating all our activities.
as the author of Bloom’s Taxonomy, one of the most widely applied and most often cited
references in education. Prof. Anderson was also the one who took the work of Bloom further Without the Board of the CDRSEE, this initiative would have never happened. Tirelessly
and led a new team, which updated the taxonomy and thus added relevance for 21st century advocating the CDRSEE’s work, they make it possible for our voice to be heard by decision
students and teachers. makers and for our programmes to achieve real impact.

Prof. Andreas Demetriou from the University of Nicosia proved to be an invaluable Last but far from least, we would like to thank the European Union for making the funds
contributor to the project. He offered his internationally acknowledged expertise in available for this guide under the IPA programme.
developmental psychology and the experience he gained as Minister of Education in Cyprus
where he implemented significant and very successful education reforms.

Prof. Bardhyl Musai, educational advisor to the Prime Minister of Albania, was also an Corinna Noack-Aetopulos
integral part of the team while working hard on modernising the Albanian education system.
He is passionate about connecting Albania with international expert pools.

Significant contributions were also received from two dedicated professionals from the
Department of Education at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Prof. Dimitris Mavroskoufis,
who for a long time had been a teacher himself and who knows the situation inside and out
in overcrowded diverse classrooms, and Assoc. Prof. Eleni Hodolidou, who is exceptionally
proficient in curricula design in the field of language and a strong advocate for environmental
education.

We would also like to thank Vesna Janevski for contributing her knowledge of the education
sector in Southeast Europe. Having taught 20 years at the Saints Cyril and Methodius University
in Skopje and served as a senior consultant on education in various EU projects, Ms Janevski is
an expert in the various challenges that educators face in this part of the world.

In particular, our gratitude goes to Prof. Ana Pešikan and Dr. Snježana Koren who delivered
exceptional contributions. Prof. Ana Pesikan, former Minister of Science and Technology in
Serbia, is now teaching at the University of Belgrade and is also a core contributor to the
education strategy of Serbia. She is passionate about professional development of teachers
in the field of active learning and she runs wide-ranging teacher training activities in Serbia
and Bosnia. Dr. Snježana Koren has vast experience in teaching history and currently teaches
at the University of Zagreb. She has produced a considerable range of innovative history
education materials and textbooks and is widely recognised as an expert in multi-perspective
history education.

With great gratitude and respect, we want to acknowledge the contribution of Rada Spasić,
who was able to effectively combine her in-depth knowledge of educational research,
 CONTENTS

01. 07.
Teaching for a change: Perspectives & Overview ASSESSMENT
Lorin W. Anderson RADA SPASIC

PAGE 15 PAGE 157

02. 08.
schooling & learning in modern democratic societIes ALIGNMENT
andreas dEmEtriou ELENI Hodolidou

PAGE 39 PAGE 187

03. 09.
Learning environments PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Dimitris D. Mavroskoufis
PAGE 207
PAGE 51

10.
04. SUMMING UP
Learning Objectives CORINNA NOACK-AETOPULOS
Vesna Janevski
PAGE 235
PAGE 73

GLOSSARY
05.
INSTRUCTION PAGE 247
ANA PEŠIKAN

PAGE 99

06.
Learning Resources
SnJEŽana Koren
You will find an index of chapter recommendations
in Table 1.1 on pages 32 - 34
PAGE 127
Chapter 1 14 15

Teaching
for a change:
Perspectives & Overview
Lorin W. Anderson

CHAPTER 1
Chapter 1 16 17 Teaching for a change: perspectives & overview

“Each teacher begins a new term (or course) with the expectation that about a third of This is a book written primarily for teachers who tend to make internal attributions …
students will learn what he or she has to teach. Another third of his or her students will fail or teachers who believe they can make a difference in the lives of their students … teachers
just ‘get by’. Finally, another third will learn a good deal of what he or she has to teach, but not who believe they have a professional obligation to continue to improve the quality of their
enough to be regarded as ‘good students’.” teaching every year they teach … teachers who have a real desire to become better teachers.
As one of the educators involved with the Joint History Project put it, “If people weren’t
Benjamin S. Bloom, an eminent American educator, wrote those words almost a half century interested in changing the way they teach history, to change the way that their students
ago. Do you agree or disagree? What are your expectations for your students? What percent perceive history, then [this] would be a good book, but with no use.”
of your students do you expect to learn well, learn a little, or learn almost nothing? Take a few
minutes to think about and answer this last question before you continue reading. The exact We welcome those teachers who tend to make external attributions. To these teachers we ask
percentages are not important, so be honest. There are no right (that is, correct) answers. If, for only that you postpone disbelief. That is, open your minds to the possibility that you have a
a typical class, you expect 20 percent of your students to learn well, 70 percent to learn a little, greater influence on your students than you think you do. With an open mind, you are likely
and 10 percent to learn almost nothing, those are your expectations. If, on the other hand, you to find that at least some of the recommendations offered by the authors, when implemented
expect 50 percent of your students to learn well, 10 percent to learn a little, and 40 percent to properly, can help you in your efforts to become a better teacher.
learn almost nothing, those too are your expectations.
We also welcome those educators who are not teachers, but who have some responsibility for
What is important at this point in the discussion is not your expectations, but how they the quality of education that students receive. These educators may have a responsibility for
correspond with reality. When expectations and reality are closely related, most people see the training, supervision, or evaluation of teachers. Their influence on students is indirect, by
little, if any, need to change. For example, if you expect 40 percent of your students to learn virtue of their direct effect on teachers. We believe that you will find ideas and applications in
almost nothing and, in fact, 40 percent of your students learn almost nothing, what reason this book that make it easier for you to do your jobs and do them well.
would you have to change what you’re doing? You got exactly what you expected to get.

Change tends to occur when there is some discrepancy between expectations and reality. Fundamental beliefs
Suppose, for example, that you expect 30 percent of your students to learn well, but only 5
percent do so. When this happens, you might ask yourself, “Why did this happen?” One possible
explanation is that you did not teach as well as you could have or should have. If you accept Underlying this book, as is true for virtually every book written about education, is a set of
this explanation, you may begin to examine your teaching and, based on that examination, fundamental beliefs. In some books, these beliefs remain unstated or implicit. Hints may be
determine that some changes in your teaching are needed. An alternative explanation, given along the way, but it becomes the responsibility of the reader to ferret them out. We
however, is that your teaching was excellent, but you were teaching a group of students who have chosen to make our fundamental beliefs explicit. There are four.
were unusually unprepared, unmotivated, and/or unruly. In other words, the fact that your
students learned less well than you expected is the students’ fault, not yours. If this explanation The first is a belief about the purpose of schooling; that is, formal education. The second is
is accepted, you may come to the conclusion that no changes in your teaching are necessary. a belief about what it means to teach. The third is a belief about the intellectual and moral
You simply wait until you have a class of students who are more academically prepared, responsibilities of teachers. The fourth is a belief about the importance of a concerted group
motivated, and better behaved, and teach the same way that you always have. effort as we strive to substantially improve the quality of education for large numbers of
children and youth throughout the world. In combination, these beliefs provide the conceptual
In the psychological literature, these explanations are referred to as “attributions”, and a basis for the book and a rationale for its importance.
whole theory, called “attribution theory”, has been formulated. In the context of the previous
discussion, then, a perceived need to change depends not only on the discrepancy between
expectation and reality, but also on the attributions we make about the cause or causes Belief 1
of the discrepancy. In general, there are two types of attributions: internal and external.
The explanation that the lower-than-expected learning is the students’ fault is an external THE PRIMARY PURPOSE OF SCHOOLING IS TO PREPARE STUDENTS
attribution. External attributions are typically associated with a sense of powerlessness; that TO BE SUCCESSFUL IN THE FUTURE.
is, this is the situation and there is nothing I can do about it. When confronted with suggestions
about possible changes, teachers with external attributions typically respond by saying
things such as, “We can’t do that in this school”, or, “Even if I were to change something, it Several years ago I met with a group of about 20 second-grade teachers in the United States
wouldn’t make any difference with these students.” Only internal attributions – the belief that to discuss the implications of the newly adopted, government-approved academic standards
I, the teacher, am at least partly responsible for the lower-than-expected learning – lead to a for them and their students. It soon became apparent that they were not pleased with the
perceived need to change and, ultimately, a desire to do so. standards and in particular with being told what they should be teaching.
Chapter 1 18 19 Teaching for a change: perspectives & overview

As one teacher remarked, “I know my students and what is best for them. The people who order in which certain aspects of the subject matter – generally, major topics – are to be taught
came up with these standards have never been in my classroom.” I responded by asking a (e.g., animals before plants, short stories before poetry, fractions before integers).
question: “In your opinion, what is the purpose of second grade?” After a short silence, she Over the past several decades, the phrase “scope and sequence” has been replaced by “vertical
responded: “As I see it, the purpose of second grade is to take my children where they are articulation”. In contrast to scope and sequence, vertical articulation focuses on learning
academically, emotionally, and socially and move them as far as I can in the time they are objectives, rather than topics. In simplest terms, learning objectives add a verb to the topics (see
with me.” “That may have been true at one time,” I replied, “but not anymore. The purpose of Chapter 4). For example, whereas a scope and sequence chart in mathematics may indicate that
second grade is to prepare students for third grade. If they are not prepared for third grade, the topic of integers should be taught before the topic of fractions, vertical articulation charts
there is ample evidence that they will fall further and further behind their classmates the might suggest that understanding integers should come before adding integers, which in turn,
longer they are in school.” should be taught before multiplying integers.

My answer and that given by the teacher to my initial question represent two very different Most recently, the proper term seems to be “vertical alignment” (see Chapter 8). Similar to vertical
perspectives on the purpose of education. Her answer was based on a consideration of articulation, vertical alignment is concerned with the sequencing of learning objectives rather
students’ present needs -- a concern for fostering child development. My answer was than topics. However, vertical alignment addresses the sequence of not only objectives, but of
based on a consideration of students’ future needs – a concern for academic preparation instruction and assessment as well. In mathematics, for example, the short-answer completion
and readiness. The teacher’s answer represents what might be termed a “past-present” items common at the primary grades may be replaced by extended response (“show your work”)
orientation; mine, a “present-future” orientation. It must be emphasised that a “present- items in the upper elementary grades and by multiple-choice items in secondary schools (in order
future” orientation does not mean that we ignore the past. In fact, we must understand to prepare students for national or international examinations).
the past if we are to design the present to help us successfully negotiate the demands
of the future (whatever they may be). Rather, a “present-future” orientation means that Although the nomenclature has changed, the major point remains the same. A “present-future”
our primary curricular decisions are based on our answers to a single question: “Will orientation requires that careful attention be paid to the ways in which learning expectations and
achieving this objective increase the probability that our students will be successful in the experiences change over time as students move through the educational system.
future (whether that future is tomorrow, next week, next year, or 20 years from now)?”
If the answer is “No”, we should delete the objective and seek objectives for which the
answer is “Yes”. The need to make decisions about what to include and what to exclude MEANINGFUL LEARNING
in our curriculums stems from our having too much to teach in too little time, a frustration
experienced and expressed by many of the teachers I have interviewed over the past two
decades. Within the limited amount of time that children and youth spend in schools, John Dewey was a progressive educator and philosopher who wrote about American education in
we need to determine what is truly worth learning in order to provide students with the the early part of the 20th Century. One day, he was observing a geology lesson taught to middle-
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values they will need to be successful in the future. Will grade students. At the conclusion of the lesson, the teacher asked Dewey if he wanted to ask the
they be prepared for the unit on mathematical problem solving that we begin in three class any questions. Thanking the teacher, Dewey asked: “What would you find if you dug a very
weeks? Will they be prepared for the demands of the next grade or school level (especially deep hole in the earth?” Getting no response, he repeated the question with the same results.
the transition from the secondary to the tertiary level)? Will they be prepared to become Finally, the teacher broke the silence. “Professor Dewey,” she said, “you are asking the wrong
productive, functioning members of society and continue to learn after leaving school question.” Turning to the class, she asked, “What is the state of the centre of the earth?” The class
(whenever that might be)? replied in union, “Igneous fusion.”

If we are to move from a “past-present” orientation to a “present-future” orientation, The story illustrates the distinction between memorisation (or what is referred to as rote learning)
we need to address three critical issues: (1) sequencing objectives over time; (2) moving and understanding (or what is referred to as meaningful learning). Memorising the statement that
away from memorisation toward meaningful learning; and (3) preparing students to be “The state of the centre of the earth is igneous fusion” is not the same as understanding that if
successful after they leave school. you dig a hole in the earth you eventually will come to molten rock. As educators, we are often
misled by students who can recite a litany of definitions and facts. We erroneously believe that
they understand everything they are saying. Such is not the case, as the Dewey story makes quite
SEQUENCING OBJECTIVES clear (see also Chapter 5).

A reasonable question to ask at this juncture is why a shift from a “past-present” orientation
When textbooks ruled the world of education, publishing companies routinely prepared to a “present-future” orientation requires a focus on meaning rather than memorisation. The
scope and sequence charts for their textbook series. The term “scope” refers to the breadth answer is quite simple. Rote learning facilitates retention of learning. Retention, by its very nature,
and depth of the subject matter (e.g., science, history). The term “sequence” refers to the suggests recalling things from the past. Meaningful learning, on the other hand, facilitates transfer
Chapter 1 20 21 Teaching for a change: perspectives & overview

of learning. Transfer of learning can be defined as extending what has been learned in one the concept of “knowledge societies” suggests that schools are to serve a transformative
context to new contexts. The use of the phrase “new contexts” suggests that these “contexts” function (a function consistent with a “present-future” orientation). In a knowledge
will be encountered in the future. To be successful in the future, then, students must be able society, schools have the responsibility for transforming students in ways that they are
not only to remember what they have learned, but be able as well to transfer that learning to able to transform society.
new settings, situations, and problems.
Third, lifelong learning helps us maintain a reasonable quality of life as we age. Several
Let us be clear that memorisation does have a place in the education of children and youth. recent studies have revealed that cognitively active elders – those with average ages
However, that place should be supportive not central. Students need to memorise the labels of 75 to 80 – were almost three times less likely to develop dementia and Alzheimer’s
that society attaches to concrete objects and abstract ideas. It is one thing to understand the disease than those who were cognitively inactive. In addition, physical exercise has been
meaning of the impressionist style of painting in a way that enables a student to determine found to improve blood flow to the brain, encouraging development of new brain cells
whether a painting does or does not represent that style. It is quite another thing completely and, hence, great opportunities for further learning.
to remember that impressionism is a style of painting characterised by concentration on the
immediate visual impression produced by a scene and by the use of unmixed primary colors In some respects the use of the phrase “knowledge societies” is unfortunate. Some may
and small strokes to simulate actual reflected light. The concept provides understanding; the think that it means that schools need to provide more and more information to their
label allows communication. Concepts without labels make communication difficult. Labels students in order to increase their knowledge. To those we would say that an excess of
without underlying concepts are most often meaningless. information is not necessarily the source of additional knowledge. What students need
are ways of processing that information. The more information we have at our disposal,
the more we need critical-thinking skills such as analysis and evaluation so we can
LIFELONG LEARNING IN A KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY distinguish between “useful” and “useless” information, “good” and “bad” advice, and
“workable” and “unworkable” solutions to problems.

American industrialist Henry Ford once said: “Anyone who stops learning is old, whether
at 20 or 80. Anyone who keeps learning stays young. The greatest thing in life is to keep Belief 2
your mind young.” This belief is consistent with what might be the ultimate future-oriented
goal of schooling; namely, to prepare students who are able and willing to continue to learn Teaching is the process by which a teacher facilitates
throughout their lives. Why is so-called “lifelong learning” so important? At least three the movement of a student from where he or she is to
answers can be given to this question. where the teacher intends the student to be at the end
of some period or phase of instruction.
First, it has been estimated that current school-age children and youth will change careers
from five to seven times during their lifetimes. Some of these changes will result from societal
changes. My grandfather was a blacksmith. As automobiles replaced horses as the primary In June 1883 in the magazine The Chautauquan, the following question was posed: “If
mode of transportation, the need for blacksmiths declined. As a consequence, he was a tree were to fall on an island where there were no human beings would there be any
forced to change careers, taking a job as a salesman in a hardware store. Other changes sound?” The answer: “No. Sound is the sensation excited in the ear when the air or other
will result from increased opportunities provided by additional education and/or experience. medium is set in motion.” A similar question can be asked about teaching. “If a teacher
With additional education, an artist can become an architect. With additional experience, a talks to or works with a group of students for an hour or more and the students know or
salesperson in a clothing store can become a buyer. can do nothing more than they did when instruction began, has the teacher taught?” Our
answer: “No. Teaching requires learning and learning means that some type of change
Second, and as alluded to in the previous paragraph, societies are constantly changing. Over in the students has taken place during the time that the teacher was “trying to teach.”
the past century, agriculturally based societies have given way to industrialised societies, To find out if we have taught, then, we only have to ask our students a simple question:
which are being replaced by what UNESCO refers to as “knowledge societies” (see Chapter “What did you learn today (or this week or this term)?” If the answer is “nothing” or “I
2). Broadly speaking, the term “knowledge society” refers to any society where knowledge, don’t know” or “I’m not sure”, then we may have spent time doing teacher “things”, but
rather than capital or labour or anything else, is the primary production resource. In other we were not teaching.
words, a knowledge society creates, shares, and uses knowledge for the prosperity and
well being of its people. In a knowledge society, the ultimate product is the development This perspective on teaching and learning is consistent with one of the earliest definitions
of people – a society in which the human mind is a direct productive force, not an element of objectives, the one found in Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. According
of a production system. In contrast to the traditional notion that schools are to serve a to Bloom and his colleagues (1956), objectives are “explicit formulations of the ways
preservative function in societies (a function consistent with a “past-present” orientation), in which students are expected to be changed by the educative process” (p. 26). Once
Chapter 1 22 23 Teaching for a change: perspectives & overview

again, the emphasis is on change. With this emphasis, the connections among objectives, some learning may occur, but not enough to reach the objective. So, how large should the
teaching, and assessing are quite clear. Objectives indicate how we want students to change gap be between our objectives and students’ current achievement? Russian psychologist
in their knowledge, thought, attitudes, values, and/or behaviours. Teaching occurs when Lev Vygotsky attempted to answer this question by hypothesising a “zone of proximal
teachers facilitate that change or those changes. Finally, assessing involves determining development” (ZPD). Simply stated, the zone of proximal development is the distance
whether, or to what extent, the intended change or changes did occur. If the change or between what a student has already learned and what the student can learn with the
changes are not what we expected or hoped for, then the assessment results can be used to guidance or assistance of adults or more capable peers within a certain amount of time.
focus our teaching on specific areas of misunderstanding or weakness. Because learning is optimal within the ZPD, objectives should be set within this zone (that is,
within the area labelled ZPD in Figure 1.1).
This emphasis on change also allows us to distinguish learning from achievement.
Achievement is the sum total of what a student has learned by some point in time, say, at the
end of grade 8. A statement that an eighth grade student can solve mathematics problems Figure 1.1
involving integers and fractions is a statement of achievement. Learning, on the other hand, A visual representation of the zone of proximal development (ZPD)
is a change in achievement over time, for example, from the beginning of grade 8 to the end
of grade 8. With respect to the previous example, learning requires that a student who could
not solve mathematics problems involving integers and fractions at the beginning of grade
8 could do so at the end of that grade. This distinction between learning and achievement
is central to our efforts to improve educational quality. As Marilyn French (1985) has written:
Beyond reach
“Only extraordinary education is concerned with learning: most is concerned with achieving:
at present
and for young minds, these two are very nearly opposite. Learning is dedicated to experience;
achievement, to control” (p. 388).

ZPD
Implications for setting objectives

To examine change, we must look at things over time. To set appropriate and meaningful
objectives for tomorrow, then, we must know something about our students’ current Child’s
achievement. An objective that states that students will be able to explain the water cycle current
(evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and collection) assumes that they cannot explain achievement
it at the time the objective is set. In other words, achieving the objective will require some
change in knowledge and understanding of the water cycle. If students already have
mastered the objective before being taught, they may demonstrate that they have achieved
the objective, but they have learned nothing.

On the other hand, when the gap between students’ current achievement and the objectives Implications for teaching
we set is so large that it cannot be overcome in the available time and with the available
resources, the probability of reaching the objective is quite small. In this situation, failure to
reach the objective does not mean that learning has not occurred. Suppose, for example, our Almost a half century ago, David Ausubel, a pioneer in the study of meaningful learning,
objective is for grade 3 students to write coherent paragraphs. Further suppose that many made the following statement: Find out what a student knows and teach him accordingly.
students enter grade 3 not knowing how to write complete sentences. At the end of grade 3, Once teaching is defined in terms of student learning, the role of the teacher changes in
all of the students have learned to write complete sentences, but only a few are able to write several ways. First, the teacher does not control the class with rules and structure; rather,
coherent paragraphs. In this situation, the vast majority of the students will have learned the teacher collaborates with the students and provides direction and support. Second,
(by virtue of their increased skill in writing complete sentences), but only a minority will have the teacher’s focus shifts from himself or herself to the students. Rather than ask, “How
reached the objective (which pertained to writing coherent paragraphs). am I doing?”, the questions become: How are they doing? Are they “getting it”? Why are
they struggling with this concept? How can I help those students who are having difficulty?
In summary, if there is no gap between the present and the future, no learning can occur Good teaching is not so much a performing art as a process of helping students become
because the student has already mastered the objective. If the gap is too large, however, more actively engaged in their own learning. Third, teaching is much more than presenting
Chapter 1 24 25 Teaching for a change: perspectives & overview

information and giving assignments to students. Teaching involves helping students to at two points in time – before teaching and after teaching – and, therefore, examine how well
process information properly and complete assignments accurately and efficiently. students actually learned what was being taught and what they were expected to learn (your
When an objective is set in the ZPD (as shown in Figure 1.1), the teacher must provide objectives).
appropriate assistance (known as “scaffolding”) to give the students the “boost” they need to
reach the objective. Here are some things teachers can do to provide “scaffolding”. They can: Perhaps one of the best ways of assessing learning as opposed to achievement is to use a
portfolio, specifically a “process portfolio”. A portfolio is a systematic collection of student
● Ask questions; work and related material that represents a student’s accomplishments and achievements.
● Direct attention to overlooked bits of information, inconsistencies, Typically, the teacher, either alone or with consultation with the students, determines the
and anomalies; portfolio contents and the criteria to be used in evaluating the quality of work. As the name
● Model learning, inquiry, and problem solving strategies; suggests, a “process portfolio” documents the stages of learning and provides a progressive
● Offer useful hints; but, at the same time, record of student growth over time. Therefore, it is imperative that process portfolios are
● Interfere as little as possible. organised chronologically so that changes in learning can be observed. In addition to
showcasing student work, portfolios also provide opportunities for student reflection and self-
The use of the term “scaffolding” is important in that it conveys a temporary support evaluation, both of which are keys to becoming a lifelong learner.
structure. Once the student, with the benefit of scaffolding, reaches the objective, the
scaffolding can be removed to allow the student to move forward to the next objective.
Belief 3

Implications for assessing Teachers often work in conditions that make it

difficult to teach as well as they would
like or as well as they are able.
Most learning cannot be seen. It takes place in the minds of our students. To evaluate
learning, then, we must find ways of making the unobservable, observable. That is, we must
make inferences about learning from some type of behaviour or performance. Although A few years ago, I accepted an invitation to visit a new elementary school, a school that as
we hope to be able to make valid inferences about student learning, we may be misled by the principal described it was “state-of-the-art, technologically speaking”. I arrived at the
behaviour or performance from time to time. For example, we may see a student make a school about 45 minutes before the students were to arrive and received a personal tour of
perfect soccer pass to a teammate and infer that the student has mastered soccer passes. As the school. The entire school was wireless; there were banks of computers in each classroom.
we continue our observation, however, we see that most of his or her passes are off-target. Each classroom was equipped with a Smartboard. I was very impressed. Then, the children
They are too weak, too strong, or in the wrong direction. Based on multiple observations, we arrived. I went back through the school, beginning with the classrooms housing the youngest
are able to make more valid inferences. A single observation, on the other hand, often results children, aged 4. Their room was the largest in the school, with lots of space in which to
in a less reliable (and, hence, less valid) inference. move. As I went from classroom to classroom, I noticed that almost all the other classrooms
were the same size, about 90 square meters. I noticed two things. First, the children got
One of the real challenges of teaching is to find ways to observe, assess, and evaluate the larger. Second, there were more children in each classroom. By the time I reached grade 5
impact of our teaching on our students’ learning (see Chapter 7). Rather than assuming (ages 10 and 11), there were 28 students in each classroom. The aisles between the desks
that “my students will learn what they will learn regardless of what I do” and that “smarter were too narrow to move through without bumping or nudging a classmate. The computers
students will learn more than duller ones”, we should find out what they have and have not were pushed against a side wall and the Smart Board was pushed against the front wall. One
learned. Earlier, we suggested a fairly informal way of doing this by simply asking, “What did of the grade 5 teachers told me that she had numerous “discipline problems” (which, given
you learn today? This week? This term?” Rather than asking it orally, you can have students the physical situation, was to be expected). A second teacher told me that she would like
write it down in their own words on a small piece of paper. “In their own words” is important students to do more group work, but there “simply wasn’t enough space”.
because it is one way of differentiating meaningful learning from rote learning.
A lack of space resulting in overcrowded classrooms is but one of many constraints that
Of course, there are times when such informal assessment is insufficient and more formal teachers encounter as they try to teach the best that they can. Although the school in the
assessment methods are needed. When formal methods are used, however, the focus should example had a wealth of equipment and materials, these advantages were offset by a lack of
still be on learning, that is, change in achievement over time. physical space. In contrast, there are many schools that have a great deal of space, but have
insufficient or outdated equipment and materials. Other constraints impacting on teachers
For example, if you prepare an end-of-unit or end-of-course test, administer the test at the include governmental or school-level policies – policies governing the assignment of students
beginning of the unit/course as well as at the end. This will allow you to compare achievement to classes, the scheduling of classes, the disciplining of students, and testing and evaluating
Chapter 1 26 27 Teaching for a change: perspectives & overview

(grading) students. The list of constraints can go on and on; however, this brief list is sufficient BELIEF 4
to make the point. No teacher, regardless of the country or school in which he or she teaches,
is completely free of constraints that influence what he or she says, does, and accomplishes. THE TASK OF PROVIDING HIGH-QUALITY EDUCATION FOR
LARGE NUMBERS OF STUDENTS IS TOO LARGE FOR ANY SINGLE
Randy Pausch was a charismatic college professor at Carnegie Mellon University in the PERSON (e.G., ONE TEACHER) TO ACCOMPLISH.
United States. In August 2007, aged 47, he was told that he had pancreatic cancer and
that he had from three to six months of good health left. About a month later, he gave a
lecture entitled “The Last Lecture: Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams”. He died of “Accountability should be thought of as a collective responsibility for supporting learning by
complications from pancreatic cancer on July 25, 2008. Professor Pausch made several parents, principals, superintendents, school board members, and teachers, to say nothing
wonderful points in his lecture, but one stands out in my mind. He said: “You can’t control the of the students themselves. Holding teachers accountable for student achievement without
cards you are dealt, just how you play the hand.” So it is with teachers. Most of us cannot recognition of the roles played by other partners in the educational process is patently unfair
control the circumstances in which we find ourselves (that is, the cards we are dealt). But we and can amount to scapegoating. Likewise, requiring students to attend summer school, or
can control (and, I believe, have a moral obligation to control) “how we play the hand”.1 retaining them due to limited progress, avoids the collective nature of accountability if school
systems have not provided the quality of instruction necessary for students to meet grade level
This chapter began with several questions following a quote from American educator expectations” (Tucker & Stronge, 2005, p. 10).
Benjamin S. Boom. Two of these questions are repeated here. What are your expectations
for your students? What percent of your students do you expect to learn well, learn a little, Although an individual teacher can and does have a profound effect on an individual student,
or learn almost nothing? When I posed these questions earlier, I told you to answer honestly that teacher can only have a limited effect on the quality of the educational system as a whole.
because there were no right answers. I was using “right” in the sense of “correct”. But, let us Recent research in the United States indicates how the extremely positive effects of a single
shift the focus from “right-as-correct” to “morally right”. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary primary school teacher can be undone if the next three teachers a child has are not particularly
defines “right” as “being in accordance with what is just, good, or honorable”. Is it “just, good, good at their jobs. On the other hand, having three excellent teachers in a row tends to have
or honorable” for us, as teachers, to expect, say, one-half of our students to fail to learn? And, substantial and long-lasting positive effects on primary school children.
if it is, which half should we allow to fail?
This same research literature is replete with stories of the difficulty of teacher collaboration, the
Larry Cuban has provided his answer to this question. Even in the most difficult situations, problems involved in establishing meaningful and useful administrator-teacher relationships,
teachers are obliged to give sustained intellectual and moral attention to the learning and the lack of parent support and involvement, and the unpredictable governmental interference
growth of all students. This is the basis for inclusive educational practice (see Chapter 5). in the yearly and, oftentimes daily, operation of schools. Simply put, marshalling all of our
Intellectual attentiveness means concentrating on what students know, feel, and think about resources, although critically important for improving the quality of education our children and
the knowledge and skills to be learned and how they can use this knowledge to deepen their youth receive, is a very difficult thing to do. So, where do we start?
understanding of the world and the capacity to continue learning. Moral attentiveness, on
the other hand, means concentrating on helping students grow as persons; becoming more The most important first step is the creation of a positive and productive school culture, one
rather than less thoughtful about ideas, becoming more rather than less respectful of others’ that is based on a clear vision, a commitment to excellence, efficacy and collegiality, and
views, and becoming more rather than less responsible for reducing social injustice. Questions risk taking. What is a school culture? Walk into any school and talk with a few adults who
of what is fair, right, and just arise constantly in classrooms; students learn moral sensibilities work there and you can sense it immediately. The hallways may be sparkling clean or dirty
from how their teachers answer those questions, explicitly by what they say and implicitly by and cluttered. Students may carry themselves with poise and confidence or slouch away,
what they do. not wanting to look you in the eye. Teachers may talk about their work with intensity and
professionalism, or they may begin to complain almost immediately. There may be a sense of
This focus on the importance of teachers’ intellectual and moral responsibilities is not meant purpose or there may be a general aimlessness to action and conversation. Although there
to negate the fact that some schools make good teaching easier and some make it more are several definitions of the term, most sociologists define school culture as shared values,
difficult – some classrooms are easier to manage and others less so – some students are beliefs, and traditions that have been formed over the course of a school’s history and which
easier to teach and some provide a greater challenge to the teacher (see Chapter 2). As influence the thoughts and actions of everyone in the school community. The culture of a school
teachers, however, we must understand that these are the hands we are dealt. The real affects what people focus on, what they think is important, and where they are paying the most
questions before us are: How can we play the hands in ways that increase our chances of attention (see also Chapter 3).
being successful? How can we play our hands better? These are but two of the questions that
are addressed in this book. Positive, productive school cultures are characterised by four elements: A clear vision, a
commitment to excellence, efficacy and collegiality, and risk taking. A clear vision, accepted by all,
1 Professor Pausch was not the first to make this point. The author Robert Louis Stevenson put it this way: “Life is not a matter of holding good
cards, but of playing a poor hand well.”
describes where the school is headed in the future. Where do we want to be in five or 10 years?
Chapter 1 28 29 Teaching for a change: perspectives & overview

How are we going to get there? How are we going to know when we’ve arrived? Note that the The problem was not that they could not learn; the problem was that they could not see.
concept of vision is consistent with our emphasis on change throughout this book. A commitment Involving parents in their children’s education involves taking baby steps. And, by parent
to excellence means that there is no tolerance of failure on anyone’s part – teacher, administration, involvement, we do not mean getting parents to attend meetings at the school. The Center for
student, or custodian. Efficacy and collegiality have to do with (a) whether teachers believe Improving School Culture, located in a small town in Minnesota, has implemented the practice
and act as if they can achieve positive outcomes for students and (b) whether they support one of “parent prompts” or “learning notes”. Teachers were instructed to send notes to parents on a
another, working collaboratively to help make the vision a reality. Finally, we come to risk taking. weekly basis. One note read, for example, “We have just completed reading a story called ‘The
Any type of change is a risky business. Therefore, change requires risk takers and risk taking. And, Black Stallion’. Please ask your son or daughter what the story is about.” Another note read,
risk taking requires a level of trust in colleagues, students, and, particularly, administrators and “Jerome has just learned a good way to multiply by 9. Have him show you how.”
supervisors. Building trust takes time; trust grows through exchanges where the expectations
held for others are validated in action. No trust, no risk; no risk, no change. Vision provides the Ensuring student success over time requires communication among teachers at different
direction for change, commitment indicates that making the change is a high priority, and efficacy, grade levels and, in later school levels, teachers who teach different subjects. If we truly want
collegiality, and trust provide the conditions for change to occur. Risk taking – including trial-error- to improve the quality of our educational systems, we cannot place the burden on a single
and-revision – increases the individual and collective capacity to make change happen and sustain teacher. And, as a teacher, your influence on students over the long haul will be increased
the change once it has taken place. dramatically if you see yourself and act as a member of a larger community – one with the
best interests of all students in mind.
Those who live and work in schools are only some of the resources that are needed to
produce excellent schools (see Chapter 6). Educators need to look outside the walls of the
school. How do we get parents involved? How do we make better use of community resources How the book is organised
(e.g., libraries, museums, health services, local expertise)? How do we make connections with
community agencies and services? These are important questions because oftentimes the
source of student learning difficulties is outside the school walls. For example, in one study To understand the organisation of the book, close your eyes and imagine a set of file folders – old-
in rural South Carolina, we found that about 20% of the students had undetected vision style paper folders, not modern e-folders. Some of the file folders are larger than others in order to
problems. We arranged for optometrists and opticians to devote a half-day per month to accommodate the smaller ones. Each file folder has a label. Now look at Figure 1.2 and see how your
vision screening. We raised money to purchase glasses for those students who needed them. visualisation compares with our visualisation. Our visualisation, as shown in Figure 1.2, represents the
Within six weeks, the achievement of 75 percent of these students improved. organisational structure of the book.

Figure 1.2
Chapter 1 30 31 Teaching for a change: perspectives & overview

The largest folder is labelled “Social Context and School Culture”. This folder contains the Change is difficult and change is not linear. The diagram below shows the difference between
policies, procedures, values, expectations, and constraints that impact on schools in general the way we would like things to be (on the left) and the way things really are (on the right).
(social context) and your classroom in particular (school culture). The next largest folder
is labelled “Learning Environment”. This contains the physical, social, and psychological

Success
environment in place in your classroom. The next four folders are the same size – objectives,
instruction, learning resources, and assessment. These folders contain the tools, tactics,
equipment, and materials you need to set your objectives, teach your students, make and
use resources to support teaching and learning, and assess your students in terms of their
progress toward, and attainment of, your objectives. The final folder is labelled “Alignment”.
This folder addresses the importance of making certain that all the pieces fit together –
horizontally, at one point in time; vertically, over time; and externally, in terms of mandated
curriculum, tests, and accountability measures. Each label corresponds with one of the
chapters in the book, beginning at Chapter 2, “Social Context and School Culture” and
ending with Chapter 8, “Alignment”.

With the exception of Chapters 2, 9, and 10, each chapter is organised around a set of
recommendations, generally four or five per chapter. One of the recommendations from
the Learning Environments chapter, for example, is to “create personalised learning
environments in which students feel a sense of belonging and a sense of well being”.
Following each recommendation are some suggestions for how to implement it in your
classroom. Note that each recommendation begins with a verb. This format is chosen
purposefully to emphasise the need to take action, rather than just talk about or think
about things.

A complete list of the recommendations is shown in Table 1.1. The underline page number
below each recommendation indicates the page number on which the discussion of
that recommendation begins. In this way, you can use the entries in Table 1.1 the way What people think it looks like What it really looks like
you would use an index of a book. That is, if you are particularly interested in a specific
recommendation or if you believe that you can definitely improve in a particular area, you
can focus your reading on those pages rather than read through the book from cover to Attempts to change are not always successful right away. Mistakes are made. If we learn
cover. Hopefully, this formatting technique will increase both the usefulness and use of the from those mistakes, however, we will quite likely achieve the level of success we are seeking.
book to help you improve the quality of your teaching. Change takes courage to begin and patience to see it through to the end.

Finally, there is a common belief among the authors that all teachers can do a better job
Concluding comments teaching than they are now doing. The recommendations offered by the authors of the
various chapters are the changes they believe to be the most important as you strive to be
better today than you were yesterday. It is our sincere hope that every teacher who reads this
“Teachers who know something about the learning process can’t help being engaged by the book will take something away from it – an idea, a tactic, a strategy – something that will
intellectual challenge of seeing if they can improve the impact of their teaching on students’ help them become better teachers.
learning” (Cross, 2005, p.8).

Learning is defined as a change in achievement over time. Objectives indicate the ways in
which we intend students to change. Teaching occurs only when students do change. Societal
changes require changes in teaching and learning. The need to change is most likely to be
evident when there is a discrepancy between our expectations and reality AND when we truly
believe that the changes we make as teachers will improve our lives as well as those of our
students. Ultimately, this book is about change.
Chapter 1 32 33 Teaching for a change: perspectives & overview

Table 1.1 Complete set of recommendations

Chapter RECOMMENDATIONS Chapter RECOMMENDATIONS

3 5
1. Design classrooms that have student learning as the primary focus, 1. Create scenarios rather than write lesson plans.
promote student engagement in learning, and eliminate barriers to Page 101
learning. 2. Design learning situations that actively engage students in the process
Page 55 of learning.
2. Create personalised learning environments, where students feel a Page 105
sense of belonging and a sense of well-being. 3. Empower your students.
Page 58 Page 113
3. Manage class size, forming groups or teams of students as necessary 4. Be your own supervisor.
to create a workable, productive learning environment. Page 115
Page 59 5. “Read” your students and make adjustments in your instruction
4. Promote positive classroom behaviour, dealing with misbehaviour and accordingly.
disruptive behaviour effectively and efficiently. Page 118
Page 62
5. Create a physical environment that is responsive to the needs of your
students and appropriate for facilitating learning with respect to the
objectives. Chapter RECOMMENDATIONS

6
Page 67
1. Be aware of the variety of learning resources that exist in and out of
school.
Page 129
2. Select learning resources that are (a) aligned with the learning
objectives, (b) supportive of your teaching-learning activities, and (c)
appropriate for your students in terms of their prior knowledge, previous
Chapter RECOMMENDATIONS

4
experience, ages, or developmental levels.
1. Write objectives in a standard format to facilitate communication between Page 132
and among teachers, students, and other stakeholders. 3. Locate a variety of learning resources to meet diverse needs and
Page 78 learning styles of the students in your classroom.
2. Design courses that include objectives in multiple domains in order to ensure Page 137
that our educational system produces well-rounded students. 4. Make learning resources “come to life”; remember that it is you, the
Page 83 teacher, who decides how the resources are used to create stimulating
3. Use a systematic method to write objectives for units and lessons. learning environments and shape what students learn.
Page 87 Page 138
4. When focusing on the cognitive domain, include objectives that emphasise 5. Use technology appropriately and effectively to support teaching,
different levels of cognitive processing. enhance learning opportunities, and increase the chances for learning
Page 90 success.
5. Inform students of the learning objectives so they can (a) make sense of Page 150
classroom activities, (b) direct their effort appropriately, and (c) monitor their
progress toward the objective.
Page 92
Chapter 1 34 35 Teaching for a change: perspectives & overview

Sources / CHAPTER 1

READINGS

Ausubel, D. P. (1968) Cross, K. P. (2005) Pausch, R. (2008)

Chapter RECOMMENDATIONS

7
Educational psychology: On college teaching. CSHE The last lecture.
1. Base your assessments primarily on your learning objectives, matching A cognitive view. New York: Holt, Research & Occasional Paper Series New York: Hyperion Books.
the level or type of objectives with appropriate forms of assessment. Rinehart & Winston. (CSHE.15.05). Retrieved October 23,
Page 160 2012 from http://escholarship.org/uc/ Tucker, P. & Stronge, J. (2005)
2. Select assessment tools and techniques based on the purpose for Bloom, B. S. (1968) tem/2mg0z2vn. Linking teacher evaluation and
which you are assessing your students. Learning for mastery. Evaluation student achievement. Alexandria,
Page 164 Comment, 1(2) (entire). Cuban, L. (2001) VA: ASCD.
3. Teach your students self-assessment and self-evaluation strategies Thoughts on teaching, 2001.
and techniques. Bloom, B. S. (Ed.), Englehart, M. B., Retrieved October 23, 2012 from UNESCO (2003)
Page 166 Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, http://larrycuban.wordpress. Toward knowledge societies:
4. Use the results of formal assessments to understand student strengths D. R. (1956) com/2011/01/02/thoughts-on- An interview with Abdul Waheed
and weaknesses and to make improvements in your teaching. Taxonomy of educational objectives: teaching-2001/. Khan. Retrieved October 23, 2012
Page 174 Handbook I. Cognitive domain. New from http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/
5. Provide students with adequate and detailed feedback that enables York: David McKay. French, M. (1985) ev.php-URL_ID=11958&URL_DO=DO_
them to correct errors and misunderstandings and improve their learning Beyond Power: On Women, Men, and TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html.
in the future. Chaiklin, S. (2003) Morals. New York: Ballantine Books.
Page 177 The zone of proximal development in Weiner, B. (1986)
Vygotsky’s analysis of learning and Mayer, R. E. (2002) An attributional theory of motivation
instruction. In A. Kozulin, Rote versus meaningful learning. and emotion. New York: Springer-
B. Gindis, V. Ageyev, & S. Miller (Eds.) Theory into Practice, 41, 226-232. Verlag.
Vygotsky’s educational theory
and practice in cultural context
Chapter RECOMMENDATIONS (pp.39-64). Cambridge: Cambridge

8
University Press.
1. Understand the three major types of alignment – horizontal, vertical,
and external.
Page 190
2. Estimate the degree of horizontal alignment, making changes as
necessary to improve alignment.
Page 192
3. Be aware of the extent of vertical alignment, working with other
teachers to improve vertical alignment as necessary.
Page 195
4. If you work in an educational system that is impacted greatly by
external factors and constraints (see Chapters 1 and 2), learn how to
use national curricula, learning resources prepared by ministries of
education, and, particularly, international test data to examine and
increase external alignment.
Page 197
Chapter 2 38 39

schooling & learning

in modern
democratic societIes
andreas dEmEtriou

CHAPTER 2
Chapter 2 40 41 Schooling and learning in modern democratic societies

Formal education has always had a dual purpose; namely to foster the development of The European Union (EU), which is at its early beginnings, is guided by explicit and implicit
children and adolescents so they are able to succeed as adults and to contribute to the goals that may be in conflict with national priorities. For example, the goal of developing
smooth functioning of the state and society. As a consequence, decisions about education European citizens is often approached with caution and mistrust by people and organisations
have always been politically motivated to a greater or lesser degree. The orientation in many European countries. As yet, there is no acceptable answer to the question of how or
and priorities of education have been and continue to be shaped by the orientations and to what degree a European identity would be integrated with a national or a local identity.
priorities of larger society as well as the orientation and priorities of other institutions How many different layers of a European identity are acceptable and how are the layers
within society. interconnected and prioritised? How can tolerance and respect for differences among
individuals and groups coexist with the cohesion and integration necessary for any group to
The political nature of education has been evident since ancient times. Reading, writing, and function effectively and efficiently? How, if at all, can the ideal of informed, critical, reflexive,
arithmetic were taught in the ancient kingdoms of Mesopotamia to facilitate transactions flexible, self-determinable, and self-realisable citizens be made compatible with the ideal of
between agricultural producers and enable the king to follow and regulate these transactions. stability, continuation, and tradition? Answers to these questions vary depending upon the
Chinese emperors regulated the education of the mandarins to ensure that they had the history, the culture, the local conditions, and the size of each member state. Finding answers to
knowledge and skills necessary to run the empire. This education included the teachings of these questions is likely to be particularly difficult in countries where national integrity and/or
Confucius on the assumption that they would enable the mandarins to deal with people and national identity are still debated or in danger. In Greece, for instance, there has always been
problems with wisdom and justice. In ancient Athens, education aimed to provide abstract some insecurity towards the concept of a European community because many Greeks believed
knowledge and develop skills for argumentation and reasoning that would enable citizens to that their religion, values, or traditions might be lost in favor of Western values and traditions
participate in decision making for the benefit of the democratic state (Gardner, Kornhaber, & (Stavridi-Patrikiou, 2007). In Cyprus, there is an ongoing discussion as to whether and to what
Wake, 1991; Nisbett, 2003). extent the establishment and the success of the state of Cyprus will eventually compromise
Greek identity (among the Greek Cypriots) or Turkish identity (among the Turkish Cypriots) in
In today’s world, states and societies are very different from those of the ancient world. order to achieve a Cypriot identity. These problems are no less important in the countries that
States and societies have been increasingly open and are governed by multilayer authorities emerged from the former Yugoslavia or the former Soviet Union.
with a limited mandate and mutually balanced powers. Distance no longer constrains
interactions and networking between and among people. As a result, people differing in This state of affairs interferes extensively with policy making and planning in education. At any
convictions, beliefs, cultures, and languages may inform and influence each other at the blink moment, even under the best of intentions on the part of a government, serious decisions about
of an eye. Transactions are increasingly automated and wealth is as much logistic as it is real. education are disputed and challenged by other stakeholders, agents, or societal institutions.
In the world of today, knowledge is perpetually expanding and being revised. New products, In a sense, conflicts about educational policies originate from a fear on the part of forces
goods, and services quickly replace those of yesterday, forcing people to change their habits opposing the current government that education is being used as a disguise for the long-term
of conduct and mind. The right of the individual for self-determination and self-realisation settlement of current political issues in the direction of the political party in power. In various
has become increasingly important, especially in Europe. countries there are political parties or societal institutions, such as the church, which dispute the
development of new curricula in several subjects, such as history, language, or religion, on the
As a result of these many changes, the aims of education are much more complicated basis of a fear that these changes are aimed at reorienting the citizenry in those countries to
than they were in the past. Education is now addressed, ideally, to everyone. Everyone other traditions or identities. There have been cases in different countries that new curricula or
must be able to (a) keep up with and evaluate new information and knowledge, (b) books in these sensitive subjects were scrapped or even burned in public.
command the rapid flow of information and interpersonal communication, (c) move
from one set of products and services to another quickly and efficiently, (d) work in a Teachers have always been considered the main agents of the implementation of policies
multilayered environment, and (e) tolerate and respect differences among individuals in education. In many countries, however, the selection and education of teachers may
and groups and capitalise on them. There is an increasing amount of research evidence have been politically motivated to ensure that those who become teachers willingly
to suggest that countries or regions within countries in which these aims have been endorse their roles as the guardians of a particular political orientation. This is not the case
adopted are more likely to be stable and prosperous and to allow talent, technology, and any longer in most European countries. There still are, however, implicit expectations for
tolerance to flourish. teachers that they will conform to the dominant social norms. This situation makes life as
an educator difficult. It is difficult to work to implement educational policies, when debates
However benign these aims may seem to many of us, they tend to be interpreted differently about those policies are cast in black and white dichotomies of wrong and right and where
by different people and stakeholder groups. Based on the particular interpretation, they may the views of opponents are mutually demonised. It is even more difficult to take sides in
or may not be accepted unconditionally. In democracies, different parties and organisations countries where emotionally charged debates coexist with political favoritism. Favoritism
compete for the priorities and orientations of society in general and education specifically. may endanger teachers’ prospects within the system, or at least lead to fear that such
These competitions tend to be more intense in nations where the basic orientations of society might be the case. In light of the previous discussion, we, as educators, must be constantly
are neither settled nor commonly accepted. aware of both our responsibilities as agents of change and progress and our rights as
Chapter 2 42 43 Schooling and learning in modern democratic societies

citizens of modern European democracies. In fact, our role as agents of broader change not uncommon in clientele-based systems, where appointment to a position within the
in society is absolutely vital and an acceptance of that role requires courage to withstand administration is often based on political alliances rather than on merit. In such systems,
threat, real or imaginary. Moreover, we must also be aware that we are frequently “used” in favors are expected to be paid back.
the name of education for a variety of hidden political agendas, many of which are foreign
to education. Changes in education often conflict with the values, habits or self-interests of one or more
stakeholder groups. For example, changes in the ways that teachers are evaluated and
promoted, in an attempt to improve the overall quality of the teaching force, are frequently
Bureaucracy and corporatism in education rejected by teacher unions because they run contrary to tradition or they make the work of
teaching more demanding. In turn, the friction between the government and the teachers
caused by these changes is exploited by outside forces that have their own political
Modern systems of education are vast bureaucratic systems. These systems are governed agendas, which may or may not be related to the problem itself. In my term of service
by numerous laws and rules that regulate the content and methods of teaching; the duties, as Minister of Education in Cyprus, it proved to be extremely difficult to pass legislation
rights, and responsibilities of the teachers; and what the administrations, including the concerning the evaluation of teachers, because of the power of teacher unions and the
Minister and the government, can do and how they can do it. Legislation pertaining to relations between the union leadership and members of the opposition. Consider another
education exists in multiple layers, with one layer frequently clashing with another. This problem that I faced in Cyprus, namely, the relative re-distribution of teaching time across
clash is more likely to occur when the laws and rules have been legislated at different the various school subjects in order to properly implement a new curriculum. This change
periods of time by governments with different orientations and priorities. This legislation has also proved very difficult and has not been implemented after four years of discussion.
defines the context and the constraints in which political leaders and policy makers interact Groups of teachers, such as those teaching mathematics or second languages, have
with educators, administrators, and many others. strongly opposed the changes and have enlisted the support of political parties to exert
pressure on the Ministry. The irony here is that virtually everyone was in agreement that the
Education is served by a very complex administrative structure, involving multiple layers changes were needed and were likely to be beneficial.
and departments. Education ministries are, in principle, administrative structures serving
the implementation of the political will of the people as expressed through an elected The role of the media deserves special mention. They are themselves part of the complex
government. Obviously, nobody would dispute this principle in modern democratic states. network of social, economic, and political forces that operate in modern democracies.
However, reality is much more complicated than principles. Administrative bureaucracies Moreover, many of them are frequently interconnected with parties or politicians, very often
are constrained by strong inertial forces coming from habitual ways of dealing with in disguise, to channel information and interpretation of events in particular directions. The
problems. A very common response to the question of why a particular practice is in place ultimate aim is the “manufacturing of consent” (Herman & Chomsky, 2008) in the direction
in a school or district is “because we’ve always done it that way!” As a result, when the favored. Although populism has always been part of political life, the media in the modern
pace of change effected by a government is faster than what the administrative system can world are the main tool of populism. Politicians very often compete with each other in
absorb, change may be halted and remain on paper, even when no hidden political agenda proposing populist measures because these are more easily picked up by the media. The
is involved. media, for their part, invest in populist politicians and policies because they increase their
viewership. As a result, the reality-show style of policy making dominates in many modern
Yet hidden agendas are frequently present. They may come either from within the system, media as a method for analysing complex political issues.
in cases when change seems to endanger the power balance among administrators
working at different levels in the system, or from connections between the administration This approach may easily undermine and distort any attempt for change, however serious
and agents in society who oppose the will of the government. An example of a “within- it is, especially with respect to “hot” political issues. For example, discussions about what
system” hidden agenda is a change in the organisation of the services and sections in an to include in (or exclude from) a nation’s history and whether there should be a state-
education ministry. These changes are frequently opposed by local school administrators sanctioned language are frequently portrayed by the media as part of a conspiracy theory
who see them as a criticism or a challenge rather than an opportunity for the improvement that hidden global dark forces threaten the very existence of the nation. Obviously, when
of everyone involved. An example of an “external” hidden agenda is a systematic attempt the political context becomes very negative, the implementation of meaningful change in
by local administrators to halt the planned changes by working in cooperation with forces education is next to impossible. This state of affairs contributes to teachers’ hesitancy to
outside the system. This attempt may take several forms. Administrators may leak or take initiative. There is evidence that even risk-taking teachers are fearful of the school
distort information to the media (or forces of the opposition), as a pre-emptive attack administration and the media – and powerful parents as well – for the possible dangers
on the planned changes. Alternatively, they may slow down the implementation of the they may present (Hoplarou, 2010). There are situations and settings in which teachers
planned changes in order to increase the time opposition forces have to prepare and take can more freely show initiative and ingenuity. One of the most important of these is the
dynamic action. These practices, which undermine the very essence of democracy, are learning process itself.
Chapter 2 44 45 Schooling and learning in modern democratic societies

New learning science, new technologies, Consider energy, for example, a central concept in different disciplines. At the preschool
and educational change and the early primary school levels, children can grasp the simpler concepts involved in
understanding energy (e.g., motion and interaction between one’s body and objects in
actions such as pulling and pushing). As they progress through upper elementary and
Changes in technological infrastructures and teaching methods are generally easier secondary schools, students can grasp more abstract concepts that help them understand
to make than are changes in the larger, more politically laden areas mentioned above. energy in relationship with other concepts and frameworks (e.g., kinetic energy, energy
Furthermore, it is generally accepted that changes in technology and teaching pay transfer, gravity). In their college or university years, some students may grasp overarching
dividends in terms of teaching quality and learning effectiveness. In fact, the importance scientific models in which the concept of energy is embedded, such as the theory of
of new technologies and new teaching methods is part and parcel of the design and relativity. We now understand that more abstract (so-called higher-level) concepts can
implementation of so-called “knowledge societies”. Moreover, at least on the surface, be grasped when more concrete (so-called lower-order) concepts are fully integrated. To
teachers and administrators are generally positive towards such changes. However, teach the concept of energy properly, then, you should first ensure that students grasp the
endorsing the need for such changes and making the changes are two different things. lower-level component concepts in primary school. Next, you must help students construct
Making and, particularly, sustaining these changes require high levels of expertise on the higher-level, increasingly abstract concepts that define energy by the beginning of
the part of large numbers of people. They also require coordination among experts secondary school. Later, when the abstract concepts are mastered, students can be helped
from different subject fields and academic disciplines. Finally, they require long-term to construct the integrated general concept of energy as understood by physicists. To fully
commitment by government leaders, which is especially difficult in the succession of understand the integrated general concept of energy, however, you must engage students
different ministers and governments. in interdisciplinary thinking (e.g. how evolution solved the energy problem in different life
forms, such as plants and animals) and societal usefulness (e.g. how discoveries about
We currently are in a transition period of our understanding of learning (see Chapter 5). energy can help to solve the pollution problem).
In the past several years, there have been several new discoveries in the science of
learning as well as in the information and computer technologies that can provide an In today’s world, cognitive and developmental scientists, computer scientists, and
efficient interface between these discoveries and the teachers who must understand educators specialising in the didactics of different fields can cooperate in the creation of
and apply them in their classrooms. Specifically, cognitive, developmental, and learning inclusive and integrated curricula, resources that assist teachers in implementing these
sciences have progressed quite rapidly in mapping the understanding and problem- curricula, and interactive computer technologies that can be used to create intelligent
solving capabilities of individuals at different ages (Demetriou et al., 2010, 2011; learning environments in which the curricula are taught that accommodate and make
Vosniadou, 2008). We also have a greater understanding of the factors that cause adjustments for differences among learners. To date, the interactions between and among
individual differences in overall cognitive development and intra-individual differences these different groups of scientists and educators have been superficial and cursory. For
in learning in different subject or academic domains (Demetriou et al., 2011). As a example, the new discoveries about learning derived from the cognitive sciences have not
consequence, we now are able to design curricula that respect developmental constraints yet reached the education of teachers, curriculum developers, or educational technology
of understanding while at the same time provide teachers with the means and flexibility designers. Without greater cooperation and sharing of ideas and information, many
to accommodate student differences in their prior content knowledge and rate of learning resources and much time are wasted. It is not uncommon in the educational systems of
(Anderson, 2001; Demetriou et al, 2011). many countries to spend money on computer technologies or on the transfer of books
to computer screens, with the expectation that learning will improve as a result of
Computer applications are becoming “mind tools”, capable of engaging students in a wide this single intervention. We know that this does not happen. For technology to exert a
variety of complex critical- and creative-thinking tasks. There is increasing evidence that positive influence on student learning, we need a wise, powerful, cohesive, and long-term
special technology-based learning environments can contribute to raising intelligence itself. policy that is developed by representatives from all major stakeholder groups. We also
There are, for example, programs for improving attention, cognitive flexibility, working need a strategic plan for implementing the policy in our schools and classrooms, with
memory, planning, and reasoning (Demetriou et al., 2011). Technology-based learning an emphasis on initial teacher education, professional development, and access to the
environments currently exist in which demanding scientific concepts and phenomena can learning resources that are needed for proper implementation.
be presented in age-appropriate and person-appropriate ways. These dynamic learning
environments have been found to enhance students’ understanding of specific concepts, As was mentioned in Chapter 1 and will be addressed in greater detail in Chapter 5, we
such as gravity and energy in physics, evolution and heredity in biology, and democracy, must lead our students to think critically. Critical thinking is a complex concept, one that
ideology, and politics in the social sciences (Linn & Eylon, 2011). requires students to:

Based on theories and evidence from developmental cognitive science, learning ● Focus on relevant information and ignore irrelevant information;
environments can be designed that facilitate conceptual change over time, catering ● Scan, compare, and select information according to the goal or purpose;
to developmental and individual student variations within and across school levels. ● Represent what is chosen in a cohesive manner (e.g., using models) and make
Chapter 2 46 47 Schooling and learning in modern democratic societies

connections with existing knowledge; Sources / CHAPTER 2

● Evaluate models in terms of available and needed evidence;
READINGS
● Reason by deduction to evaluate truth and validity of models and conclusions;
● Examine the consistency of the information with current beliefs, theories, and
Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Gardner, H., Kornhaber, M. L., & Nisbett, R. E. (2003)
dominant views; and,
Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Wake, W. K. (1996) The geography of thought: How
● Encode, symbolise, and embed new knowledge with respect to current knowledge
Mayer, R. E., Pintrich, P. R., Raths, J., Intelligence: Multiple perspectives. Asians and Westerners think
and frameworks, adapting the latter if needed.
& Wittrock, M. C. (2001) New York: Harcourt Brace. differently and why. New York: The
A taxonomy for learning, teaching, Free Press.
In short, as teachers, we must find ways of helping each student develop as a person and
and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Herman, E. S., & Chomsky, N. (2008)
as a productive member of a democratic society in an ever-changing world. This is a far
taxonomy of educational objectives. Manufacturing consent. Stavridi-Patrikiou, R. (2007)
greater challenge than preparing students for particular jobs or occupations.
New York: Longman. London: The Bodley Head. The fears of a century. Athens:
Metechmio.
Demetriou, A., Mouyi, A., & Hoplarou, R. (2010)
Conclusions: who is in control?
Spanoudis, G. (2010) How far can teachers across divided Vosniadou, S. (Ed.). (2008)
The development of mental Cyprus get? Teachers’ accounts of International handbook of research
processing. In W. F. Overton (Ed.), teaching controversial events. Paper on conceptual change. London:
The ideas advanced throughout this chapter suggest that control of education in modern
Biology, cognition and methods presented at the 21st International Routledge.
democracies is distributed over time, organisations and institutions, and persons. In a sense,
across the life-span. Volume 1 of the Conference of Historical Sciences.
to some extent, the future is always a captive of the past and trapped in the present. This is
Handbook of life-span development Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
especially true for nations with unresolved national disputes, where the main actors are, one
(pp. 306-343), Editor-in-chief: R. M.
way or another, part of the ongoing cultural disputes. In this context, change in education
Lerner. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Linn, M. C., Eylon, B.-S. (2011)
is always an unstable endeavor. Our leaders – governmental and/or educational – may be
Science learning and instruction:
rejected at any time if the balance of power tilts in the direction of their opponents.
Demetriou A., Spanoudis G., & Taking advantage of technology to
Mouyi A. (2011) promote knowledge integration.
As teachers we obviously are not in control of legislative or large-scale institutional change
Educating the developing mind: London: Routledge.
in education. However, we definitely are in control of the teaching-learning process in our
Towards an overarching paradigm.
classrooms. In fact, no one understands a particular group of students and commands the
Educational Psychology Review, 23,
learning environment better than the classroom teacher. As teachers, we have power that
4, 601-663.
can be used to truly make a difference in our students’ learning. We can use our ingenuity,
knowledge, and skills to at least partially offset the limitations of the education system. We
can use our commitment and motivation to compensate for weaknesses in society, thereby
sharing the passion necessary to free youth from the burdens of society and self-doubt.

We can do these things, but will we? Maintaining the status quo is far easier than spending
time and energy on changes in the way we think about and practice teaching. Teacher
education programs may teach prospective teachers to list and follow orders – to “fly low”
and not be noticed. Some forces in society may direct our vision to the dark sides of the
past, rather than the bright future of possibilities. When political and cultural disputes turn
into reality TV shows, we need to turn our attention to the brightest moments in the history
of humanity and civilisation for inspiration. And above all, when all else fails or when we get
discouraged, we need to turn to the eyes of our students; they look in the right direction!
50 51

Learning
environments
Dimitris D. Mavroskoufis

CHAPTER 3
Chapter 3 52 53 Learning environments

The aim of delivering effective, stimulating, and high-quality learning experiences for students Table 3.1
is an essential part of every school system, and the achievement of this aim is crucial to the Contrasts between climate and culture
success not only of the institution, but of every student in attendance. One critical component
of the learning experience is the quality of the environments in which students live, work,
and learn. When we speak of the environment, we are considering the term in a broad sense, Climate Culture
including the physical environment, the emotional environment (created by the feelings and
Mood of the group Personality of the group
needs of the students and of the teacher), the social environment (created by the interpersonal
relations among students and between the students and the teacher), and the academic
Provides a state of mind Provides a way of thinking
environment (defined primarily in terms of learning expectations and the diversity of students in
terms of their entry-level knowledge and skills).
Flexible, fairly easy to change Takes time, perhaps years, to change

Overcrowded classrooms and insufficient learning resources make it more difficult to teach and Based on perceptions Based on values, norms, and beliefs
learn. These are deficiencies in the physical environment. When students experience stress and
anxiety in their daily lives, it is more difficult for them to concentrate. These are problems in the Feel it when you come in the door Cannot be felt, must be understood
emotional environment. If students feel excluded by others in the class, learning can suffer. This
is a problem with the social environment. Finally, if students are disinterested in or bored with It is around us It is part of who we are
the subject being taught, there is likely to be a lack of motivation that is difficult to overcome.
These are problems with the academic environment. How often do we give serious thought to The way we feel around here The way we do things around here
all four environments as we formulate our teaching plans? And, even when we do think about
these issues, do we believe that we can change them? First step to improvement Determines whether improvement is possible

As teachers we must be attentive to the changes that we can make to create learning
environments in which all students (a) feel a sense of belonging, (b) become engaged in the Although conceptually distinct, culture and climate are interactive aspects of an educational
learning process, and (c) consistently achieve at a high level. We can begin by asking a series system. Consequently, changes in one often produce changes in the other. Climate is the main
of questions about our current classroom environment. leverage point for culture, which means that if school administrators and teachers want to shape
a new culture, they probably should start with an assessment of the climate. Similarly, if the
● Do our students feel safe? culture is ineffective, there are probably climate issues that were missed before they became
● Do our students experience a sense of belonging? rooted in the culture.
● Does the environment motivate students to do their best?
● Is the environment supportive of the learning process? Although the terms “school culture or climate” and “classroom culture or climate” are often
● Does the environment accommodate students with different learning used interchangeably, they do differ in what might be called the “unit of concern”. Because
backgrounds and needs? classrooms typically exist within schools, the school culture and school climate often affect the
classroom culture and classroom climate. If, for example, there is an acceptance of misbehaviour
There is much we can do to positively impact the learning environment and make it possible by school administrators, it is often difficult for teachers to expect more positive behaviour in their
for each and every student to reach his or her full potential. In this chapter, you will find five classrooms. If passing grades are seen as acceptable by most teachers in the school, it may be
recommendations concerning how best to do this. Before we get to these recommendations, difficult for a single teacher to demand more than passing grades from his or her students. As was
however, a few definitions are in order. true of the relationship between culture and climate, then, a complex interaction exists between
schools and classrooms, with the school environment often influencing the classroom environment.
“Culture” and “climate” are two terms often used to describe learning environments. The culture
is the shared values, norms, and beliefs that characterise a group or organisation, whether an entire How can you judge the health of a school or classroom culture? The Centre for Improving School
school or a single classroom within the school. Climate, on the other hand, refers to the “feel” of Culture has identified three criteria.
a school or classroom. Climate sometimes is referred to as atmosphere, ecology, ambience, and
milieu. Unlike culture, which is quite stable over time, climate can (and does) vary from day to day 1) Collaboration. People work together, share information about instructional and learning
and from school to school, even schools within the same district. If the principal brings doughnuts to methods and tactics, and are encouraged to have constructive discussions and debates.
the teachers’ lounge on Friday, the climate might change that day. If the principal brings doughnuts
every Friday for a year, that behaviour will become part of the culture as an unwritten expectation. 2) Collegiality. People have a sense of belonging, believe they receive emotional support as
Table 3.1 illustrates some of the major differences between climate and culture. necessary, and see themselves as valued members of the school or class.
Chapter 3 54 55 Learning environments

3) Efficacy. People believe they control their destinies as opposed to being helpless victims of Recommendation 1
“the system”. They are open to learning from experience and research rather than adhering
rigidly to the status quo. Design classrooms that have student learning as
the primary focus, promote student engagement in learning,
With respect to judging the health of school and classroom climates, a similar set of criteria and eliminate barriers to learning.
can be derived from the research literature.

1) Morale, safety, and mutual trust and respect. Teachers and students enjoy working and Of the factors that influence student learning, motivation is surely one of the most potent.
learning. Their interactions are positive and supportive. They feel a sense of safety and Teachers can have either a positive or negative effect on student motivation. Focusing on
security, and they trust and respect one another. student learning, promoting student engagement in learning, and eliminating barriers to
learning are three ways in which teachers can motivate students to put forth the necessary
2) Personal development. Both teachers and students have opportunities for personal growth effort and, ultimately, facilitate their learning.
and self-enhancement. Everyone is expected to take advantage of those opportunities and
engage in continuous improvement efforts.
Focusing on Student Learning
3) System maintenance and change. There is a dual focus on stability (maintenance) and
change. Rules and expectations are clarified and followed. At the same time, however, people
have a responsibility to make changes when necessary to improve the climate and its impact Once enrolled in a course, secondary students tend to adopt one of two orientations: a
on students and teachers. grade orientation (working to earn a certain grade) or a learning orientation (working to
improve their knowledge and skills). Those with a grade orientation are also interested in
4) Goal-orientation. Goals are clearly stated and communicated to everyone. The environment learning to a certain degree, but they have come to the realisation that the real currency
is purposeful, businesslike, and task-oriented. Competition is used as needed to increase of the educational marketplace is the grade they earn, not what they learn. Several
motivation. studies have compared “grade-oriented” students with “learning-oriented” students. In
general, the “learning-oriented” students work very hard, persist in the face of difficulty
Both culture and climate impact upon students in a number of ways. For example, students’ and frustration, and are willing to take risks. On the other hand, “grade-oriented”
perceptions of the strictness of classroom management and the fairness of teachers’ students are less likely to persist if they make an error, are less willing to try to learn new
actions influence their behaviour. Similarly, culture and climate influence attendance, things (preferring instead to perform tasks they know they can do), and want to avoid
student engagement, and self-efficacy, which, in turn, influence academic learning, social appearing ignorant or incompetent. Table 3.2 contrasts “learning-oriented” students with
and emotional development, and the overall quality of school life. Students in classrooms “grade-oriented” students.
perceived by them as having greater cohesion and more goal-direction are likely to learn
more. All of these impacts are stronger for students from low-income families and groups
that are often marginalised. Table 3.2
Contrasts between “learning-oriented” students
With “inclusion” being a current emphasis in education in most countries, there is a need for and “grade-oriented” students
schools to develop a positive and supportive climate that responds to the diverse needs of
all. To become inclusive, schools need to reduce barriers to learning by restructuring cultures
and climates and instituting policies and practices that are beneficial to all students. A
major issue to emerge from schools that have been successful in creating a more inclusive Learning-Oriented Grade-Oriented
atmosphere is the emphasis placed on developing more positive relationships between
teachers and students by having teachers listen to students and value their opinions. Main interest is in mastering the Main interest is in appearing competent or
content and objectives better than others to earn acceptable grades

Making and sustaining meaningful changes in culture and climate require a great deal of time
Willing to take on difficult tasks Sticks to tasks that are familiar and can be
and effort. In the case of school culture and climate, a fairly large number of people must be
beyond present capability accomplished with minimal effort
involved. In the case of classroom culture and climate, the responsibility often rests with a
single teacher. Research suggests, however, that these changes, when made, tend to motivate Views mistakes as learning opportunities Views mistakes as evidence of a lack of
teachers and students to work harder and do their jobs (that is, teaching and learning) better, competence and therefore to be avoided
thereby impacting the entire educational system.
Chapter 3 56 57 Learning environments

When asked, most teachers tend to prefer to teach “learning-oriented” students, supporting ● Provide instruction that is interactive (that is, is characterised by give-and-take of
the importance of creating learning environments that focus on student learning. What can information, ideas, and opinions) and encourages students to construct knowledge
you do to create such a learning environment? in meaningful ways (rather than parrot back what someone else said or wrote).
Such instruction often requires conversations in small group settings, with changes
● Be a learner, not a fount of knowledge. If students see that their teachers do not in group membership as the need arises (so-called “flexible grouping”).
know everything and must and do learn new things every day, it helps to create a ● Create an environment in which reasonable risk-taking is not only encouraged but
“culture of learning” within the classroom. If a student asks a question, rather than expected. In such an environment, there is a tolerance for errors and mistakes and
give the answer, you can respond by saying, “That’s an interesting question. How can support for those who make errors and mistakes. Initial errors and mistakes can
we find the answer?” Both students and teachers possess knowledge; both students lead to ultimate success. With success comes greater engagement.
and teachers learn.
● Help students see errors and mistakes as learning opportunities. If errors and
mistakes are seen as deductions from some overall score that determines a student’s Eliminating barriers to learning
grade, then students will attempt to hide their errors and mistakes, rather than learn
from them. If, on the other hand, you help students understand their errors and
mistakes so they can learn from them, students will come to view errors and mistakes There are both external and internal barriers to learning. External factors include
in a more positive, constructive light. Only when the benefits of succeeding outweigh the conditions in which students live and learn (e.g., their homes, communities,
the costs of failure is taking a risk worthwhile. Students must learn that it is better to and schools). Internal factors are characteristics of the students themselves (e.g.,
try and fail, than not to try at all. knowledge, ability, motivation, fears, and aspirations). The more barriers that students
● Set objectives and tasks “just beyond” students’ current level of knowledge and skill. encounter, the more likely it is that they will not only fail to learn academically, but
If the gap is “just right”, it provides the type of challenge that is motivating, not also fail to develop socially and emotionally. Disconnects between the values and
discouraging. [This is an application of Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development expectations of the home and the school place burdens on students they often are
that we discussed in Chapter 1.] unable to bear. Placing academic demands on students that far exceed their ability,
● Establish grading criteria and procedures that are tied directly to learning. In other knowledge, and motivation is likely to result in failure. Consistent failure, in turn, is
words, students cannot achieve high grades unless they have learned. You should likely to lead to students leaving school as early as possible, without receiving a
avoid increasing or decreasing grades based on classroom behaviour (positive or diploma or degree. What can you do about eliminating these barriers?
negative) and/or effort (great vs. little).
The first step is to truly understand the barrier. Suppose, for example, a student appears to
be unmotivated. He doesn’t pay attention and stops working as soon as a problem arises.
Promoting engagement Why is this so? What is stopping him or her from being motivated? Is it a lack of interest? Is
it because formal education is not valued in his or her home? Is it because the student has
realised that no matter how hard he or she tries, he or she cannot learn what is expected?
Learning depends to a great extent on the engagement of students in the learning process. Without understanding the barrier, we end up treating the symptom rather than the cause.
Stated in the opposite, most teachers would agree. Students have absolute veto power over
learning. If they choose not to engage in learning, they simply will not learn, no matter what The second step is to determine whether there are ways to address the problem within
you, the teacher, does. If students are engaged in learning, they may not learn, but they have the classroom, perhaps with added home involvement and support. Can the barrier be
a far better chance of learning than if they are not engaged at all. removed with a slight shift in the curriculum, by providing encouragement and individual
recognition, by using peer tutors, or by initiating a regular communication program with
What can you do to promote student engagement in learning? Here are some suggestions. parents or guardians? If the problem cannot be solved within the classroom, it is time to
seek assistance beyond the classroom. Collaboration and teaming can address barriers to
● Assign tasks that are relevant, authentic (or “real”), and appropriately challenging. learning because they allow a teacher to broaden the resources, knowledge, and strategies
Such tasks often require students to explore new ideas and solutions and come up that can be used to remove the barrier. The core issue here is how to re-engage students in
with solutions to real-life (or, at the very least, simulated) problems. the learning process and, ultimately, get them back on the road to learning success.
● Assign tasks that require students to monitor and regulate their learning, not to rely
on others (i.e., teachers) to do so. That is, students should know they have or have
not learned without having to ask the teacher whether an answer or a solution to a
problem is correct. In addition, they should be able to change the direction of their
learning when they realise they are “off course” or “off target”.
Chapter 3 58 59 Learning environments

Recommendation 2 when students first arrive at a school (see Chapter 9 for an example of how to set
up the first two weeks of school). Learning communities most often are the result of
Create personalised learning environments, efforts directed toward all of the other suggestions in this section. That is, a learning
where students feel a sense of belonging community is most likely to be in place when there is evidence of personalisation, goal
and a sense of well-being. direction, trust, mutual respect, fairness, and justice.
● Develop personalised assistance plans for those students with greatest needs. These
plans need not be massive or complex. They might involve something as simple as
Personalisation can be defined as the extent to which a particular learning environment making sure that you spend a few extra minutes with a particular student immediately
as perceived by the student matches or “fits” his or her interests, abilities, and needs. If, for after individual work is assigned to make sure the student is on the “right track”.
example, a student needs structure and the learning environment is chaotic and disorganised, ● Oftentimes working with individual students is very difficult because of other duties
that student will perceive a “misfit” between the learning environment and what he or she and responsibilities that you have as a teacher. When this is the situation, it is best
needs in order to be successful. In general, the larger the “misfit,” the less motivated (or more to identify issues and problems that are common to groups of students. Suppose,
disengaged) a student will be. Properly implemented, personalising the learning environment for example, that five or six students are having difficulty with a particular reading
can result in a classroom culture that encourages mutual respect, support, and caring and assignment. You may want to work with this small group and teach them how to
creates a sense of community. All of these can play a role in preventing learning, behaviour, analyse the material in order to help them understand the material better.
and emotional problems.
Finally, the concept of learning community can be extended beyond the school and classroom
A sense of belonging is defined in terms of students’ attachment to a school or classroom and by using video conferencing, voice-to-voice communication (as in an audio bridge), or social
includes feelings of being accepted and valued by their peers, teachers, and other adults. A networking. By extending the concept of learning community, students can become aware of
sense of belong is related to personalisation. It is also related to engagement, in that students possibilities that lie beyond their classroom and school doors.
with a stronger sense of belonging are more likely to be engaged not only in learning, but
also in other activities in the school.
Recommendation 3
A sense of well-being is a positive state of mind that enables a student to function effectively
within the school and classroom. A positive state of mind is associated with freedom from Manage class size, forming groups or teams of students
fear and anxiety. Being bullied and finding oneself in other high- stress situations negatively as necessary to create a workable, productive
impact a student’s sense of well-being. In personalised learning environments, teachers are learning environment.
more aware of individual students and do what they can to ensure safety and security within
the classroom and the school.
The large size of many schools and classrooms leaves many students – especially those with
What can you do to create a personalised learning environment? a history of academic failure – feeling lost. Extremely large class sizes make it more difficult
Here are five suggestions: to develop an atmosphere conducive to learning. They also may make it more difficult to use
a variety of instructional tools and tactics, with many teachers tending to rely on whole class,
● Take time to get to know your students. Spending two or three minutes each week teacher-led instruction. The results of several studies have identified benefits of smaller classes.
talking with (and listening to) students individually pays great dividends. If we assume Smaller classes allow teachers to spend more time on instruction and less time on classroom
a class size of 30 students we are only talking about spending an hour or so of management. In smaller classes, teachers are more likely to use a variety of instructional
your time every week getting to know (or keeping up with) your students. Use these tactics, including more small-group instruction. In smaller classes, teachers tend to cover the
conversations to understand life in classrooms from the students’ point of view. curriculum faster and in greater depth. Finally, students in smaller classes tend to be more
● Create classroom cultures based on a sense of trust, respect, and open communication. motivated. The questions remains, of course, how small does a classroom need to be to yield
Within these cultures, work to minimise threats to feelings of competence, self- these benefits? Although researchers continue to explore this question, the general consensus
determination, and relationships to significant others. If necessary, work to change the is that class sizes larger than 18, 19, or 20 are associated with less positive student outcomes –
public perception of the school and classroom so those who visit the school see the cognitive, affective, and social.
environment as welcoming, caring, safe, and just.
● Work to develop learning communities. A sense of community exists when a critical We recognise, of course, that reducing class size is very costly and requires additional space, an
mass of stakeholders is committed to one another and to the overall values and increase in the number of qualified teachers, and so on. This realisation leads to a fundamental
goals. Their work is directed toward goal accomplishment and maintaining positive question: Is it possible to incorporate “small-class features” into large classes to create a
and supportive relationships with each other. Building a sense of community begins small-class environment? The answer, generally, is yes, and the results of doing so have been
Chapter 3 60 61 Learning environments

quite promising. Turning large classes into smaller instructional configurations facilitates of research suggests that both students in the pairing – the tutor and the student
student engagement, learning, and performance (on external tests). In addition, the use of receiving the tutoring – benefit from peer tutoring.
smaller instructional configurations can increase intrinsic motivation by promoting feelings
of personal and interpersonal competence, self-determination, and positive connection with Learning centres or stations not only promote group work and interaction but also provide
others. Moreover, it can foster autonomous learning skills, personal responsibility for learning, opportunities for students to engage in different activities related to a single or related set
and healthy social-emotional attitudes and skills. So, how can you incorporate “small-class of objectives. For example, a classroom may contain four centres: an initial learning centre, a
features” into large classes? By forming, planning for, and managing groups. remedial centre, an enrichment centre, and an independent learning centre. In this grouping,
all students may begin in the initial learning centre, where they are expected to begin their
study of a particular topic, theme, or objective. Based on how well they do in that centre,
Types of groups they may be placed in a remedial centre and either the enrichment centre or the independent
learning centre (depending on their learning styles or preferences). In this situation, what
begins as whole-class instruction is transformed into small-group instruction.
The first question that needs to be addressed is what type or types of groups to form. There are
at least three possibilities. The use of learning centres requires careful planning to ensure that the centres contain the
resources needed and provide alternative opportunities for students to master the same
● Needs-based groups. These groups are formed for short periods of time for the purpose objectives. Also, if you are more involved in one centre than in the others, you must find a way
of gathering together students with similar learning needs or problems (e.g., to re-teach to monitor the work at the other centres while working with students at your centre.
particular skills, to work on interpersonal skills).
● Interest-based groups. These groups are formed, also for a relatively short time period,
in order to gather together students with similar interests. If for example, you are Managing Groups
teaching a science unit on the circulatory and respiratory systems in animals, students
may want to pursue research on different types of animals (e.g., bears, spiders, and
earthworms). These common interests can be used to form research teams. Once a decision has been made to use small groups as part of the overall instruction
● Designed-diversity groups. For some objectives, it is desirable to combine students from program, you need to ensure that students are prepared to work effectively and efficiently in
different backgrounds or who have different abilities or interests into a single group. groups. Simply placing students in groups does not ensure the success of small group study
If, for example, you are teaching a unit in literature on the concept of “tragic hero”, and work. To this end, you may need to:
students from different backgrounds can contribute examples from their families or
communities. The point would be to show that “tragic heroes” can and do exist in all ● Make sure that students are adequately prepared for each task or centre.
social classes, races and genders, and in all historical periods. ● Teach students techniques to work in groups; encouraging and helping one another
as needed, being tolerant of different work habits and ideas, and ensuring that
everyone participates and no one is left out.
Group size and classroom organisation ● Assign specific roles within the group to ensure that the work gets done and that all
group members participate. With a three-member group, for example, the following
roles are appropriate:
Small groups typically range between three and five students. A two-student group is referred
to as a “pair” or “pairing.” With respect to group size, there is no magic number. The size of ○ Leader. Makes sure that every voice is heard. Focuses work on the assigned task.
the group depends primarily on the purpose for which the group is formed. If, for example, ○ Recorder. Compiles group members’ ideas. Asks for periodic checks on completeness
students are expected to debate an issue, then an odd number of students per group is and accuracy of his or her notes.
recommended in order to avoid a “split decision.” If, on the other hand, students are expected ○ Presenter. Presents the group’s finished work to the class, orally, in writing, or both.
to do individual work that ultimately comes together as a group project, then four or five
students may be preferable so that all components of the project are considered. Several With four- or five-member groups, additional roles can be added.
hints to the formation of groups have been offered by those who study the field. For example,
○ Time Keeper. Encourages the group to stay on task. Reminds group of time remaining
● Put shyer students in pairs or groups of three (so they will be expected to contribute on a periodic basis.
to the discussion or work). ○ Errand Runner. Briefly leaves the group to get supplies or to request assistance from
● Pair less-knowledgeable and less-skilled students with a more knowledgeable or the teacher when the group members agree that they do not have the resources to
skilled student (so that peer tutoring can occur when necessary). A goodly amount solve a particular problem.
Chapter 3 62 63 Learning environments

To encourage participation and reduce boredom, roles should be shifted from time to time. Many school administrators and teachers are moving beyond an overreliance on social
control and punishment to deal with inappropriate behaviour. More fundamentally, an
○ Set a time limit or give a deadline so students can pace themselves and complete the increasing number of educators believe that behaviour problems will diminish markedly
assigned task on time. if (a) the culture of the school and classroom is transformed (as described earlier in this
chapter), (b) more relevant and meaningful objectives are set and more meaningful tasks
Once students have been prepared, roles assigned, and deadlines announced, your attention are assigned, and (c) higher quality, more personalised instruction is provided. In this
shifts to things you can do to manage the behaviour and activities of groups and group regard, one of the highly recommended strategies for reducing students’ misbehaviour
members. Here are some suggestions for group management. is the “ecosystemic approach”. The basic assumption is that schools and classrooms are
● Seat students close together so they can talk softly and still hear one another. Tables ecosystems, that is, connected and interactive units that require a dynamic balance if they
are generally preferred for group work, although collections of desks can serve the are to survive and prosper. The slightest change in one unit can and often does affect the
same purpose. entire ecosystem. When this occurs, it is referred to as a “ripple effect”, a phrase derived
● Circulate among the groups, using your physical proximity to encourage and maintain from the ever-expanding ripples that occur when an object is dropped into a lake or pond.
on-task behaviour and discussion. Becoming angry and shouting at a student who has behaved inappropriately sends ripples
● Encourage students and answer their questions as you move from group to group. through the classroom such that most if not all students are affected in some way. Because of
However, avoid long discussions, keeping your visits short and avoiding becoming a the possibility and frequency of “ripple effects”, the focus of the ecosystemic approach is on
group member. changing the problematic situation rather than dealing directly with one or more individuals.
● Keep track of which groups you have visited so no one group is left out or receives
too much attention. Regardless of the particular classroom management program or the tools and tactics used
● Re-form groups on a regular basis so that groups do not always have the same by teachers to manage their classrooms, it is important to realise that one of the most
members. important goals of these programs, tools, and tactics is increased personal responsibility
● Use a timer and give students a warning when time is almost up. Be flexible, however. (social and moral), integrity, self-regulation, self-discipline, and self-acceptance on the part of
If students are enjoying an activity or need a few more minutes, let them prolong it. students. In other words, we know that a classroom management program is successful when
On the other hand, if an activity is not going well, it is reasonable to cut it short. the program is no longer needed.

Within this framework, what can you do to increase positive behaviour and decrease
Recommendation 4 inappropriate behaviour? First, you can anticipate and prevent inappropriate behaviour
from occurring. Second, you can identify and then apply techniques that have worked well in
Promote positive classroom behaviour, the past. Third, you can teach self-management techniques to students who tend to behave
dealing with misbehaviour and disruptive behaviour inappropriately on a fairly regular basis.
effectively and efficiently.

Anticipating and Preventing Inappropriate Behaviour

As a teacher, you hope to create classrooms in which students are models of good behaviour.
This, indeed, is a worthy goal. However, regardless of how much care is taken to design and
implement such classrooms, disruptive behaviour and misbehaviour are likely to occur from The results of numerous research studies suggest most teachers are not particularly good
time to time. Disruptive behaviour is behaviour that interferes with instruction. Misbehaviour at dealing with inappropriate behaviour once it occurs. What seems to differentiate “good”
is behaviour that is in violation of classroom rules. For our purposes, however, we will classroom managers from “poor” classroom managers is their ability to, first, anticipate and,
combine both types of behaviour into a single term, “inappropriate behaviour”. then, prevent inappropriate behaviour in the first place. Good classroom managers seem to
have “eyes in the backs of their heads”. That is, they always seem to know what is going on
In some classrooms, inappropriate behaviour occurs so often that teachers feel that in their classrooms. They are aware of students who are most likely to behave inappropriately
they must deal directly with the behaviour problem before they can work on promoting and pay particular attention to them. They are able to stop inappropriate behaviour from
student engagement. In fact, the opposite may be true. That is, if you are effective in occurring by a stern look or a touch on the shoulder, both of which communicate to students,
producing higher levels of student engagement, you may find less need to deal with “I know what you’re up to.” What can you do to improve your ability to anticipate and
inappropriate behaviour. prevent inappropriate behaviour?

Often it is those students who are not engaged in learning who are the most likely to be ● Get to know your students – all of your students – very well. We have talked about
engaged in some other behaviours, usually inappropriate behaviour. the importance of knowing your students before, but it is important to issue a
Chapter 3 64 65 Learning environments

reminder. More socially included students may need a great deal of attention Table 3.3
from their peers, whereas more insecure students may need your attention. More Analysing your understanding and reaction
capable students may become bored quite easily; less capable students may to inappropriate behaviour
become confused. Knowledge of your students enables you to form hypotheses
about the causes of inappropriate behaviour when they occur. The very same
behaviour can have multiple causes. For example, “acting out” in class may be
an attempt to gain attention from peers, an expression of boredom, or an act Direct Questions Examples
of desperation by a student who is completely confused by what’s going on
academically. 1. Describe the 1. A student constantly interrupts the class. He does so by talking
inappropriate behaviour to nearby students or getting up and walking around the room.
● Learn to “read” your students. Inappropriate behaviour rarely comes on suddenly.
and the situation in This behaviour seems to occur randomly.
There are clues that precede the actual act, but are often missed by teachers, which it occurred.
particularly those heavily involved in their teaching. But the clues are there
– shifting in one’s seats, mumbling under one’s breath, loud sighs or groans, 2. How do you usually 2. I walk over to the student and tell him to stop interrupting. He
whispers, or a quick shove of a classmate. All of these are clues that must be read react to that behaviour may not interrupt for a few minutes but then interrupts a short
in that situation? What time later. I tell him to move to a seat in the back of the room
and read properly if you are to anticipate inappropriate behaviour. Teachers who
is the usual result of this some distance away from the other students. He generally
are not good at “reading” their students are more likely to catch the student who reaction? stops at this point, but sometimes continues to interrupt from
responds to an altercation than the student who initiates it. his new location.
● Use non-verbal communication skills to communicate with students who seem
3. What do you believe to 3. I think he has a strong need for attention.
likely to behave inappropriately that you know what they’re about to say or
be the cause(s) of the
do. Such communication skills include physical proximity (moving closer to the misbehaviour?
targeted student or students), touches on the shoulder, head, or back (with a
whispered acknowledgement of your suspicions), and direct eye contact (perhaps 4. What are some 4. He may want to slow down the pace of instruction because
with a shake of the head or other sign of disapproval). A good rule of thumb is to alternative causes? it is too fast for him to keep up. He may be bored because he
already knows what is being taught and needs something else
error on the side of prevention, rather than allowing the inappropriate behaviour
to do to relieve his boredom.
to occur by failing to intervene.
5. What techniques can 5. If the student needs attention, perhaps I can give him a bit more
I use to change the attention before he misbehaves. If the student wants to slow
Identifying and Applying Effective Techniques situation based on what down the pace of instruction, I may want to talk with him about
I understand about the difficulties he may be having learning in the class. If the student
for Common Inappropriate Behaviour underlying causes? is bored, I may suggest other, more productive ways of dealing
with boredom (e.g., more advanced problems, choices of reading
materials).
There is no single set of interventions that will stop inappropriate behaviour from
6. Apply each technique 6. Trying to anticipate the need for attention was difficult and did
occurring. Rather, each intervention works some of the time, but not all of the time. It
and record the results. not work well. I talked with the student and found that he was
may work for some students, but not for others. Why is this true? The reality is that if an keeping up with the class quite well, perhaps too well. The real
intervention is to be effective it must address causes, not the symptoms. Inappropriate problem seemed to be boredom. We discussed things he could
behaviour is usually symptomatic of some underlying cause or causes. Trying to stop do when he became bored and I provided a set of enrichment
inappropriate behaviour without understanding the underlying cause or causes is like materials that he could use on his own.
trying to cure an illness without understanding its causes. Giving an antacid tablet to a
7. Develop a file of effective Cause Technique
person with a stomach pain is of no use if the cause of the stomach pain is appendicitis. techniques for common
behavioural problems, Need for attention A.
The best way to intervene in situations in which students are behaving inappropriately organised by possible B.
is to rely on your experiences in similar situations in the past. If you are a young, cause(s) of the problems C.

inexperienced teacher you may have to call on other teachers to share their experiences.
Too-fast pace results A.
To do this properly, you will need to have a systematic plan for learning from experience. in confusion B.
Table 3.3 presents a seven-step procedure for understanding and reacting to
inappropriate behaviour. Boredom A.
B.
Chapter 3 66 67 Learning environments

The procedure begins with an identification of a common behavioural problem and the
Key Component/Illustration Practical Example
typical reaction to that problem when it occurs (Steps 1 and 2). Next, you are asked to
analyze the problem in term of possible causes (Steps 3 and 4). Based on your analysis, you
Accepting missteps “Unfortunately, old habits do not change easily.
then design intervention techniques for each cause (not each problem) (Step 5). You then (letting the student know that mistakes are It takes time for a new habit to be formed.
try out your techniques when the situation next occurs and record the results (the success acceptable as new habits are being formed) Even though you shouted out again today, I
or failure of each intervention technique) (Step 6). Over time you compile a list of effective can see that you are really trying to change.
intervention techniques that is organised around common behavioural problems and the Keep up the good work!”

most likely causes of those problems (Step 7).

When having conversations with students, two other suggestions can be offered. First, try to
Identifying and Applying Effective Techniques for
see the situation from the student’s perspective. Sharing ideas about the nature of the problem
Frequently Problematic Students and, importantly, why it is a problem makes it more likely that you and the student will be
on the same wavelength in attempts to solve the problem. Second, use the language of the
student to the extent possible. If a student uses the phrase “popping” to describe her behaviour
There is an increasing body of research suggesting that a relatively small number of students
(rather than “shouting out”), use the phrase “popping” in your discussions with the student.
account for the vast majority of behavioural incidents. As we mentioned above, a very
common reaction to these students is to label the student as problematic and use punishment
to try to “extinguish” the inappropriate behaviours. We would recommend a more positive
Recommendation 5
approach to the problem. This approach is summarised and exemplified in Table 3.4. The
example is a student who yells out answers to questions or solutions to problems before the
Create a physical environment that is responsive to the
other students have a chance to consider the question or work out the problem.
needs of your students and appropriate for facilitating
learning with respect to the objectives.

Table 3.4
A positive approach for dealing with students
Although most of the discussion in this chapter has been on social, emotional, and academic
who regularly behave inappropriately
environments, the physical environment can and often does play an important role in the
learning process. The size of the room relative to the number of students, the organisation
of the room in terms of seating arrangements and travelling space, and the availability
Key Component/Illustration Practical Example of learning resources (increasingly technological resources) influence student behaviour,
engagement, and, ultimately, learning.
Reframing “I think your enthusiasm often shows in
(with enthusiasm) unexpected ways. I love your enthusiasm, but Some classrooms look as if they have not changed for the past 50 years. The teacher’s desk
maybe we can find other ways of expressing it.”
is at the front (along with a chalkboard) and the desks are arranged in rows. Classrooms
of the future are likely to be environments that can be reorganised as necessary to support
Positive connotation of motivation (with “I’m really happy that I have a student like you different learning activities, tasks, and objectives. Twenty-first century learning environments
interest) who is so interested in the subject. I’m not
are envisioned as places where students work collaboratively in groups and move around the
surprised that you like to respond quickly to
questions and problems. But we need to give
room as activities and tasks dictate.
others in the class some time to think and come
up with answers and solutions on their own.” The “responsive design approach” considers the spatial design, the integration of information
technologies throughout buildings, and the efficiency and effectiveness of sustainable building
Giving alternatives to problem behaviour “Let’s try this for awhile. Rather than shouting systems. This approach does not assume that any place can been ideally designed; rather, the
(asking the student to write her answer or out, write your answer on a piece of paper (or design must support (that is, be responsive to) the activities that will take place, the needs of
solution rather than shouting it out) in your notebook) and place it on your desk
those who live and work in that place, and the ultimate educational aims and goals.
(or table). While others are thinking about the
question or problem, I’ll come by your desk and
check what you have written.” When we consider the physical environment, a primary concern is safety. In this regard,
all schools and classrooms should be clean, well lit, well ventilated, and free of dangerous
Chapter 3 68 69 Learning environments

substances. There should be sufficient space for each person and the space should be furnished Sources / CHAPTER 3
with ergonomically correct seating. What can you do to create and maintain a learning
READINGS
environment that is responsive to students’ needs and appropriate for facilitating learning? Here
are some suggestions, most of which are quite easy to implement.
Adelman, H. S. & Taylor, L. (1997) Means, B., Blando, J., Olson, K. Taylor, L. & Adelman, H. S. (1999)
Addressing barriers to learning: Middleton, T., Morocco, C., Remz, A. & Personalising classroom instruction
● Lighting. Lighting affects both emotions and learning. Try turning off the lights (if you
Beyond school-linked services and Zorfass, J. (1993) to account for motivational
have windows in the classroom), or dimming the lights from time to time as appropriate.
full-service schools. American Journal Using technology to support education and developmental differences.
For example, you can turn down the lights when your students participate in small group
of Orthopsychiatry, 67/1, 408-442. reform. Washington, DC: U. S. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 15,
discussions. It makes the classroom atmosphere a bit more intimate and helps students
Department Of Education. 255-276. Retrieved 14 November,
to be more open about their thoughts and opinions.
Adelman, H. S. & Taylor, L. (2005) Retrieved July 16, 2013, from http:// 2012, from http://smhp.psych.
● Temperature and air quality. Studies show that cooler temperatures promote relaxation
Classroom climate. In S. W. www2.ed.gov/pubs/EdReformStudies/ ucla.edu/publications/19%20
and receptivity, while warmer temperatures either promote arousal, which can lead
Lee, P. A. Lowe & E. Robinson TechReforms/index.html. PERSONALIZING%20
to inappropriate behaviour, or sleepiness. The optimal room temperature is 21º to
[Eds.]. Encyclopedia of School CLASSROOM%20INSTRUCTION.pdf
23º C, especially when focus and concentration are required. Although we may be
Psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Lippman, P. C. (2010)
able to manipulate lighting, we have less control over temperature and air quality. It
Sage Publications. Retrieved 14 Can the physical environment Taylor, L. & Parsons, J. (2011)
may or may not be possible to open windows, add fans, or change the thermostat.
November, 2012, from http://smhp. have an impact on the learning Improving Student Engagement.
Consequently, problems in this area may have to be dealt with at the school level or
psych.ucla.edu/publications/46%20 environment? Retrieved 09 Current Issues in Education, 14(1).
beyond.
classroom%20climate.pdf March, 2012, from http://dx.doi. Retrieved 14 November, 2012 from
● Noise. Students differ greatly in how much noise they can tolerate. Some level of noise
org/10.1787/5km4g21wpwr1-en. http://cie.asu.edu/ojs/index.php/
is inevitable in any social setting, particularly when groups or teams are formed. As
Bell, A., Ford, L. & Wunderlich, K. cieatasu/article/view/745.
mentioned earlier, however, seating arrangements can either raise or lower the noise
(2007) Molnar, A. & Lindquist, B. (1990)
level. You may be able to introduce “sound absorbers” in the classroom to reduce the
A model for the creation of Changing problem behaviour in
noise level. The use of hanging plants, banners, and rugs are relatively easy ways to
meaningful community college schools. San Francisco,
reduce noise. The addition of acoustical tiles and carpeting would likely require decisions
learning experiences. Retrieved CA: Jossey-Bass.
to be made at the school level or beyond.
19 April, 2012, from http://www.
● Color. Color can affect our moods and emotions. Some experts suggest that the optimal
dialogueonlearning.tc3.edu/model/ Pintrich, P. & Schunk, D. (2002)
classroom colors are yellow, light orange, beige, or off-white. If it is not practicable to
model.htm. Motivation in education: Theory,
change the color of walls, we can greatly improve the physical environment by adding
research, and applications. Upper
colorful, visually appealing posters, pictures, graphics or other images to the walls. In
Gillen, A., Wright, A. & Spink, L. Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice-Hall.
addition, we can use colorful handouts, colorful Power Point presentations, or colorful
(2011)
overhead transparencies.
Student perceptions of a positive Svinicki, M. (2008)
● Dangerous objects or tools. What constitutes a potentially dangerous object or tool
climate for learning: A case study. Student goal orientation, motivation,
depends a great deal on the age of the students and the subject being taught. Sharp
Educational Psychology in Practice, and learning. Retrieved 14 November,
scissors are potentially dangerous objects for 4- or 5-year-olds. Compasses are
27/1, 5-82. 2012, from http://www.education.
potentially dangerous tools in secondary mathematics classes, and acid in chemistry
com/reference/article/Ref_Student
class. Although we cannot eliminate all potential dangers from our classroom, we can
_Goal/
minimise the danger by showing students how to use potentially dangerous objects
and tools in a safe manner and checking periodically to see that potentially dangerous
objects and tools are properly stored when not in use.
WEBSITES USED FOR BACKGROUND INFORMATION

In summary, a well designed learning environment makes good teaching easier. To create such
an environment, you must see a key element of your job as a teacher as establishing (or in Center for Mental Health in Schools. Partnership for 21st Century Skills.
some cases re-establishing) a classroom culture. Key elements of this culture include a focus http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu http://www.p21.org.
on learning (both process and outcome), a sense of belonging, and a sense of well-being. Your (Accessed 14 November, 2012). (Accessed 14 November, 2012).
ultimate goal should be to create a learning community, where everyone, including yourself, is
enthusiastic, engaged, and concerned for the welfare of one another (academically, emotionally, Center for Improving School Culture.
socially, and physically). Within such learning environments, learning can and will flourish. http://www.schoolculture.net
(Accessed 14 November, 2012).
Chapter 4 72 73

Learning
Objectives
Vesna Janevski

CHAPTER 4
Chapter 4 74 75 Learning objectives

In our lives we are always trying to find ways of realising our potential. In order to do so, we Just as objectives have multiple purposes or uses, it is important to recognise that objectives
need to determine the direction in which we want to go and what we want to accomplish. exist at multiple levels. Just as an architect first envisions a building, then the floor plan for
Statements of what we want to accomplish are our objectives. To achieve our objectives we that building, and finally the details in each room, a teacher can use learning objectives to
must connect them with activities that will get us there. It is the same at home, at work and in construct a course, a unit within the course, or a particular lesson within that unit. In general,
most other situations. course objectives are somewhat more general, unit objectives are somewhat less general, and
lesson objectives tend to be quite specific. For example, a course objective may be to learn
The purpose of this chapter is to help teachers think clearly about what they want to write clear and coherent narratives. Within this course, a unit objective may be to learn to
their students to learn – that is, their learning objectives – and be very clear in their write clear and coherent paragraphs. Within this unit, a lesson objective may be to learn to
communications about these objectives. The chapter is designed to help teachers gain the write clear, simple, declarative sentences of the form subject-verb-object. Table 4.1 describes
knowledge and skills they need to write learning objectives that (a) accurately describe three levels of objectives – global, educational, and instructional – in terms of their scope, the
what they expect or intend students to learn, (b) enhance communication with others average amount of time that is needed for students to learn them, their purpose or function
(including students) so that the objectives are clearly understood, (c) can be used to design in the overall scheme of things, and an example of their use.
assessments that enable teachers to make inferences about the extent and quality of
learning, and (4) help teachers select learning activities and learning resources that will
enable students to achieve those objectives. Four primary roles (or uses) of objectives are Table 4.1
shown graphically in Figure 4.1. Global, educational, and instructional objectives
Adapted from Anderson, Krathwohl, et al. (2001)

Figure 4.1
A summary of the primary uses of learning objectives.
GLOBAL EDUCATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL

SCOPE Broad Moderate Narrow

TO IMPROVE
COMMUNICATION
TIme needed Years, often multiple
Months or weeks Days or hours
to learn years

PURPOSE OR Provide vision Design courses or Plan lessons

TO CHOOSE TO SELECT FUNCTION units within courses
APPROPRIATE ROLES
AND SEQUENCE
LEARNING OF OBJECTIVES
LEARNING example Set goals for a Plan a biology Plan a lesson on cell
RESOURCES ACTIVITIES of use secondary school course or a unit on division, mitosis, and
science program molecules and cells meiosis

TO DESIGN OR SELECT
APPROPRIATE ASSESSMENTS
Global objectives – the most general objectives – are often referred to as aims or goals.
Consider, for example, the following goals of science education developed by the
Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Students should:

As shown in Figure 4.1, a precise grasp of learning objectives necessarily implies an insight ● identify appropriate scientific questions, acquire new scientific knowledge, explain
into the relationship between the objectives and the other components of teaching and scientific phenomena, and draw evidence-based conclusions about science-related
learning. Explicit, clearly written learning objectives make it easier to choose appropriate issues;
learning resources, design or select and sequence learning activities, and choose or write ● understand the characteristic features of science as a form of human knowledge and
assessments that provide accurate and useful information. enquiry;
Chapter 4 76 77 Learning objectives

● be aware of how science and technology shape our material, intellectual, and cultural ● remember the structure and function of the cell membrane; and
environments; and ● provide a definition of the phrase “cell organelle”.
● be willing to engage in science-related issues, and with the issues of science, as a
reflective citizen. Once again, you can see an ever-increasing specificity in the content to be learned. This
increased specificity is necessary primarily because of the time constraints inherent in
Note that the achievement of these goals will require years of study. Note also that no single lessons. It is unreasonable to expect too much content to be learned in an hour or two during
science course is sufficient for helping students achieve these goals. Finally, note how broad a day or two.
in scope (and in language) the goals are written (e.g., “new knowledge”, “human knowledge”,
“scientific phenomena”, “science-related issues”, and “reflective citizen”). For all practical
purposes, global objectives have little, if anything, to do with teaching and learning. Their See the forest, then the trees
primary purpose is to develop a vision of what science, as an academic discipline, should
contribute to a student’s education. As a teacher, you are well advised to keep global
objectives in the back of your mind as you pay attention to the levels of objectives that are “You can’t see the forest for the trees” is an American idiom. In England and Australia, the
more meaningful and useful to you as a teacher. word “wood” is substituted for “forest”, but the meaning remains the same. You can’t see the
whole situation clearly if you’re looking too closely at small details. In the field of education
Educational objectives are moderate in scope. They are objectives that are set for courses courses are forests; lessons are trees. [To complete the analogy, units would be “stands”, that
(e.g., algebra, fourth grade language arts) and units within courses (e.g., linear equations, is, a group of trees that are more or less homogeneous with regard to species composition,
understanding literary genres). Within a secondary school science program, for example, density, size, and sometimes habitat.]
you quite likely will find courses in biology, chemistry, environmental science, geology, and
physics. Within the biology course, you may have units on molecules and cells, life cycles, Many teachers plan lesson after lesson after lesson with very little, if any, concern for larger
evolution and genetics, and ecosystems. For many biology courses, then, these would be issues and concerns (e.g., programs, courses). The typical result of such an emphasis is a
appropriate educational objectives. Upon completion of the course, students will be able to: large number of instructional objectives that, even when mastered by students, often have no
overall payoff in terms of meaningful student learning. Consequently, we recommend that in
● understand the relationship between the structure and functions of cells and their planning to teach, you begin by setting course objectives and then move downward to setting
organelles; lesson objectives that are consistent with and/or facilitative of the course objectives. If you
● compare the life cycles of a variety of animals (e.g., mammals, birds, insects); think it useful, you can set unit objectives as a means of ensuring the connection between
● predict offspring ratios based on a variety of inheritance patterns course and lesson objectives. This transition from larger to smaller – from the forest to the
(e.g., dominance, sex-linked traits); and trees – is illustrated in the aforementioned biology examples.
● analyse the interdependence of living organisms within their environments.

Note that the content is more specific than it was for global objectives (e.g., “cells”, “life Learning objectives and learning activities
cycles”, inheritance”, and “interdependence”). Note also that each of these objectives can
be the basis for a single unit within the biology courses. The first objective is appropriate
for a unit on molecules and cells, the second, for a unit on life cycles, the third, for a unit on It is extremely important to understand the difference between learning objectives and
evolution and genetics, and the fourth, for a unit on ecosystems. Units are not necessary in learning activities. In simplest terms, learning objectives specify the desired end results,
course planning, but they often provide a useful organisational “midpoint” between courses whereas learning activities are the means by which the ends are achieved. For example,
and lessons. listening to a lecture is a learning activity. To understand the objective we must ask, “What
do you intend students to learn from the lecture?” Are they two learn some facts about the
Instructional objectives are the narrowest and most specific of the three levels of objectives. topic? Are they to learn to see both sides of an argument? Are they to learn how to give
As summarised in Table 4.1, instructional objectives usually take an hour or two to teach, an effective lecture? The same activity can be linked with several objectives. As a second
typically spread over a day or two. They are most useful for planning lessons and, example, suppose you decide to take your students on a field trip to a museum. That is your
consequently, are often referred to as “lesson objectives”. Within a unit on molecules and cells activity. To determine your objective, ask the question, “What do I want my students to
in a course in biology, for example, you may see the following instructional objectives. Upon learn from the field trip?” If your answer is “to experience a museum”, that is your objective.
completion of the lesson, students will be able to: If your answer is “to analyse the paintings in terms of the technique used to paint them”,
that is your objective. If your answer is “to understand the importance of museums in
● describe how cells communicate; preserving our culture”, that is your objective. Once again, the same activity can lead to a
● compare the stages of meiosis and mitosis; variety of learning objectives.
Chapter 4 78 79 Learning objectives

Although the distinction between objectives and activities seems quite clear, it is not Meeting the first criterion is relatively easy, as we shall see. Meeting the second criterion is
always easy to determine in practice. Consider, for example, science experiments. Are far more difficult, as different words mean different things to different stakeholder groups
science experiments objectives or activities? In fact, they can be both and it is very in different social and cultural contexts. Look back at the four science goals developed by
important to know which is which. If students are expected to learn how to conduct OECD and presented earlier in this chapter. Now, ask yourself two questions. First, who
science experiments in general, this is an objective. If, on the other hand, students are is the intended audience? Second, do you believe that the goals as written communicate
doing a particular science experiment in order to gain some scientific knowledge (e.g., with the audience? To write with the required precision, you need to answer these two
the differences between acids and bases), the science experiment is an activity and the questions. Policymakers, scientists, science teachers, and students are very different
objective is to acquire the knowledge. audiences. The phrase “cultural environment” may mean one thing to one stakeholder
group and quite another thing to another stakeholder group. Teachers working at different
school levels (e.g., primary, middle, secondary) are quite different audiences. What a
Learning objectives and teaching objectives primary school teacher means by “logical argument” may be quite different from the way
in which a secondary school teacher interprets the phrase. This lack of consistency of
meaning becomes quite problematic when attention shifts to what is referred to as “vertical
Finally, as their names suggests, learning objectives pertain to what you intend students to articulation” (see Chapter 8).
learn, not what you say or do to teach them. As a teacher, you quite likely have your own
objectives. For example, you may want to maintain a pace of instruction that allows you Virtually every objective, regardless of its generality or specificity, can be written in the
to complete your textbook by the end of the term or year. This is your objective, but it is following grammatical form: subject-verb-object. Let us reconsider three of the objectives
not a learning objective. In fact, this “teaching objective” may interfere with your “learning mentioned earlier in this chapter.
objectives” if the pace you set is too rapid for many of your students. These students will fall
behind and, ultimately, learn much less than you intended them to learn. Teaching is part ● Students should identify appropriate scientific questions, acquire new scientific
of the process of instruction, but it is not the purpose of the instruction. As we discussed in knowledge, explain scientific phenomena, and draw evidence-based conclusions
Chapter 1, the purpose of teaching is to facilitate learning. about science-related issues.
● The student will compare the life cycles of a variety of animals
The following are descriptions of the process, rather than of the intended results: (e.g., mammals, birds, insects).
● The learner will describe how cells communicate.
● To give a lecture on Renaissance painters.
● To read poetry to the class. The subject is “students”, “the student”, or, in some cases, “the learner”. As we discussed
● To provide practice exercises for, and feedback to, the students. earlier, the subject is what differentiates learning objectives from teaching objectives. The
objects are indicated by the use of an italics font. They indicate the content to be learned
These are all teaching objectives; they are not learning objectives. (e.g., scientific questions, scientific phenomena, life cycles, how cells communicate). The
Now that we’ve laid the groundwork for understanding learning objectives, let us move to five verbs, highlighted in bold font, are “identify”, “acquire”, “explain”, “conclude (or draw
recommendations of what teachers should know and be able to do in order to design and use evidence-based conclusions)”, “compare”, and “describe”. Note that more global objectives
objectives more effectively in their classrooms. not only have more general content, but also often include multiple verbs.

The objects tend to be subject-specific. That is, literary content, mathematical content, and
Recommendation 1 historical content are different from scientific content. At the same time, however, the verbs
included in objectives tend to transcend subject matters or academic disciplines. For example,
Write objectives in a standard format to facilitate students can summarise scientific content, literary content, mathematical content, as well as
communication between and among teachers, students, historical content. Table 4.2 summarises the most frequently used verbs, arranged according
and other stakeholders. to a hierarchy developed by Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues in 1956 and revised by a
group of educators and psychologists in 2001.

As shown in Figure 4.1, “improving communication” is one of the four primary roles of
objectives. If communication is to be improved, two criteria must be met. First, there
needs to be a standard format for writing objectives. Second, there is a need to use
precise language so that the objectives are understood by various stakeholders (e.g., other
teachers, administrators, students, parents, policymakers, and the public).
Chapter 4 80 81 Learning objectives

Table 4.2 for example, that you are at a party and you see someone walking toward you. As she
A classification system of verbs approaches you realise that although you recognise her (that is, you visually remember her),
you cannot recall her name (that is, you cannot verbally remember her).

The verbs included in Table 4.2 represent cognitive processes. That is, they indicate the
Key Component / Practical Example Synonyms
mental operations that students are expected to perform on or with the content. It must be
Illustration
pointed out, however, that the same format (subject-verb-object) applies to non-cognitive
objectives. Consider the following examples:
Remember Recognise Identify
Recall Retrieve
● Students will seek out books that are related to their interests.
● Students will tolerate opinions and viewpoints different from their own.
Understand Interpret Clarify, Paraphrase,
● Students will demonstrate a variety of soccer kicks (e.g., pass, chip, drive, bicycle).
Exemplify Represent, Translate
Classify Illustrate, Instantiate
● Students will fuse metal together using localised heat (welding).
Summarise Categorise, Subsume
Infer Abstract, Generalise Like their cognitive counterparts, each of these objectives begins with the subject (students),
Compare Conclude, Extrapolate, includes a verb (seek out, tolerate, demonstrate, and fuse), and ends with an object that
Explain Interpolate, Predict
defines the content.
Contrast, Map, Match
Construct cause-effect
models Before we move to our second recommendation, one final comment about precision
is in order. Some educators have attempted to increase precision by adding two other
components – conditions and criteria – to the subject-verb-object structure, thereby
Apply Execute Carry out
producing a “conditions-subject-verb-object-criteria” format. Conditions describe the
Implement Use
circumstances under which the performance relative to the objective will be carried out.
Conditions also include the tools or assistance to be provided or what other aids will be
Analyse Differentiate Discriminate, Distinguish, provided or denied. Table 4.3 gives example of conditions and related objectives.
Organise Focus, Select
Attribute Find coherence, Integrate,
Outline, Structure
Deconstruct Table 4.3
Examples of conditions and related objectives

Evaluate Check Coordinate, Detect, Monitor,

Critique Test
Judge

Examples of Conditions “Rest of the Objective”

Create Generate Hypothesise
Plan Design
Produce Construct
Given a standard set of tools and a students will analyse the motor to determine the
malfunctioning motor … problem and use the tools to repair the motor.

The left-hand column of the table contains six general verbs: remember, understand, apply,
analyse, evaluate, and create. The next column contains more specific verbs that are In the presence of an irate students will use public relations skills to calm the
“customer” … customer and solve his or her problem.
associated with each of the six more general verbs. For example, “recognise” and “recall”
are both “types” of remembering. You may ask, why are more specific verbs needed? There
are two answers to this question. The first answer is the need for increased precision that
we mentioned earlier. In this regard, you will note the general verb “understand” requires Given a fully functioning video students will produce a short film that meets both
camera … technical and aesthetic criteria.
seven more specific verbs in order to convey its meaning in a more precise manner. A second
answer is that the more specific verbs denote quite different cognitive processes. Suppose,
Chapter 4 82 83 Learning objectives

Criteria set out the bases for determining whether the objective was reached. In other words, The attempt to increase precision by adding conditions and criteria has both proponents and
how would I know that my students have reached the objective? In general, there are two types critics. The critics argue that increasing precision in this way comes at a cost of confusing
of criteria: accuracy and speed. What score must students attain (accuracy)? How quickly objectives with assessment and, as a result, diminishes the value and meaning of objectives.
must the task be performed (speed)? The answers to these questions can either be a specific Note that in all three examples in Table 4.5, the emphasis tends to be more on assessment
score or time or a range of acceptable scores or times. Table 4.4 gives examples of speed and than on learning. The proponents argue that it produces a level of precision that is useful for
accuracy criteria. some students, particularly younger and less-able ones, and for some objectives (e.g., those
in the psychomotor domain, which we will discuss in the next section).

Table 4.4 An alternative to the expanded format, particularly when the intent is to communicate with our
Examples of speed and accuracy criteria students, is to provide both the objectives and sample assessments to the students at the same
time. For example, after an objective is presented to the students, you can add the following.

● If you have achieved this objective, you should be able to answer

Examples of Speed Criteria Examples of Accuracy Criteria questions like these.
● If you have mastered this objective, you should be able to solve problems
like these.
● in less than two hours. ● within two inches. ● If you have attained the objective, you should be able to perform these things.

● within fifteen minutes. ● to the nearest whole number. In this way, learning objectives and assessment are clearly aligned, but are kept separate.
The driving force between educational improvement efforts must be the objectives, not
● before close of business. ● with no more than two incorrect entries in the assessments.
the log.

The point to be made here is not to find the correct format for writing objectives. There
is none! Rather, the points are that (1) some standard format should be chosen and (2)
Table 4.5 contains three examples of objectives written in the expanded format (conditions- the language used in the objectives should be of a level of precision that is understood by
subject-verb-object-criteria). the primary stakeholder(s). To these ends, we would recommend that the subject-verb-
object format be used as a starting point. We also would recommend that you ask yourself
one primary question as you write your objectives: “Does the objective as written clearly
communicate the intended learning outcome to the target stakeholder group(s)?” The
Table 4.5
only way to answer this question is to have drafts of the objectives reviewed for clarity by
Examples of objectives written in the expanded format
members of the target stakeholder group or groups, whether they be administrators, other
teachers, parents, or, most importantly, students. However, before you write objectives, you
need to know what objectives to write. It is to this issue that we now turn our attention.

Conditions Subject Verb OBJECT CRITERIA

Recommendation 2

Simulated application students will complete data entry process with 90%
screen accuracy
Design courses that include objectives in multiple
domains in order to ensure that our educational
system produces well-rounded students.
List of poisonous students will identify counter measures for every one
materials
If you examine the goals of education in virtually any country, you will find that the primary
focus is on literacy, numeracy, and life skills (increasingly those pertaining to health and
Analog and digital students will tell the time to nearest
wellness). These three areas lie at the heart of the six goals established by United Nations
clocks minute
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as part of its Education for All
initiative. Although literacy, numeracy, and life skills are critically important, particularly in
Chapter 4 84 85 Learning objectives

some less-developed countries, they do not tell the whole story of what makes a quality
Affective Make oral presentations that convey enthusiasm for the topic
education or an educated person.

For the past century, educationists have organised objectives around three domains: Psychomotor Use gestures and facial expression to increase the effectiveness
cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. During the past quarter century, a fourth domain, of oral presentations

social or social-emotional, has been added. Table 4.6 contains brief descriptions of these four
domains as well as frequently used terms associated with each. Social Select examples to enhance oral presentations for particular
target audiences

Table 4.6
The cognitive, affective, psychomotor, and social domains
Note that the interrelated set of objectives provides a more complete description of the global
objective than any single objective or set of objectives from a single domain. This then is the
rationale for our second recommendation.
Domain Description Frequently Used Terms
What can you do to implement this recommendation? We would suggest that you begin with
Cognitive Knowledge and thought Understanding; Higher-order a table similar to the one shown in Table 4.8. To complete the table, you have to get your
thinking; priorities in order by asking yourself the following question: “Of all the things I could possibly
Intellectual skills & abilities want my students to learn, which ones are the most important?” Answer this question as it
pertains to each of the four domains. Then, consider the next most important objective in
Affective Emotions and feelings Attitudes; Interests; Values; each of the four domains. An example from Algebra I course is shown in Table 4.9.
Self-esteem

Psychomotor Movement and physical skills Motor skills; Using machines, tools, Table 4.8
& objects Course objective planning chart

Social Relationships and Empathy; Respect; Teamwork;

interpersonal skills Conflict management
Domain Most important Next most important
objective objective

Although these domains are often described as though they are independent of one
Cognitive
another, they are, in fact, interrelated. Suppose, for example, one of your goals is for
students to learn to communicate effectively. As it pertains to oral communication, this goal
can be represented by four interrelated objectives, one from each of the four domains as
shown in Table 4.7.
Affective

Table 4.7
Objectives related to the global objective
of effective communication Psychomotor

Domain Objective
Social
Cognitive Outline oral presentations on a variety of topics that are
comprehensive and logically organised
Chapter 4 86 87 Learning objectives

Table 4.9 the situation, the columns of Table 4.8 can be extended to the right to permit more
Algebra I planning chart cognitive objectives to be added. Nonetheless, we would encourage you to have at least
one course objective in the other three domains. We also would encourage you to have
no more than 10 objectives total for any course. We believe this is a good restriction
because it requires you to set priorities among the objectives under consideration. As
Most important Next most important we pointed out in Chapter 1, objectives that prepare students for future success should
Domain receive the highest priority.
objective objective

Cognitive Use algebraic equations to Understand the concept of “slope” Recommendation 3

represent word problems

Use a systematic method to write objectives

for units and lessons.
Affective Gain confidence in solving Develop interest in finding examples
algebraic problems of slopes in everyday life
Let us assume that you have identified a reasonable number of course objectives. Your
next decision is whether to break your course into units or move directly to lessons. In the
Algebra I example (above), two units immediately come to mind: “slope” and “algebraic
Psychomotor Write solutions to algebraic Represent examples of slopes (see
problems legibly above) using free-hand drawings
equations and word problems”. If you choose to use units, you would then identify and
with superimposed line drawings write unit objectives. If you choose to skip units and move directly to lessons, you would
identify and write lesson objectives. Regardless of which organisational format you choose,
we recommend using a systematic method to identify and write the unit and lesson
Social Work together in teams Help classmates who experience objectives so that they are aligned with the course objectives. There are several available
to solve complex algebra math anxiety achieve success
methods, three of which are discussed below.
problems

Content analysis

Two comments pertaining to Tables 4.8 and 4.9 are in order. First, a common reaction to
these tables is that there are not enough objectives for an entire course. It is important One method is to begin by analysing the content of the course objectives in terms of related
to keep in mind, however, that these are course objectives. As mentioned earlier, course content. Consider, for example, the mathematical concept of “slope”. Related concepts
objectives provide the overall context for writing unit and lesson objectives. Therefore, each would include horizontal lines, vertical lines, parallel lines, perpendicular lines, slope-intercept
course objective will be decomposed into several “smaller” objectives for the purpose of equation of a line, point-slope equations of a line, zero slope, undefined slope, and general
framing units or lessons, particularly within the cognitive domain. For example, the high form of the equation of a line (y = mx + b). One or more of these could form the basis for a
school biology teachers in a large city in the United States met to establish objectives for an unit or lesson objective, with appropriate verbs chosen from Table 3.2 (above). Thus, we could
introductory biology course. They came up with nine course objectives (all cognitive). Each formulate objectives such as these:
of these objectives was broken down into three or more objectives, with the overall result
being a total of 48 unit and lesson objectives for the course. These 48 objectives became ● Classify individual lines as horizontal or vertical and sets of lines as parallel or
the focus of planning, teaching, and assessment; the nine more general objectives were seen perpendicular based solely on their slopes.
providing an “organising framework”. If you begin with two dozen course objectives, you ● Contrast the slope-intercept equation of a line with the point-slope equation of a line.
can conceivably end up with over 100 unit and lesson objectives. This raises an important ● Analyse the points on a coordinate graph in terms of a linear equation written in the
question: “Is it possible for students to learn 100 or more objectives in approximately 135 general form.
semester hours?”
As a second example, consider the concept of “literary genre”. Related concepts would
A second common reaction to Tables 4.8 and 4.9 is that there is external pressure include drama, mystery, fantasy, historical fiction, poetry, short story, science fiction, and
(whether from governments or school administrators) to place greater emphasis on biography. Again, one or more of these could form the basis for a unit or lesson objective.
cognitive objectives than on objectives in any of the other domains. When this is indeed For example:
Chapter 4 88 89 Learning objectives

● Compare fable, fairy tale, fantasy, and folklore. Figure 4.2.

● Analyse literary works in terms of their literary genres. The SMART method for writing lesson objectives
● Create relatively short illustrations of selected literary genres.

Note that there is no correct verb; rather, the choice of verb depends on what you believe
the most important objective to be. The method begins with content analysis and adds Specific
appropriate verbs after the content has been analysed.

Time-bound SMART Measurable

The S-K-A method

Action-
The S-K-A method is a reminder to include multiple domains in your units, as well as in Reasonable oriented
your courses. S-K-A stands for Skills (what students should be able to do by the time
that the unit is completed), Knowledge (what students should know and understand by
the time that the course is completed), and Attitudes (what dispositions students should
possess by the time that the unit is completed). We have already discussed the importance of specificity (i.e., precision) and action-orientation
(i.e., the inclusion of a verb in the statement of objectives). Measurable was touched on in our
Learning objectives written using the S-K-A method should begin with a phrase such as, “By discussion of whether to include criteria in our statement of objectives or to link assessments
the time you finish this unit (or section or chapter), you should be able to …”. You then would with objectives from the very beginning of the process. Our focus here, then, is on “reasonable”
add a verb and an object to complete the statement of the objective. For example, “By the and “time-bound”. Reasonable means that we believe that the objective can be achieved
time you finish this unit, you would be able to: by the vast majority of students in the allotted time using the available resources. In this
regard, reasonableness is related to Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) that
● Use an online social network to gather information about interesting people. was discussed in Chapter 1. Time-bound means that students will have only a finite amount
● Evaluateinformation obtained from online social networks in terms of time to learn the objective. If it is an instructional objective, students may have an hour or
of its accuracy. two to learn it. If it is a unit objective, students may have two or three weeks to learn it. This
● Use Internet Relay Chat (IRC) to interview interesting people. points to one of the advantages of units over lessons, namely, you can use time more flexibily
● Analyse interview data in terms of its relevance for specified purposes. in units than in lessons. That is, within a unit, if a student fails to achieve a particular objective
● Use a Wiki to write biographies of interesting people.” by a specified time, the student still may achieve the objective at some later time as a result of
connections made of that objective with other unit objectives.
Note that the objectives are placed in a sequence that leads from general information
gathering to writing biographies. In between, students must evaluate the general Time is (or at least should be) a major consideration in setting objectives for our students.
information, use Internet Relay Chats (IRCs) as interviews, and analyse the interview We discussed this matter when we talked about setting a reasonable number of course
data in terms of its relevance (for, in this case, writing biographies). Note that the verb objectives. Regardless of the method used to write objectives, we would suggest examining
“use” denotes skills, the verbs “evaluate information” and “analyse data” are knowledge- the entire set of objectives (that is, course, unit, and lesson) once they have been written. To
related, and the phrase “interesting people” is intended to incorporate students’ attitudes focus your examination we would suggest asking questions such as these:
into the objectives.
● Are these truly the most important objectives (that is, objectives, when mastered, will
they increase the chances of students’ future success)?
The SMART method ● Is the connection between and among course, unit, and lesson objectives reasonable
and clear?
● Do I have the time and resources needed to help students master the entire set of
Whereas the content-analysis method is appropriate for either unit or lesson objectives objectives?
and the “S-K-A method” is most useful for unit objectives, the “SMART method” is
most useful for lesson objectives. As shown in Figure 4.2, SMART stands for Specific, Based on your answers to these questions, you may find that modifications in your objectives
Measurable, Action-oriented, Reasonable, and Time-bound. are in order.
Chapter 4 90 91 Learning objectives

Recommendation 4 ● Analyse poetry on their own (rather than copy the teacher’s analysis) (literature);
● Analyse faulty electrical systems to identify the source of the problem (science);
When focusing on the cognitive domain, include ● Evaluate the chances of success of various particular conflict-resolution strategies
objectives that emphasise different levels of based on historical information and trends (social studies);
cognitive processing. ● Analyse the defenses used by opposing soccer teams to create game plans with
relatively high probabilities of success (physical education);
● Create watercolors in the impressionist tradition (the arts); and,
As we mentioned earlier in this chapter, the emphasis in many, if not most, schools is on ● Create theme songs for television shows and movies that are in the pre-production or
objectives in the cognitive domain. This is not to suggest that objectives in the other domains production phases (music).
are unimportant; rather, they tend to be perceived to be less important for economic growth
and general societal welfare. As mentioned in Chapter 1, we are either living (or will soon be At a time when information is so readily available, we no longer need an educational
living) in a knowledge society. That is, knowledge is rapidly becoming the “coin of the realm”. system that relies on the presentation or delivery of more information. Rather, we need
Somewhat paradoxically, in knowledge societies educational systems should emphasise less an educational system that helps students develop or acquire the methods and strategies
knowledge and pay more attention to teaching students ways of processing that knowledge. they can use to make sense of the information, to judge the accuracy and credibility of the
information, and to determine what information is worth considering and what information
The need for this shift in emphasis can be shown with a single example. The following should be ignored. Including higher-order cognitive processes in at least some of our
problem was given to 13-year-olds in the United States and several western European objectives is a start in this direction.
countries: “An army bus holds 36 soldiers. If 1,128 soldiers are being bused to their training
site, how many buses are needed?” The division was correctly computed by 70 percent of the Note the inclusion of the phrase “at least some” in the previous sentence. It is not wise to base
students, who arrived at a quotient of 31, remainder 12, or 31 1/3. When they answered the a course exclusively on these objectives. You need a balance between content and cognitive
question almost 30 percent of the students responded with that number, failing to translate processes. If too much content is emphasised, there is little, if any, time to go much beyond the
it into a number of buses as asked for in the problem. Another 20 percent of the students least complex cognitive process category, remember. If too much emphasis is given to the most
answered “31 buses” (presumably because they were taught to “round down” if the fraction complex cognitive process categories, on the other hand, then insufficient attention will likely
is less than one-half). Only 23 percent of the students gave the correct answer: “32 buses”. be paid to important and valuable content (e.g., key concepts, principles, algorithms, models,
The point is that although 70 percent of the students possessed the knowledge (of how to and theories). Once your course, unit, and lesson objectives are fairly complete, it is advisable to
divide a four-digit number by a two-digit number), only 23 percent were able to process that review them in terms of the balance among the six cognitive process levels.
knowledge in a way that led them to the correct answer.
Achieving a proper balance is particularly important because of the time constraints within
Take a minute and look back at Table 4.2. Look specifically at the entries in the left-hand which we work. If a course meets for 135 hours spread over 16 weeks, some teachers feel an
column. These are six categories of cognitive processes: remember, understand, apply, urgency to cover as much content as they can within that time frame. Remember, however,
analyse, evaluate, and create. In terms of cognitive complexity, they are arranged from least that the more content we cover, the less likely students will have time to do any more than
complex (remember) to most complex (create). To live, survive, and prosper in a knowledge remember the content and parrot it back to you on demand. Within that same 135-hour course,
society, a great deal of emphasis should be given to the three most complex categories: we can focus our attention on critical thinking and reasoning. If we go too far in this direction,
analyse, evaluate, and create. For example, however, we take the risk that we will not expose students to the content they need to think and
reason. We have encountered another paradox. We cannot think if we have nothing to think
● Rather than accept arguments on face value, students should learn to analyse the about; however, teaching lots of content does not guarantee thinking at all (as the bus example
argument in terms of the validity of the assumptions and the logical progression of mentioned earlier clearly points out).
ideas.
● Rather than accept other’s judgments of books, films, or stage productions, students Learning objectives in the cognitive domain can be made more or less demanding by varying
should learn to evaluate these materials and presentations based on criteria used by the difficulty of the content and the complexity of the processes that students must use on or
experts in the field as well as their own criteria. with the content. For example, simple objectives might require students to list or state facts,
● Rather than accept a general belief that a problem cannot be solved, students should or formulas or definitions, essentially recalling information from memory and reproducing
learn to create methods and strategies that have the potential to solve the problem. it. More complex objectives might ask learners to apply knowledge learned in one context
to another context, one they have not encountered previously. Finally the highest levels of
In terms of specific subject areas, students should learn to: objectives ask learners to solve complex problems by, for example, analysing or evaluating
available evidence. What is referred to as “critical thinking” is largely some combination of
● Evaluate the reasonableness of an answer (mathematics); analysing and evaluating.
Chapter 4 92 93 Learning objectives

Recommendation 5 Well-written and clearly communicated learning objectives can preempt the “why” question.
That is, if students know what the objective is, they can often see the connection between
Inform students of your learning objectives so they can a specific activity (or a set of activities) and the objective. Once this connection is clear in
(a) make sense of classroom activities, their minds, they may be more motivated to participate in the activity in order to learn. In the
(b) direct their effort appropriately, and United States, work that is not clearly related to any objective is referred to by students as
(c) monitor their progress toward the objective. “busy work” (as in “The teacher assigned this work just to keep me busy.”). This leads directly
to the second reason for informing students of our objectives.

There is an old saying concerning good speeches. First, tell them what you are going to tell
them. Next, tell them. Finally, tell them what you told them. The final recommendation in this Directing effort appropriately
chapter stems from the first step in that sequence, namely, “Tell students what you expect
them to learn.” Knowing what they are expected to learn has several benefits, three of which
are contained in the recommendation. But before we can “turn them loose”, we must be sure Suppose you tell your students to read a chapter in a textbook without informing them of
that they understand the meaning of the learning objectives. what they are expected to learn by reading the chapter. Further suppose that Sonya pays
attention to the details, Ana pays attention to the main ideas, and Andreas pays attention to
As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, one of the major roles of objectives is to the logic of the presentation. Quite likely, these three students will learn very different things
communicate our learning intentions to a variety of audiences or stakeholder groups. from the reading, based primarily on their individual focus.
Unfortunately, many of our objectives are written for groups other than our students.
Increasingly they are written for policy makers and administrators. When this is the Let us carry this example one step further. Suppose you prepare a quiz on the chapter,
case, we need to determine how best to translate the objectives into the language of one that focuses primarily on memorised details. Which student do you think is likely to
the students so they truly understand what they are to learn. One of the best ways of get the highest score on the quiz? My bet is on Sonya! Students who read for main ideas
knowing whether students do, in fact, understand an objective is to have them restate (Ana) or logical arguments (Andreas) often do not pay much attention to the details.
it in their own words (that is, paraphrase the objective). In fact, it may be useful to use When you grade the quiz, you give Sonya a grade of “A”, whereas Ana and Andreas
the paraphrased objective, rather than the original, when working directly with students. receive lower grades.
Once students understand an objective, they can make sense of what’s going on in the
classroom, direct their work and study efforts appropriately, and monitor their progress What can we learn from this example? First, objectives have a homogenising effect. That is,
toward achieving the objective. they say to students, although you can focus on many things as you read this material, I want
you to pay particular attention to X (whether X is defined as the details, the main ideas, the
logic of the presentation, or whatever). Second, objectives “level the playing field” in terms of
Making sense of classroom activities fairness of assessment. Students should not receive higher grades simply because they were
able to guess what you, the teacher, wanted them to learn. Third, it is important for students
to see the connection between their effort and their learning. That is, we want our students
Many a student, either to himself or herself or out load, has asked, “Why are we doing this?” to truly believe that if I work harder, I will learn more. The stronger the connection between
Why are you talking about running water when we are studying electricity? Why are we effort and learning, the greater the motivation will be.
performing this experiment? Why I am reading this story? Why are we taking this field trip?
“Why?” is students’ shorthand for “What is the purpose?” or, in the context of this chapter,
“What are we supposed to be learning?” Your answers to these questions hint at your Monitoring progress
objectives. For example,

● I’m using running water as a metaphor for electricity so you understand what For students, the most tangible effect of specifying learning objectives is increasing their
electricity is and how it operates; ability to monitor their learning, judge their learning success, and make adjustments as
● You are performing this experiment so that you will understand the complex effect of necessary to improve their learning. In our discussion of the need to increase our precision
temperature, moisture, radiant energy, soil aeration, and nutrients on plant growth; in our efforts to improve communication, we suggested two ways of accomplishing this. The
● You are reading this story to see how this author develops the main character over first was to increase precision by including conditions and criteria in our standard subject-
the course of the story; and verb-object format for writing objectives. Specifying the conditions and, more importantly,
● You are taking this field trip to see how the skills you are developing in this course can the criteria is likely to increase the ability of students to monitor their progress as well as their
be applied in the world of work. accuracy in doing so. Our second suggestion for increasing the precision of our objectives
Chapter 4 94 95 Learning objectives

was to pair objectives with sample assessments from the very beginning. That is, after Sources / CHAPTER 4
informing students of the objective, say something like: “And, if you’ve mastered the objective,
READINGS
you should be able to answer questions like these.”

Anderson, L. W. (Ed.), Krathwohl, D. Mager, R. F. (1997) Bloom, B.S. (Ed.), Engelhart, M.D.,
Suppose, for example, your objective is: “Students will analyse short stories in terms of
R. (Ed.), Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, Preparing instructional objectives: Furst, E.J., Hill, W.H., & Krathwohl,
the ways in which the story elements (e.g., plots, characters, settings, conflict, point of
K. A., Mayer, R. E., Pintrich, P. R., A critical tool in the development of D.R. (1956)
view, and theme) influence one another.” Sample questions that can be paired with this
Raths, J. & Wittrock, M. C. (2001) effective instruction. Atlanta, GA: Taxonomy of educational objectives:
objective include:
A taxonomy for learning, teaching, Center for Effective Performance, Inc. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New
and assessing. New York, NY: Addison York: David McKay.
● How did the setting affect the main characters? How would the main characters
Wesley Longman, Inc.
change if the setting were different?
● How did the point of view affect the plot? How could the plot be rewritten from a
different point of view?
● What in the setting led to the major conflict? How could the conflict have been WEBSITES USED FOR BACKGROUND INFORMATION
avoided if the setting were different (or could it)?
http://web.mit.edu/tll/teaching- http://pixel.fhda.edu/id/learning_ http://beyondpenguins.ehe.osu.edu/
To keep the objectives-assessment connection in the forefront of the students’ minds, you materials/learning-objectives/index- domain.html [Cognitive, Affective, issue/polar-explorers/effort-praise-
can write these pairings on the board or distribute written copies of the pairings to which learning-objectives.html Psychomotor, and Interpersonal and-achievement-what-research-
students can refer from time to time. [The S-K-A Method] Domains] says-to-the-elementary-teacher [The
Effort-Achievement Connection]
Being unclear about what we want or expect our students to learn has a number of negative http://www.learningandteaching. http://www.unesco.org/webworld/
consequences. Without clear learning objectives, we waste a great deal of time or engage info/teaching/objectives.htm ramp/html/r8810e/r8810e04. http://www.fibaa.org/uploads/
our students and ourselves in a lot of aimless activity. Without clear learning objectives, it [The SMART Method] htm# [UNESCO’s Objectives in the media/Writing_Learning_Outcomes_
is difficult to assess and evaluate our students in a meaningful and fair manner. Without Educational Process] at_Programme_and_Module_Levels.
thinking about learning objectives, we run the risk of defining learning solely in terms of the http://www.adprima.com/objectives. pdf [Writing learning outcomes]
cognitive domain. Without thinking about learning objectives, we may design and operate an htm [Behavioural Objectives]
educational system based on the mistaken belief that the memorisation of content produces
a productive and enlightened student. Although well thought out, carefully written, and
clearly communicated learning objectives will not solve all the problems of education, they
are a very good start in the right direction.
Chapter 5 98 99

INSTRUCTION
ANA PEŠIKAN

CHAPTER 5
Chapter 5 100 101 Instruction

Constantly changing world developments place new and challenging demands on our process of making sense of things (or, more technically, personally constructing knowledge)
educational systems and those who live and work within them. Demands for job skills in the new by engaging in meaningful activities and communicating with others. Each student enters a
millennium are changing rapidly. Demands for routine cognitive and manual jobs, for example, classroom or begins a lesson with personal knowledge, which he or she uses to make sense of
are decreasing. At the same time, demands for inventive thinking (e.g., managing complexity, what is being taught. What is learned, then, depends not only on what you, the teacher, say
self-direction, curiosity, creativity, risk-taking, higher-order thinking and sound reasoning), and do, but also on the personal knowledge students bring to the learning situation.
expert thinking (e.g., solving problems for which there are no rule-based solutions), and complex
communication skills and abilities (e.g., interacting with others to acquire information, offer
explanations, or persuade them of the implications for action) are increasing. Furthermore, there Moving from TT to TfAL
is a greater need for citizens who are active participants in social and political affairs and have
the temperament needed for emotional stability and well-being.
What criteria do or should we use to define teaching excellence? In TT, the main criterion is
These new demands require new ways of thinking about students and teachers and about transmitting the information included in a syllabus, textbook, or some other source. In TfAL,
learning and teaching. Inventive thinking, expert thinking, and complex communication skills and on the other hand, the primary criterion is the quality of learning experienced by those being
abilities cannot be developed in a system in which teachers are active (e.g., they lecture) and taught. In TfAL, then, teaching and learning are seen as two facets of the same interwoven
students are passive (e.g., they sit and listen). Rather, students need to be active (e.g., working) process. This process is well expressed in the term “teaching/learning”, with one side of the
and you, as a teacher, must provide the structure, assistance, encouragement, and support to dyad influencing, and influenced by, the other. To practice TfAL, then, you not only have to
enable students to learn in the present as well as to empower them for future learning. know what you are teaching, but also quite a bit about whom you are teaching.

Eminent Belgian psychologist, Eric De Corte, has suggested four fundamental principles of Based on this discussion, two general suggestions can be offered to those wishing to move
learning, as we now understand it. They are as follows: from TT to TfAL. First, you need to create learning situations that actively engage your
students in the learning process. Second, in this learning situation, you must be sensitive to
● Learning is constructive. Meaning does not exist in the outside world. Rather, meaning is what your students are doing and how they are responding to the learning activities and to
constructed by students as they interact with the outside world. the tasks they are assigned.
● Learning is self-regulated. Self-regulated students set higher specific and proximal goals,
manage their time well, monitor their progress toward goals, make adjustments based
on their monitoring, and persist despite obstacles. Recommendation 1
● Learning is contextual. Learning happens when students interact with social and cultural
contexts and artifacts, especially by participating in social and cultural activities. Create scenarios rather than write lesson plans.
● Learning is collaborative. Learning is not a purely “solo” activity; rather, we learn with
and from others.
It is often said that teaching is art. If it is, the opportunity for creativity lies in the planning
phase of instruction. The planning phase occurs when you prepare for class, seeking ways of
Traditional Teaching (TT) vs. Teaching bridging the gap between where students currently are in terms of your objectives and where
for Active Learning (TfAL) they need to be to master the objectives.

Most teachers are required by members of the administrative staff to prepare lesson plans,
What are your first thoughts when you hear the word “teacher”? Someone who stands in typically for lessons that last from 45 minutes to an hour or more (as in the case of a piano
front of the class, delivering a lecture, and then gives marks for proper recall and repetition lesson, for example). Occasionally, a lesson may begin on one day during a single class
of the imparted knowledge? Someone who is a “preacher” or “main actor”, who knows and period and extend into a second day or class period. In general, however, lessons are fairly
wants to transfer his or her knowledge to students? These views of teachers are consistent short (as was discussed in Chapter 4). It is not unusual for a teacher to prepare more than
with what may be termed Traditional Teaching (TT). TT is teacher-centred and requires the 100 lessons for a single semester course in our secondary schools. The vast number of
delivery of good lectures in order to transfer a well-defined body of knowledge to students. TT lessons and the small amount of instructional time per lesson makes it difficult for teachers
is based on the belief that learning is the acquisition (or collection) of facts to be remembered to be creative and innovative in their planning. Partly because of these time constraints,
and procedures to be applied in a routine manner. To practice TT, you only have to know the teachers tend to prepare lesson plans that are patterned and routine. An alternative
content being taught and how to deliver it to students. to writing lesson plans is to create scenarios. Table 5.1 highlights the major differences
An alternative view of teachers and teaching – one consistent with the four principles between lesson plans and scenarios. Take a minute to read through the entries in the table,
mentioned above – is Teaching for Active Learning (TfAL). In TfAL, learning is seen as the focusing on the primary differences presented.
Chapter 5 102 103 Instruction

Table 5.1 Table 5.2

Lesson plans and scenarios Questions to be answered when creating scenarios

1. What are the specific learning objectives for this particular academic subject (and for
Lesson plan Scenario certain blocks of material within that subject)?

2. What are the characteristics of the students who are to achieve the learning objectives
1. The implementation of a single lesson A single lesson may be planned, but it is
(e.g., abilities, prior knowledge, life experiences, motivation) that I must take into
(often 45 minutes to an hour is planned). planned within a larger context (e.g., a block
consideration in creating the scenario?
of lessons, a circle of lessons).

3. What are the settings and situations within which the teaching-learning process is to take
2. The lesson specifies what the teacher The emphasis is on what the students do
place (e.g., in school, out of school, in nature, in the laboratory)?
does to implement the lesson. as the lesson is implemented (that is, the
instructional situations in which they are to
be involved, the activities in which they are to 4. What activities and tasks should be assigned, performed, and completed in that setting to
engage, the tasks they are to complete). enable students to achieve the learning objectives?

5. What learning resources are available or need to be available in that setting to support the
3. The lesson focuses almost exclusively on The focus is on the process (e.g., how to
selected activities and tasks?
the content (that is, what is being taught, initiate certain student activities, how to
what materials are being used, what facilitate a pedagogic interaction among the
technology is needed). students, and between the teacher and the 6. How will I know that students have achieved the learning objectives? And, as a follow-up,
students). what will I do if a large number of students achieve them?

4. The focus is on designing a lesson that The focus is on designing lessons that will
can be implemented. That is, when achieve certain specified learning objectives.
everything written down has taken place, That is, the lessons are over only when the
The creation of scenarios is a key stage in moving from Traditional Teaching (TT) to Teaching
the lesson is over and the teaching has learning objectives have been achieved. for Active Learning (TfAL). In many respects, scenarios are the vehicle for translating the
ended. Teaching continues, often with new and idea of TfAL into practice. Scenarios provide the conditions that are necessary for moving
different strategies and tactics, until then. students from passive recipients to active agents of their own learning. As a result, schools
are more likely to play the role that justifies their existence, namely, emphasising the process
5. Lessons tend to have a fairly uniform Scenarios have no fixed, uniform structure. of learning in relevant and meaningful situations with teachers as organisers, motivators,
structure (e.g., introduction, development The structure must “fit” the learning and, perhaps most importantly, learners in their own right.
and presentation, closure or conclusion). objectives, tasks, and activities.
What can you do to move from writing lesson plans to creating scenarios? First, you need
6. The dominant role of the teacher is The dominant role of the teacher is teacher- to come up with creative and innovative ideas that are the driving force behind scenarios.
teacher-as-lecturer. as-organiser (e.g., film director, designer), Remember that scenarios give you a great deal of flexibility in terms of time schedules and
teacher-as-motivator (e.g., cheerleader, deadlines. Second, you need to identify the settings, situations, activities, tasks, and learning
encourager), and teacher-as-partner-in- resources that are needed to make the scenario “come alive” for students. Third, you need to
pedagogic interaction (e.g., learning with as
learn from experience so that each new scenario is of higher quality than the previous one.
opposed to talking at).
Here are a few suggestions for beginning the transition from lesson plans to scenarios.

● Meet with colleagues on a regular basis to discuss different ideas for scenarios, including
These differences between lesson plan and scenario are not technical; rather, they represent activities, projects, and tasks.
the essence of a completely different understanding of teaching, learning, and the teaching/ ● Do an on-line search with keywords such as webquest, project-based learning, and
learning process. Teachers who create scenarios assume the role of the movie director, not thematic units. These keywords will lead you to a variety of examples that can be
the main actor. Creating scenarios requires thinking about the scenes where the action adopted (as they are) or adapted (to fit your circumstances).
(teaching and learning) takes place and the actors’ (students’) actions in those scenes. To ● Reflect on your past experiences when teaching your course or courses to your students.
create scenarios, then, we must answer questions such as those found in Table 5.2. What seemed to gain their interest? What led to boredom? What insights were
Chapter 5 104 105 Instruction

expressed by the students that might be the basis for an interesting scenario? Recommendation 2
● After completing a particular scenario, take a day to discuss it with your students.
Ask questions such as “What did you like about the scenario? What didn’t you like? Design learning situations that actively engage students
What didn’t make sense to you? How could we make the scenario more interesting or in the process of learning.
engaging? What kinds of activities would you suggest for inclusion in the scenario?”
● Take another look around the school and community. What resources are available
that you haven’t considered? How can you incorporate out-of-school venues into your Settings are the places or locations in which learning occurs. A classroom is a typical
scenario? learning setting. Situations are the events that occur within those settings. Within your
● Spend some time visiting other teachers’ classes to see how they “do things”. Are there classroom (a setting), a student begins to disrupt the lesson (a situation). Situations can be
some ideas you can “borrow” as you think about new scenarios for your students? negative (as in the previous example) or positive (as when students are proudly performing
● Can you find alternative ways for students to demonstrate their learning rather than a short play they have written). As teachers, of course, we want many more positive
relying exclusively on paper-and-pencil quizzes and tests? Can they exhibit their work? situations than negative ones. To create positive situations we must find ways to actively
Can they perform in some way? engage students in the process of learning. The following four suggestions are intended to
help you create positive situations in your classroom.
Because it is difficult to change everything at one time, we would recommend using a two-
stage process to create scenarios. The first stage is the production of an initial outline. This ● Diagnose students’ initial status and activate their prior knowledge;
initial outline is different from the actual scenario in the degree of development. It is intended ● Develop or select appropriate and relevant learning activities;
to serve as a starting point for extended thought and, if possible, discussion with others. The ● Teach in ways that make the learning activities “come alive”;
second stage is the completed scenario, a polished and fully detailed version of the initial ● Find ways of sustaining learning over time.
outline. The five questions included in Table 5.3 are intended to provide a self-evaluation of
your first attempts at creating a scenario. If all of your answers are “Yes”, you have a strong
foundation for creating excellent scenarios. If any of your answers is “No”, you have identified Diagnose students’ initial status and activate
areas that might be barriers to creating excellent scenarios. students’ prior knowledge

Table 5.3 Students can only make sense of what they are being taught when they are able to
Questions to consider when examining scenarios connect it with their previous experience and knowledge. One way to find out what
your students already know is to allow them time to reflect on and share information
about their prior knowledge. This can be done spontaneously by asking questions in a
conversational way or more formally in a brief writing assignment (as when students are
Question Yes or No asked to keep journals). Questions such as these will help you gather information about
your students’ prior knowledge:
1. Is there a clear inter-related set of learning objectives that quite likely will
require some block of time to achieve? ● Before we begin, let me ask a question. What do you know about
(the topic we will be learning)?
● Here are some of the terms that we will be using in this unit.
2. Is the focus on what students are doing, rather than what you are doing?
What do these terms mean to you? Do you use them and, if so,
in what way or ways? Please say, “I don’t know” if you have no idea
3. Is the focus on learning activities, rather than content presentations (e.g., of their meaning.
lectures)?
● Where have you encountered (this topic) in the past?
What experiences have you had with it?
4. Is the focus on evidence of learning (the objectives), rather than covering
the content? Once you are aware of what your students already know and have experienced, your
attention should turn to activating this knowledge and these experiences. Activating
5. As the teacher, are you assuming the role of movie director, rather than prior knowledge is a means of preventing misconceptions from interfering with learning
knowledge transmitter? the new content and objectives. For example, students may believe that they grasp
the meaning of a new concept, but they do not because the “folk” explanation of the
Chapter 5 106 107 Instruction

concept interferes with their understanding. Although this problem is especially acute in activities and, likewise, the content induces special student activities). In the process of
science, it is important to note that each field of human knowledge is organised around learning, depending on the nature and type of the knowledge domain, students encounter
dynamic interactions of the knowledge that students gain from everyday experience and diverse intellectual problems and through these encounters develop specific forms of
the academic knowledge they encounter in schools. These interactions play out in the activity. Furthermore, the same activity may mean different things in different subject matter
daily interchanges of teachers and students (and students and students), interchanges domains. For example, solving problems in mathematics is not the same process as solving
that typically occur within the specific subject matters taught in schools. In order to problems in history or art. In fact, the nature and structure of the subject matter domain often
negotiate these interactions and interchanges successfully, you, as a teacher, must not determine the most appropriate or relevant activities. For example, inductive reasoning is
only stimulate interest and motivate students, but also be an active participant and extremely valuable for learning science. On the other hand, deductive reasoning is very useful
partner in the learning process. In this way, school learning becomes a genuine, authentic for learning geometry and logic. This difference may explain in part why some students are
interchange of ideas and information – a teaching/learning process. quite good in mathematics, but not in science (or vice versa).

When you activate prior knowledge, you can help students revise or modify their prior The second element is important because, as was mentioned in Chapter 1 and again in
learning (if inconsistent with the new learning). You also can work to upgrade or expand Chapter 4, different learning objectives require different learning activities. At the same
their prior learning to accommodate the new learning. Finally, you can help them time, however, any activity that we design or select must promote active construction of
reorganise their prior learning to make it easier to connect new learning with what they knowledge. Almost a century ago, educationists differentiated between reproductive and
already know and can do. If new learning is not integrated with prior learning, it remains productive thinking. Reproductive thinking involves remembering and regurgitating the
isolated (if it is learned at all). Consequently, there will be little if any understanding and knowledge we receive from some source (e.g., a teacher) exactly the way we received it.
the learning cannot be transferred to new situations. Productive thinking, on the other hand, involves a transformation of the knowledge that we
receive so that it is meaningful or “makes sense” to us. This transformation of knowledge is
referred to as “active construction of knowledge”.
Develop or select appropriate and relevant
learning activities The third element mentioned above deals with the teacher-student relationship. One of the
keys to the proper implementation of active learning in the classroom is “joint activity”.
Joint activity enables pairs or teams to co-construct knowledge by means of asymmetrical
Active learning requires students to engage in appropriate and relevant learning activities. interactions. The term “asymmetrical” means simply that one partner is more experienced
Generally, appropriate refers to the connection between the activities and the students (e.g., and knowledgeable then the other (as in a teacher-student pairing or a cross-age tutoring
age- or developmentally appropriate), whereas relevant refers to the connection between the pairing). Joint activity helps to ensure that the knowledge we construct from our experiences
activities and the objective. Although the phrase “active learning” has been used in education is consistent with knowledge that is shared by others, particularly those who are experts
for many years, its meaning has changed over time. At the beginning of the 20th Century, in the field. For example, I may understand “tall” in a rather unique way because I am the
John Dewey argued for “learning-by-doing”. Dewey’s view of “learning-by-doing” was limited “tallest” person in my little town.
to performing motor, manual, and practical activities. The current concept of active learning
does not exclude motor, manual, and practical activities; however, it does focus on mental However, after travelling to different places and noticing the heights of people in the places
activity. Concerns for what students are doing physically have been replaced for the most to which I travel, I may come to a different understanding of “tall”. Even though I am the
part by concerns for what students are doing cognitively. “tallest” person in my town, I may not be very tall in the overall scheme of things. I have
moved from an idiosyncratic understanding of “tall” to an understanding of “tall” that is
The choice of appropriate and relevant student activities depends on your understanding of shared by others.
three closely related elements: (a) the subject matter or knowledge domain we are teaching
(e.g., history, biology, music), (b) the learning objectives we set for our students within that In summary, implementing active learning means, first, being aware that there are a
domain; and (c) the students we are teaching. The effectiveness of the activities you have variety of possible learning activities and, second, selecting from among those activities
chosen depends on how well you, the teacher, are able to motivate students to actively the ones most likely to (a) engage students in the learning process (appropriate) and (b)
engage in these activities, spending the time and effort they need to spend to reach the result in learning outcomes consistent with your learning objectives (relevant). To begin an
objectives to which these activities are connected. exploration of active learning in your own classroom, you may want to consider questions
such as those shown in Table 5.4.
The first element is important because learning activities are domain-specific. Domain-
specification of activities means that the system of knowledge associated with each
subject matter (e.g., mathematics, history, art, music) contains specific models of thinking
(that is, students’ activities are inseparably linked with the nature of the content of those
Chapter 5 108 109 Instruction

Table 5.4 influence of the teacher decreases as we move from “tell and show” to “inquiry-based” to
Questions for exploring the use of active learning “task- or project-based”. Current research suggests that the use of multiple approaches is
in your classroom preferable to reliance on a single approach. For example, the “task-based” approach can
be followed by the “inquiry-based” approach, which can be followed by the “tell and show”
approach (if necessary). Table 5.5 summarises a few suggestions for the proper use of each
approach within the active learning paradigm.
Question Answer

Table 5.5
What is the predominant organisation of your classroom? Whole-class / Small-group /
Pairs / Individual (circle one) Summaries of three primary approaches to teaching within the
active learning paradigm
What are students expected to do most of the time? Listen / Copy / Talk / Work /
Think (circle one)

What learning activities do you use most of the time? [Write your answer] Approach Answer

Tell and Show ● Pose a problem to be solved or a question to be answered.

● “Think aloud” as you work through the problem or answer the question.
● Take time to solicit and answer questions from students about the process
To what extent are your learning activities designed around [Write your answer]
you used or your solution or answer.
important learning outcomes?
● Pose a similar problem or question.
● Working alone, in pairs, or in groups, have students solve the problem
or answer the question, trying to apply what they learned from your
demonstration and explanation.
To what extent do your learning activities promote active [Write your answer]
● After a reasonable length of time, call on a student (or pair or group) to
engagement?
present and discuss how they solved the problem or answered the question
and their solution or answer.
● Hold a general discussion about the process and the result.

How do you monitor and evaluate the success of your learning [Write your answer]
activities? Inquiry-Based ● Pose a problem to be solved or question to be answered.
● Identify those students, if any, who think they can solve the problem or
answer the question.
● Form pairs or small groups, being sure to place students who think they can
solve the problem or answer the question with those who cannot.
● Set a time deadline and have students work on the problem or question.
Teach in ways that make the learning ● After a reasonable length of time, call on a student (or pair or group) to
present and discuss how they solved the problem or answered the question
activities “come alive”
and their solution or answer.
● Hold a general discussion about the process and the result.

Regardless of how appropriate and relevant your learning activities are “on paper”, you, as
Task-Based ● Distribute copies of the project, experiment, or webquest to the students.
the teacher, must make them “come to life” in the classroom. In this regard, teachers rely
● Review the project, experiment, or webquest with the students, making sure
on one of three approaches to teaching. The first, and perhaps most common, is to present they understand (a) the end product (or performance) and the (b) deadlines
information, explain concepts, and model skills. This approach can be labelled “tell and for submitting their work.
show”. The second approach is to ask questions or pose problems and then guide students ● Place students in “work groups” (see Chapter 3 for suggestions).
through discussions and discoveries so that they come to answers to the questions or ● Meet with students at regularly scheduled times to review progress and help
them overcome problems they cannot resolve themselves.
solutions to the problems themselves. This approach can be labelled “inquiry-based”. The
● Schedule a time for each work group to present to the class.
third approach is to engage students in larger tasks (e.g., projects, experiments, webquests) ● Allow time and provide opportunities for a question-and-answer session at
and then provide structure for completing the tasks, and supervise them as they work on the end of each presentation.
the tasks. This approach can be labelled “task- or project-based”. Note that the direct
Chapter 5 110 111 Instruction

Before moving on, a few general comments about the entries in Table 5.5 are in order. First, Table 5.6
note that regardless of the general approach to teaching, the emphasis is on active learning Techniques for helping students sustain learning over time
and student engagement. “Tell and show” does not mean talking at students and leaving the
room when the talk is over. Second, the choice of problems and questions is essential. The use
of challenging questions, controversies, and dilemmas has been associated with increased
student engagement in learning. Almost any meaningful issue can be challenging if present Technique Summary
properly, emphasising thinking, reflection, and discussion. Advancements in science have
Mnemonic devices and other memory aids A mnemonic device is any technique that aids
resulted from meeting challenges posed by the limitations of current knowledge in relation
in the remembering of information or ideas.
to the knowledge needed to solve newly discovered or formulated problems. Note that the For example, in biology, there is an order to the
problems must be selected based on the learning objectives (see Chapter 4), rather than the categories used to classify animals: kingdom,
attractiveness of the problems per se. Engagement in problems that are neither meaningful phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.
nor relevant is unlikely to result in the desired learning. This leads to our third comment. A mnemonic device for this particular sequence
may be, “Kings Play Chess On Fine Glass
Surfaces.” Songs and rhymes can also serve as
Questions that require students to make connections and see relationships between and memory aids.
among concepts and ideas tend to increase student engagement as well as help students
connect new learning with their prior knowledge, making a grid of old and new learning.
Frequent repetition “Repetitio mater studiorum est” (that is,
Teaching students to use metaphors and analogies to make and explore relationships is a repetition is the mother of all learning).
useful tactic in this regard. Finally, ending a lesson with a question that will be addressed Summarising lessons (verbally or visually)
in the next lesson is a way of keeping students engaged even when they are out-of-school and preparing study guides not only require
or out-of-class. The use of questions in this way conveys to students that learning is often repetition on the part of students but also
provide a learning resource for later study.
intended to satisfy curiosity and, therefore, is open-ended and unfinished until that curiosity
has been satisfied. The so-called “Zeigarnick effect” asserts that the unconscious mind will
hold onto a question until it is answered or a task until it is completed. This tactic is often Using what has been learned in new and Seeing geometric shapes in buildings, gardens,
different settings and other public places helps students
used in television series to entice viewers to watch the next episode.
sustain what they have learned in geometry
class. Being aware of “tragic heroes” in
their family or community helps students
Find ways of sustaining learning over time sustain their understanding of key concepts
of Shakespearean plays. Reading popular
publications that address scientific issues
provides opportunities for students to apply
Many teachers complain that what students learn seems to go in one ear and out the other. their academic scientific knowledge in real-
What they knew on Friday they can’t remember on Monday. There are several possible world settings.
responses to these complaints. The most simple, straightforward response is that if they
“knew” something on Friday, but can’t remember it the following Monday, they probably Providing sustaining feedback Unlike the feedback provided by a single
didn’t really “know” it. A more appropriate and reasoned response, however, is that learning letter grade or checkmarks on incorrect items
not only must be nurtured, it must be sustained. If we do not make an effort to help students on quizzes or tests, sustaining feedback is
intended to improve future learning and
sustain what they have learned, it is easily and quickly forgotten. In fact, one very famous
performance. What is good about this essay?
definition of learning is that learning is what you remember after you forget. Note that What are some problems with it? What
forgetting is a recognised and anticipated part of real learning. What techniques can you use changes can you make to write better essays
to help students sustain their learning over time? Table 5.6 provides a summary. in the future? What is incorrect about your
answer to this test item? What confusion
on your part does your answer suggest?
We have covered a lot of material in discussing this third recommendation. Table 5.7 has been
Sustaining feedback should be of sufficient
prepared to summarise the major points and to allow you to review your current approach to detail to allow students to see the extent
teaching in terms of the suggestions made in this section. Checkmarks in the two right-hand and limitations of their knowledge and skills,
columns suggest you may want to consider making some changes in the way you teach. provide suggestions for improvement, and
offer specific strategies to use on similar tasks
in the future.
Chapter 5 112 113 Instruction

Table 5.7 Recommendation 3

A checklist for evaluating your current practice in terms of
actively engaging students Empower your students.

Parents know they have been successful when their children need them no longer; that is, their
STATEMENTS Usually, or SOMETIMES, RARELY NEVER
children are able to make it on their own (or with minimal intervention or support). So it is (or
very often BUT NOT
OFTEN should be) with teachers. In the limited time we have with our students, we need to do what
we can to empower them in ways that help them negotiate the demands of an ever-changing
world and achieve some degree of success. Webster’s unabridged dictionary defines empower
Early in each scenario I as “giving power or authority to” or “to enable or permit”. Although both of these phrases apply
take time to find out what to the meaning of empower as it pertains to students, it is the second that is most consistent
students already know with our use of the term. To empower students is to enable them to learn on their own. One
about the content to be
of the major reasons for the degree of failure of students to make a successful transition from
covered and the learning
objectives I have set.
secondary schools to tertiary schools in almost every country is the inability of students to learn
on their own (e.g., to complete a written assignment without their teachers giving them relevant
sources of information, page limitations, and deadlines). What can you do to empower your
I connect what I am
students? There are two basic answers to this question. First, you can foster critical thinking.
teaching students to what
they already know and can Second, you can help students develop meta-cognitive awareness and meta-cognitive strategies.
do, using their prior learning
to help them learn new
content and objectives. Fostering critical thinking

My learning activities are

both appropriate (for The National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking has provided a very comprehensive
students) and relevant (to
definition of critical thinking. Critical thinking is “the intellectually disciplined process of actively
the objective).
and skillfully conceptualising, applying, analysing, synthesising, and/or evaluating information
gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication,
Regardless of the general as a guide to belief and action”. In practice, critical thinking has two components: a set of cognitive
approach to teaching that skills that are used to process and generate information, and the habit of using those skills to guide
I use, I focus my attention
behaviour. To facilitate critical thinking, then, you can teach students to:
and effort on actively
engaging students in
learning and promoting ● Raise important questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely;
learning success. ● Collect, assess, and analyse information that is relevant to answering questions or
solving problems;
I use the following ● Arrive at well-reasoned conclusions and solutions that are derived from, and consistent
techniques in order to with, the available information;
sustain students’ learning ● Consider alternative interpretations, conclusions, and solutions and refute them with
over time:
logic and data, or alter your interpretation, conclusion, or solution to accommodate
these alternatives;
● Mnemonic devices & other
memory aids
● Recognise the assumptions underlying your thinking as well as the thinking of others;
● Frequent repetition ● Use increasingly abstract concepts, models, and theories to increase understanding;
● Applications in new & ● Communicate effectively with others to arrive at joint solutions or to share solutions
different settings with a wider audience;
● Learning from mistakes
● Providing sustaining
feedback
As discussed in Chapter 1, critical thinking is becoming increasingly important in a world in
which so much “unfiltered” information is available. Uncritical acceptance of information,
Chapter 5 114 115 Instruction

ideas, and points of view, while never a valued commodity, has become somewhat dangerous Whether we are teachers, students, or neither, we use meta-cognitive strategies quite often.
for both individuals and society as a whole. However, we may not be aware of them or we may not use strategies that are in our best
interest. The purpose of the discussion in this section is to suggest that we need to move
meta-cognition from the unconscious to the conscious realm so that all of us, teachers and
Developing meta-cognitive awareness and strategies students, understand what it is, why it is important, and that it can be used to improve
learning. Finally, because, as has been said, much learning is domain-specific, there is
no single meta-cognitive strategy that works in all situations. Rather, we must select and
Although it sounds mysterious, meta-cognition, in its simplest form, means thinking about perhaps modify our meta-cognitive strategies as contexts and situations change.
thinking. Meta-cognition occurs when you are reading a story and it suddenly dawns on
you that you must have missed something because nothing you are reading makes sense.
Based on your awareness of this confusion, you go back and re-read a portion of the story. Recommendation 4
In this example, you are thinking about the story as you read the story. At some point,
however, you find yourself thinking about your reading of the story. When this happens Be your own supervisor.
you have entered the realm of meta-cognition. Based on your thinking about thinking, you
make a decision, perhaps; “I’m going back to the beginning of the chapter and reading it
again.” As a teacher, what can you do to help students “think about their thinking” rather Evaluating the quality of your teaching should not be the job of an external supervisor. Rather,
than simply go blindly from lesson to lesson or from step to step in a routine procedure? self-evaluation is an integral part of the professional work of teachers. As teachers, therefore,
Here are a few suggestions. we need to internalise the qualities that make an excellent scenario, work to ensure that those
qualities are present in each and every scenario, and do what is necessary to implement the
scenario in ways that actively engage students and ensure learning success. Before continuing
● When beginning a lesson or unit, have your students complete a K-W-L chart (see your reading, please refer back to Tables 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3 to review what we have previously
Attachment 5.1). The K stands for what they know at present time. The W stands for written about scenarios. In this recommendation, we are going to consider those qualities that
what they want to know at the end of the lesson or unit. The L stands for what they differentiate good scenarios from not-so-good scenarios. These qualities should enable you to
learned. Obviously, the L column is completed after the lesson or unit has ended. “be your own supervisor” (adapted from Ivić et al., 2003).
● Model thinking as you teach. As we mentioned earlier, this technique is often referred
to as “thinking out loud”. Since students cannot see the workings of your mind, you a. Determine the key idea. In a scenario, the key idea is the glue that holds everything together.
need to tell students how and what you are thinking. What decisions did you make? Identify the key idea, describe it in fairly simple terms, and name it. Then write a set of learning
On what basis did you make the decisions? Questions such as these, when answered, objectives developed around, or based on, the key idea.
can be useful in developing the “thinking out loud” technique.
● Ask students to make connections between new learning and what they already b. List all learning activities sequentially. What are the learning activities? For each activity, have
know and can do. To become lifelong learners, students must learn to make these I clarified what students are to do? Write down as precisely as possible all the things students
connections themselves, rather than have them made for them by others. As they should be doing, both cognitively and otherwise, as they work through the scenario (e.g. taking
make the connections, you can and probably should comment on them, correcting notes, listening to a poem, working in groups, analysing written material, applying a procedure,
them as necessary and expanding on them when appropriate. solving a problem). Finally, does the sequence of activities make sense and is it likely to lead
● At the end of the lesson or unit, have students complete the L column of the K-W-L students to understand the key idea and reach the objectives?
chart. Lead a discussion of what different students wrote. This discussion provides
an opportunity for students to see that different students learn different things, even c. Check the activities in terms of the opportunities for active engagement they provide. Some
when the instruction provided them is basically the same. activities may be more engaging than others. Less-engaging activities may share one or more
● Help students become self-regulated learners by having them keep a journal of their of these characteristics: overly lengthy, redundant, boring, confusing, or meaningless. Activities
thoughts and feelings as they participate in various activities and complete various with any of these characteristics should be replaced with ones that are likely to be more
assigned tasks. When, if ever, did they feel confused? What did they do about it? engaging. It should be noted that this is a check on the appropriateness of the activities.
What could they do about it? When, if ever, did they feel confident? When did they
know that they knew? Questions such as these can be used to structure the journal. d. Check the connection between the activities and the learning objectives. How are the activities
● Provide students with alternative ways to demonstrate their learning. This may connected to the learning objectives? If students successfully complete the sequence of
involve allowing students to make choices of assignments (e.g., a written essay vs. a activities, how likely is it that they will achieve the learning objectives? Are there activities that
streaming video essay). Helping students achieve success (as well as feel a sense of overlap? Are there gaps in the sequence of activities? It should be noted that this is a check on
accomplishment) is a key component of motivation. the relevance of the activities.
Chapter 5 116 117 Instruction

e. Assessment and evaluation. What evidence do I need to let me know whether students have Students’ Are the planned activities relevant to the key idea
been successful in their learning efforts? How will I interpret the evidence to determine which activities and associated learning objectives?

students learned well and which did not? Did students learn some objectives better than others?
Is the sequence of activities logical and
appropriate?
The proper review and evaluation of the quality of a scenario occurs at two stages. The
first stage, which we mentioned earlier in this chapter, occurs after the scenario has How many students are actively engaged in
been prepared and is ready for implementation. The second stage takes place after the learning (per activity and overall)?

scenario has been implemented. In the first stage, you evaluate your scenario in terms of a
How much time is needed to complete the entire
hypothetical class of students. In the second stage, you evaluate your scenario based on the set of activities and tasks?
reactions, comments, and, perhaps, suggestions of an actual class of students. For example,
in the first stage, you may believe that the key idea is quite obvious and clearly related to the Are there opportunities for student initiative,
learning objectives. In the second stage, you may find that students are confused about the choice, decision-making, and independence?

key idea, particularly about the connection between the key idea and the learning objectives.
Are different activities available for different
groups of students? If so, how do you coordinate
Table 5.8 includes a list of factors to consider in both stages of review and evaluation. The the activities of the various groups?
list focuses on potential problems that may crop up and, if not addressed or solved, will likely
decrease the overall quality and likelihood of success of your scenario now and in the future. Are the results of the activities of all students and/
or of all student groups integrated at or near the
The list should not be considered as definitive or complete; you can freely add what you
end of the scenario? How is this done?
consider important factors for reviewing and evaluating your scenario in your classroom with
your students.
Teacher’s To what extent are the instructions given to
intervention students clear, precise, and detailed?

Table 5.8 How do you secure and sustain students’ attention

Considerations in the review of scenarios to the activities and tasks before them?

When students are working alone or in groups,

what is your role?

ASPECTS CONSIDER Is a problem Has time been allocated for corrections if the
detected? assignments are not satisfactory or acceptable?

If so, how Matching: Are the planned activities and objectives

it can be … objectives, coordinated?
solved? activities, and
evaluation Are students evaluated based on the quality of
their work and the achievement of the learning
Subject Is the selected content adequate in terms of: objectives? Who evaluates and how? Are the
(content) … students’ age? marks or grades assigned consistent with the
evaluation data or are adjustments made for effort
…students’ prior knowledge? and good behaviour?

Has the content been connected to: …type of class, Are the activities (including the methods and
… what has been studied earlier in the same methods, and content) appropriate for the type of class that you
subject or other school subjects? content are teaching?

…students’ experience? Are the activities (including the methods and

content) adequate for the type of class to achieve
…students’ extracurricular knowledge? the stated objectives?
Chapter 5 118 119 Instruction

Recommendation 5 In psychology, sympathy is defined as a relationship between persons in which the

condition of one induces a parallel or reciprocal condition in another. Empathy most often
“Read” your students and make adjustments in your refers to a vicarious participation in the emotions, ideas, or opinions of others; the ability
instruction accordingly. to imagine oneself in the condition or predicament of another. By being empathetic we do
not necessarily agree with the student; rather, we accept their understanding of the world
as they see it. A sympathetic response is, “I feel so sorry for you.” An empathic response
Virtually every recommendation as to what teachers need to do in order to teach better (that is, “I understand how you feel.” Empathy enables me as a teacher not only to monitor my
is, help more of their students learn and learn well) has its roots in the need to shift our focus students’ reactions, but also to put myself in their shoes. To remember what it was like to be
from concerns for what we do as teachers to what our students do and, ultimately, learn. a student at that age; to look at life and schooling through the eyes of the students. Once
When we focus on ourselves, we can do our best and assume that students are learning. I truly understand the problem as the students understand it, I can fine tune the teaching/
When we focus on our students, we can no longer assume, we have to monitor their learning learning process and make the adjustments that are needed to support the students (that
process and progress and make adjustments in our teaching based on the results of this is, provide the necessary scaffolding (see Chapter 1)).
monitoring. The choice, then, is clear. Do we, as teachers, assume or inspect?
There are many things that teachers can do to “read” their students. Here are six examples.
This final recommendation is often overlooked and neglected, though it is necessary to
make the shift from a teacher-focus to a student-focus. Despite our best plans and efforts, ● Look to see where they are looking. Are there eyes focused on the primary
students may look as though they are attentive, but their minds are elsewhere. They may look instructional source or sources? There is an old saying that the “eyes are the
as though they are working, but they are not putting forth the effort that is needed to learn windows to the soul.” In the classroom, the eyes provide clues as to what is being
well. When they shake their heads or do not ask any questions (when we ask, “Are there any “taken in” by the students.
questions?”), we may assume they understand what we are teaching, but a deeper probe ● Pay attention to non-verbal cues. Does their posture suggest they are alert? Are they
will clearly indicate they do not. To be student-focused and Teach for Active Learning (TfAL), nodding their heads in agreement or do they look puzzled? [Note that both nods and
then, it is critical that we learn to “read” our students. When do they “get it”? When are they looks of puzzlement suggest at least a basic level of engagement]. Do they yawn? Do
confused? When are they bored? When do they disengage from activities? Based on decades they appear to be sleepy? Do they roll their eyes when they do not understand?
of research we have learned that engagement in learning promotes academic success, ● Try to make connections between your actions and students’ reactions. For
whereas disengagement leads to academic failure (including leaving school before a diploma example, do they become inattentive when I talk for more than 10 minutes at a
or certificate has been awarded). time? Do they seem to persist in their work when I place them in groups of three,
whereas groups of five seem to cause problems?
Thousands of pages have been written on the characteristics of an excellent teacher. Looking ● Stop periodically to pose questions that allow you to check on students’ attention
through the lens of the modern concept of teaching/learning, two dimensions are crucial. to and understanding of material that you are presenting or that they are reading.
The first is characterised by the teacher’s vision of his or her role. This dimension has been ● Listen to your students carefully. What are they saying and how are they saying it
mentioned several times in this chapter and in Chapter 1 (as the importance of teachers’ (including tone and body language)? It is a somewhat trite but true statement that
beliefs). Suffice it to say the way we understand our roles and responsibilities influences how we can learn a great deal by listening to others.
we practice our craft which, in turn, influences the extent to which our students engage in the ● If you are working with a small group of students, while other students are working
learning process which, in turn, influences what and how much they learn. In summary form: in other groups, try to listen to the students with whom you are working, while
watching the students in the other groups. If you pay too much attention to the
Roles & responsibilities → Teaching practices → Active engagement → Learning group with which you are working, you are generally unaware of what is going on
in the rest of the room (at least until something negative happens).
The summary is written in a positive way. Negatively speaking, we could replace “active
engagement” with “disinterested passivity”, and “learning” with “failure to learn”. The Gathering information by “reading” your students is not particularly beneficial if you do
choice is yours! nothing with it. What do you do when students stop paying attention? Do you tell them to
pay attention and keep on doing what you are doing? Or, do you stop and think, “I’m losing
The second dimension that characterises an excellent teacher is the teacher’s sensitivity to them. I need to do something. Maybe a little humor would help. Maybe it’s time to pick up
the students. Two key aspects of a “teacher’s sensitivity” are empathy, that is, the ability to the pace and move on to another activity.” When your “reading” indicates that the level of
register, recognise, and understand signals coming from others (particularly sensitivity to engagement is low or decreasing, you need to change something to re-engage your students.
students’ cognitive and socio-emotional needs) and flexibility, that is, the willingness to adjust
teaching to new or different conditions and situations. Too often empathy is mistaken for Finally, there are times that you simply run out of ideas of what you can do differently to
sympathy. Sympathy is an agreement in feeling, acceptance of expression. re-engage students or to help them out of their states of confusion. When this happens,
Chapter 5 120 121 Instruction

Attachment 5.1
think about using other students as part of your teaching arsenal. Ask a student to explain a
K-W-L Chart
concept or skill to a student who is having difficulty. Pair up an enthusiastic, energetic student
with a reluctant learner in the hope that the enthusiasm and energy will be contagious.

In closing, we have compiled a set of questions (shown in Table 5.9) that are intended to help
you examine your ability and willingness to ‘read” your students. Our hope is that increased
self-awareness will either reinforce what you are currently doing or suggest areas in which
improvement may be needed.
K W L
What I know What I want to know What I‘ve learned

Table 5.9
Questions concerning proper “reading” of students

Statement Always Mostly Rarely Never

I know the names of all my students.

I notice which students are paying attention and which are not.

I realise when students have lost interest in the activities or

subjects.

I know when my students do not understand what we are

talking about or working on during class.

If students do not understand, I make adjustments and try

again.

I know which students are more interested in good grades than

in learning the subject.

Students feel welcome and comfortable in my classroom.

I know the number of students in the classroom who are left-

handed.

I use questions in class or short quizzes to help me understand

how well students are learning.

I make note of students who do not participate in class

discussions or contribute to work groups and take a few
minutes to talk with them privately.

I monitor student learning and pay particular attention to

substantial changes (positive or negative) in their learning.
I talk with them privately, commenting on and encouraging
success and talking about reasons for lagging behind or failing.
Chapter 5 122 123 Instruction

Sources / CHAPTER 5

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exploration. Cambridge, MA: Ivić, I., Pešikan, A., & Antić, S. (2003)
National Bureau of Economic Active Learning 2. Belgrade Institute Zeigarnik, B.V. (1967)
Research. Retrieved 29 November for Psychology, Faculty of Psychology. On finished and unfinished tasks.
2012 from http://www.nber.org/ In W. D. Ellis (Ed.), A sourcebook
papers/w8337.pdf?new_window=1 Lemke, C., Coughlin, E., Thadani, V., of Gestalt psychology. New York:
& Martin, C. (2003) Humanities Press
DeCorte, E. (2007) enGauge 21st Century Skills – Literacy
Learning from instruction: in the Digital Age, retrieved from 28
The case of mathematics. Learning November 2012:
Inquiry, 1: 19-30. Retrieved 29 http://www.metiri.com
November 2012 from http://
competentclassroom.
com/pdfs/ErikDeCorte.pdf
 map
REFERENCE
BOOK

MAGAZINE
Chapter 6 126 127

Learning Resources
SnJEŽana Koren

CHAPTER 6
Chapter 6 128 129 Learning resources

In his book Didactica Magna, published in 1630, Jan Amos Comenius (Komensky) stated Table 6.1
that for students to learn they need to “see, hear, touch, or taste”. Sensory experiences form Primary benefits of well-designed and properly implemented
the foundation of most intellectual activity. When students listen to a teacher, observe a learning resources
picture, manipulate an object, watch a movie, or listen to music, they encode information into
memory. The information may be in the form of facts, generalisations, learning strategies,
problem-solving strategies, or physical skills such as swimming and riding a bicycle. Learning Gain students’ attention by providing stimuli for learning.
resources such as written material, maps and charts, tables and figures, practical exercises,
and problems help students process the information that is stored temporarily in working Enrich the quality of learning and increase students’ motivation to learn.
memory, and establish it in long-term memory. When information is stored in long-term
Help students achieve the learning objectives more effectively and efficiently.
memory, it remains there for longer periods of time.
Provide clarity, precision, and accuracy in displaying and processing information.
What are learning resources? They are tools that enable or support the teaching/learning
Support learning through examples, visual elaboration and multiple activities.
process. They are carriers and mediators of information, means of communication, and
objects and/or stimuli for learning. They range from speech characteristics, vocal quality, Elicit student response and promote participation in learning activities.
facial expressions, and gestures to materials and equipment. They include what typically are
referred to as “teaching aids” (e.g., paper, pencil, blackboard, chalk, flip charts, overhead Enhance retention and transfer of learning.
projector, computer, CD player, television sets, and SMART Boards).
Help teachers and students assess students’ learning and performance.

Learning resources are beneficial for both students and teachers. For students, they can
increase opportunities to learn, support knowledge construction, increase the understanding
of content, create interest, enhance motivation, and contribute to positive attitudes toward Recommendation 1
specific subjects and learning in general. For teachers, learning resources can enhance,
extend, and/or enrich their teaching and help to establish and maintain environments in Be aware of the variety of learning resources that exist
which learning is most likely to occur. in and out of school.

In the previous paragraph, we emphasised the word “can” because learning resources
alone do not necessarily influence student learning. They become instructionally relevant Potential learning resources are everywhere. As mentioned earlier, whether a potential
only when they have a distinct and task-related purpose; that is, their role as instructional resource is appropriate or relevant for use in your classroom at a particular point in time
media is determined by their function in the learning process. For learning resources to be depends on the educational function the resource is intended to serve. Some resources
maximally beneficial, then, teachers must know how to select, adapt, and/or produce high- are better suited for motivational purposes and, therefore, are used primarily in the initial
quality resources and use them in ways that stimulate students to actively engage with them stage of the learning process to arouse students’ interest and channel their attention. Some
to enhance or support their learning. Table 6.1 summarises a few of the benefits of well- resources are more appropriate for presenting and explaining subject matter content, others
designed, properly used learning resources. for stimulating creative thinking and problem solving, and still others for assessing knowledge
acquisition and construction.
In this chapter, we offer five recommendations for locating, selecting, creating, and using
learning resources. Examples of learning resources are provided and summary tables are Although there are many different ways to classify learning resources, we have chosen to
inserted to assist you in your efforts to become a better teacher by integrating learning form four large categories: human resources, real objects, instructional media, and teaching
resources into your everyday teaching. aids (see Figure 6.1). Within instructional media, the largest category, we have chosen to
classify the resources according to the sense(s) they stimulate: auditory, visual, audio-visual,
multi-sensory.

By human resources we consider all persons who can contribute to the learning process
BOOK
as informed and creative human beings. In the past, teachers were regularly not only the
mediators of information, but also often the main source of information for their students. To
a certain (although somewhat lesser) extent, they still fulfil this role. There are, however, other
people from whom students can and do learn – their parents, a variety of experts (including
LOCATING SELECTING CREATING USING guest lecturers), members of the media, and other students.
Chapter 6 130 131 Learning resources

Real objects are both naturally occurring and human-made. Depending on the subject being Auditory media (e.g., radio broadcasts, tapes and CDs, and electronic recordings on hard
taught, they could include plants, animals, rocks, buildings, monuments, and industrial heritage. discs) engage our sense of hearing and are considered necessary to present the appropriate
In classrooms, they might include collections of specimen, old coins, family heirlooms, and stimulus information if the learning objective concerns recall or recognition of sounds. Audio
ethnographic collections. Unlike other media, they provide a direct and unmediated sensory media also provide opportunities for improving the teaching of language and music. Listening
experience with objects of learning and may best be used when the objects are unfamiliar to the to audio narration or music is also appropriate for teaching affective objectives (e.g. the
students. Real objects have a three-dimensional quality, which other resources may lack. They appreciation of musical compositions or the value of spoken poetry).
often cause students to employ all of their senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Another
advantage of using real objects is that they – as “originals” – have embedded in them a strong The visual media category is further subdivided into printed materials (e.g., textbooks,
motivational factor. That is, they have an “aura” of authenticity, originality, and reality, which can newspapers, documents), iconic non-projected (e.g., photographs, maps, cartoons), iconic
arouse fascination that many other resources cannot. projected (e.g., Power Point slides, overhead transparencies), and spatial analogues (e.g.,
globes, models). Visual media most often supplement other media, although they can be
The instructional media category includes four subcategories: auditory, visual, audio-visual, used alone. Documents, including tables, figures, and graphs, are particularly important
and interactive (as best exemplified by Information and Communication Technologies or ICT). forms of print media. Graphic organisers, content outlines, problem sets, and primary source

Figure 6.1
Categories of learning resources
Printed materials

Auditory Symbolic representations

Resources for learning
voice, gramophone records,
textbooks, supplementary books,
audiotapes, audio discs, radio
reference books, magazines,
newspapers, documents

Human Real Instructional Teaching Visual Iconic Non-Projected

resources objects media aids
Printed Two-dimensional prints
teachers, in/from natural in a narrower Iconic
students, & social/cultural sense Spatial analogues pictures, photographs, maps, posters,
parents, guest environment charts, graphs, cartoons, comics
lecturers

Audio-Visual
Iconic Projected
Projected motion
Two-dimensional stills
Natural Social/ paper, pencil film, documentaries,
slides, filmstrips, overhead
Objects/ Cultural streaming videos
transparencies, microfilm
Items Artifacts blackboard-whiteboard-
flipcharts

animals, plants, as products of OHP Interactive Spatial Analogues

rocks, specimens human labour
television set
ICT Three-dimensional
buildings, monuments,
CD/DVD player,
musical instruments, computer /software, Internet,
video-recorder globes, models, display materials
tools, works of art World Wide Web, whiteboard,
computer (hardware) interactive video conferencing

LCD projector
Chapter 6 132 133 Learning resources

documents (in history) are very useful tools to aid in students’ learning. Spatial analogues such circumstances and for certain purposes. We could test the validity of this assumption, but
as globes and models of DNA can help students understand things that are either too big or too research on this matter is not particularly helpful. In essence, the available research studies
small to see with the naked eye. Visual media enable students to go back over things taught suggest that virtually all learning resources are effective if they are appropriate for the
previously, re-reading and reviewing as needed to remember what they have been taught. learning situation (in terms of both the learning objectives and the students being taught)
and used appropriately. When we think about learning resources, then, we must keep in mind
Audio-visual media (e.g., feature movies, documentaries, and streaming video) stimulate their dual function for students and teachers. They should increase students’ interest and
both seeing and hearing and do so in an integrative manner. This media form can provide a motivation and lead to task completion and the achievement of the learning objectives. At
more systematic presentation of knowledge. A single photograph may provide support for the same time, they should help teachers better manage the learning environment, vary the
learning a single concept or idea; a documentary, on the other hand, enables students to see way the content is presented to the students, and engage students in the process of learning.
change over time, hear explanations of events, and understand causal relationships. Audio-
visual media are also important when real objects or natural surroundings are not accessible.
Cameras can record places that most people cannot visit (e.g., sea depths, cultural heritage Learning resources and learning objectives
sites around the globe). Audio-visual media can also help students understand certain
processes that are not visible or recognisable because they are too fast, too slow, or too
small. Cameras can be used to slow down rapidly occurring events (e.g., the flight of a Clearly written learning objectives are essential because they guide the instructional and
bumblebee) or speed up events that take long periods of time to develop (e.g., using time- assessment decisions that teachers make. When learning resources are connected to learning
lapse photography to see plant growth). objectives, it becomes clear that the resources are a means to an end rather than the end
itself. Let us assume, for example, that you want to use photographs, cartoons, and posters
Finally, interactive media resemble audio-visual media in that they are multi-sensory, but go as learning resources within a social studies lesson. Setting “be able to analyse visual
beyond the bounds of audio-visual media by engaging students in a more interactive way. materials” as your objective is too general since achieving this objective would likely take
The current best example of interactive media is Information and Communication Technology several weeks, possibly months. There are, however, several ways in which photographs,
(ICT). When designed and used properly, ICT provides a constant stream of feedback to cartoons, and posters can be used to facilitate learning more specific lesson objectives. They
students and increases their control of the selection and pacing of programmes. can help students appreciate past cultures or recognise historical personages. They can be
Media are best used in combination, resulting in a multimedia system. Most instructional used to increase literacy by asking students to describe a photograph, cartoon, or poster in
situations either require or permit the use of more than one medium to help students some detail, orally or in writing. They can help students improve their critical thinking if you
achieve objectives. Chalkboards, white boards, and, increasingly, SMART Boards are used ask the students to analyse the context in which a specific political cartoon or a poster was
simultaneously with oral presentations. Video streaming may be preceded by a teacher created and how the author uses humour, irony, symbols, or stereotypes to convey a message
introduction and followed by a class discussion. This “listen – watch & listen – talk” sequence or ideology. Learning resources are likely to be relatively ineffective if you and your students
simulates multiple senses which, in turn, leads to a more complete understanding of the are not clear about their connection to the learning objectives and the function the resources
content. The use of multiple media also provides multiple opportunities for learning to occur. are expected to play in helping students achieve those objectives.
If a student misses something in the introduction, he or she may catch it in the video or
subsequent discussion. Similarly, if a student is confused about something in the streaming
video, this confusion may be reduced significantly or eliminated during the class discussion. Learning resources, critical thinking, and creative thinking

Recommendation 2 Promoting critical thinking and creative thinking are important goals of education, regardless
of school level or subject matter. Critical thinking is the ability to think reflectively and
Select learning resources that are (a) aligned with the analytically, and evaluate the evidence. Creative thinking is the ability to think in novel and
learning objectives, (b) supportive of your teaching/ unusual ways and come up with unique solutions to problems and situations. Well-chosen
learning activities, and (c) appropriate for your students in learning resources can help students develop what have been referred to as “habits of mind”,
terms of their prior knowledge, previous experience, ages, which include critical and creative thinking.
or developmental levels.
Information sources – whether written, visual or audio-visual – are rarely value-neutral.
That is, they are not mere copies of the reality; rather, they represent someone’s perspective
Because different learning resources can be used to teach the same content or objective, on that reality. Therefore, it is important that students learn how to interpret data, analyse
how do we decide which ones to use? This is a difficult question because it is based on evidence, and evaluate arguments made by the person who produced the information
the assumption that some learning resources are more effective than others in certain source. Once students have learned to interpret, analyse, and evaluate, they are able to make
Chapter 6 134 135 Learning resources

and defend decisions about the reliability and validity of the sources and the information can serve. With all these possibilities, how do we make informed decisions? Here are some
contained in them. They are able to make attributions about the person responsible for the factors to consider.
production and dissemination of the information. They are able to describe and compare the
perspectives and points of view of others who are publishing on the same topic or issue. ● The learning location (in school or off school grounds). This choice will affect the
selection of resources, especially if students are expected to deal with real objects or
With respect to facilitating critical thinking, films have great potential as learning resources. when the scenario includes out-of-school learning.
As primary sources, they can be analysed and interpreted as artefacts of the particular time ● The structure of your lessons and units. Lessons and units can be broken down
period in which they were made, reflecting the prevailing values and norms of the society in into component parts, which must be sequenced. Examples include introduction,
which they were created. With respect to creative thinking, you can provide students with a elaboration, student work, and closure and consolidation. Select resources that will
variety of learning resources that, for example, offer different attempts to solve a particular enable you to keep the structure of the lesson clear to yourself and your students. For
problem. Armed with that information, students can be asked to come up with a solution that motivational purposes, begin the lesson with resources that have a strong affective
takes into consideration the previous attempts and adds to or modifies them in an attempt to component, e.g. mysterious objects, experiments, autobiographical text, recordings of
solve the problem. human voice, music, movie clips, cartoons, and controversial sources. When teaching
specific content, choose learning resources that add to the clarity of the content being
However, using films (including documentaries, movies, and television programmes) in learned and provide a variety of examples and other representations of the content.
classrooms is not always easy. Films pose legal, ethical, and practical challenges and require ● Your teaching approach. Learning resources must be compatible with, and supportive
several decisions to be made. Table 6.2 contains a set of questions to ask when you consider of, your general approach to teaching. Suppose, for example, that your general
films as learning resources. approach pays little attention to student motivation. You can select learning
resources that are likely to enhance intrinsic motivation by helping students see that
the content or task is interesting and/or personally relevant.
Table 6.2
Learning from films
Adapted from: Stradling, 2002; Buckingham, 2007. Learning resources and student characteristics

If learning resources are to be effective, they not only must be aligned with objectives, but
What is the context (including the setting) within which the film was made?
they also must be appropriate for your students in terms of their ages, prior experience and
knowledge, development levels, and physical disabilities. For example, concrete resources are
Who controls the production and distribution of the film?
more appropriate for younger learners who seldom attend to a single style of presentation
for more than a few minutes. Students who have never used a particular learning resource
For what purpose was the film made?
will typically take longer to access and use it properly. Finally, physical disabilities such as
poor vision, hearing, dyslexia, color blindness, and other disabilities may make some learning
What is the quality of the film (as determined by producers, editors, and critics)?
resources inappropriate or ineffective.
Are there parts of the film that contain biases or may be considered inappropriate for your students?

Some practical considerations

Learning resources and instruction

Costs, availability, and personal preferences are factors to consider in making decisions
about learning resources. Because conditions differ greatly from one school to another,
Once you have made a decision about your learning objectives, you need to formulate you should consider the financial resources you have at your disposal. In some cases,
a scenario that that includes relevant and appropriate learning resources. To determine financial considerations dominate decisions about learning resources. In these cases, the
the most appropriate learning resources you should consider their primary function or cost of learning resources should be considered as you plan your scenarios. Having too
functions within the scenario. Will they be used to present the content, to illustrate the task, few computers for the number of students in your class may be no better than having no
to support learning activities, to personalise learning, to help students apply knowledge computers at all. Finally, you should consider the time that is needed to prepare the learning
and practice skills, to consolidate results of learning, or to repeat and deepen what has resources, both before class (e.g., setting up a PowerPoint presentation) and during the
been learned? These are but a few examples of the many functions that learning resources lesson (e.g., distributing concrete objects to students in a math class).
Chapter 6 136 137 Learning resources

Table 6.3 contains a checklist for selecting learning resources. It is organised around the major Recommendation 3
points raised and discussed in this section. Although it is a fairly extensive list, each item is
important when selecting appropriate learning resources, particularly when external factors Locate a variety of learning resources to meet
(e.g., money, availability) carry a great deal of weight in the overall decision. the diverse needs and learning styles of the students
in your classroom.

Table 6.3
Checklist for selecting learning resources Think about any classroom in any school in any country. As you think about these
classrooms, you may focus on the many differences in terms of physical size, organisation
or chairs and tables, and availably of learning resources. Despite these many differences,
all classrooms share one thing in common. Every classroom contains a group of students
Learning objectives and assessment who differ in terms of their abilities, aptitudes, developmental levels, attitudes, values,
learning styles, and learning preferences. They also differ in terms of their gender, ethnicity,
What do I want the students to know or be able to do after the lesson (content, process)? culture, and social class. Even in the most homogeneously grouped classroom, there are
differences – often surprisingly large differences – among the students in regard to many of
Which are the most appropriate learning resources to achieve these learning objectives?
these characteristics.
Which resources I can use to find out how well students have achieved the objectives?
A large body of research supports the assertion that many, if not most, of these
How and with what resources can I provide feedback? characteristics on which students differ are strongly related to differences in student
learning. For example, students living in poverty score much lower on achievement tests
Instruction than students from wealthy families. Similarly, in virtually every country, girls outperform
boys on tests of reading comprehension. Learning resources can be used to increase
Are the intended resources appropriate for my approach to instruction? learning opportunities for these diverse collections of students.
Will the selected resources facilitate students in reaching specific learning objectives?
Some decisions about learning resources should be made in our attempt to not
Will the resources allow the lesson or unit to flow in an efficient and effective manner? disadvantage certain groups or categories of students. For example, textbooks and other
reading materials should be free from class, ethnic, and gender biases and stereotypes. If
What should each resource provide in each individual phase of the lesson or unit?
you cannot choose your textbooks and they contain biases and stereotypes, take time to
discuss these issues with your students and help them think critically about them. When
Learners’ characteristics possible, supplement textbooks with authentic materials (e.g., newspapers, magazines,
books, or films) that contain stories and data that portray different cultural groups in a
Do the resources differ in ways that accommodate differences among my students? different light.
Are sufficient resources suitable for the students in my class (whole class, a particular group, or
individual students)? Other decisions about learning resources are intended to offer advantages to students
or groups who traditionally are marginalised or disadvantaged. Consider, for example,
Do my students have sufficient knowledge, skills and experiences to use the resource?
children with learning disabilities. Brief and concrete assignments, clearly designed and
Will the learning resources motivate students and promote independent learning? uncluttered materials, and the provision of sufficient scaffolding and frequent feedback are
advantageous for these students. Consider students with reading problems. A list of “focus
Practical aspects questions” or a short summary, given to students prior to their beginning to read a story or
passage, is advantageous. So too are advanced lists of key terms and a short, easy-to-use
Are the learning resources available? glossary of unfamiliar words.

Are the learning resources cost-efficient? Still other decisions about learning resources are intended to provide what commonly
is referred to as “enrichment” -- to challenge students who are likely to become bored
Are the learning resources time-efficient?
with a lesson (because the pace is too slow) or content (because it is too easy or
Am I comfortable setting up and using the resources (in terms of my knowledge, preferences, already has been learned). Gifted, talented, and otherwise high-achieving students fall
and skill level)? into this category. In this case, learning resources should be selected so as to provide
Chapter 6 138 139 Learning resources

challenges to these students or opportunities for independent learning in areas of their Table 6.4
own interests. As extensions of the resources provided to all students, these resources can Criteria for textbook selection
help these students develop a more mature vocabulary, foster critical thinking, or provide Adapted from Stradling, 2002.
opportunities to move forward at their own pace or rate.

Recommendation 4 CONTENT

Make learning resources “come to life”; remember,

● Which topics are covered? Do they match those in the curriculum? Are there any gaps that
it is you, the teacher, who decides how resources are used
need to be covered? Will the book require considerable supplementary material?
to create stimulating learning environments ● How is the content organised (structure and sequence)? How many pages are devoted to each
and to shape what students learn. topic? Do these allocations reflect the coverage in the official curriculum?
● Is there a balance between text and other elements (illustrations, maps, statistics, source
extracts, questions)? Are these appropriate to the age range and/or ability level of students?
● Does the textbook include the index, the table of contents and/or other elements that can help
Learning resources can help to turn classrooms and other educational settings into active
students to locate information?
learning environments, but, as mentioned earlier, it is your responsibility as a teacher to ● When was the book first published? Is the content up-to-date, scientifically relevant, and
locate, select, and, at times, create the very best learning resources and then use them accurate?
in ways that engage students in learning and lead to learning success. In this section, we ● Is the text written in a style that is suitable for the students’ age range and/or ability level (the
will consider five categories of learning resources: textbooks, other written text materials, length of sentences, the use of vocabulary, the use of visuals)?
● Are materials fair to different cultures and ethnic groups? Are there biases, over-simplistic or
graphic organisers, primary-source materials, and worksheets and other teacher-made
reductionist explanations?
materials. For each category, we offer a checklist that can be used to design or evaluate
specific examples.
Pedagogical approach

Choosing and using textbooks

● What previous knowledge and skills are required from the student to effectively use this
textbook?
● Does it function as a “working textbook” (i.e. does it include questions, assignments, tasks,
Textbooks are still the most widely used learning resource and it is not likely they will lose this sources, assessment exercises)? If not, are there some additional books provided by the
designation soon. Textbooks offer several advantages for teachers. They provide a structured publisher (workbooks, atlases, sourcebooks)?
course of study and a range of exercises and activities. At the same time, however, textbooks ● What kind of questions, assignments, or tasks does it include: are they mainly concerned
also tend to have a narrowing effect on the quality of work, particularly if they are selected with students recalling and reproducing the information given in the text or do they provide
students with opportunities to explore, compare, critically examine, or interpret? Will they
without a critical examination and used uncritically in the classroom.
challenge students to think?
● Is the book up-to-date with the modern classroom practices? Has the book been field-tested or
What makes a good textbook? Although the answers to this question will differ from country trialed in the classroom?
to country, from region to region in the same country, and from subject matter to subject ● How do illustrations, photographs, maps and diagrammes relate to the text? Do they provide
matter, there are certain principles that apply to virtually every textbook. A rather extensive additional opportunities for students to reflect and explore or is their main function only to
illustrate and to make the textbook look more appealing?
list of these principles is shown in Table 6.4.
● Is it likely that this textbook will arouse students’ interest in the subject?

Book

● Will it survive everyday classroom use for a reasonable period of time?

● Is it well-designed (layout, color scheme, typography)?
● How heavy is it (if students have to carry the book with them each day)?
● How does it compare with other textbooks available on the market (is it more or less expensive,
better designed)?
Chapter 6 140 141 Learning resources

Once a textbook has been selected, our attention shifts to what you, the teacher, can do to purposes. Therefore, the purpose of any reading assignment should be made clear to the
make the textbook more useful as a learning resource? Here are some things you can do. students and related to the learning objective for which it was selected. In the discussion that
follows, we will first discuss note taking and then discuss understanding.
● Teach students to recognise and understand the organisation of the book. Have them
look at the table of contents and the sequence of the chapters. Teach them how to Note taking. As mentioned above, when students take notes, they have to analyse
distinguish chapter titles and section titles within the chapters. information. That is, they must distinguish relevant from less important information, identify
● Teach students how to quickly find information about certain topics by using different key concepts and crucial information, understand the main idea (“big picture”), and present it
tools, particularly the index, to find information. Teach them how to use the glossary in an organised manner. With some instruction as to how to analyse and take notes properly,
to understand the meanings of unfamiliar words and concepts. Show them how to however, many students tend to take notes that are overly brief and often disorganised,
use different types of indexes – name index, subject index – as well as how to search or merely copy as much as they can from the text. Here are some suggestions for helping
through the words or names until they find the right one. students improve their note taking skills.
● Teach students how to determine the relative importance of the content included in
the textbook. Teach them to use the index to count the number of pages devoted to ● Focus students’ attention on how the information is structured.
each entry. Teach them to look at changes in font (size, bold, italics) as indicators of ● Encourage students not to write down everything they read, see, or hear.
importance. ● Provide students with note-taking templates or frameworks, complete with a set of
rules or categories that help them structure their notes.
You also can teach students strategies they can use to improve their understanding of the ● Have students practice summarising the main idea of paragraphs in one-sentence.
textbook. These strategies would include: ● Distribute yellow or pink highlighters and ask them to use the highlighters to “show
you” what they consider to be important as they read.
● Show them how to get a general idea of the content before reading. This may involve ● Encourage students to personalise their notes by using block letters, bold words,
actively previewing the text by looking at titles, introductory summaries or organisers, headings, sketches, and diagrammes.
headings and subheadings, illustrations and sources, and questions and assignments. ● Teach students how to take notes in a formal outline form, with first-level headings being
Teach them to generate questions based on the information gained during the the main topics, second-level headings as the subtopics, and third-level headings as the
preview. details (as needed). Outlining emphasises the hierarchical nature of text material, with
● As students read the material, encourage them to be active readers and attempt each more detailed bit of information placed under a higher-level category.
to understand what the author is saying. Let them ask and answer questions that ● Finally, once notes have been taken, encourage students to review and refine them.
facilitate making sense of the text. “What is the meaning of what I just read?” “Why Have them decide what information is essential to keep and what information can be
is this important?” “What are the big ideas in the text I just read?” deleted because it is not essential or is redundant.
● After reading the material, have students complete activities that help sustain their
learning over time (see Chapter 5).
Understanding text when reading for different purposes

Understanding text
Reading to acquire information is different than reading for pleasure. Reading for a
general understanding of what is being read is different than reading critically. Different
In addition to textbooks, a variety of other text materials are used quite often in many purposes require different strategies for understanding. Table 6.5 presents an analysis of
classrooms. Examples include outside reading assignments, teacher-prepared handouts, five types of understanding defined in terms of different purposes for which written text
streaming videos or transcripts of speeches, and information accessed from the Internet can be assigned to students. They are: literal understanding, interpretative understanding,
and other sources. When textbooks are the primary learning resource, these other written critical understanding of the author, critical understanding of the text material, and creative
text materials are best considered to be secondary learning resources. As a consequence, understanding. For each type, the left-hand column indicates what students are expected
students are more likely to be given the responsibility of making sense of what they are to learn. The right-hand column gives examples of the questions and phrases that you, the
reading on their own, with minimal teacher intervention. Making sense of what is being teacher, can use to promote learning.
read is really a two-step process. First, students must analyse the text in terms of what is
important and what is not, or what is relevant to the purpose for reading and what is not. Although secondary school teachers are not expected to teach the rudiments of reading,
Having students take notes is one way of finding out how they analyse an assigned text. they would be wise to teach students how to make sense of the reading materials they are
Second, students must understand what they are reading. Understanding is not a single assigned by, first, analysing, and then, understanding, what they are reading. In addition,
construct; rather, different “types” of understanding are important when reading for different self-regulation strategies (see Chapter 5) can be taught so that students monitor what
Chapter 6 142 143 Learning resources

they are reading, make a determination of whether they are understanding what they are
Inferring the main idea (when not explicitly What do you think the main idea is?
reading, and, if they are not, make adjustments in their reading strategy that lead to a better
expressed) What makes you think that?
understanding of what is read.

INTERPRETATIVE UNDERSTANDING
Inferring causal relations which are not What do you think is the cause of these
explicit events?

The value of graphic organisers Reading “between the lines” (identifying Reformulating sentences;
things which are implied but not explicitly filling gaps.
expressed)
In most classrooms, reading and lecture dominate instruction, which means that students Identifying moods and emotions Which words can trigger emotions?
mostly acquire knowledge through the linguistic mode. Graphic organisers are visual or
graphic tools that help students to learn and retain information through visual imagery, to Determining author’s motives Why is this written?

see the relationship between selected pieces of information in graphic format, and to link
Drawing conclusions What must have happened before this scene?
abstract concepts and principles to concrete representations. When students make concept
maps, mental maps, tables, flow charts, timelines, Venn diagrammes, and sequence charts, Interpreting figures of speech (idioms, What does it mean to say “It’s no use crying
metaphors, hyperboles, personifications) over spilt milk”?
they are actively creating a model of their thinking.
Recognising the purpose of writing To inform, to educate, to form, to convince,
There are several reasons to use these graphic organisers. First, according to the theory of to amuse…?
dual-processing capability of working memory, information is retained in long-term memory
in two forms: visual and verbal. Information represented both visually and verbally is recalled Recognising the author’s viewpoints Is the writing biased or objective?

CRITICAL UNDERSTANDING OF…

better than information represented only one way. Second, this use of graphic organisers Writing style Accurate? Witty? Lively? Pathetic? Serious?
requires students to organise information in ways that benefit memory (e.g., hierarchically,

Author
Dull?
causally). You can use prepared graphic organisers to support your teaching or have your
Competence What are the author’s references?
students make graphic organisers themselves. Keep in mind, however, that it is not enough to
tell students to make graphic organisers. You will have to show them how to do so, providing Time of the publication of the text Is it not outdated?
explicit and detailed instruction, practice, and feedback. Evaluating validity and reliability of Is it a source that can be trusted?
information

Evaluating appropriateness of information Is the text adequate for the purpose?

Table 6.5

Material
Understanding written texts used for different learning purposes Differentiating facts from opinions Which key words suggest fact/which
Adapted from Vizek, Vidović et al., 2003. suggest opinion?

Motives of action and (presumed) effects Why did it happen? What would happen if…?

Visualisation What could that building look like?

Examples of questions &
Types of understanding Evaluating the procedure Was it justified/ reasonable/ fair?
phrases
Problem-solving What was the problem? How was it solved?
Determining the main idea of the text What is the most important sentence in the
Were there any other possible solutions?

CREATIVE UNDERSTANDING
LITERAL UNDERSTANDING

(when directly expressed) text?

Which one would you choose?
Determine a title of the text.
Predicting outcomes What do you think will happen next?
Identifying details that specify the main Who? What? Where? Why? How? When?
idea Changing/improving the narrative Is any description missing? What can
be omitted? Does the plot/story need
Spotting causal relations in the text Because…
acceleration/deceleration?
Spotting chronological sequence of events First, it happened… then…, finally…
Producing something new Illustrate the narrative with drawings, sound,
Following instructions The first thing you should do…, then…, after or movement). Turn the text into a song,
that…, at the end… comic, or video.
Chapter 6 144 145 Learning resources

A concept map is a visual presentation of a concept’s characteristics, connections and

hierarchical organisation (see Figure 6.2). Getting students to create a map of a concept’s
features or characteristics can help them to learn the concept. The first step is to clearly
define the concept and identify its key features or characteristics. Make sure that students
clearly understand what is the central word, concept, research question or problem around
which to build the map. Then, make sure that the key features of the concept (descriptive
words, items or telling questions that you can associate with the concept) are well
understood. Ask students to categorise concepts and explain their categorisation and/or
have them generate their own concrete and carefully chosen examples to illustrate the key
features. If necessary, include examples and non-examples of the concept. Arrange cells
hierarchically: use a top-down approach from general to specific and different colors and
shapes for cells and links to identify different types of information. (Adapted from the work
of Joseph Donald Novak)
A brainstorming web is good for starter activities when students generate ideas and questions,
activate prior knowledge and interests, and develop probing questions and problems. It helps to
gather ideas for a topic, to break a topic into subtopics and create questions for research based
Figure 6.2
on the subtopics. (Adapted from the work of Alex Faickney Osborn)
A concept map for the life element sun

Life
element
sun
A Venn diagramme is a useful graphic organisation tool when comparing two things: seeing
similarities and differences is a fundamental cognitive process. A Venn diagramme provides
space to write down similarities and differences between two or more items (things, people,
places, events, and ideas). It can be successfully applied to a wide range of subjects. In this
Gives energy in form of simple Venn diagramme, differences can be listed in separate sections, similarities and shared
LIGHT HEAT characteristics in the intersecting section. (Adapted from the work of John Venn)

Used as Needed for

Earth
Photo Photo Water
tempera-
synthesis voltaic cycle
ture

A t-chart is another graphic organiser used to compare and contrast (similarities and
Here are examples of some other useful graphic organisers: differences, pros and cons, advantages and disadvantages). The two headings at the top are
items being compared and centrally placed textboxes are the criteria used for comparison.
Chapter 6 146 147 Learning resources
Reason
Reason
Cause
Reason
Reason

Fa
ct
Reason
Cause Cause

or
Fa

Fa
Reason Cause

ct

c
to
Cause Cause

or
Reason

r
effect
Reason Reason
Cause Cause
Fa Fa
Reason or
ct Reason ct
or
Reason Reason
Cause
Reason Reason Cause
Reason

Cause-and-effect map is envisaged to visually show causal relations. (Adapted from the work
of Prof. Kaoru Ishikawa, University of Tokyo)
Flowcharts or sequence charts help with organising information, keeping track of events over
time or documenting steps taken. They describe a sequence of events, stages, phases, actions
and outcomes. (Adapted from the works of Frank Bunker Gilbreth)

1918 1945 1970

A timeline is a very effective visual presentation for chronological sequences of events in a

story or historical narrative. (Adapted from the work of Joseph Priestly) Source: Snježana
Koren et al. (2007)

Choosing and using primary sources

Primary sources include real objects from the natural environment, artifacts, buildings,
monuments, and, in history, photographs and documents from an earlier time. Many primary
sources allow students to use all of their senses; virtually all primary sources provide insights
into real-life contexts, present or past. Primary sources provide opportunities for students
to engage in observation, exploration, questioning, comparison, deduction, evaluation,
interpretation, and communication. Here are some things to consider when working with
primary sources:

● Make sure that you are clear about why you want to use primary sources; they should
A mind map is a method of note-taking used to visually outline information. It is often
be carefully selected and aligned with your learning objectives.
created around a central key word, text or idea to which associated ideas, words and
● Rather, primary sources are best used when they open new areas of inquiry or offer
concepts are added. Major categories radiate from a central cell, and lesser categories are
the possibility of new perspectives being developed.
sub-branches of larger branches. Mind mapping encourages symbolic and “big picture”
● Primary sources should always be placed in their proper context. This means knowing
thinking. (Adapted from the work of Tony Buzan)
the origin of the source (Who made it? Where and when was it made? Why was it
made? For whom was it made?).
© Illumine - used with permission (more information on www.mind-mapping.com)
● Working with primary sources requires that you emphasise interpretation, rather than
the recalling of basic information. The primary question should be: “What sense do
you make of this?” (See Table 6.6.)
Chapter 6 148 149 Learning resources

● Do not overload students with too many sources. Rather, focus on a single source for The main strength of worksheets as a learning resource is that they provide opportunities
a reasonable length of time so they understand its meaning and significance in terms for guided practice (with teacher supervision) and independent practice (on your own) of
of what they are learning at that time. knowledge and skills learned in class. They also may be designed to support other learning
● Always ask for expansions and explanations of students’ initial reactions and resources (e.g., as an additional text prepared by the teacher that fills the gaps in a textbook
responses. “Can you tell me more?” “How do you know? “Why do you think that?” In or as a set of questions to be used alongside a picture, map or diagramme in a textbook).
this way students will learn to provide support for their answers. Finally, worksheets can be also used as homework assignments so that students can review
what was learned yesterday in preparation for today’s lesson. Table 6.7 contains a set of
questions to use when designing a worksheet. With a few modifications, the questions also
Table 6.6 can be used to evaluate existing worksheets conducted by others.
Questions about primary sources

Table 6.7
Questions to consider when designing a worksheet
Examples of questions Adapted from: G. Butt, 2006

DESCRIPTION What sort of source is it?

What does this source tell me? How do I know it is a primary source?
What do I see/read/ touch/ Examine it and describe exactly what you see, hear, smell, or
smell? touch. Checklist: Designing a worksheet
What is your initial response to it?

CONTEXT Who wrote/made it? Objectives ● What is the purpose of the worksheet?
What do I know about Who commissioned it? Who financed it? ● What are the learning objectives to which it is related?
circumstances in which the When and where was it written/made?
source was produced? What are the characteristic features of the period in which it was
Planning ● What should be included on the worksheet (e,g., questions,
created?
illustrations, explanations)?
Why was it written/made?
● How do I ensure that the worksheet is clearly related to the
For whom was it written/made?
learning objectives?
How did the writer/producer get the information/material?
● How will students be assessed: How will I provide feedback to
students?
INTERPRETATION What significance (if any) did it have, or does it have?
What can I infer about the What do you think is happening in the painting/photo? Who is Presentation ● How will I organise the worksheet (text, activities, feedback)?
source (from observation and the most important person? Can you imagine sounds, smells and What headings and labels do I need to include?
my previous knowledge)? colors? ● How will I design the worksheet: font sizes and types,
What does the source tell us about the writer’s/artist’s points illustrations, maps, diagrammes, charts, and graphics? If the
of view or positions? Can you distinguish facts, opinions and worksheet is photocopied, will everything be clear and readable?
arguments? Is it a reliable source? Are there biases? How do ● Are the text and activities engaging for the students? Is
you know (arguments)? What in the source supports your idea vocabulary appropriate? Is there too much/not enough text?
(evidence)? What would happen if … ? Should key words be highlighted in bold?
Comparison: How are these similar/different? Why are they
similar//different?
Use ● How will I introduce the worksheets to students?
● Do I want them to complete the worksheet all during the lesson,
or are some activities to be completed as homework?
● Are there different texts and/or activities for different students?
Designing and using worksheets, transparencies & slides

Evaluation ● Did the worksheet help students reach my learning objectives?

● Did the students find the worksheet useful, interesting and
Relying too much on any single learning resource can be a problem, as this typically induces stimulating?
boredom in the classroom and indifference to the tasks. The problem is particularly acute ● What might I change about the worksheet, or the way I used it,
when it comes to worksheets and workbooks. At the same time, however, virtually every in future lessons?
learning resource can be beneficial if it is selected and used properly. So it is with worksheets.
Chapter 6 150 151 Learning resources

Recommendation 5 Finally, the Internet can be used to increase a teacher’s knowledge and understanding of
both what and how to teach. There are literally thousands of websites designed to provide
Use technology appropriately and effectively teachers with content knowledge, materials, tips, and advice. Social networking sites,
to support teaching, enhance learning opportunities, blogs, wikis, video-sharing sites and other self-publishing platforms, tagging, and social
and increase the chances for learning success. bookmarking allow you to do more than just retrieve information. They provide opportunities
to interact, collaborate, and share information and ideas, successes and failures.

Consider a teacher who is preparing a history lesson about an ancient civilisation or Like all learning resources, however, simply using technology does not guarantee that the
a geography lesson about a distant country. Scenarios for such lessons might include desired learning will occur. The question is not how much teachers and students use the
having the students listen to a teacher’s lecture, read about the civilisation or country in technology, but how effectively they use it in order to improve the quality of the teaching-
the textbook, examine photographs and maps, and, perhaps, watch some videos. Our learning process. As with all other learning resources, appropriate and relevant technologies
ever-expanding technology enables teachers to take a different approach to designing will depend on the learning objectives and the students being taught. As Eggen and
and implementing the scenario. Google Earth, for example, allows students to explore the Kauchak (2007) have emphasised, without a link to learning objectives, technology can be
country’s roadmap, view the country’s surface in three dimensions, visit archaeological sites counterproductive and actually detract from learning. In this regard, Table 6.8 contains an
and remnants of buildings and monuments in a realistic style, and experience panoramic initial set of questions that can be used to evaluate Internet sites.
street-level views of major cities. We now have technology that allows teachers to develop
scenarios that move students from active to interactive. Broadly defined, technology has been
around and has been used in education for decades. Slide projectors, movie projectors, and, Table 6.8
particularly, overhead projectors are routinely employed by many teachers. The development Evaluating information obtained from Internet sites
of technologies in recent years, however, offers a much wider range of opportunities to
teachers who now routinely use TV, videotapes, CDs, DVDs and ICT.

Using computers and computer-based technology in everyday instruction has many Purpose and authority
advantages and can facilitate and enhance the teaching-learning process in many ways. As a
teacher, you can use different types of educational software, ranging from drill-and-practice
programmes to tutorial programmes, simulations and instructional games to spreadsheets ● Is the purpose of the website clearly stated on the homepage or subsequent pages?
● Can the author of the page be determined? Does the author provide any information about her
and databases. You can use word-processing software to encourage students to write more
or his background, qualifications and/or expertise? Is the contact information provided (name,
competent papers because the software makes it easier to enter text, revise text, and edit email, phone number or address)?
text, with revisions and edits occurring as often as needed. Interactive whiteboards (SMART ● Is the author affiliated with an organisation or speaking for himself/herself?
Boards) that use touch detection for user input contribute to the attractiveness of teaching. ● Is the webpage sponsored by any particular group, institution, company or governmental body?
The software supplied with these interactive whiteboards allows teachers to keep their notes Does this decrease or increase its credibility?
● If there is no information about the author and/or sponsor of the website, is there any other
and annotations as electronic files and to distribute them to students on paper, via electronic
way to determine its origin? Look, for example, for a header or footer showing affiliation, look at
mail, or on their websites or e-learning platforms. Some models even allow teachers to record the web address or URL, or at the domain. The domain name can help to determine the origin
their instruction as digital video files which can be very helpful for students who are absent of the website. For example: .ac (academic), .edu (educational institution), .com (commercial
from school or those who benefit from repetition and need to see the material again. organisation), .org (non-profit organisation), .net (Internet gateway or administrative host,
organisations involved in networking technologies, or even general purpose name space), .gov
(governmental department).
The Internet is an important learning tool and in most cases provides more current and
up-to-date information than do textbooks. The Internet provides access to huge database
of information on a vast array of topics. The information is provided by governments and Accuracy and objectivity
non-governmental organisations; colleges and universities; archives, libraries, and museums;
companies; and individuals. The Internet also provides many services that can be beneficial
to teachers and students, among them hypermedia information retrieval systems that link ● Is the source of information provided?
a variety of Internet materials (including graphics, audio, video, plain text, hyperlinks) and ● Are there any indications of bias? Is the page designed to sway opinions?
● Who is the intended audience?
communication services that allow teachers and students to communicate with others via text
● What is the focus of the information?
messages, voice or video (e.g., e-mail, Skype). Finally, the Internet can be used in classrooms to ● Is the information reliable and error-free?
foster collaborative learning. Students are able to share discoveries and support one another. ● Is there any advertising on the page?
Such collaboration not only results in academic gains but in social ones as well.
Chapter 6 152 153 Learning resources

Sources / CHAPTER 6
Currency
READINGS

● Is the page dated? Are dates included (e.g.,“First posted” date, “Last updated” date)? Allen, J. (2008) Koren, Snježana et al. (2007) Reiser, R. A. & Gagné, R. M. (1983)
● If so, when was the latest update? Is the information current or out-of-date?
More tools for teaching Content Povijest 8: radna bilježnica - povijesni Selecting media for instruction.
● How current are the links? Have some expired or moved?
Literacy. Stenhouse Publishers, 2008. zemljovidi za osmi razred osnovne Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational
škole, Zagreb: Profil. Technology Publications.
Content Buckingham, D. (2007)
Media education: Literacy, learning Gies, H. (2004) Slavin, R. E. (2000)
and contemporary culture. Geschichtsunterricht. Ein Handbuch Educational psychology: Theory and
● What topics are covered? Do they correspond with the curriculum?
● Does this page offer something that students could not find elsewhere? Cambridge: Polity. zur Unterrichtsplanung. Köln: practice (Sixth edition). Needham
● What is the depth of coverage of the information? Böhlau Verlag. Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
● Is it appropriate to the age, prior knowledge and experiences of your students? Butt, G. (2006)
Lesson planning (Second edition). Jensen, E. (2000) Stradling, R. (2002)
London: Continuum. Different brains, different learners: Teaching 20th-century European
Design
How to reach the hard to reach. San history. Strasbourg: Council of Europe
Buzan, T. (2002) Diego, CA: The Brain Store. Publishing.
● Does the presentation appear professional? How to Mind Map. Thorsons, London:
● Is the page easy to use and well-organised? HarperCollinsPublishers. Marcus, A. S., Metzger, S. A., Paxton, Vizek-Vidović, V., Rijavec, M.,
● Do the links from the page connect adequately?
R. J., & Stoddard, J. D. (2010) Vlahović-Štetić, V. & Miljković,
● Is special software or hardware necessary to view the entire page
(e.g., for sound and/or video clips)? Costa, A. L. & Kallick, B. (2000) Teaching history with film. London: D. (2003)
Discovering and exploring habits of Routledge. Psihologija obrazovanja. Zagreb:
mind. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. IEP-VERN.
Von Martial, I. & Ladenthing,
Learning resources offer a wide array of possibilities for supporting teaching and Edling, J. V. & Paulson, C.A. (1972) V. (2005) Yeomans, J. & Arnold, C. (2006)
facilitating learning. They are more likely to be effective if they are selected based on the Understanding instructional media. Medien im Unterricht: Grundlagen Teaching, learning, and psychology.
function they are intended to serve within your overall instructional programme and the In National Specific Media Institutes und Praxis der Mediendidaktik. 2: London: David Fulton Publishers.
motivational impact they are likely to have on your students. Regardless of the learning (Ed.), Contributions of behavior korrigierte und überarbeitete Auflage.
resources that you select or create, however, it is your responsibility as the teacher to science to instructional technology Baltmannsweiler: Schneider Verlag
make them “come alive” with your students. Remember that learning resources – even the (pages 161-199). Washington, DC: Hohengeheren.
most interactive ones, such as the Internet – are merely tools; you are the one who has to Gryphon House.
use them well and wisely. Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., &
Eggen, P. & Kauchak, D. (2007). Pollock, J. E. (2001)
Educational psychology: Windows on Classroom instruction that works:
classrooms (Seventh edition). New Reasearch-based strategies for
York: Pearson. increasing student achievement.
Alexandria: ASCD.
Chapter 7 156 157

ASSESsMENT

CHAPTER 7
Chapter 7 158 159 Assessment

As a teacher, you make a large number of decisions every day. The results of several research enthusiasm (because several students are having difficulty staying awake)? Answers to
studies over the past half century indicate that the average teacher makes somewhere between questions such as these can result in immediate changes in your teaching. That is, you can slow
800 and 1,000 decisions daily. While some of these decisions are about planning (e.g., should down, provide more examples, or be more enthusiastic.
I incorporate instructional media into my lesson today?) and implementation (e.g., am I
covering too much material too fast for my students?), many of the most important decisions Other assessments, particularly those tied to your evaluation of students, are more formal.
are evaluative in nature. These are decisions about student learning and performance. Are When you need to assign grades, for example, you are far more likely to administer quizzes
the students learning what I intend them to learn? If no, what should I do about it? Should I or tests or ask them to write essays or prepare research reports than to rely on more casual
re-teach everything once again or should I work with small groups of students who seem to be observations. In addition to making grading decisions, data from more formal assessments can
having the most difficulty? Which students are learning well and which are learning poorly? (and probably should) be used to make decisions about your teaching. Which objectives have
How should I grade the performance of my students based on their learning and performance? students mastered and which have they not? If large numbers of students have not mastered
These are but a few of the evaluative questions that most teachers ask (and answer) on a particular objectives, do I have time to go back over those objectives or must I move on if I am
regular basis. to cover all the content that I need to teach the remainder of the term?

In order to make these evaluative decisions, most teachers rely on information obtained The word assessment comes from the Latin assidere, meaning, “to sit beside or with”. Ideally,
by assessing their students. Note the distinction between evaluation and assessment in the sitting beside individual students, talking with them, listening to them, and watching them
previous sentence. Assessment is the process by which information is gathered or collected. work would provide the best information about their engagement and learning on which to
Evaluation is the judgment that is made based on the information you have at your disposal. base your decisions. However, classrooms inhabited by large numbers of students are not ideal
You may assess learning by asking students a series of questions related to your learning settings for such a personalised view of assessment. In most classrooms, teachers cannot “sit
objectives, and then you evaluate their answers to these questions based on a set of criteria beside” every student. In these settings you must find group-based methods that allow you
(e.g., right-wrong; excellent-good-fair-poor). In other words, although assessment should inform to get the information you need to make and defend your decisions about both teaching and
evaluation, evaluation inserts a human element into the decision-making process. That is, a learning (with learning defined in terms of both individual students and entire classrooms of
teacher can have good information and still make bad decisions. students). The choice of method or methods depends on why the assessment is being made
(that is, the purpose), what information is needed to make the decision (that is, the basis for the
This distinction between evaluation and assessment is particularly important when we decide decision), and when the information is needed to make the decision (that is, the timing).
how best to grade our students based on their learning and performance. Two teachers can
examine the exact same assessment results for a particular student and assigns quite different An increasing number of educators believe that decision making may be the most critical of all
grades to the two students. This lack of consistency has led some observers to question the teaching skills. Furthermore, valid, reliable, and accurate data from high-quality assessments lie
credibility of the grades we assign to students. As Karlheinz Ingenkamp (1977) noted in his at the heart of good decision making. In order to become a better teacher, then, you must learn
classic “Die Fragwürdigkeit der Zensurengebung” (“The dubiousness of grading”), because to make informed decisions about individual students (learning decisions) and about groups of
“grades do not fulfill comparison functions … our entire school authorisation system is based on students (teaching decisions). Before continuing to read this chapter, I invite you to think about
fiction” (p. 192). how you currently gather information and make decisions about teaching and learning. The
questions included in Table 7.1 are intended to guide your thinking.
That different teachers evaluate the same quality of work differently is at least partially
understandable. Far more surprising, however, is that the same teacher may evaluate the
same assessment performance differently for different students (Becker, 1983) and at different Table 7.1
times (Ziegenspeck, 1999). These research findings have led Becker (1983) to suggest that A self-assessment on assessment
teachers have certain tendencies that they bring with them to the task of grading students, and
these tendencies influence the grades they assign regardless of the actual results of students‘
assessments. Because of the problems associated with evaluation, the primary emphasis in Why, how and For what purposes do you assess students?
this chapter is on assessment, specifically, designing good assessments and using their results when What tools or techniques do you use to assess students?
appropriately and wisely. In terms of evaluation, we would only ask that you make grading How (and how often) do you informally assess students?
decisions that are in accordance with the results of your assessments and fair to all students. How (and how often) do you formally assess students?

Use of results What decisions do you make based on assessment results?

Assessments differ in their formality. Some assessments are informal. For example, by carefully How do you make decisions based on assessment results?

observing students you obtain information that you can use to make a variety of decisions. Your What do you consider your strengths in the area of assessment?
Do I need to slow down (because I see that many students seem lost)? Do I need to give proficiency What do you consider your weaknesses in the area of assessment?
more examples (because I see that many students seem confused)? Do I need to show more What changes can you make to improve the quality of your assessments?
Chapter 7 160 161 Assessment

Before moving to the recommendations, we must address one more issue, namely, the fact Although mismatches are easy to see in most situations, ensuring a match between
that the term “assessment” has a negative connotation for many educators. Although learning objectives and assessments is far more difficult. In Chapter 2, the Revised Bloom’s
assessment has the potential to improve learning for all students, historically it has been Taxonomy (RBT) was discussed. It consists of six cognitive process categories: Remember,
a barrier rather than a bridge to educational opportunity. Assessment results have been Understand, Apply, Analyse, Evaluate, and Create. These cognitive processes become the
used to label students, with those labels often determining the groups to which students verbs in statements of objectives. The learning objective mentioned in the previous paragraph
were assigned and, ultimately, the challenge of the curriculum and quality of teaching the is at the lowest level of the RBT, Remember (that is, students should remember the major
students achieved. This use of assessment results is particularly problematic, because many influences of the Ottoman Empire on modern-day Balkan countries). Asking students to
tests have been soundly criticised as biased and unfair to minority students, particularly list what they remember is a perfectly reasonable way of assessing that level of objective.
language-minority and other marginalised students. We admit that assessment has a “dark Suppose, however, your objective was for students to compare the influences of the Ottoman
side”, particularly when combined with inappropriate or unfair evaluations based on the Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire on modern-day Balkan countries. In this case,
assessment results. asking students to simply list the influences of each empire is insufficient. Listing influences is
not the same as comparing influences. A more appropriate form of assessment would be to
At the same time, we must consider how assessment can be used more positively and give students a Venn diagram (see Chapter 6) and ask them to write the unique influences
productively. When assessment is carried out in a professional manner and when the of each empire in the appropriate circle and the “common” influences where the circles
results are used to increase rather than deny educational opportunity, assessment intersect. A good rule of thumb in this regard is to focus on the verb in the learning objective
becomes extremely important and useful in our efforts to improve the overall quality of when choosing assessment tools and techniques. If, for example, the learning objective states
teaching and learning. The problem is how to design assessments and use their results that students are to compare, the assessment should ask students to compare. Similarly,
“positively and productively”. The five recommendations that follow are intended to help if the learning objective states that students are to evaluate, then the assessment should
you solve this problem. require that students do, in fact, evaluate.

Table 7.2 summarises some of the most appropriate assessments for objectives that include
Recommendation 1 each of the six cognitive process categories of the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy. It must be
noted that the entries in the table are for illustrative purposes. The table does not include all
Base your assessments primarily on your learning possible examples of appropriate forms of assessments. However, if the examples provide you
objectives, matching the level or type of objectives with with an understanding of the type or types of assessments that would be appropriate, you
appropriate forms of assessment. should be able to make informed decisions about other types of assessments that also would
be appropriate for each level of learning objective.

This recommendation actually has two parts. The first is fairly simple: make sure there
is a clear connection between learning objectives and assessments. If, for example, your
objective is that you want your students to remember the influences of the Ottoman Empire
on modern-day Balkan countries, then it would be appropriate to assess student learning
of the objective by asking students to list three major influences of the Ottoman Empire on
modern-day Balkan countries. It would not be appropriate to ask students to list three major
influences of the Austro-Hungarian Empire on modern-day Balkan countries. CREATE

The second part of the recommendation is a bit more complex: make sure that the form EVALUATE
of your assessment matches the level of the objective. Assessments can take many forms:
short-answer questions, multiple-choice items, essays, written reports, oral presentations,
ANALYSE
constructions (e.g., building a container that would keep an egg from breaking when dropped
from a height of 50 meters), and actual performances (e.g., performing an original one-act
play). A mismatch of learning objectives with assessments is fairly easy to see. You would APPLY
not want to use multiple-choice items to assess objectives that require students to create
something. Rather, essays, constructions, and performances are better suited for such UNDERSTAND
objectives. Similarly, you would not want to use essays, constructions, and performances to
assess recall of factual knowledge. Short-answer questions and multiple-choice items are
REMEMBER
best suited for assessing the recall and recognition of facts and terms, respectively.
Chapter 7 162 163 Assessment

Table 7.2 With respect to learning objectives in the social domain, the preferred method of assessment
Matching assessments with levels of learning objectives is observation. If the objective is for students to use interpersonal skills to work effectively in
Adapted from http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/assessment/basics/alignment.html groups, you want to observe students working in groups. A checklist, rating scale, or rubric
that incorporates the key interpersonal skills can be used to evaluate how well students have
performed them. [A rubric is an explicit set of criteria and associated performance levels that
can be used to assess and evaluate a student’s work or performance.] In some cases, role-
Level of learning objective Appropriate assessment(s) plays or simulations may be needed to create situations in which intended learning outcomes
are more likely to occur. Suppose, for example, the objective is for students to use appropriate
strategies to resolve interpersonal or group conflicts. Rather than wait around for a conflict
Remember (e.g., name, recall, recognise, or Objective test items such as short-answer to arise, a simulated conflict may be set up and students asked to role-play their actions and
identify) completion, matching, labelling, and multiple- behaviours in that conflict situation.
choice.
Finally, with respect to learning objectives in the affective domain, the preferred method
of assessment is student self-report. In many cases, short self-reports can provide a good
Understand (e.g., interpret, exemplify or Essays, problem sets, class discussions,
deal of information. Figure 7.1, for example, contains three ways for students to respond to
illustrate, classify, summarise, compare, concept maps, cause-effect graphic
a variety of self-report prompts. For example, if your objective deals with improved attitude
explain, infer or predict) organisers, multiple-choice items
toward a particular subject (or school or learning in general), you may ask students to
indicate how positive or negative their attitude is by placing an X on the appropriate face in
Apply (execute, implement, demonstrate, use) Problem sets, performance tasks, laboratory the first row of the figure. By having students complete this activity at two different points
exercises, simulations in time, you can determine the degree of change (that is, learning) that has taken place.
Similarly, if your objective deals with increased confidence in learning, you can ask students
to indicate how certain they are that they have done well in the course or on a particular test
Analyse (differentiate, distinguish, organise, Case studies, projects, trouble-shooting
by placing an X on the appropriate cylinder in the second row of the figure. If they are quite
attribute) exercises, debates, essays, research reports
certain, they will place their X on the left-hand cylinder (the one with the highest level of
certainty). Alternatively, they could be asked to place an X on the stair step in the third row
Evaluate (check, monitor, critique, judge) Critical reviews, critiques, case studies, that represents their certainty (with the highest step indicating the greatest certainty). The
journals, diaries, problem sets point here is that assessment does not have to be complex to be useful.

Create (generate, hypothesise, design, plan, Research projects, experiments, musical

Figure 7.1
produce, construct) compositions, performances, essays, business
Response formats for assessing affective objectives
plans, website designs, set designs

To this point in the discussion, we have focused exclusively on objectives in the cognitive
domain. What can you do to assess objectives in the psychomotor, social, and affective 01
domains? Assessment in the psychomotor domain tends to mirror assessment in the cognitive
domain in that the key to aligning assessment with the learning objectives is to focus on
the verbs. If, for example, the objective is that students will use a compass to bisect angles,
then the assessment must require students to use a compass. If the objective is for students
to employ particular dance steps in dance routines, then the assessment must require 02
students to employ these dance steps in dance routines. In neither of these situations is it
appropriate for students to list the steps involved in using a compass or draw the dance
steps for particular dance routines. Listing and drawing are different from performing. There
are many students who may be able to list or draw, but simply cannot perform. Performing
is particularly important in the psychomotor domain since so many learning objectives
emphasise that students actually do something physically. 03
Chapter 7 164 165 Assessment

Recommendation 2 Although formative assessment typically includes concerns for both diagnosis and
improvement, it is important to understand the role that diagnosis plays (can play, should
Select assessment tools and techniques based on the play) in making improvement decisions. Simply stated, proper diagnosis makes it more likely
purpose for which you are assessing your students. that improvement efforts will be successful. Consider an example from the field of medicine,
a field in which it is particularly important to differentiate symptoms from causes. Aches,
pains, fatigue, cough, chills, or sweats are symptoms. Each of these symptoms can result
In classrooms throughout the world, assessment is used for a variety of purposes. Historically, from a variety of underlying causes. Fatigue can be caused by infections, medications, and
the primary purpose of assessment has been to assign grades to students (e.g., A, B, C, D, F). sleep problems (among other things). Treating the symptom (fatigue) without understanding
More traditional uses of assessment results also include the placement of students in groups the cause (infection) is unlikely to be effective. Giving medication to a person who suffers
or curriculum track (e.g., high- vs. low-ability groups; college preparatory track vs. vocational fatigue because of medications already taken is not only unlikely to be effective, it may
track) and to determine their readiness for particular courses (e.g., German II, chemistry) or be dangerous. So it is in education, at least up to a point. It is one thing to know that a
programmes (e.g., programmes for gifted students). In the past several decades, increasing student (or a group of students) is having difficulty solving mathematical word problems. It
attention has been paid to two additional uses of assessment results: improving learning is quite another thing to understand whether the cause is a lack of reading comprehension,
(rather than simply assigning grades based on it) and diagnosing learning difficulties (that an inability to analyse the problem, the selection of an inappropriate solution strategy, or
is, determining the reason or reasons for the failure of some students to learn). For these two careless computation errors. To focus on improving computational skills when the problem
purposes, assessment results can be examined on a student-by-student basis or for groups of is a lack of analytical skills (like prescribing medication for a personal already overly
students (e.g., classes, schools, countries). medicated) is unlikely to result in any improvement in learning.

To simplify things just a bit, educators have differentiated between two general purposes The importance of basing improvement efforts on accurate diagnosis leads to a third type
of assessment: “assessment of learning” or “summative assessment” and “assessment for of assessment: assessment as learning. Assessment as learning is the process of treating
learning” or “formative assessment”. Improvement/diagnosis is referred to as “assessment assessment as another learning opportunity. Assessment as learning means that teachers
for learning” or “formative assessment”. Robert Stake has been quoted as summarising the and students decide on the evidence needed before one can infer that learning has taken
difference between formative and summative assessment as follows: “When the cook tastes place and the way that the needed evidence should be collected, organised, and stored.
the soup, that’s formative; when the guests taste the soup, that’s summative.” (p. 24). To Within the purpose of assessment as learning, students routinely reflect on their work, make
continue with the analogy, when the cook tastes the soup, changes can be made to improve judgments about the quality of their work, and if the work does not meet quality standards,
the taste of the soup. By the time the guests taste the soup, it’s too late. determine what specifically they can do to improve the quality of their work. Rubrics, briefly
mentioned earlier, are useful tools in this regard. Although many educators see rubrics as
Table 7.2 lists a variety of different assessment tools that can be used for formative and assessment tools, they function as learning resources when they are used to help students
summative assessment. Once again, these lists are meant to provide examples; they are understand their strengths and weaknesses, focus their improvement efforts in particular
not exhaustive. areas, or further their development in general.

All three general purposes of assessment have value and legitimacy. As mentioned earlier,
Table 7.2 however, the predominant purpose for generations of students has been assessment OF
Some possible assessment tools for two learning. The challenge facing us as teachers today is to find a balance among the three
major purposes of assessment purposes, a challenge that will require more attention to be paid to assessment FOR learning
and assessment AS learning. Table 7.3 summarises some of the major differences among the
three purposes assessment.

Purpose Possible Assessment Tools

Assessment of Learning Tests, written exams, essays, reports, oral

exams, performances

of for as
Assessment for Learning Observations, classroom questions, worksheets,
quizzes, journals, diagnostic tests, peer/self
assessments, practice exercises learning
Chapter 7 166 167 Assessment

Table 7.3 Table 7.4

Purpose, reference points, and key assessor for Understanding the objective, the evidence, and the criteria
three general purposes of assessment and standards
Adapted from Earl (2003).

Understanding
Example
General Judgments/ Reference Key the...
Purpose Decisions Points Assessor

Objective Students will analyse a variety of poems in terms of their

denotation and connotation, imagery, figurative language,
Assessment of Grading, Typically other Teacher rhythm and meter, and tone and musical devices.
Learning promotion, students
credentialing,
placement Evidence Students will be given a poem that they have never seen before
and asked to analyse the poem in terms of the poetic elements
included in the objective. They will write a 500-word essay that
describes and summarises their analysis.
Assessment for Instructional Objectives, Teacher (perhaps
Learning decisions, curricular with student
immediate or expectations input)
Evaluation The essay will be graded using the “Poetry analysis rubric”
longer-term shown in Table 7.5. Receiving credit for 12 of the 15 indicators
criteria and
will indicate mastery of the objective.
standards

Assessment as Self-monitoring, Objectives, Student

Learning self-regulation, personal goals
self-correction
At its core, the objective is about analysis (the cognitive process) and poetry (the content).
The words following “poetry” in the objective are the factors that students should include in
their analysis (e.g., the use of imagery and figurative languages). To assess whether students
have achieved the objective, students will be given a “never before seen” poem, and asked to
Recommendation 3 analyse the poem and then write up their analysis in an essay. The essay will be graded by
the teacher using a rubric that contains 15 indicators organised around five criteria (see Table
Teach your students self-assessment and self-evaluation 7.5). Students who receive credit for 12 of the 15 indicators will be said to have mastered the
strategies and techniques. objective. If students need to receive grades on this assignment, you can determine how the
number of indicators will be translated into letter grades (e.g., 14 or 15, A; 12 or 13, B; 10 or 11,
C; 8 or 9, D; less than 8, F. In this example, then, “mastery” would be equivalent to earning a
This recommendation follows directly from the importance of achieving a balance among grade of A or B.
assessment OF learning, assessment FOR learning, and assessment AS learning. To achieve
this balance, we must bring students into the discussion of both learning and assessment. The three questions at the bottom of Table 7.5 give students an opportunity to reflect on
Without student understanding of their role in learning and assessment, the concept of their performance. A comparison of this self-evaluation with your evaluation can serve two
“assessment AS learning” is impossible to achieve in practice. To implement “assessment purposes. First, it can provide you, the teacher, with information that can be used to improve
AS learning” students need to understand (1) the meaning of objectives, (2) the evidence your teaching of the objective, both now and in the future. Second, it gives students an
pertaining to the objective that will be collected (or will need to be collected), and (3) the opportunity to compare their self-evaluation with your evaluation (in your role as a subject
criteria and standard that will be used to judge the evidence in terms of whether or not (or matter expert). Comparisons such as these will help students reach the ultimate goal of the
how well) the objective has been achieved. The second point is self-assessment (that is, third recommendation, namely, to develop strategies and techniques that enable them to
collection of evidence), whereas the third point is self-evaluation (judgment of evidence). An become reasonably “objective” evaluators of their own learning.
example is shown in Table 7.4.
Chapter 7 168 169 Assessment

Table 7.5
Self-evaluation of poetry analysis essay
Rubric for scoring poetry analysis essay

Name: __________________________________________________________ Date: _____________

Criteria Indicators YES

1. What I like best about my essay is ____________________________________________________
(CHECK)
because ____________________________________________________________________________

Introduction Engaging or attention-grabbing opener (I1) 2. What I need to improve on for next time is _____________________________________________

Appropriate background information (title, poet) (I2) because ____________________________________________________________________________

Coherent thesis/controlling impression (I3)

3. I believe that I earned a grade of A b c d e f on this essay because
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Response to Comprehensive grasp of the poem (R1) ____________________________________________________________________________________

Poetry ____________________________________________________________________________________
Contribution of stylistic devices to meaning of text (R2)

Ideas supported through accurate & detailed references

(R3)

The discussion in the previous paragraph speaks to an important point about self-assessment
and self-evaluation. Simply allowing (or requiring) students to engage in self-assessment and
self-evaluation does not mean that all students will arrive at assessments and evaluations that
Conclusion Restates thesis and summarises key points (C1)
accurately reflect their learning and performance. These initial assessments and evaluations
Final comment provides insight and life applications (C2) must be corroborated or verified in some way before they are accepted as accurate or
realistic. Self-assessment and self-evaluation are not ends in themselves. Rather, they are
tools and techniques that students can use as they strive to improve the quality of their work
and learning over time. When used properly, self-assessment and self-evaluation are ways of
helping students feel in charge of, rather than victimised by, assessment and evaluation. Finally,
involving students in the assessment process teaches them to form reasoned judgments about
Style Fluid integration of supporting evidence (S1)
themselves, their work, and their learning that are central to critical thinking and deeper levels
Varied, precise, and vivid word choice (S2) of learning. This is yet another example of “assessment AS learning.
Appropriate voice and tone for audience (S3)
There are a number of strategies and techniques for self-assessment and self-evaluation that
can be used throughout a term or year, regardless of the specific objective being pursued.
Among them are learning journals, student progress cards, and checklists and rating scales.
Let us consider each of these in turn.

Conventions Correct and complete sentences (C1)

Correct subject/verb agreement (C2) Learning Journals

Accurate and consistent verb tense (C3)

Correct use of punctuation, capitalisation, & spelling (C4)

Learning journals are a way of systematising self-assessment. Students should be
encouraged to write about what they learned, their perceived level of mastery, and what they
plan to do next. For learning journals to be maximally beneficial, (1) students should write in
Total __ / 15 them regularly and (2) each entry should focus on a specific event or issue. Table 7.6 shows
an example of a structured form for learning journals.
Chapter 7 170 171 Assessment

Table 7.6 Table 7.7

One format for structuring student writing An example of a Student progress card
in learning journals Adapted from: www.nottingham.ac.uk
Adapted from www.open.ac.uk

Name ________________________________________________________________________

Date 25 April Directions: Indicate your current confidence in your learning relative to each of these objectives by writing today’s
date (in numerical form) in the proper column: very confident, fairly confident, not very confident, not at all confident.

Description of Tutorial Remember write the date; do not respond with an X or a checkmark.

event
Level of Confidence

What did I Clarified block 3 themes and linked them to what I need to know for
Not
learn? the exam. OBJECTIVE Very Fairly Not at all
very

1. Understand the theory

Short-term Useful for the end-of term (EOT) test in 3 weeks.
underlying critical reflection.
implications
2. Interpret situations
accurately in writing.
Long-term Remember to come back to the themes when I`m revising.
implications 3. Interpret situations
accurately orally.

Feedback from I found that other students were also confused about the meaning
4. Interpret situations without
others of section 2 – some of us are going to discuss it a bit more on the
making evaluative judgments.
forum.
5. Identify existing knowledge
of relevance in a particular
What will I do Get in contact more with other students – it helps to know that
situation.
differently? others get confused by things on the course too, and talking about it
seems to help. I`ll make more use of the forums.
6. Select solution strategies
or techniques for particular
problem situations.
Notes I still have a query about one of the EOT test questions – must ask
the tutor.
7. Identify the assumptions
underlying a situation.

8. Create alternative courses

Student Progress Cards of action for particular
problems.

9. Design an action plan

Student progress cards can be used in a variety of educational settings. They delineate a to ensure that solution
series of longer-term objectives which students can examine from time-to-time and then strategies or techniques are
determine how confident they are that they have mastered each objective (see Table 7.7). implemented properly.
Because the emphasis is on progress (that is, learning), students are instructed to write
10. Evaluate the success or
the dates that they completed the student progress cards. For example, if a student is failure of solution strategies
“fairly confident” of how well they understand the theory underlying critical reflection on or courses of action based
18 February 2013, he or she would write 18/2/13 in the cell corresponding with the first row on available evidence.
and second column.
Chapter 7 172 173 Assessment

The multiple entries in the table allow the teacher or student to determine whether (or how
YES NO While I was reading [name of book, story, or article]
much) change has taken place. If multiple dates occur in the same column, very little learning
has occurred. On the other hand, if there is a steady movement of dates across the columns,
this indicates that learning has occurred during the term. ___ ___ I developed a dialogue with the writer.

___ ___ I visualised what places, people, events might look like.
Rating scales and checklists
___ ___ I made connections to my own experiences.

___ ___ I made inferences from clues provided by the author.

Rating scales and checklists are easily constructed and quite useful for self-assessment and
self-evaluation. The major difference between the two is that rating scales require students ___ ___ I predicted what the author might say next and checked the accuracy of my
to select from among several numerical categories (e.g., 1 through 5 or 1 through 10) whereas predictions.

a checklist requires a simple yes-no (or check-no check-yes) response. Rating scales are ___ ___ I read back over the parts I found confusing.
preferred over checklists when degrees of reaction are required. For example, if the statement
is “I read a book yesterday”, you either did or did not. Therefore, a checklist is sufficient. If ___ ___ I tried to determine the meaning of words I did not know from their context.
the statement is “I enjoyed the book I read yesterday”, you may want to indicate how much
you enjoyed it using a 5-point scale (with “1” representing “not at all” and “5” representing
“a great deal”). Table 7.8 displays an example of a rather simple checklist for self-monitoring
the reading process. Because the emphasis is on learning as “change over time”, it is strongly
YES NO After I read [name of book, story, or article]
recommended that such a checklist be completed several times during a course or term.

___ ___ I reflected on what I had read.

Table 7.8
___ ___ I discussed what I had read and my impressions with someone.
A checklist for self-assessing one’s reading
Adapted from www.tesl-ej.org ___ ___ I summarised what I had read and learned.

___ ___ I developed a more thoughtful interpretation of the text.

___ ___ I evaluated what I had read and supported my judgments with references to the text.
NAME ____________________________________________________________________________

DATE ____________________________________________________________________________
As was suggested earlier, high-quality student self-assessment and self-evaluation is possible
only if students internalise the meaning of “quality” and “excellence” (see also Chapter 9). If
a student thinks that a poorly written essay is “very good”, self-evaluation misses its mark.
YES NO Before I read [name of book, story, or article] One way in which students begin to internalise the characteristics of excellent work is by
evaluating the work of their peers. To do so productively, however, students must have a
clear understanding of what they are to look for in their peers‘ work. What are the factors or
___ ___ I thought about the title and what it suggested the text was about. attributes that differentiate excellent from mediocre? Once students understand the criteria
that define excellence, they are more likely to use those criteria to improve the quality of their
___ ___ I previewed the whole text or parts of it. work. If this technique is used, however, student names should be removed from the work to
avoid any possible embarrassment.
___ ___ I set a purpose for my reading.

In summary, there are several benefits of self-assessment and self-evaluation. First, self-
assessment and self-evaluation enable students to monitor their learning at various
points within a course. Second, self-assessment and self-evaluation can lead to the
development of critical thinking which, in turn, can help students begin to look more
objectively at their strengths and weaknesses. Third, self-assessment and self-evaluation
Chapter 7 174 175 Assessment

promote the development of more autonomous, independent learners. Finally, for you
Students INTRODUCTION RESPONSE CONCLUSION STYLE CONVENTIONS TOTAL
as a teacher, students‘ observations and reflections can provide valuable feedback for
rethinking and refining the way that you teach. This final benefit leads directly to our Katrina 2 3 2 2 3 12
fourth recommendation.
Leonardo 0 2 1 1 2 6

Malpass 3 2 2 2 3 12
Recommendation 4
Necretia 1 1 0 1 1 4
Use the results of formal assessments to
understand student strengths and weaknesses Ophelia 2 3 2 2 2 11

and to make improvements in your teaching.

Paul 3 3 2 3 3 14

Quantz 0 0 1 1 2 4
As mentioned earlier, formal assessments include quizzes, tests, essays, research reports,
and staged performances. Data from all of these assessments can be represented in a Robbie 3 3 2 3 4 15
simple table in which the students’ names are written in the left-hand column and test
Stefani 3 3 2 3 4 15
items, questions, or evaluation criteria are used as the headings for the other columns in
the table. Take a moment to look back at the Poetry analysis essay rubric in Table 7.5. Table Torvel 3 1 2 3 2 11
7.9 presents the scores for a hypothetical group of students on the five criteria included
in Table 7.5. The numbers in the cells represent the number of indicators for which each 2.1 1.95 1.65 1.85 2.8
Average
(of 3) 70% (of 3) 65% (of 2) 82.5% (of 3) 61.6% (of 4) 70%
student received credit.

Table Note. The numbers in the “Average” row represent the average score converted to percents. For example, the average
Table 7.9 score for the “Introduction” criterion for the 20 students is 2.1. There are three indicators associated with the “Introduction”
Summary of students’ performance on Poetry criterion. If you divide 2.1 (the average score) by 3 (the number of indicators), you get 0.7, which converts to 70%.
analysis essay rubric

Table 7.9 presents a great deal of information in a very simple format. The rows of the
table provide information about individual students. For example, you can easily see that
Students INTRODUCTION RESPONSE CONCLUSION STYLE CONVENTIONS TOTAL
Isaac, Robbie, and Stefani received perfect scores and Badra and Paul missed only one
indicator. If you choose to form groups for subsequent writing assignments, it would seem
Alfonso 3 2 2 2 4 13
wise to place these five students in separate groups so they could provide leadership for
Badra 3 3 2 2 4 14 the group and assistance to individual members. Still looking at the rows, you can see that
six students did not do very well on the poetry analysis: Ellie, Freda, Gerhard, Leonardo,
Cutro 2 2 2 1 3 10 Necretia, and Quantz. Their scores ranged from 4 to 8.

Damansk 3 2 2 2 3 12
Keeping our focus on individual students (that is, the rows) but examining the individual
Ellie 1 0 1 0 2 4 criteria (that is, the columns), we see that Freda received zeros on three of the five criteria.
Gerhard, in contrast, seems to have had the greatest difficulty with “response to poetry,”
Freda 0 0 0 1 2 3 the criterion most directly related to the primary objective. Gerhard did reasonably well on
his introduction, conclusion, and use of conventions. Although Torvel did fairly well overall,
Gerhard 3 0 2 1 2 8
we see that he, like Gerhard, did most poorly on “response to poetry”. It seems, however,
Harrison 2 3 2 2 3 12 that although Gerhard can write fairly well, he did not learn what was needed to master
the primary unit objective.
Isaac 3 3 2 3 4 15
When we examine the data in the columns of the table, our focus shifts from individual
John 2 3 2 2 3 12
students to the evaluation criteria (which can quite easily be replaced by individual
Chapter 7 176 177 Assessment

questions, test items, or even objectives depending on the nature of the assessment). Recommendation 5
Overall, the students did the best on their conclusions and worst on their style. Examples
from the essays written by students with high scores on the style criterion can be used Provide students with adequate and detailed feedback that
to help other students understand the meaning of style and how you expect students to enables them to correct errors and misunderstandings and
address style in their writing in the future. If you wanted more information on style (or any improve their learning in the future.
of the other criteria), you could produce a similar table in which the columns represent
the appropriate indicators rather than the more general criteria. This more detailed
examination may suggest, for example, that the major problem with style is difficulty The previous recommendation concerns how to make assessment data more meaningful
integrating supporting evidence into the essay. What can you instructionally do to help and useful for you, the teacher. This final recommendation addresses the need to make
students improve in this specific area? assessment data more meaningful and useful to your students. Simply assigning a grade of
“A” or “F” to an essay and returning it to a student provides little constructive feedback. They
As mentioned earlier, the most important criterion relative to the primary objective is know that their essay was good or bad, but they are neither likely to know why nor what they
“response to poetry”. Students did a bit better on this criterion than they did on style, can do to improve it.
but not as well as they did on their introductions, conclusions, and use of conventions.
However, nine students received perfect scores on “response to poetry”. One example Proper feedback should provide students with information that helps them understand and,
from each of these student’s essays can be placed on an overhead transparency and ultimately, improve their learning and performance. In other words, students need to be
each student can talk about his or her example, emphasising the thought processes when able to connect the feedback they receive, the quality of their learning and performance,
writing (or planning to write) the essay. You may want to prompt the students by asking and the changes they can make to improve their learning and performance. A growing
questions such as, “Why did you focus on that part of the poem?” “How did you make the body of research suggests that improved learning and performance is possible if classroom
connection between particular stylistic devices and the overall meaning of the poem?” assessments (1) focus on clear purposes, (2) are aligned with learning objectives, (3) are used
to provide continuous descriptive feedback about learning, and (4) involve students in the
Note that if you examine the data contained in Table 7.9 horizontally (that is, by rows) assessment process.
you can see the strengths and weaknesses of each student. If, on the other hand,
you examine the data vertically (that is, by columns), you can see the strengths and With respect to involving students in the assessment process, we would suggest that you
weaknesses of the class as a whole. Both of these perspectives can lead to changes in the ask your students to answer the questions in Table 7.10 from time to time. Although there is
teaching-learning process that may be beneficial to students in general or to individual no set time for answering these questions, the beginning of a course or unit and a change in
(or smaller groups of) students. objectives seem like good times for students to reflect on what they understand and for you
to see if you and your students share a common understanding. The fifth question can be
In summary, we are not suggesting that you should stop using assessment data to assign answered periodically during the learning process as a way of stimulating meta-cognition
grades to students. This traditional use of assessment data – that is, assessment of learning – (see Chapter 5). Finally, you may want to take some time to explain the meaning and
is likely to be with us for quite a while. We are suggesting you at least consider the possibility purpose of each question to students before they answer the questions the first time.
of moving toward assessment for learning and, perhaps, assessment as learning. A careful
analysis of assessment data will help you move in these directions. Once you feel comfortable
with recording and analysing assessment data as illustrated above, you may find that the
shift from assessment of learning to assessment for learning is not very difficult. It does not
require a change in the way that you assess your students; rather, it requires a change in
the way you look at the assessment data. One final point must be made before moving to
the final recommendation. Analysing, interpreting, and using assessment data is a cyclical
process. Once you have made changes in your teaching, you should collect new data to
determine the effectiveness of the changes. These data need to be analysed and interpreted,
the result of which may lead to still other changes.
Chapter 7 178 179 Assessment

Table 7.10 Figure 7.2.

Questions for student reflection and meta-cognition A simple form for proviDING feedback to students
Adapted from Kellough, R.D. & Kellough, N.G., 1999.

NAME ____________________________________________________ DATE ____________________

Question Brief Answer
ASSESSMENT ________________________________________________________________________
1. Where am I headed?

Strengths

2. Where am I now?

3. How do I get where I am going?

Weaknesses Suggestions for improvement

4. How will I know when I get there?

5. Am I on the right track for getting there?

What do you need to do to improve the feedback that you provide to students? For more
traditional tests and quizzes, a simple form such as that shown in Figure 7.2 can be used.
The upper rectangle of the figure asks you to supply the name of the student, the date on
which the assessment is given, and a “title” for the assessment (e.g., quiz on plant growth). If the assessment takes the form of an essay, research report, or performance, rubrics such
In the next rectangle, you are to provide a list of the strengths of the student performance as the one shown in Table 7.5 can be used to provide quite specific feedback to students.
on the assessment. In this regard, naming at least one strength is encouraged. The bottom Specifically, well-designed rubrics help students see their strengths and weaknesses on
rectangle is divided into two smaller rectangles. In the left-hand rectangle you are to describe specific evaluation criteria. By explicitly connecting the evaluation criteria to the learning
briefly the weaknesses that were evident from the assessment performance. Then, in the objectives, students receive feedback on their performance relative to the learning objectives.
right-hand rectangle, you are to provide for each weakness a suggestion of what the student Once students understand their strengths and weaknesses, Table 7.11 can be used to help
can do to eliminate or substantially reduce that weakness in the future. students overcome their weaknesses, turning them into strengths.
Chapter 7 180 181 Assessment

Table 7.11 The rows in Table 7.11 are taken directly from Table 7.5, with the criteria and indicators from
An example of connecting feedback with specific Table 7.5 combined into a single column heading. In the right-hand column you will see
learning resources examples of learning resources connected to each criterion and related set of indicators. Note
that four of the five criteria included in Table 7.11 apply to writing in general, whereas only
the second criterion applies specifically to the analysis of poetry. Therefore, Table 7.11 can
be used with many different writing assignments by simply altering the second criterion as
appropriate for the type of writing assigned.
Criteria/indicators Relevant learning resources

Before we conclude this chapter, look back over the five recommendations we have included.
Introduction
We invite you to compare those recommendations with these four suggestions for improving
● Engaging or attention-grabbing opener Read “The introductory paragraph” assessment offered by The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
● Appropriate background information [http://homeworktips.about.com/od/ (OECD).
● Coherent thesis/controlling impression paperassignments/a/introsentence.htm]

● Establish a classroom culture that encourages interaction and use of assessment

tools, making assessment an integral part of classroom life.
Response to poetry
● Comprehensive grasp of poem Participate in peer-tutoring sessions led by
● Establish learning objectives and track individual student progress toward the
● Contribution of stylist devices to meaning classmates who excel on the “response to achievement of those objectives.
● Ideas supported through references poetry” criterion; See schedule of meeting times ● Provide feedback on student learning and performance that is based on identified
on bulletin board strengths and weaknesses and is specific enough to be understood and used by
students.
● Actively involve students in the learning and assessment processes, helping them see
Conclusion
● Restates thesis and summarises points Read “Writing a conclusion” [http://web.gccaz. the connection between the two sets of processes.
● Final comment provides insights edu/~mdinchak/101online_new/conclusions.
htm]; Pair up with a classmate who is also We think you will find them quite similar.
having trouble with conclusions and discuss how
to apply what you have read to improve your
In closing, we ask that you consider Lorna Earl`s (2003) vision of the classrooms of the
essays
future. “I can imagine a day, in the not too distance future, when assessment and evaluation
are not viewed with foreboding and terror; not separated from teaching and learning; not
Style used to punish or prohibit access to important learning; and not seen as private, mystical
● Fluid integration of supporting evidence Watch the video on “Style points” [http:// ceremonies. Instead, assessment and teaching/learning will be reciprocal, each contributing
● Varied, precise, & vivid word choice writingcenter.pdx.edu/resources/video/index.
to the other in ways and enhance both. Assessment will reveal not only what students know
● Appropriate voice and tone php]; Try to incorporate some of the ideas
into a revision of your essay and submit the
and understand, but will also capture how those new learnings came about and will provide
rewrite to your teacher a range in variety and quality of work that show the depth, breadth and growth of each
student's thinking. This wealth of information will, in its turn, be used to provoke further
learning and focused instruction”. (p. 4)
Conventions
● Correct and complete sentences Review the poster shown in Attachment 7.1;
● Correct subject/verb agreement Go to http://www.quia.com/quiz/1473978.
● Accurate and consistent verb tense html and check your understanding of various
● Correct use of punctuation, capitalisation, writing conventions. If you have problems
spelling with the terms on the poster or if you do
poorly on the quiz, make an appointment
with your teacher.
Chapter 7 182 183 Assessment

Attachment 7.1 Sources / CHAPTER 7

Writing Convention Poster
READINGS

Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R Brookhart, S. M. (2001) Risko, V. & Walker-Dalhouse,

(Eds.) et al., (2001) Successful students’ formative and D. (2010)
Essential Conventions Check Mate A taxonomy for learning, teaching, summative uses of assessment Making the most of assessments
and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s information. Assessment in Education. to inform instruction. The Reading
RULE 1 RULE 5 taxonomy of educational objectives. 8 (2), 153-169. Teacher, 63(5), 420-422.
COMPLETE SENTENCES APOSTROPHES Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Earl, L. M. (2003) Stiggins, R. J. (2002)
1.a avoid sentence fragments 5.a possession Anderson, L.W. (2003) Assessment as learning. Using Assessment crisis: The absence of
1.b avoid run-ons to form certain plurals 5.b to form certain plurals Classroom assessment: Enhancing the classroom assessment to maximize assessment FOR learning, Phi
1.c avoid comma splices
quality of teacher decision making. student learning. Thousand Oaks: Delta Kappan, 83(10), 758-765.
1.d maintain parallel structure
RULE 6 Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Corwin Press, Inc.
SPECIALTY PUNCTUATION Erlbaum Associates. Stiggins, R. & Chappuis, J. (2005)
RULE 2
Ingenkamp, K. (1977) Using student-involved classroom
CAPITALIZATION 6.a colon Angelo, T. A. & Cross, K. P. (1993) Die Fragwürdigkeit der assessment to close achievement
6.b semicolon
Classroom assessment techniques: A Zensurengebung, 7. Aufl., Weinheim: gaps. Theory into Practice, 44(1), 11-18.
2.a sentences 6.c ellipsis
2.b proper nouns handbook for college teachers. San Beltz. Kellough, R.D. and Kellough,
6.d hyphen
2.c published works Francisco: Jossey-Bass. N.G. (1999). Secondary school Ziegenspeck, J. (1999)
2.d organizations teaching: A guide to methods and Handbuch Zensur und Zeugnis in
2.e abbreviations RULE 7
Becker, H. (1983) resources: Planning for competence. der Schule. Historischer Rückblick,
2.f title of courses SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Zensuren als Lebenslüge und Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: allgemeine Problematik, empirische

7.a singular, plural, and compound Notwendigkeit. In Becker, H. & Prentice Hall. Befunde und bildungspolitische
RULE 3
7.b indefinite pronouns Hentig, H. (Eds.), Zensuren. Lüge Implikationen. Ein Studienbuch und
COMMAS
- Notwendigkeit - Alternativen. Quinton, S. & Smallbone, T. (2010) Arbeitsbuch. Bad Heilbrunn: Julius
RULE 8 Frankfurt / M.: Ullstein. Feeding forward: Using feedback Klinkhardt.
3.a items in a series
3.b two complete thoughts FREQUENTLY MISUSED WORDS to promote student reflection
3.c two or more adjectives Black, P., & William, D. (1998) and learning – a teaching model.
3.d direct address Assessment and classroom learning. Innovations in Education and
● its, it’s ● affect, effect
3.e introductory elements In Educational Assessment: Principles, Teaching International, 47(1), 125-135.
3.f sentence interrupters ● you’re, your ● there, their, they 're
Policy and Practice, 5(1), 7-74.
3.g nonrestrictive phrases and clauses ● accept, except ● to, too, two
● among, between ● who's, whose
RULE 4 ● past, passed ● a lot
QUOTATION MARKS WEBSITES USED FOR BACKGROUND INFORMATION

4.a titles Level http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/ http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/

4.b special words
assessment/basics/alignment.html stw_esys/4assess.htm
4.c direct quotes
(connecting assessment types with (what research says about
4.d punctuation placement
levels of learning objectives) assessment)
Chapter 8 186 187

ALIGNMENT
ELENI Hodolidou

CHAPTER 8
Chapter 8 188 189 Alignment

The Merriam-Webster online dictionary defines alignment as “the proper positioning or for the alignment of assessment (A) with instruction and learning resources (ILR). The
adjustment of parts in relation to each other”. The Macmillan online dictionary adds that phrase “opportunity to learn” was coined to reflect this aspect of alignment. To obtain data
alignment is the “organisation of activities or systems so that they match or fit well together”. on opportunity to learn, teachers were asked to examine each test item and indicate whether
In classrooms throughout the world, the primary “parts” of the “system” are objectives, their students had been taught the content tested by the item (that is, did their students
assessment, instruction, and learning resources. In education, then, alignment is the have an opportunity to learn the content being tested?). As might be expected, students with
organisation of these parts so that they “fit well together” as shown in Figure 8.1. Because greater opportunities to learn (as judged by their teachers) achieved higher scores on the
learning resources are generally used to support instruction, these two “parts” are combined. international tests, particularly in the areas of mathematics and science.
The result is a triangle with the vertices labelled “objectives”, “assessment”, and “instruction
and learning resources”. Much less attention has been paid to the alignment of objectives (O) with instruction
and learning resources (ILR). For example, what are the most effective ways of teaching
different types or levels of objectives? For example, do you teach for memorisation
Figure 8.1 differently than the way that you teach students to come up with novel ideas or design
A visual depiction of the basic concept of alignment novel products? What learning resources are most useful in facilitating the learning of
different types or levels of objectives? For example, are different learning resources needed
to promote understanding knowledge and to enable students to apply what they have
Objectives (O)
learned in different and varied situations? Answers to questions such as these address the
alignment of objectives with instruction and learning resources.

In contrast to content validity and opportunity to learn, the concept of “alignment” focuses
on the relationships among all of the concepts shown in Figure 8.1; that is, objectives
with assessment, objectives with instruction and learning resources, and assessment with
instruction and learning resources. Instruction must be aligned not only with the objectives
as stated, but also with the way in which the objectives are assessed. An objective such as
understanding the relationship between the respiratory and circulatory systems of animals
may be assessed with a series of multiple-choice items or an extended-response essay.
Students who are able to write an essay that indicates mastery of that objective may not
necessarily perform well on a series of multiple-choice items written to test that objective
(or vice versa). The type of assessment matters! Similarly, assessment must be aligned not
Assessment (A) Instruction
& Learning
only with the objectives “on paper”, but also with the objectives “as taught”. Just as in the
Resources (ILR) previous example, two teachers may teach the same objective in quite different ways. Even
though the wording of the objective is identical, students of one teacher may outperform
the students of the other teacher on a common assessment because of differences in the
way the objective is taught. The way students are taught matters!

It may seem to you as though many aspects of alignment border on common sense. Do
For many decades, educators and researchers have been concerned with the connections we not expect our assessments to yield scores that accurately reflect student learning
between pairs of the concepts shown in Figure 8.1. Those who design standardised tests, with respect to the objectives? Does it not make sense that students who have greater
for example, are primarily concerned with the alignment of assessment (A) with objectives opportunity to learn the content included in our objectives earn higher scores on tests
(O). This aspect of alignment is known as “content validity” or “curriculum-test overlap”. aligned with those objectives? Is it not reasonable that different types or levels of
This focus is understandable because high levels of content validity are needed if the objectives require different approaches to teaching and/or different types of learning
interpretations and inferences made from the results of their tests are accurate reflections resources? Despite the common sense notion of alignment, it appears as though concerns
of how well students have mastered the objectives. for examining and, ultimately, improving alignment have not received a great deal of
attention in many classrooms, many schools, and many countries. Apparently, what is
When international tests appeared on the educational scene some 50 years ago, educators common sense is not commonplace.
from a wide variety of countries realised that “curriculum on paper” (that is, the objectives
as written down) was not the same as what they termed the “enacted curriculum” (that is, Researchers who have studied alignment over the past half century have come to the
the curriculum actually taught to the students). This awareness led to an increased concern following conclusions (based on Leitzel & Vogler, 1994):
Chapter 8 190 191 Alignment

● Tests prepared at the national or international level often do not match the content Figure 8.2
taught in classrooms; Visualising vertical alignment
● Teacher-constructed tests and quizzes focus primarily on recall and recognition of
factual information and lack the difficulty inherent in national and international
Objectives
tests;
● The majority of objectives focus on memorisation, rather than so-called
higher-order cognitive processes; and,
● Textbooks are not well aligned with national and international tests.
3
YEAR Instruction & Learning
The purpose of this chapter is to examine alignment in a bit more detail than we have so far
Assessment Resources
and, based on that examination, offer a set of four recommendations about what you can
do to ensure that your objectives, assessments, instruction, and learning resources “fit well
together”. When alignment is strong, good things are likely to happen. First, students are
more likely to learn and to demonstrate that they have learned. Second, students are more
likely to be evaluated (that is, graded) in a fair and defensible manner. [Grading students on
Objectives
material they have not been taught or on assessments unrelated to the objectives is simply
not fair.] Third, you, as a teacher, are likely to experience greater success – success defined in
terms of more students learning at increasingly higher levels. Hansche and Hambleton (1998)
have summarised the value of alignment quite nicely: “In an aligned system, all components
are coordinated so that the system works toward a single goal: educating students to reach 2
YEAR Instruction & Learning
high academic standards.” (p. 21).
Assessment Resources

Recommendation 1

Understand the three major types of alignment –

Objectives
horizontal, vertical, and external.

Take a minute to look back at back at Figure 8.1. The figure illustrates what is referred to as
“horizontal alignment”. Horizontal alignment is inherent in the interrelationships between 1
YEAR Instruction & Learning
and among objectives, assessment, instruction, and learning resources at one point in time.
Assessment Resources
The question, “How do my assessments, instructional methods, and learning resources match
up with my objectives this year?” is a question of horizontal alignment.

Vertical alignment, on the other hand, is considered with the interrelationships between The third type of alignment goes by a variety of names (e.g., accountability alignment). We
and among objectives, assessment, instruction, and learning resources over time. The shall refer to it as “external alignment” because it involves the interrelationships between and
question, “How do my objectives relate to the objectives my students were taught among what can be controlled within a school or school system and what lies beyond the
last year and will encounter next year?” is a question of vertical alignment. Vertical control of educators working within a school or school system. Many ministries of education,
alignment can be visually displayed as a set of triangles in a three-dimensional space as for example, distribute instructional resources and train teachers to use those resources in
shown in Figure 8.2. their classrooms. The question, “How well do these learning resources match our objectives
and assessments?” is a question of external alignment. Since the year 2000 the Organization
Although Figure 8.2 only includes three years (labeled Year 1, Year 2, and Year 3), the for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has designed, administered, scored,
actual number of triangles would depend on the range of time from the first year of and reported the results of the PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) tests.
school to the last year of compulsory schooling. The triangles can be extended beyond The question, “To what extent do our objectives, instruction, and learning resources match the
the final compulsory year if we are interested in, for example, the transition from content and skills included on the PISA tests?” is a question of external alignment. More will
secondary to tertiary school. be said about the PISA tests in the final recommendation in this chapter.
Chapter 8 192 193 Alignment

Table 8.1 summarises the basic differences among these three forms of alignment. Horizontal Table 8.2
alignment and vertical alignment differ in their time frames: “one point in time” versus Two Dimensions of Horizontal Alignment
“over time”. An examination of external alignment may focus on one point in time, over Adapted from La Marca, 2001.
time, or both. Horizontal alignment can be examined by individual teachers (e.g., a single
biology teacher). Vertical alignment, on the other hand, requires cooperation among several
teachers (e.g., all secondary science teachers, regardless of the level of the science course
Type of Match or “Fit” Key Questions
they teach). Finally, because of the political nature of external alignment, both teachers and
administrators, often from different schools, should be involved. Finally, examinations of Content How well does the content of the assessment
horizontal alignment typically produce fairly specific data (e.g., percent of overlap). Vertical match the content included in the objectives?
alignment, on the other hand, is examined in a more subjective manner. External alignment
involves making value judgments (e.g., how important is this knowledge or are these skills
for our students?) as well as examining the results to see what can be learned from them, Depth (Process) How well does the assessment match the
cognitive complexity included in the objectives?
particularly comparisons with other countries.

Table 8.1
Basic differences among horizontal, vertical, and Content match refers to the extent to which the content in the objectives, the content
external alignment assessed, and the content caught is the same or similar content. The more specifically the
content can be identified, the more accurate the estimate of horizontal alignment will be.
Suppose, for example, the content in the objective is defined broadly as economics. The
horizontal alignment question, then, is whether economics is also assessed and taught in this
Criteria Horizontal Vertical External
particular social studies course. With content defined this broadly, this question is typically
answered in the affirmative. Suppose, however, the content in the objective is defined as
Time frame One point in time Over time May be either at one
production, the assessment emphasises consumption, and the instruction and learning
point in time or over
time
resources focus on distribution and exchange. In this example, the horizontal alignment of
objectives, assessment, and instruction is quite weak.
Educators involved Generally a single Multiple teachers Teachers and
teacher administrators Depth match refers to the extent to which the objectives, instruction, and assessment are
the same or similar in terms of the cognitive process or processes required of students.
Continuing with the example in the previous paragraph, suppose that the content of
Focus of Degree of overlap Multiple teacher Value judgments; the objective is distribution and exchange and that this same content is emphasised
investigation judgments learning from in the assessment and during instruction. Therefore, the content match is very high.
comparisons Suppose, however, that the objective focuses on analysing economic problems in terms
of distribution and exchange, the assessment asks students to compare distribution
with exchange, and, as the teacher, you spend most of your time helping students learn
to apply this knowledge in everyday life. In terms of the depth match, the horizontal
Recommendation 2
alignment is very poor. Analysing, comparing, and applying are three fundamentally
different cognitive processes.
Estimate the degree of horizontal alignment, making
changes as necessary to improve alignment. What can you do to estimate the degree of horizontal alignment in an entire course or a
particular unit in a course? We would suggest that you begin with your objectives. Analyse
your entire set of objectives in terms of both content and process. As you perform this
There are two overarching dimensions of horizontal alignment: content match and depth analysis, write the key content elements (in the top half) and verbs (in the bottom half) of
match. Brief definitions of each are given in Table 8.2. As you examine the entries in Table 8.2, Column 1 of Table 8.3 (see next page). Be as specific as you can be in writing the content
think back to the grammatical structure of objectives described in Chapter 2 (that is, subject- elements. Also, it may make the overall task easier if you put the content elements in
verb-object). The first key question concerns the object of the objective, whereas the second alphabetical order. When you finish the analysis, you will have several key content elements
key question concerns the verb of the objective. and several cognitive processes in Column 1.
Chapter 8 194 195 Alignment

Next, look at your learning resources in terms of the content elements found in Column If the assessment produces an extended response or performance (e.g., essay, research
1. If your primary learning resource is a textbook, you can indicate the page numbers report, or demonstrated skill), analyse the criteria used to evaluate the response or
on which each content element listed in Column 1 can be found. If there is no mention performance, again in terms of both content and process. For example, one of the criteria
of a key content element in the textbook, you have identified a mismatch between an used in the poetry analysis example in Chapter 7 is “contribution of stylistic devices to
objective and your learning resources. If your primary learning resource is a video, you meaning of text”. The content is “stylistic devices” and the (implicit) cognitive process
can indicate the number of minutes devoted to each content element. Similar quantitative is “understand” (as indicated by the phrase “meaning of text”). The number of criteria
measures can be formulated for every type or form of learning resource. These data associated with each content element and each process in Column 1 can be written in Column
(e.g., page numbers, minutes) should be placed in Column 2, adjacent to the appropriate 3. When the criteria are “weighted” differently (that is, some criteria are more important or
content element in Column 1. carry more point values than others), these weights or points can be incorporated into the
information included in Column 3.
Now, look at the activities included in your scenario or instructional plan. Identify and count
the number of activities that include the verbs found in Column 1. For example, how many Once Table 8.3 has been completed, it is fairly easy to visually inspect the degree of
activities ask students to compare, to evaluate, to estimate, or to remember? The number of horizontal alignment. In general, misalignment is indicated by blank spaces in the table.
activities (or the length of instructional time associated with the activities) can be placed in For example, misalignment is evident when there are objectives without assessments and
Column 2, adjacent to the verb placement in Column 1. learning activities. Misalignment is also evident when content and processes included in
the objectives are being assessed, but there are no learning activities or learning resources
Finally, look at your assessment or assessments in terms of both the content being assessed related to the content and/or processes. When misalignment is identified, it is important
and the process expected to be demonstrated by the student when completing the to make adjustments to increase alignment. If a particular objective is neither assessed
assessment or assessments. If the assessment is a test, examine each item in terms of content nor taught, AND if you believe the objective is of little importance, then the misalignment
and process. Consider, for example, the following algebra item: “Is the equation 3(2x−4) = problem can be solved by eliminating the objective. If, on the other hand, the objective is
−18 equivalent to 6x−12 = −18?” There are two content elements: “arithmetic operations in quite important and it is taught but not assessed, then adding an assessment of the objective
equations” and the concept of “equivalence”. There also are two processes: “apply” (the first would solve the misalignment problem.
content element) and “understand” (the second content element). That is, if you can correctly
multiply the left side of the first equation and if you understand the concept of equivalence,
you will be able to determine whether the two algebraic expressions are equivalent. The Recommendation 3
number of items assessing each content element included in Column 1 and the number of
items assessing each process included in Column 1 are written in Column 3 (again, in the Be aware of the extent of vertical alignment,
same “row” as the content elements and processes in Column 1). working with other teachers to improve
vertical alignment as necessary.

Table 8.3
Form for estimating the degree of horizontal alignment Examining vertical alignment is much more difficult than examining horizontal alignment
for two reasons. First, by necessity, a number of teachers must be involved. When multiple
teachers are involved it is often difficult to schedule meetings at times when everyone
Course: _______________________ teacher: ______________ date: _______________ can attend. Nonetheless, face-to-face sharing of ideas and materials is an essential part
of examining vertical alignment. Second, the focus is not on the relationships among
objectives, assessment, and instruction; rather, the focus is on the relationships of
Column 1: Column 2: Instruction/ Column 3:
objectives across time, the relationships of assessments over time, and the relationships of
Objectives Resources Assessment
instruction and learning resources over time. Therefore, it is a more complex task than the
task involved in horizontal alignment.
Content

Despite these inherent difficulties, there are many things that you can do to examine and
ultimate improve vertical articulation either informally or formally. Informally, you can hold
Processes (Verbs)
two or three meetings with teachers in your department (e.g., science, history) to examine the
vertical alignment in your subject area as it currently exists. You may want to include a teacher
who teaches in a school that prepare students for entry into your school and a teacher who
teaches in a school in which your students will enroll when they leave your school.
Chapter 8 196 197 Alignment

We would recommend that no more than seven teachers are involved in this process. Recommendation 4
Prior to the first meeting, you should ask the participating teachers to bring copies
of their syllabi, sample learning resources, assignments, assessments, and any other If you work in an educational system that is impacted
materials that can help you understanding the alignment from course to course or greatly by external factors and constraints
school level to school level. After each teacher summarises what he or she has brought (see Chapters 1 & 2), learn to use national curricula,
to the meeting, give each teacher a sheet of paper with questions such as these learning resources prepared by ministries of education, and,
written on it. particularly, international test data to examine
and increase external alignment.
● How do the objectives change in terms of content and process from course to
course or school level to school level?
● Are there gaps in content or process as students move from course to course or External alignment is the degree to which the major components of the education system
school level to school level? are connected with outside forces of a society such as legislation, administrative regulations,
● What are the primary learning resources that are used in each course? Are workforce needs, and public opinion. By aligning objectives, assessment, instruction, and
there duplicates (e.g., the same novel is read in multiple courses, the same learning resources with these forces, schools – and all those who work in them – are more
Webquest is used in multiple courses)? likely to be seen in a more positive light, teachers are more likely to be seen as effective, and
● Do the learning resources become more challenging as students move from students are more likely to be successful today, tomorrow, and in the future.
lower-level to higher-level courses or from one school level to the next?
● What basic assignments are given to students in each course? Oftentimes teachers who work in a single classroom in a single school in a single system
● How do the assignments change in terms of style/format, length, completion forget just how complex educational systems truly are. An American educator has attempted
time, and other similar factors? to visually display this complexity (as shown in Figure 8.3).
● How does the assessment of students change over time in terms of format
(e.g., multiple-choice versus essays) and length (e.g., time to complete, number
of words or pages)? Figure 8.3.
● How does the evaluation of students change over time in terms of performance Factors involved in the alignment of the components of an
standards, expected quality, and/or evaluation criteria? education system (from Webb, 1997)

This list of questions is intended as a “starter set”. Other questions can be added to fit
the specific needs of the group in terms of examining and improving vertical alignment. Higher
PURPOSE National Best Public WORK
At the end of the initial meeting, take stock of how much has been accomplished and Standards Thinking
Education
OPINION EXPECTATIONS
REQUIREMENTS
how much remains to be done. Set meeting times and lengths based on this analysis,
reminding all member of the group of the importance of this work to the overall quality
of teaching and learning. This informal approach to examining vertical articulation can
be initiated and sustained by a single teacher if he or she is willing to assume leadership
responsibilities and is able to get support and commitment from other teachers. POLICY STANDARDS Frameworks Assessments

A more formal approach would require soliciting the support and, more importantly,
the commitment from one or more school or system administrators before beginning
the process. Your argument in this regard would be based on the importance of vertical
alignment as a means of solving many of the identified learning problems in the school Teacher Professional
or system and enhancing both the learning opportunities and learning outcomes of an Certification Development
PROGRAMMES
increasing number of students. Once you have administrative support and commitment, School CLASSROOM
Textbooks
your study of vertical alignment can be presented as a school or system initiative, Organization INSTRUCTION

thereby involving a larger number of teachers in the process. One benefit of involving
large numbers of teachers in the examination of vertical alignment is that teachers begin
to view their contributions in light of a coherent educational effort to impact the long-
term learning and success of students, rather than assuming a more narrow focus on a
single slice of a student’s academic life. PRACTICE STUDENT OUTCOMES
Chapter 8 198 199 Alignment

One way of making sense of this diagram is to begin at the bottom with “student outcomes”. There are at least two ways that PISA results can be used by you, as a teacher, to influence
Everything above “student outcomes” is a factor that can and often does influence student how well your students are likely to perform on the PISA tests. The first is to examine the PISA
learning directly or indirectly. As a teacher, your Practice (see the left-hand column) is results for your specific country. To do this, you need to access a summary PISA report such
influenced by Programmes (e.g., teacher certification, professional development), Policy (e.g., as the one found on the OECD website (http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/48852548.
school organisation, textbooks, and classroom instruction), and Purpose (as determined by, pdf). The second is to read and find out what countries that perform well on PISA tests are
among other things, public opinion, higher education requirements, and work expectations). doing in terms of their objectives, assessment, instruction, and learning resources. There are
Concerns for vertical alignment, as described in the previous section, are attempts to several sources of information on this topic currently available (see, for example, Mendelovits
better organise certain aspects of Policy and Programmes. However, the overall Purpose of and Searle, 2009; Rado, 2011; Hancock, 2011).
education, as seen by a variety of stakeholders or interested parties including legislators,
politicians, academics, the public, and prospective employers, is well beyond your control.
Examining country-specific data
Although governmental policies and international test specifications are shared with
teachers by means of workshops and seminars, the responsibility for aligning local
objectives, assessment, instruction, and learning resources with these national policies and PISA reports provide information about the objectives being tested, giving sample test items
international specifications rests with teachers and administrators. To fulfill this responsibility for each category of objective. They also provide country-specific data on how well students
teachers must, first, make sense of these policies and specifications and, second, find ways performed on each category of objective during the most recent testing cycle. The most
of connecting them with their current objectives, assessments, instruction, and learning recent PISA reading tests, for example, include three major categories of objectives based,
resources. In some countries (for example, Greece), teachers are given both the freedom and primarily, on differences in the cognitive processes required. The first category is labeled
responsibility for translating the standards and goals approved by the Ministry of Education “access and retrieve”. This category includes objectives that require students to locate,
into objectives, teaching those objectives, and assessing student learning relative to the select, and collect information found in a text. The second category is labeled “integrate
objectives. However, since there are no national examinations (other than the national and interpret”. This category includes objectives that require students to make sense of a
university entrance examinations) and since Greek teachers are not being evaluated text by understanding the relations between different parts of the text (integrate) or by
systematically in their classrooms, there is no recognised need for external alignment. identifying the underlying assumptions or implications of part or all of the text (interpret).
The third category is labeled “reflect and evaluate”. This category includes objectives that
On the other hand, in countries where there are national examinations with results published require students to draw on knowledge, ideas, or values external to the text or to make a
in the media and scrutinised by government officials and the general public or in countries judgment about the text, drawing on personal experience or on knowledge of the world. In
where teachers are evaluated systematically by local administrators or external inspectors, the language of the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy, these three categories roughly translate as
the need to examine and improve external alignment is far greater. Remember, (a combination of) Analyse and Understand, and Evaluate.

Increasingly, external examinations are being used to evaluate schools and entire education In PISA, a single passage or story is followed by several items assessing different categories
systems in many countries. By “external examinations” we are talking about tests that are of objectives. Figure 8.4 contains a short passage entitled “Brushing your teeth” followed by
prepared by “testing experts” and are typically administered and scored by people who do four items. Three of the items are written in a multiple-choice format; the fourth item requires
not work in the school or school system (and may in fact work in another country). A current a written response. As a set, the items assess the three major categories of objectives. The
example is PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment). PISA tests are designed, first item assesses “integrate and interpret”. The second and third items assess “access and
administered, scored, and reported under the auspices of the Organization for Economic retrieve”. The fourth item assesses “reflect and evaluate”.
Co-operation and Development (OECD). The tests, which were first administered in 2000,
are intended to evaluate education systems worldwide by testing the knowledge and skills of
15-year-old students. PISA tests are currently available in reading, mathematics, and scientific
literacy and are administered every three years. The last time they were administered was in
2009 with more than 70 countries participating.

PISA tests are pencil-and-paper tests, with each assessment period lasting two hours for
each student. The test items are a mixture of multiple-choice items and questions that
require students to construct their own responses. The items are organised around passages
describing real-life situations. Students also complete a 20- to 30-minute questionnaire
that provides information about themselves and their homes. School principals are given a
20-minute questionnaire about their schools.
Chapter 8 200 201 Alignment

Figure 8.4 Answers to these questions can lead to other questions, questions pertaining to changes that
Sample PISA reading literacy items might be needed. Would we be wise to broaden our objectives in the teaching of reading to
include teaching students strategies for reflecting on and evaluating written text? If so, how?
Can we encourage reflection and evaluation in all subject areas in which written learning
Brushing your teeth resources are used? If not, in which subject areas should we focus?

Do our teeth become cleaner and 1. What is this article about? As we think about the teeth-brushing example we must remember one important thing
cleaner the longer and harder we about the use of PISA test data. Examining PISA data may lead you to important questions.
A. The best way to brush your teeth.
brush them? However, PISA data do not provide answers to those questions. The answers must come
B. The best kind of toothbrush to use.
C. The importance of good teeth. from educators, just like you.
D. The way different people brush their teeth.
British researchers say no. They have
actually tried out many different 2. What do British researchers recommend? Learning from high-performing countries
alternatives, and ended up with the
A. That you brush your teeth as often as
perfect way to brush your teeth. A two
possible.
minute brush, without brushing too hard, B. That you do not try to brush your tongue. As we mentioned earlier, a second way you can learn from PISA results is to look more
gives the best result. C. That you do not brush your teeth too hard. carefully at what is being done in countries whose students perform at the highest levels on
D. That you brush your tongue more often than PISA tests. For example, Finnish students have performed consistently well on PISA over the
your teeth.
If you brush hard, you harm your tooth past decade. In this regard, it may be noteworthy that in 1998, the Finnish National Board of
enamel and your gums without loosening
3. According to Bente Hansen, why Education passed the Basic Education Act. The Act, which is quite comprehensive in nature,
food remnants or plaque. Bente Hansen, should you brush your tongue? includes four basic principles of assessment that are to be followed by all teachers. They are
an expert on tooth brushing, says that it _______________________________________ as follows:
is a good idea to hold the toothbrush the
4. Why is a pen mentioned in the text?
way you hold a pen. ● Assessment of study skills, work skills, and behaviour should be individual, truthful,
A. To help you understand how to hold a and versatile.
“Start in one corner and brush your way toothbrush. ● Feedback should support the development of self-knowledge and student motivation.
along the whole row,” she says. B. Because you start in one corner with both a ● Learning to learn (that is, setting goals for learning and studying and working to
pen and toothbrush. achieve those goals) is the key to life-long learning.
C. To show that you can brush your
“Don’t forget your tongue either! It can ● Assessment is a tool to counsel and support studying and learning, as well as the
teeth in many different ways.
actually contain loads of bacteria that
D. Because you should take tooth brushing as
development of self-assessment skills.
may cause bad breath. seriously as writing.
Note that these four principles are largely consistent with the recommendations included
in this book and, when implemented, quite likely increase all three types of alignment –
horizontal, vertical, and external.
Student performance on PISA tests is summarised using a standard reporting scale. In this
way, teachers in each country can not only compare the performance of their students There is more to Finland’s excellence on PISA than simply changing the way in which
with students in other countries, but can also compare the performance of their students assessment is conceptualised and practiced. A common set of goals has been established
on different categories of objectives. For example, in several of the Balkan countries for and adopted by every school system in the country. There is a general attitude among
(e.g., Slovenia, Montenegro, and Serbia), students performed significantly lower on items teachers and administrators that “failure is not an option”. There is a clear emphasis on
assessing “reflect and evaluate” than on items assessing either of the other two categories getting to know each and every student. Teachers are willing and encouraged to collaborate
of objectives. Based on these data, the authors of the PISA report concluded that “students on planning and teaching. Finally, there is a clear future-orientation. That is, students are
in these countries appear to be less accustomed to critically evaluating and reflecting upon prepared for the future, with an emphasis on learning to learn. These are some of the factors
what they read, and more accustomed to using texts to find and analyse information” (p. 71). that explain Finland’s success.

This may be true, but why is it so? Are students not being taught to evaluate and reflect upon But Finland is not the only country doing well on PISA. There are lessons to be learned
what they read at all or are they being taught these objectives poorly? Is it important for from Singapore, Hong Kong, and Canada as well. Individual reports for these countries are
students in my classroom or our country to learn to evaluate and reflect upon what they read? available and can be found on the Internet using any search engine.
Chapter 8 202 203 Alignment

Sources / CHAPTER 8
Examining alignment is neither simple nor linear. Rather, it is a dynamic cyclical process that
takes place at different levels of an educational system, requires the involvement of different READINGS
stakeholders, and affects the overall strength and perceived effectiveness of the educational
system. As might be expected, then, there are costs involved, both in terms of time and Anderson, L. W. (2002) Jaafar, S. B. (2006) Porter, A. C., Smithson, J., Blank, R.,
effort. To reduce these costs somewhat, we recommend that alignment work be done in Curricular alignment: A re- An alternative approach to measuring & Zeidner, T. (2007)
collaboration with others. Even horizontal alignment, which can be done by a single teacher, examination, Theory into Practice, opportunity-to-learn in high school Alignment as a teacher variable,
is improved when several teachers are involved in the process. Group effort is generally more 41(4). Retrieved 27 January classes. The Alberta Journal of Applied Measurement in Education,
productive and yields more reliable results than individual work. When working in groups, 2012 from http://www.vcu.edu/ Educational Research, 52(2), 107-126. 20(1), 27-51. Retrieved 7 April 2012
however, it is important to avoid getting bogged down by details. The focus should be on the cte/workshops/workshop_list/ from http://www.andyporter.org/
“big ideas”, key concepts, and essential skills in each subject area; the most appropriate ways references/Anderson.pdf La Marca, P. M. (2001) papers/Alignment.pdf
of assessing student learning; and the identification and sharing of instructional approaches, Alignment of standards and
learning activities, and learning resources that have been most successful. Gamoran, A., Porter, A. C., assessments as an accountability Rado, P. (2011)
Smithson, J., & White, P. A. (1997) criterion. Practical Assessment, Regional educational performance
Despite the costs involved in the examination of alignment, there are many benefits that Upgrading high school mathematics Research, & Evaluation, 7(21). patterns in Europe, CEPS Journal,
accrue from doing so. We shall close this chapter with four of the benefits that we believe instruction: Improving learning Retrieved 8 April 2012 from http:// 1(3), 11-30.
to be the most important. First, alignment ensures that assessments are reasonably valid opportunities for low-achieving, low- pareonline.net/htm/v7ntemp.htm
and increases students’ opportunity to learn the knowledge and skills believed to be most income youth, Educational Evaluation Webb, N. L. (1997)
important for future success. Second, with respect to opportunity to learn, an increasing and Policy Analysis, 19, 325-338. Leitzel, T. C. & Vogler, D. E. (1994) Determining alignment of
number of studies have shown that that improving alignment reduces the impact of factors Curriculum alignment: Theory expectations and assessments in
that affect student achievement and have in the past marginalised certain groups of Hancock, L. (2011) to practice. Washington, DC: mathematics and science education.
students, factors such as socioeconomic status, gender, and race. Third, because alignment Why are Finland’s schools successful? Educational Resources Information Madison: University of Wisconsin,
often results in greater learning on the part of students (as well their increased ability to Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved Center. Retrieved 7 April 2012 from National Center for Improving
demonstrate that they have learned), teachers tend to increase their self-efficacy (that is, 14 January 2013 from http://www. http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ Science Education.
their beliefs that they can and do make a difference in the lives of their students). Finally, in a smithsonianmag.com/people- ED371812.pdf
vertically aligned system, teachers are more able to set priorities for their particular course or places/Why-Are-Finlands-Schools-
level, avoid unnecessary repetition of content and objectives, fill in gaps in the curriculum (as Successful.html. Mendelovits, J. & Searle, D. (2009)
needed), and monitor students’ learning progress over time. PISA for teachers: interpreting
Hansche, L. N. & Hambleton, and using information from an
R. K. (1998) international reading assessment in
Handbook for the development of the classroom. Camberwell, Victoria:
performance standards. Washington, Australian Council for Educational
DC: Council of Chief State School Researcher (ACER). Retrieved 14
Officers, U. S. Department of January 2013 from http://research.
Education. acer.edu.au/research_conference/
RC2009/17august/13/

WEBSITES USED FOR BACKGROUND INFORMATION

http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa http://www.pearsonassessments. http://beta.edtechpolicy.

products/48852548.pdf (summary of com/NR/rdonlyres/E680AEC5-A1E3- org/CourseInfo/edhd485/
PISA test results for 2009) 475A-B9B6-93DBC5C4DFD1/0/ AssessmentCrisis.pdf (challenges
HorizontalVerticalAlignment.pdf for instructionally supportive
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/ (horizontal and vertical alignment) accountability tests)
people-places/Why-Are-Finlands-
Schools-Successful.html (possible
reasons for Finland’s excellence in
education)
Chapter 9 206 207

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 9
Chapter 9 208 209 Practical applications

Throughout the book, particularly in Chapters 3 through 8, we have presented a great deal The next section of this chapter contains introductions to all three vignettes. These introductions
of information that we believe to be relevant and useful for teachers wishing to improve their are intended to focus the reader’s attention on particular aspects of the scenario that we
teaching and, ultimately, their students’ learning. Here are some of the more important things believe to be important. Finally, after all of the vignettes have been presented, the closing
that we hope you have learned thus far. section of this chapter contains brief commentaries on each vignette. These commentaries
focus primarily on issues of alignment, although remarks on other components of our
● Social and cultural factors influence schools and teachers to varying degrees, framework may be included.
sometimes enhancing and other times constraining what takes place in these learning
environments. The success you experience as a teacher, then, depends to some extent
on how well you “play the cards you are dealt”. Introduction to the practical applications
● Learning environments, whether they are classrooms, hallways, or out-of-school
settings, should be socially inviting, emotionally stimulating, and academically
demanding.
● The most important learning objectives are those that, when achieved, prepare Practical application 1
students for success in the future. At the same time, however, care must be taken to
ensure that the objectives are appropriate for students, given their current knowledge, Contribution by Melinda Russell, Berkeley Academy in South Carolina, U.S.A.
experience, and maturity.
● Good teachers resemble film and stage directors more than they resemble actors.
The actors, from an instructional perspective, are the students. As directors, teachers A great deal of research has supported the importance of the first few weeks of school
must engage students in meaningful learning activities and provide support and in establishing the classroom culture, including the building of a sense of community and
encouragement as needed. establishing and communicating expectations for learning and behaviour. The first vignette
● Learning resources, particularly those that are engaging and highly interactive, can addresses this important aspect of teaching.
enable or support the teaching/learning process. However, it is the teacher who is
responsible for breathing life into these resources. Without teacher involvement, the There are three objectives, one dealing with remembering people’s names, interests, and
resources may not be used or may be used improperly. experiences; one dealing with understanding the behavioural and learning expectations;
● Assessment should be an integral part of the teaching/learning process, rather and one dealing with implementing (or using) proper routines for accomplishing common
than something that stands alone and occurs after the fact. Providing students with tasks (e.g., distributing and collecting materials). In order to achieve these objectives, there
feedback from valid and reliable assessments is one of the most important factors in are six sets of learning activities organised around six questions: Who are we? Why are we
high-quality instruction. here? How do we do things? What do we already know? What is excellence? What have we
● Aligning learning objectives, instruction, and assessment at one point in time, over learned? The subject matter is World History (although the activities, with some modification,
time, and with external policies and standards ensures that all parts of the educational are appropriate to virtually any subject matter). It takes about two weeks to complete the
system work together in ways that give all students the maximum opportunity to learn. unit. Two of the attachments are needed to support particular activities; the third attachment
is a sample assessment of prior knowledge.
The purpose of this chapter is to show how all of the pieces of the teaching/learning puzzle
fit together in a practical way. To accomplish this purpose, we have organised this chapter
differently from the previous five chapters. That is, there are no recommendations. Rather, the Practical application 2
focus in the chapter is on three vignettes. Each vignette follows the same format. It begins with
a title, identifies the appropriate subject matter(s), and provides an estimate of the time needed Contribution by Dr. Jörg Dieter, German School of Thessaloniki, Greece
to complete all of the learning activities. The learning objectives are then specified, followed
by a brief description of the classroom learning environment. The heart of each vignette is
a recommended sequence of learning activities. It is these activities that make the vignettes Much has been learned about effective teaching of mathematics over the past quarter
come alive. The final section describes one or more appropriate and relevant assessments. Each century. We now know, for example, that teaching mathematics in context (that is, embedded
vignette also has a set of what are referred to as “attachments”. They provide handouts that in real life settings) is more effective than teaching mathematics in isolation. We also know
are needed to perform the learning activities as well as sample assessments. These vignettes that students learn more mathematics when they are asked to work things out for themselves
are intended to help you understand how to apply the recommendations offered by the chapter (with the teacher as a guide) than if the teacher works things out for the students and they
authors. That is, they are “teaching examples”, not scripts to be followed. Each vignette was copy it down. Finally, we know that it is essential for students to become self-sufficient
written for particular teachers working within a particular system. Consequently, each would learners if we expect them to use their mathematics once they leave school. This vignette
have to be modified if it were to be appropriate in other circumstances. illustrates each of these generalisations.
Chapter 9 210 211 Practical applications

The vignette contains three objectives. The first deals with some basic content of Practical application 1
mathematics (e.g., fractions, decimals, area, volume, measurement systems). The second
objective concerns the ability to work in groups in a cooperative and productive manner. The
final objective emphasises the ability to solve complex problems in a systematic and self- Who are we and why are we here?
reliant manner. In order to achieve these objectives, there are seven sets of learning activities,
Subject area(s): World history Approximate length: 2 weeks
all associated with a common problem that is included as Attachment A. You will note that
the teacher is directly involved with the students only in activities 4 and 6. For the remainder
of the activities, the primary responsibility for learning rests with the students, while the
teacher observes and listens carefully in order to gather information about how things are Learning objectives
going and the problems that students seem to be having. This information is used by the
teacher in learning activities 4 and 6. Finally, the most valid assessment of all three objectives
is to give them another problem, form different groups, and see if they have learned the After completing the unit, students will:
content, acquired the skills needed to work together, and are able to solve problems on their
own. This “second problem” is included as Attachment B. 1. Remember the names, some interests, and some experiences of their classmates;

2. Understand the behavioural and learning expectations of the teacher as

Practical application 3 well as those of the students for the coming year; and

Originally developed by I. Ivic, A. Pesikan, & S. Antic 3. Implement proper routines for entering and leaving the classroom, transitioning between
Adapted by L. W. Anderson, editor activities (e.g., lecture and seatwork), distributing and collecting assignments, and talking/
working with other students.

Some problems, like those typically found in mathematics, have correct answers. Other problems,
like the one found in this final vignette, do not have correct answers. Some problems, again like Learning resources
those typically found in mathematics, rely primarily on knowledge in a single subject area. Other
problems, like the one found in this vignette, require knowledge from multiple subject matters or
academic disciplines. Problems of this latter type are often referred to as “multidisciplinary”. Attachments A, B, & C; Chalkboard, Smartboard, or flip chart; blank name tags; butcher block
paper & markers (for group work).
As was true of both previous vignettes, this vignette contains three objectives representing
three levels of cognitive processing. The first objective focuses on understanding, the second,
on applying, and the third, on analysing. Along with evaluating, these three cognitive levels Classroom organisation
are key components of problem solving. Analysing and evaluating are also central to critical
thinking. To accomplish these objectives, there are seven learning activities. As in the previous
vignettes, the first activity involves the teacher providing structure for the rest of the unit. As Combination of whole class and small groups. Pairs are formed for a portion of Activity 1.
you examine the remaining learning activities, you will see the formation and re-formation Small groups are formed for portions of Activity 2 and Activity 5.
of groups. The initial formation is groups of like-minded people (e.g., community members,
politicians, environmental activists). When groups are re-formed, they are placed in groups
of people with different agendas and points of view. In these newly formed groups, students Summary of learning activities
must articulate their positions in a clear and logical manner. The assessment requires
students to write an essay summarising what they did to solve the problem and what they
learned from the experience. Six questions are used to structure the essay to ensure that 1. Who are we? Stand at the door, greet each student, and give each a blank name tag.
what is written enables the teacher to determine how well students learned each of the three Have each student write his or her name on the name tag. To begin class, distribute
learning objectives. The three attachments provide information that students will need to copies of Attachment A and go over the rules. Tell students to begin the Scavenger
complete certain learning activities. Hunt. At the end of some predetermined time, ask students to share things they found
interesting as well as a general impression of the class as a whole. Pair students and
have one member of each pair introduce the other. [You will have to give them some time
to talk before calling for the introductions.]
Chapter 9 212 213 Practical applications

2. Why are we here? Begin by talking about the meaning of history. Ask questions such as slips of paper and read them aloud. When the same or very similar “thing” has been written,
“Why is history important?” Break the word down into “his” and “story”. Ask, “whose story is mention it and move to the next one. Compare what they say they have learned with your three
it?” Talk about historians, emphasising that they are people just like us and have their own objectives. Call on students randomly to stand up. Call on another student to give the standing
experiences and points of view. Form small groups (about 3 students) and have them come up student’s name and tell something about the student. Continue until all students have stood.
with a list of two or three things they would like to learn in the course. After a reasonable length
of time, have a student from each group summarise the group’s discussion. Talk about your
objectives for the course and indicate how what they want to learn “fits in with” your objectives. Assessment

3. How do we do things? Talk briefly about routines and give an example from your life (e.g.,
getting up in the morning, shopping for groceries). Ask students to share routines from their The first objective is assessed at the very end of the unit (Activity 6). The second objective is
lives. Ask why routines are important. Review the routines that will be followed in this class assessed informally during Activity 2 and Activity 5. Finally, assessment of the third objective
(e.g., entering and leave the room, returning to class after an absence from school, distributing will require observations of how well students engage in the routines.
and collecting work). Make sure students understand and can perform the routines, answering
any questions. Finally, tell students there are only two rules for the class: (1) treat everyone with
respect and (2) do your best at all times. Talk about the meaning of respect and how to show it ATTACHMENT A
to others. Tell them you will be talking about doing their best in a few days. SCAVENGER HUNT

4. What do we already know? Prepare a test on the most important people, places, ideas,
and events in world history based on the course objectives (see Attachment B for an example). Rule 1: Ask only one question of each person at a time. For example, if you ask someone
Distribute copies of the test and tell students that you are interested in knowing what they know named Sonya about whether she was born in another city or country, you must ask someone
about world history so that you can teach them better. That is, based on the results, you will be else about an item before you can ask Sonya another question.
able to spend less time on those things they already know and more time on those things they Rule 2: If someone answers “yes” to a question, ask that person to write his or her initials
do not. Tell students not to put their names on the tests since you will not be assigning grades next to the item they answered.
to their performance. Administer the test. Score the test item-by-item in terms of the percent Rule 3: Find a different person for each item. That is, you should have a different set of
of students answering each item correctly. Re-arrange the items to reflect the performance initials for each item.
of the students, beginning with those items more students answered correctly and ending
with those items that fewer students answered correctly. Share the results with the students,
having students explain the correct answers to items at the top of the sheet and providing (and Find a person in the room who:
explaining) the correct answer to items near or at the bottom of the sheet.
1. Is the youngest member of the family _____________
5. What is excellence? Lead a brief discussion of social media and its role in modern society.
2. Enjoys ice skating _____________
Tell students that you want them to write an essay – approximately 250 words – on social
media in society. The essay should include what they see as the benefits, the problems, and 3. Was born in another city or country _____________
their overall perspective on the importance of social media in today’s world. Set a deadline
for completing the essay and supervise their work. Collect the essays and read through them. 4. Plays soccer _____________
Select three essays that represent three degrees of excellence (e.g., “excellent”, “good”, and
5. Is wearing new clothes (e.g., new shoes, new pants) _____________
“fair or poor”). Place students in groups of three (ideally). Give each group a set of the essays
and, within each group, have one student randomly select an essay. Have each student 6. Can speak three or more languages _____________
read the essay that has been selected and then give it to the person on his or her left. Keep
doing this until all students have read all essays. Then, have each group select the “best” and 7. Has a steady boyfriend or girlfriend _____________
“worst” essay and come up with the reasons for their choice. Call the students together as
8. Uses social media more than an hour a day _____________
a class and ask, “What makes an essay an excellent essay?” List the factors (or criteria) on
the board. Tell students that you expect every one of them to write excellent essays and do 9. Enjoys reading for pleasure _____________
excellent work in general.
10. Enjoys working math problems _____________
6. What have we learned? Give each student a slip of paper and instruct each student to write
one thing they learned during the past two weeks (or whatever the timeframe is). Collect the Your name __________________________________________ Your signature _________________
Chapter 9 214 215 Practical applications

ATTACHMENT B
PORTION OF PRE-ASSESSMENT

1. What is the term given to the system used during the Middle Ages that bound a serf to work 7. What late-eighteenth-century European artistic movement arose as a reaction to Classicism’s
the land of his Lord & Vassal? emphasis on reason?

a. Feudalism a. impressionism
b. Manorialism b. realism
c. Indentured servitude c. romanticism
d. Peasant farming d. surrealism

8. By 1914, Ethiopia and Liberia were the only two African countries to:
2. In what modern day country was the city of Babylon located?

a. establish democratic governments.

a. Iran
b. develop industrial economies.
b. Iraq
c. retain their independence.
c. Syria
d. colonise other nations.
d. Turkey

9. According to some historians, Europe’s system of alliances prior to 1914 increased the
3. What was the name of the disease that ravaged and killed one-third of Europe’s population in
likelihood that:
the 14th Century?

a. democratic ideas would spread throughout the continent.

a. The Black Plague
b. nations would be protected from economic exploitation.
b. The Bubonic Plague
c. colonisation of undeveloped nations would cease.
c. Leprosy
d. small disputes would develop into large-scale wars.
d. Smallpox

10. Which of these is the main reason that Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Romania became
4. What famous 5th Century conqueror was known as “The Scourge of God?” satellites of the Soviet Union?

a. Attila the Hun a. These countries were given to the Soviet Union by a League of Nations mandate.
b. Hannibal b. The people in each country voted in free elections to ally with the Soviets.
c. Julius Caesar c. The Soviet army occupied these areas at the end of World War II.
d. William the Conqueror d. Hitler surrendered control of these areas to the Soviet Union at the end of the war.

5. How did the Magna Carta (1215) contribute to the development 11. In India and Pakistan, feelings of nationalism are intertwined with the
of the English government? religious conflict between:

a. It created a two-house parliament. a. Buddhists and Hindus.

b. It extended voting rights. b. Christians and Muslims.
c. It provided for a bill of rights. c. Taoists and Buddhists.
d. It limited the power of the monarch. d. Muslims and Hindus.

6. Between 1815 & 1848, the Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe suppressed 12. During the 20th Century, which of these factors have made the Middle East
nationalism by: significant to the rest of the world?

a. ensuring a balance of power between nations. a. Technological innovations and the production of nuclear power
b. promoting democratic institutions. b. Religious/ethnic conflicts and the existence of vast oil reserves
c. sharing colonies among the great powers. c. Technological innovations and religious/ethnic conflicts
d. establishing international economic ties. d. The production of nuclear power and the existence of vast oil reserves
Chapter 9 216 217 Practical applications

ATTACHMENT C Practical application 2

SOCIAL MEDIA ESSAY

Collaborative problem solving

Name _______________________________________________ Date _______________ in mathematics
Subject area(s): Mathematics Approximate length: 1 week

Learning objectives

After completing the unit, students will:

1. understand how to:

a. perform written calculations with fractions and decimals;

b. compute surface areas and volumes; and
c. operate efficiently with different measurement units and systems.

2. learn to work with others cooperatively and productively;

3. and be able to solve complex problems in a systematic and self-reliant way.

Learning resources

The swimming pool exercise (see Attachment A); the assessment problem (Attachment B);
paper (or notebook) and pencils or markers; blackboard and chalk, or flipchart and markers.

Classroom environment

The classroom arrangement should be flexible, permitting students to move desks according
to activities and needs. Some of the activities, for example, will be completed by students
working in groups. Other activities will be directed toward the whole class, which suggests a
more traditional classroom organisation.

Summary of teaching-learning activities

1. Instructions for solving the problem. Tell students that they will be given a problem. To solve
the problem, they must follow these rules:
Chapter 9 218 219 Practical applications

● They will solve the problem working in teams. Each team will decide how to organise inaccurate or partially correct. Make certain that everyone understands this focus and give a
itself to complete the work and solve the problem. time limit for completing this phase of the work.
● If the students are experienced in teamwork and the number of students in the class
is not too high, it is also possible that all the students in the class work together as 5. Checking the work. Call the class together and distribute an answer key to each student.
one big team. With more students in one team, the emphasis of the exercise will be Review the key with the class, question by question. If one or more students have questions,
more on the aspect of cooperative learning, because the more students there are on ask a member of the class to answer them. If no one can answer the questions, provide the
one team, the more difficult it will be for them to organise themselves and divide up answers and explain them (that is, how you arrived at the answer). In this latter case, use the
the work. blackboard or flip chart and go over the solution step-by-step.
● Each team will have to solve the problem within 90 minutes (or whatever timeframe
seems appropriate given the overall performance level of the class). 6. Reflection. Ask each student to compile a list of “do’s” and “don’ts”. That is,
● To solve the problem, students may use paper, pencils, the blackboard, or flip charts.
Pocket calculators are not allowed. ● three things that are useful when solving problems in a group (jointly)
● Students must submit one paper presenting a solution that has been jointly agreed [the “do” list], and
upon by the team. The paper must contain the sequence of calculations that led ● three things that should be avoided when solving problems in a group
to the solution, the arithmetic results, and properly formulated responses to the [the “don’t” list].
problem.
Collect the lists from the students and compile a master list on the blackboard. Students
To help students remember the rules, it may be wise to provide each student with a written should copy the master list – which contains the most frequently mentioned “do’s” and
copy to which they can refer. “don’ts” – in their notebook or on a sheet of paper.

2. Overview of the problem. Give each student a copy of Attachment A and discuss it with
the whole class. Remind the class that to complete the exercise and solve the problem, every Assessment
question must be answered. Encourage them to work in groups, but tell them that it is their
responsibility to organise the groups in ways that facilitate learning by individual students as
well as the group as a whole. Remind them that ultimately the goal is for the entire class to Although the reflection activity provides some potentially useful assessment information, the best
understand how solve the problem. way to assess the second and third objectives is to give another problem (a bit shorter than the
first) and have students work through the problem in different groups and submit a solution (see
3. Work on the problem. Answer any questions they have about the assignment, give them Attachment B). Observations and conclusions should focus on improvements in skills in working in
a deadline for completing the task, and tell them to begin their work. Also, tell them if groups and solving problems (in terms of time needed and the correctness of the solution).
they cannot answer a particular question they should skip that question and write a note
about it so it can be discussed later. During this phase of instruction, the teacher’s role is
one of observer. He or she does not answer any questions and intervenes only if there is an ATTACHMENT A
emergency – e.g., an argument between students begins to escalate. The purpose of this THE SWIMMING POOL PROBLEM
phase of instruction is to see what students can do on their own. A few minutes before the
deadline, remind students that they will have to hand in their assignment soon.
A swimming pool is 14.2 meters long, 8.20 meters wide, and 2 meters deep. In the winter
3. Feedback session. Ask students to describe their experience in (1) solving the problem the pool is to be renovated. This renovation includes painting the interior of the pool blue
and (2) working in groups. What difficulties are they having? What questions haven’t they and replacing the tiles around the pool. Once the renovation has been completed the pool
answered? What answers aren’t you particularly sure of in terms of their accuracy? Keep a needs to be refilled.
list as students talk. Then, provide your feedback in terms of the team work and cooperation
among team members. The feedback should emphasise what parts of the problem they
have figured out correctly and what parts are inaccurate or partially correct. Derive a list of
“suggestions” for the improvement for problem solving and working in groups in preparation
for the next activity.

4. Continuing work. Have students continue their work on the project, returning to their
original groups. The focus of this activity should be on those parts of the problem that are
Chapter 9 220 221 Practical applications

Painting ATTACHMENT B
ASSESSMENT PROBLEM
There are two costs associated with the painting: the cost of the paint and the cost of the
painter. First, let us consider the cost of the paint. For 1 square meter, 0.4 litre of paint is
required. One canister of paint (10 litres) costs 19.9 Euros. What is the cost of the paint? The Annual European Lumberjack Competition (AELC) is scheduled for this fall. One of the
events in the competition is tree cutting (or felling a tree) with a two-handled saw (see
A painter has estimated that the task can be completed in eight hours. If a second painter is photo below). Last year the average pair of lumberjacks cut down a tree 20 inches thick in
employed, the working time is reduced by 2/5ths. Suppose that a decision is made to hire two 15 minutes. Bart and Carrie claim that they have felled a tree that size twice as fast as the
painters. How long will it take to paint the pool? Why doesn’t the addition of a second painter average. Betty and Carl claim that they have felled a tree triple the size of the average tree in
cut the time in half (rather than reducing it by 2/5ths? The hourly wage for a painter is 20 twice the time as the average.
Euros. What is the cost of the two painters?
To win this year’s combination each pair of lumberjacks must cut down three trees.

Tile replacement Tree 1: 20 inches thick

Tree 2: 60 inches thick

Around the exterior of the swimming pool, a 1 meter path of tiles is planned. Each tile is
square with a length of each side of 33 centimetres. How many tiles are needed? Each tile Tree 3: 10 inches thick
costs 1.5 Euros. What is the cost of the tiles? In addition to purchasing the tiles, you will need
someone to set them in place. You have an estimate from an expert in tile placement of 50 The fastest time needed to cut down all three trees wins the competition. Based on Bart
Euros for the entire job. What is the TOTAL cost of the tile replacement (tiles plus labour)? and Carrie’s reported times and Betty and Carl’s reported times, which pair will win the
competition? What will their total times be? Explain your answers. You will have 30 minutes
to complete this problem.
Water

During the summer the pool is filled up to within 20 centimetres of the pool edge. How
much water is needed? With three pumps the pool can be filled within 180 minutes. Bart & Carrie
Unfortunately, one pump is defective. How long will be needed for the remaining two VS
pumps to fill the pool? Betty & Carl
Due to summer heat 1/12th of the water evaporates each week. If we assume that
evaporation occurs at a constant rate, how many litres of water need to be added per
day so that the water level remains the same? How much time is needed for the refilling
each day if only one pump is used? What would the water level in the pool be after 10
days if no water was replaced? How long would it take until all of the water in the pool
has evaporated?

Final solution

Including filling the pool with water, how long will it take to complete the renovation of the
swimming pool? Excluding the cost of the water, how much money will it take to complete
the renovation?
Chapter 9 222 223 Practical applications

Practical application 3 Summary of teaching-learning activities

Decision making in the real world: 1. Introducing the problem to the entire class. Tell students that one of the most famous
ecological slogans is “THINK GLOBALLY, ACT LOCALLY”. Tell them that they are going to try to
A multi-disciplinary example
implement that slogan as they solve an ecological problem in a local situation. Give students
Subject area(s): Ecology, Chemistry, the following information, either orally as a lecture or in writing.
Approximate length: 2 - 3 weeks
Economics, Geology, and Health
Because of war, 28 large concrete bridges have been destroyed in Serbia and Montenegro.
According to some estimates, rebuilding the destroyed bridges will require around 6 million
tons of concrete. The main material for the concrete is cement. At present, there are only two
Learning objectives cement plants operating, and their production is insufficient to rebuild the bridges. To close
the gap between production and need, our politicians and managers have established very
good contacts with the government and economic leadership of China. After the initial talks,
1. Understand how different stakeholder groups may have quite different perspectives on the Chinese managers have decided to invest into construction of another cement plant in
real-life problems. Serbia. Their interest lies in the fact that 80% of the cement production will be exported to
China at more favorable prices than the current market price. The Chinese are ready to send
2. Apply a systematic method to make decisions in situations where conflicting perspectives a group of their construction experts who will participate in the building of the plant. Because
are evident. the two main ingredients of cement are marlstone and clay, the Faculty of Mining was asked to
locate possible marlstone sites in Serbia. One extremely good site is in the region surrounding
3. Analyse available data in ways that support arguments in support of positions taken on the city of Babusnica, on the outskirts of the Suva Mountains. In order to approve the mining
controversial issues in the real world. in the Suva Mountains as well as the building of the plant, the general urban plan for Serbia
must be modified. A public debate will precede the modification of the general urban plan.
During the public debate, various interested parties will be represented: members of the
Learning resources Babusnica community, government representatives, local politicians, ecological association
members, representatives of the regions adjacent to Babusnica, and representatives of the local
tourist association. Once everyone has had a chance to be heard, a vote will be taken by the
Copies of Attachment A, B, & C, enough for each group (see below). Attachment A should be government panel that has authority to modify the general urban plan. The questions under
cut into six slips of paper, with each group receiving one slip of paper that defines its role: consideration are, first, whether (or not) to improve mining in the Suva Mountains and, second,
members of the Babusnica community, government representatives, local political leaders, whether (or not) to build a cement plant in that region.
members of an ecological association, regional neighbours, and regional tourist association
representatives. Each group should receive one copy of Attachment B. Copies of Attachment 2. Dividing into groups. Have students count by sixes (that is, the first student says 1, the second
C should be cut into 20 slips of paper (as indicated in the attachment) with each group says 2, etc.). All of the “1’s” form a group as do all of the “2’s”, “3’s”, and so on. The optimal
receiving a complete set of the 20 slips of paper. Notebooks or sheets of blank white paper, group size is from 3 to 5 members, which, of course, depends on the class size. Distribute one
pencils, and colored markers. slip of paper from Attachment A and a copy of Attachment B to each group.

3. Examining data and making decisions. Tell the students that each group represents a
CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT group of interested parties or stakeholders. Define stakeholder as a person with an interest
or concern in something, especially a business or business venture. Have each group give its
opinion on why its members are stakeholders. Ask students to locate Babusnica on the map
Since students will spend much of their time working in groups, decisions about the number in Attachment B and place an X on its location with a marker. [It is north-northwest of Sofia.]
of groups and the number of members per group must be made in advance. The optimal Tell students that each group is to think about the people they are representing (e.g., regional
number of groups is six. Six groups will enable all six stakeholder groups to be represented. neighbours) and brainstorm as to whether that stakeholder group would be for or against the
The number of students per group can be variable, but no more than 5 students per group is mining and building of the plant. Try to come up with as many arguments as possible for and
recommended. Try to have equal-sized groups, but you may need to have one more or fewer against. Tell them they will want to examine some data before taking their final position on
students in a particular group(s) because of class size. the issue. Distribute the slips of paper from Attachment C and have each student take about
4 slips (there are 20 slips of paper total). Ask each student to read from one of his or her slips
Chapter 9 224 225 Practical applications

of paper and have the group decide (1) whether it is relevant to determining its position, and ● Responsible decision making includes the prediction of all consequences of a certain
(2) if it is relevant, whether it is relevant in a positive (for) or negative (against) direction. decision and a clear understanding of whose interests were jeopardised and in what
Based on the data and the discussion, come to an agreement as to whether the group should way they were jeopardised;
be for or against mining and building of the plant. Have each member of the group write the ● Decision-making is a skill to be learned – this skill has been learned for most of us
position and the argument supporting the position on a piece of paper or in a notebook. This through experience in various life situations, but this is one of the important skills,
is important because each group member will have to argue for his/her group in meetings necessary for out-of-school life, which should have been developed during schooling.
with members of other groups. Tell students how long they will have to complete this activity.
Monitor their work and call time when it is time to move to the next activity.
Assessment
4. Reorganising groups. Within each group, have students count from 1 to 5 (or whatever the
number of students per group). [If a group has more than 5 students, assign those students
randomly to the other re-reformed groups.] Ask all of the “1’s” to form a new group; the same Have each student write a 500-word essay (approximately) in which they examine their
for the “2’s”, “3’s”, and so on. Each group now has a representative of the local community of experiences in working on the ecology problem. Before beginning to write the essay, provide
Babusnica, of the government, a local politician, an ecological association member, a citizen a structure for the essay in the form of questions to be answered.
from a neighbouring region, and a member of a regional tourist association. To avoid confusion,
assign each group a letter: A, B, C, and so on.
1. What was the decision that you were asked to make?
5. Discussing the various data and positions and coming to a decision. Within each new group,
2. Of what stakeholder group were you a member? What were the primary concerns of this
each student will present the position taken by his stakeholder group as well as the argument
stakeholder group?
supporting the position. Tell the other students to listen carefully to the position and
arguments, because they need to understand the position of other stakeholder groups and
3. What position did your stakeholder group take and what argument was made to support
to defend the position taken by their stakeholder groups. After each student has made his or
the decision?
her presentation, the new group is to discuss, negotiate, and make a joint decision about the
mining and building of the cement plant. The end result should be a recommendation to the
4. What positions and completing arguments were made by other stakeholder groups?
appropriate government committee along with a sound and reasoned argument in support
of the recommendation. When the recommendation and argument have been written, each
5. Based on all of the data and arguments examined, what recommendation would YOU
group will elect a chairperson who will be responsible for presenting the group’s position
personally make to the government concerning the approval of mining and the building of
and argument to the entire class. Inform students of the amount of time they will have to
the cement plant? What existing data would you use to support your recommendation?
complete this activity and tell them to begin working. At the end of the specified time, call
time and move to the next activity.
6. What are the two or three most important things that you learned from working on this
project? How can you apply these things to learning in the future?
6. Group presentations. Select the order of group presentations randomly by selecting letters
written on slips of paper from a bag or small box. For example, the first slip of paper may say
“Group C”. The chairperson of each group presents the group’s recommendation, outlines the
argument in support of the recommendation, and summarises the data that went into the
decision-making process.

7. Discussion and conclusions. Lead a whole-class discussion on the various recommendations.

During this discussion, the following points should be emphasised.

● In each real-life situation, there are several stakeholder groups, and each group
has its authentic attitudes and arguments – therefore, any decision is likely to be
applauded by some groups and criticised by others;
● The solution of real problems, from the standpoint of ecology, usually involves the
choice between the worse and less worse solutions, because the good solutions are
either impossible or quite expensive;
Chapter 9 226 227 Practical applications

ATTACHMENT A ATTACHMENT B
CARDS DEPICTING VARIOUS ROLES MAP OF SERBIA, MONTENEGRO, AND
OTHER BALKAN COUNTRIES

MEMBER OF THE BABUSNICA COMMUNITY

You are an inhabitant of Babusnica. Even during the times of economic prosperity in Yugoslavia, your
region was somehow left out. Lately, many young people are leaving the area and are settling in larger
towns looking for work. The majority of the population until now was employed in agriculture.

GOVERNMENT REPRESENTATIVE

You are the representatives of the commission for the reconstruction and development in the
government of the Republic of Serbia. After all these years under sanctions, it took hard work
to somehow break the external wall of sanctions, but you have done so and have succeeded in
establishing a contract for this work with the Chinese.

LOCAL POLITICAL LEADER

You are the local political leadership. For years you have been battling numerous community
problems: bad roads, inadequate health services, insufficient number of high schools (the young
leave for larger towns), old water supply. You have prepared projects, but nothing can be carried out
due to the lack of money. Next year you will face local elections.

MEMBER OF AN ECOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

You are members of the newly formed regional association of ecologists. Some of you are doctors. You
love your region, the natural beauties of Suva Mountain, on which an endemic plant, the juniper tree, can
be found. You regularly organise cleaning of the local river, and you also try to raise ecological awareness
in Babusnica’s community.

REGIONAL NEIGHBOUR

You live in the area 20 to 50 km from Babusnica. You are mostly employed in the agricultural sector, but
often you go to Babusnica, because the closest health center, a post office, market, shops, etc. are there.

REGIONAL TOURIST ASSOCIATION

You work at the tourist association. With much effort, you have succeeded in gaining interest from
the Faculty of Medicine for the mineral water springs in the spa. Even though it hasn’t been well
promoted, this spa is well known, and many people from all around Serbia come to visit. At the
same time, you are involved in the promotion of village tourism in the Babusnica region.
Chapter 9 228 229 Practical applications

ATTACHMENT C COMMENTARIES
AVAILABLE DATA

Commentary on
As a result of war, 28 large concrete bridges have been destroyed in Serbia.
practical application 1
The geological composition of the Suva Mountains is primarily marlstone and dolomite.

The mountain slopes are intersected by log slides and, in lower regions, by streams.
The first objective is aligned with the first learning activity and with the assessment included
The Suva Mountains ares not well forested because the forests were cleared away during World War in the sixth teaching/learning activity. The fact that the assessment is included in a learning
II. Consequently, erosion is substantial. activity underscores how easily assessment can be integrated with instruction. The second
Technological solutions for the current cement production have been available since the 1970s and objective is aligned with three activities, numbers 2, 3, and 5, with informal assessment of this
1980s. objective embedded in learning activities 2 and 5. The third objective is aligned with the third
teaching-learning activity and is assessed observationally by noting students’ improvement
The pollution effects of a cement plant are estimated to be in the range of 20 kilometres.
in the performance of the routines and adherence to the rules. Finally, the fourth activity is
In cooperation with Bulgaria, the Ministry of Ecology has begun an initiative to have the Suva primarily for the teacher’s benefit. Pre-assessments of any kind provide useful information
Mountain locality designated a “preserved nature area” under supervision of international ecological about what students know and do not know, what they can and cannot do, and how much
organisations. diversity in knowledge and skills exists in your classroom.
The Serbian government has started an initiative for development of village tourism.

Wind direction for this locality is west-northwest; climate changes are to be expected in the range of Commentary on
50 kilometers.

The production of cement is controlled by international standards, which results in high prices in
practical application 2
international markets. In the last six months the price has increased.

Cement dust is a major pollutant, the consequences of which are lethal for plants and dangerous to Unlike the first vignette, where there tended to be a one-to-one correspondence between each of
humans.
the objectives and one or two of the teaching/learning activities, the alignment in this vignette is
The average price of the full board lodging is 5 euros. The capacity is 200 beds. somewhat more general. That is, virtually all the learning activities are aligned with the entire set
of objectives. What changes as we move from activity to activity is the role of the teacher. In the
There are no roads on the Suva Mountains. The only transportation access is the Sicevo Gorge. first two activities, the teacher establishes the rules and the groups. At the beginning of the third
activity the teacher structures the problem. After that, students work in groups as they attempt to
The cement producation technology is very loud (in certain phases of work over 100 db). solve the problem. In the fourth activity, the primary function of the teacher is to observe students
The Suva Mountain Range is very dry, with average rainfall of only 220 millimeters per square meter and listen to their discussion. In the fifth activity, the teacher reorganises the groups and provides
per year. structure for the next activity. Only in activity six, does the teacher take a lead role to ensure that
students learned the mathematical content and solved the problem correctly.
The Suva Mountain region is sparsely populated.
The alignment of the assessment with the objectives mirrors the alignment of the objectives
The average number of people employed in the cement plant will be 600. The average number of with the learning activities. That is, the assessment is intended to provide information about
employed people with higher education is estimated to be 50. the achievement of all three objectives. Because of this, it would be wise to use the objectives
as evaluation criteria. That is, a maximum number of “points” could be given to each
According to European standards, the construction of cement plant must follow health protection
standards for employees. This means that one health professional should be employed for every 60
objective (e.g., 30 points for “mathematical content”, 20 points for “working for others”, and
workers. 50 points for “problem solving”).

In the region of Babusnica, there is a spa which has neither been discovered nor promoted. However,
available data indicates a great deal of mineral spring water.

Statistcs show that with the industrial development of a region, there is an increase of service and
entertainment venues (e.g., pubs, restaurants, pool rooms, clubs).
Chapter 9 230 231 Practical applications

Commentary on In summary, in this chapter we have tried to show by examples applications of some of
the recommendations made in this book. Limitations on chapter length have made it
Practical Application 3 impossible to include all of the recommendations or all of the subject matters to which the
recommendations apply. Nonetheless, the hope is that these applications will be useful
in seeing how objectives, assessment, instruction, and learning resources fit together in
The best way to understand the alignment inherent in the third vignette is by preparing a meaningful and effective way. Furthermore, the first application should be useful in
tables. Table 9.1 summarises the alignment of the objectives with the learning activities, understanding how you can organise the first few weeks of school to promote a cohesive and
whereas Table 9.2 summarises the alignment of the objectives with the assessment, more positive classroom culture.
specifically, with the guiding questions used to structure the 500-word essay. Note that
there is no table showing the alignment of learning activities with the assessment. Such a
table is typically not needed because if objectives are aligned with learning activities and
objectives are aligned with assessments, then it is very likely that the learning activities and
assessments are sufficiently aligned. The use of tables is a good way of thinking about and
demonstrating the alignment inherent in your scenarios or instructional plans.

Table 9.1
Alignment of objectives with learning activities

Objective Learning Activities

1. Understand stakeholders 3, 5, 7

2. Apply systematic method to decision making 5, 6, 7

3. Analyse data to support arguments 3, 5, 6

Table 9.2
Alignment of objectives with assessment

Objective Guiding Questions

1. Understand stakeholders 2, 3, 4, 6

2. Apply systematic method to decision making 3, 4, 6

3. Analyse data to support arguments 3, 4, 5, 6

Chapter 10 234 235

SUMMING UP
CORINNA NOACK-AETOPULOS

CHAPTER 10
Chapter 10 236 237 Summing up

This book is about change – our attitudes toward change, the importance of change, the and become barriers to societal progress. In our reference guide we have put forth a few
difficulty of change, and making and sustaining change. Charles Darwin suggested that it is suggestions on how you can turn your classrooms into learning environments and promote
not the strongest species that survives, nor the most intelligent, but the one most responsive the concept of being a “learner”. This concept must extend beyond your students to you, as a
and adaptive to change. Change is a dynamic process that requires continuous self-evaluation, teacher. Reforming your classroom is a short-term goal that can become a long-term vision.
engagement, and decision making. Cooperation and diversity generate smart change, a With like-minded teachers you can expand your impact to your meso environment (your
societal change that grows out of a balanced learning. When we can connect education to real school), and eventually to the macro environment (your educational system).
life contexts and create learners who learn for the sake of learning, we become persistent and
accept that change is not linear but the fruitful outcome of trial and error.
Do we have and demonstrate for our students
the right attitude for learning?
Are we really limited by the educational system?

How can we finally know that we have become advocates of learning? Have we established
We can best visualise the impact we have on our surroundings when we examine the different a learning environment where students feel safe, have a sense of belonging and develop
levels of the environment with which we interact. Economists and policy analysts write about a positive attitude towards learning? Are our students encouraged to sustain learning and
three levels: macro, meso, and micro. These three levels are reflected in our graphic organiser practice learning for the sake of learning both now and in the future?
and illustrate the role that you actually play in helping your students succeed as well as the
impact you can have on improving the educational system and, through this, our future society. The strongest and most obvious tool is to determine whether we have become learners
ourselves and have designed our classrooms with an emphasis on learning. A good
The macro environment is the social context in which you live and work. As a teacher, you barometer for evaluating our accomplishments is our attitude towards mistakes. Do we
can have little immediate short-term impact on the macro environment, although you may accept mistakes as necessary in the process of learning, even as an opportunity to learn,
be able to influence it in the long run. The macro environment is the complex framework of or do we consider mistakes as a sign of “not knowing”, in other words, ignorance? In
educational policies and societal attitudes and values. It can be described as the least common cultures where mistakes are risky, both students and teachers will be less willing to tread
denominator that societies find for reaching a shared understanding of the educational needs into unfamiliar territory or go beyond their current capabilities to seek out new learning
of a society. Sometimes the macro environment offers us helpful guidelines; at other times, it opportunities. And, as American philosopher and educator John Dewey wrote a century ago:
limits and constrains our vision of education and the way we practice it. “The most important attitude that can be formed is that of desire to go on learning.”

School climate and culture form the meso environment, whereas the classroom culture and As you consider the policies you establish for grading your students, you can decide what
climate form the micro environment. As an individual teacher you can and quite likely do message you want your grades to communicate to your students. Do you want students
influence the meso environment. To a great extent you shape the micro environment by yourself. to learn in order to get good grades? Or, do you want good grades to be symbols of good
Very often we confuse culture and climate, or use them as synonyms. When we want to reflect learning? Much research evidence suggests that, for many students, the goal of education
on the quality of our learning environments, it is necessary to clearly distinguish and understand is to get good grades. The grade, not learning, is the “coin of the realm” for these students.
the interrelationship of the two concepts. A climate is rather easy to change, but it will take Do your grading policies reinforce or raise questions about that goal? Are you rewarding
time to transform an established culture. At the same time, however, we must recognise that authentic learning or can students receive passing grades if they simply appear competent?
making adjustments in the climate is often the first step to impacting the culture. The culture, in Answers to questions such as these are particularly important for students who tend not to
turn, determines how long it will take for meaningful change to occur or, in the case of a school be learning-oriented, but rather are burdened with internal and external barriers to learning.
culture, how responsive a system is in adapting to new situations and requirements. Currently Such students will often benefit the most from an environment in which learning is the
in Europe, we are experiencing a very good example of cultural transformation. The European primary goal of all activities and at all times.
project requires all of us to reform our systems in order to become part of a more integrated
Europe that consolidates its strength and strives to become competitive in the global context. Students are more likely to be engaged in learning when they feel a sense of belonging and a
These transitional tendencies have a positive impact; they establish a climate of reform that sense of self-worth. These feelings are more likely to occur in an environment based on trust
makes our culture more responsive to a need for change and inspires us to reflect on what we and mutual respect and in which every student is accepted and appreciated. Getting to know
need to change in order to become competitive. something about each student and then acting on that knowledge as you interact with your
students are useful first steps in creating such an environment.
Therefore, reforming your micro environment, or in more familiar words, your classroom, is
a vital first step in improving the teaching/learning process. Only “learners” adapt easily to Investing time to get to know your students is especially important in dealing effectively with
changing needs, while “knowers” stay with what they have learned. “Knowers” tend to stagnate misbehaviour and disruptive behaviour. Knowing your students allows you to differentiate
Chapter 10 238 239 Summing up

causes (i.e. need for attention, boredom, or confusion) from symptoms (i.e., the behaviour will make connections between their daily learning, weekly learning, semester learning,
itself). And, we know from the medical community, that treating causes rather than and, ultimately, learning over the long haul.
symptoms tends to result in more effective outcomes. Knowing your students also allows you
to be more proactive and take preventive action, rather than allowing anger to take over Regardless of the level at which they are set, objectives are the building blocks of our house
in confrontations. Being proficient in your students’ language and using humor puts you in of knowledge. The clearer we are about our objectives, the more robust our learning frame
control, without being perceived as controlling. and the better we can select learning resources and plan our instruction. Only when we are
clear about our objectives ourselves can we communicate them clearly to our students and
Especially in overcrowded classrooms where time is scarce, this degree of personalisation ultimately be fair in our assessment and evaluation of our students.
seems an unrealistic task. However, even in these circumstances, you can use each
student’s strengths to enhance group achievement. In fact, the sum of individual strengths Many teachers confuse learning activities and learning objectives. Simply stated, learning
tends to increase the efficiency of a group and enables the group to compensate for objectives describe our intended end result; learning activities are the means by which
individual weaknesses. Although group work has been promoted as a tool for making students reach those desired ends. It is not only means and ends that are easily confused;
lessons more interactive, we know from experience that not every group immediately we also must clearly understand the difference between learning objectives (the purpose of
becomes a productive group in this regard. If you know your students well, you can match teaching) and teaching objectives (the process of teaching).
strengths and weaknesses and form groups that have the potential to become self-
sufficient, where peer learning takes place, and where you can assume the role of guide, How do we finally know that we have a well-structured set of clear learning objectives? Using
resource, and supervisor. the subject-verb-object (S-V-O) format ensures that our learning objectives more clearly
describe our intended learning outcome. The “S” guarantees that we focus on our students,
Especially in less affluent countries and regions of countries, school facilities may not always not ourselves as teachers. The “O” requires that we consider only the most important content
allow you to create the ideal learning environment. Certainly, you cannot replace the cards in to be learned. The “V” keeps us constantly aware that learning requires our students to
your hand once they are dealt. You can, however, determine how best to play them. Instead process the content in some way if they are to learn it.
of getting frustrated with what you cannot do, focus your attention and effort on what you
can do to encourage, support, and facilitate learning. Some of the factors listed in Chapter 3 Once we have established our initial set of objectives, we should re-examine them by
come at no or very little cost and can still bring decisive improvements. Although a SMART asking ourselves three questions. First, are these the most important objectives in terms of
Board is a nice piece of equipment to have, it is neither a pre-condition, nor as was discussed preparing my students for the next level? Second, do my objectives make sense if I look at
in Chapter 6, a guarantee of learning. them bottom–up, from the lesson to the course and program levels, and top-down, from the
program and course to the lesson level? Third, are my objectives achievable considering the
time and resources available?
Are we moving in the right direction?
How can we deal with time constraints? We have to make good choices. Memorising a great
number of facts and terms is less likely to prepare students for the future than understanding
A supportive learning environment is a good first step in improving the teaching/learning key ideas and thinking critically. Rather than pegging memorisation and thinking as opposites,
process. Setting good learning objectives is a necessary second step. The learning consider that students quite likely will memorise things as they think. However, if too many
objectives that we set for our students determine how likely it is that they will be prepared facts and terms are included in our objectives, they may not have time to think. All of their
- academically, emotionally, socially, and physically – to be successful at the next grade or mental effort will likely be spent on memorisation. With the available time, then, we need to
school level. Note that preparation for future success crosses what are termed domains of select objectives that will ultimately produce students who are able to analyse the validity of an
learning: cognitive, affective, psychomotor and social. It might not be possible nor desirable argument against its assumptions, who do not accept expert judgment of something without
to place equal emphasis on all domains all the time; however, we do not want to limit evaluating it for themselves, and who engage in creating methods and strategies that may help
ourselves to only one. Real, meaningful learning requires achieving a balance among the them overcome barriers to problem solving. Again, however, the emphasis must be on balance.
domains overall. Surely, we do not want to produce students who have learned a subject very Too much thinking with too little to think about is certainly not very helpful.
well, but never use that learning again because they dislike, are disinterested in, or see no
value in what they have learned. When we ourselves are clear about which direction our learning will take, only then can
we communicate it effectively. One of the most overlooked aspects of setting objectives
A solid understanding of global objectives (that is, those set for multiple years such as is the need to communicate them effectively and efficiently to all of our stakeholders, but
a secondary school science programme) provides the context for setting more specific particularly to our students and their parents or guardians. When everyone understands what
objectives such as those for a course or a unit within a course. The greater the alignment of the objectives are and what they mean, the possibility of working together toward a common
these more specific objectives with our global objectives, the more likely it is that students goal – excellence in learning – is enhanced.
Chapter 10 240 241 Summing up

How do we learn? learn – more specifically, how they process the information they encounter or we provide for
them – the more we are able to increase the effectiveness of the teaching/learning process.
Good teaching is far more than presenting content to students. It requires that we teach
Learning is a deeply interactive, yet personal, process. We learn from and with others in our students to process the content in ways that produce the desired learning.
micro environment, and we construct meaning for ourselves based on some combination of
what we already know and what we are being taught. Within our macro environment, we Student engagement and learning also depend on how well we use our instruction tools.
come to realise that much of the sense we make of things is cultural-specific. We become most Effective teaching requires the right mix of “tell and show”, “task-based”, and “inquiry-
efficient in our learning when we are able to regulate ourselves and when we are sufficiently based” instruction. Variety is not only the spice of life, but is also one of the keys to sustaining
interested in monitoring our progress; when we have a reason to persist and overcome engagement over time. All three tools can be effective in different situations and for
obstacles because we are working toward an objective that we have accepted as our own. different purposes; however, all three require that we set the stage for learning by posing
challenging and relevant questions that can grab the interest of students and hence activate
Every interaction needs at least two actors. In the case of learning, the most common picture their learning. Questions are a powerful tool to keep us engaged; our brains seem to be
we have in our mind is a teacher who is teaching and the student who is learning. As we programmed to hold on to an unanswered question over time. Posing new questions that
have mentioned, however, teachers should be learners and, quite often, the best teacher for a arise from our efforts to find answers to the previous questions makes it clear to students that
certain student is a fellow student. This changes the picture to one that includes two learners the process of learning is open-ended.
in an asymmetrical learning relationship, where one learner has more knowledge or skill
than the other and helps the other to construct that knowledge or develop that skill. While We must remember that forgetting is an inherent part of learning. Knowledge and skills that we
the common picture is based on societal roles, the altered picture is based on differences in do not use, that we do not connect with our experience, or that is not interesting or of no value
knowledge and skill. Learning then becomes a partnership in which both learners need to to us disappears from our memory quite quickly. Using techniques such as frequent repetition
participate and contribute. The more advanced or “senior” learner (most often the teacher) and memory aids will help us and our students sustain what we have learned. Similarly,
will be the director of learning, while the less advanced or “junior” learner will be in charge of applying knowledge and skills in new and different settings not only sustains but also enriches
accomplishing the learning objectives set by the more advanced learner. In this process, both learning. Finally, sharing with our students an excitement for learning certain things and helping
learners must be actively engaged with a free flow of knowledge and skill between them. them see the relevance or importance of their learning improves retention of learning.
Both can monitor engagement and level of learning, although the responsibility for such
monitoring usually rests with the more senior learner. Mistakes are not only an inherent part of learning, but an important one. As Albert Einstein
once wrote, “Anyone who has never made a mistake has never tried anything new.” Mistakes
Monitoring requires that we learn to “read” our students. We can monitor the degree of are only a problem if they are allowed to remain uncorrected and accumulate, thus interfering
engagement in activities and tasks by carefully watching what students are doing. Do they with learning at some later time. Correct feedback not only helps students understand the
look like they are paying attention? Do they look like they are “getting it”? More negatively, mistakes they make, but also provides some direction for overcoming and learning from them.
do they look “lost”? We also can ask and answer questions. We are more likely to become In the words of author George Bernard Shaw, “Success does not consist in never making
engaged when we can make sense of things, when we have prior knowledge, and when we mistakes but in never making the same one a second time.”
have some understanding of how the new learning is connected with what we already know
and can do. The sense a student makes of what is being taught or how a student understands
something cannot be observed directly. However, well-phrased questions can provide insights How do we know that our resources serve
into meaning and understanding. Finally, we can use more formal monitoring tools such as the purpose of learning?
quizzes and tests. The assessment tools provide information about learning over some period
of time, rather than instantaneously.
The understanding of our role as teachers in the learning process will determine how we
One goal of joint learning is to move students from junior learners to senior learners, who select and use learning resources. Learning resources can be used to build bridges from where
become self-sufficient or who are empowered to learn on their own. We can monitor how students are at present to where we want them to be at the end of some period of instruction.
successful we are in these endeavors by answering questions such as these. Do my students Students will only be motivated to use our bridges and actively engage in learning if they see
think critically? How well do they use higher-order cognitive processes to analyse and a clear connection between the resources and the learning objectives. Learning resources
evaluate information and to create new ideas, products, or performances? Do they reflect on are particularly important when they allow us to build multiple bridges to the same learning
their thinking, knowing when they are going off track and making adjustments accordingly? objectives, with each bridge targeted toward particular students or groups of students.
How mature are the decisions they make based on these reflections? Can they evaluate the
reasonableness of an answer to a question or a solution to a problem? Can they connect new Are you sufficiently aware of the variety of learning resources that exist in and out of
learning to what they already know and can do? The more we understand how our students school? Do you have access to print resources (other than the textbook), visual resources,
Chapter 10 242 243 Summing up

audio-visual resources, e-resources, primary sources? If you were to catalogue the learning In addition to selecting good textbooks, it is important to teach students how to use the
resources that are available to you, what would your catalogue look like? textbook as a learning resource. Students should learn that reading textbooks is different
than reading literature. With textbooks, you are reading for information, often quite
Do you know what resources are best suited to achieve which learning objectives? When specific information. Learning how to use an index to locate relevant information, how to
should students watch a film in conjunction with reading text? Where does a visit to the use headings and font changes to recognise key ideas and points, and how to use graphic
museum or other community resource best fit? When do you need to introduce primary organisers to connect textbooks to learning objectives are all important skills for many, if not
sources so that students have an opportunity to explore them using more than one of most, students. Graphic organisers are especially helpful in at least two respects. First, as
their senses? suggested, they help students understand the connection between what they are reading and
what they are supposed to learn as indicated in the objectives. Second, by virtue of the fact
One of the main points made throughout our reference guide is the importance of teaching that students completed them and that they are readily available for students to review at
for understanding, rather than memorisation, and teaching for critical and creative thinking, any time, they help students store relevant knowledge in long-term memory.
rather than routine application of well-defined procedures. What learning resources are best
for these purposes and how are they best incorporated into plans and scenarios? Appropriate Finally, interactive computer-based technology is increasing as a learning resource at a very
learning resources in this regard provide students with opportunities to question intentions, rapid pace. How best can this very powerful resource be used? Like virtually any technology
spot biases and stereotypes, formulate hypotheses, make and defend decisions, and create a (e.g., films, filmstrips, audio recordings), computer-based technology can be used for good
sceptical attitude for much of what they encounter in the media. or for ill. The very best computer software does not create more learning than a textbook if it
is used primarily as an electronic version of a textbook. Interactive tools and search engines,
Learning resources serve different purposes depending on their placement within the overall on the other hand, have the potential to add a totally new element to the teaching/learning
instructional program. When introducing a topic, we should try to select resources that process. With such easy access to an incredible amount of information, however, the need for
are likely to motivate and trigger interest on the part of our students. When attempting to students to analyse and evaluate the information – to think critically and rationally – is more
expand on an initial presentation or clarify points of confusion, we should select resources important now than it ever has been.
that place the topic into a variety of contexts and situations and present a variety of
examples and illustrations. When you suspect that students may be losing interest or
not paying attention, you should select a learning resource that presents a challenge or How do we know that we have learned?
introduces humor in an effort to regain or enhance intrinsic motivation.

As was mentioned earlier, learning resources provide a wonderful opportunity to Assessment more often than not has a negative connotation, particularly when it is combined
accommodate differences among students in terms of their home background, interests, with evaluation and grading. This connotation is especially unfortunate because of the
and learning styles and preferences. Differences in ethnic background and gender are possibilities that assessment offers for increasing educational opportunity. To understand
commonplace, but there are also socio-economic and cultural differences that are often these possibilities, assessment must be clearly differentiated from evaluation. Strictly
seen as learning impairments. Finding learning resources targeted toward particular socio- speaking, assessment is simply the collection of information that can be used to make a
economic levels or cultures may lead to a different conclusion; namely, that these differences decision. Evaluation, on the other hand, is the decision itself, which is often evaluative in
are impairments only when a standardised set of resources are used for all students. nature. It is possible to have good assessment (that is, valid and reliable information) and
poor evaluation (that is, a poor, unfair, or biased decision).
Like all resources, textbooks are neither good nor bad. Rather, their appropriateness and
effectiveness depends on when and how they are used. If the textbook is the only learning Assessment tools and techniques should provide accurate information about student learning
resource (see previous paragraph), then we can expect its usefulness to be limited. If it is read of the objectives set for them. One of the best ways of aligning our assessment tools and
by students outside of class and never discussed in class, or if it is read by the teacher line- techniques with our objectives is to focus on the verb in the objective (that is, the cognitive
by-line in class, its usefulness once again is likely to be limited. On the other hand, if teachers process). If the verb is “analyse”, then the assessment should require that students analyse.
supplement the textbook with anecdotal stories, primary sources, multi-media resources, If the verb is “remember”, then the assessment should require that students remember.
or graphic organisers, a well-written textbook that is clearly aligned with your learning Problems arise when the verb in the objective is “analyse” and the assessment only requires
objectives can be a valuable learning resource. students to remember (or vice versa).

Regardless of your opinion of textbooks as learning resources, they quite likely will remain The form or format of our assessment tools and techniques also depends to a great extent on
the most importing learning resource for many students in many subjects in many countries. the verbs in our objectives. For objectives with remember as a verb, short-answer questions
Therefore, we have included in Chapter 6 a set of criteria that can be used to evaluate how or items are appropriate. For objectives with apply as a verb, however, students should be
appropriate a textbook is for your students and your purposes. expected to demonstrate their learning (rather than simply remember it). For objectives
Chapter 10 244 245 Summing up

with evaluate as a verb, our assessment quite likely will require students to critique some All three forms of assessment have their justification, once again depending on their purpose
idea, object, or performance. Different types or levels of objectives require different forms and placement in the overall scheme of things. None is better or worse than the others;
or formats. rather, they are just “different”. Like many of the other concepts we have discussed in this
resource guide, the key here is the balance. Get good assessment data and use it well to
Once we have assessment data, we can choose to use the data in many ways. There is no make the best decisions we can make for the betterment of our students and their learning.
doubt that one of the most frequent uses of assessment data is to assign grades to students.
This is referred to as “assessment of learning” (or summative assessment). However, this
is not the only possible use of assessment data. We can use the data to identify learning How to fit it all together?
strengths and weaknesses and, perhaps, identify the sources (causes) of the learning
weaknesses. This use is referred to as “assessment for learning” (or formative assessment).
It borders on common sense that objectives, assessment, instruction, and learning resources
Assessment for learning requires that fairly detailed data are collected on students’ need to be aligned and form a consistent, coherent system. However, a reality check shows
performances on the assessment tools and techniques. In most cases, the data can be that this is not self- evident in our education systems; rather, it is a challenge that we
displayed in a two-dimensional table, with the rows containing the names of the students struggle to achieve and that enjoys little awareness. As mentioned in Chapter 8, Leitzel &
and columns containing abbreviations of the specific questions, test items, or evaluation Vogler summarised the major problems in this area almost 20 years ago. In many countries,
criteria. This format facilitates detailed statistical analysis that yields information about tests prepared at the national or international level do not match the content taught in
each student, each question, item, or criterion, and the interaction of particular students classrooms. Furthermore, decentralised tests (such as those constructed by teachers) often
with particular questions, items, or criteria. This examination yields a fairly precise picture focus primarily on recall and recognition of factual information and lack the difficulty
of the strengths and weaknesses of individual students, subgroups of students, and the inherent in national and international tests. In addition, a majority of objectives focus on
class as a whole. In Chapter 7, we have provided the corresponding techniques that memorisation, rather than so-called higher-order cognitive processes. Finally, textbooks are
help us detail the information of our assessment in an efficient manner and reach sound not well-aligned with national and international tests. These problems cut across all three
instructional decisions as a result of our analysis. It might seem labour-intensive, but we types of alignment: horizontal (that is, alignment at one point in time), vertical (that is,
believe that will pay off in learning dividends. alignment over time), and external (that is, alignment with external factors such as national
curriculum or international tests).
Assessments themselves, not just the data from them, can be used for a third purpose,
a purpose that transforms assessment into a learning resource. This use is referred to as Some progress has been achieved in increasing awareness that reducing the current
“assessment as learning”. To accomplish this purpose we must help students learn the emphasis on memorisation is outdated. There also seems to be increasing awareness that
strategies and techniques they need for conducting self-assessment and self-evaluation. If an increased emphasis on critical thinking and higher-order cognitive processes is critical to
assessment is based on objectives, students must understand the meaning of the objectives. learning in today’s world. Finally, there seems to be increasing awareness that we can learn
Next, they need to understand the evidence they will need to provide to show their degree useful and productive lessons from other countries or states or regions within countries whose
of learning relative to the objective. This is the self-assessment part. Finally, they need to students perform very well on international tests. At the same time, however, systematic
evaluate the evidence to determine in a meaningful, accurate, and realistic manner whether attempts to reflect on alignment problems and take necessary action to solve those problems
they have mastered the objective. This is the self-evaluation part. Self-assessment and, are rare. While waiting for action to be taken, however, you, as an individual teacher, can
particularly, self-evaluation take time to develop. Students will certainly go through a series certainly begin to systematically explore horizontal alignment in your courses and with your
of trials and errors as part of this development. With proper feedback from you, the teacher, students. An increase in horizontal alignment will quite likely improve the learning of your
however, most students should be able to develop a reasonable level of proficiency in these students and, as a side benefit, increase your self-worth as a teacher. We believe that all
two areas. teachers feel better when more of their students learn more.

To the same extent that it is useful for us to work out the details of our assessments, it is
also important to find ways of communicate this information to students in an efficient
and understandable way. This communication should enable students to both celebrate
their learning strengths and identify and begin to overcome their learning weaknesses. The
combined realisation that they are expected to improve on their weaknesses and that they
will receive assistance to do so should motivate students to put forth the effort needed to
improve now and the confidence needed to work harder and more diligently in the future.
247

GLOSSARY
Glossary 248 249 Glossary

A D
attributions are internal (where the person believes that Content analysis
he or she is responsible for the behaviour or event) and A systematic method for compressing many words of
external (where the person denies responsibility and text into a few content categories based on explicit
Accountability blames outside factors for the behaviour or event). rules. Content analysis makes it possible to sift through Decision-making
The collective responsibility of parents, principals, large volumes of data with relative ease in a systematic A cognitive process that results in a selection of a final

C
superintendents, school board members, teachers, and fashion. In education, it can be applied to objectives, choice among several alternatives.
the students themselves to ensure quality learning for textbooks and other learning resources, and various
all students. types or forms of assessments. Depth match
Checklist The degree to which a test or other form of assessment
Achievement A set of criteria typically used to make an evaluation Content match represents the level or type of cognitive complexity
The sum total of what a student has learned by some that requires a simple “yes” or “no” (or “check” or “no The degree to which the content in the objectives, the included in objectives and taught in the classroom.
point in time. Achievement differs from learning in that check”) response to each criterion. content assessed, and the content taught are the same
learning is a change in achievement over time. See also or similar. Diagnostic assessment
Learning. Climate Assessment that provides teachers with information
The atmosphere, ambience, or, in common terminology, Content validity about the causes of or reasons for learning problems or
Active learning the “feel” of a school or classroom at one point in time. The extent to which a test or other form of assessment failures. It also can be used as a baseline for determining
The process of making sense of what is being taught Unlike culture, which is far more stable, climate can vary represents the subject-matter content included in how much learning has taken place over some period of
and learned by (a) engaging in meaningful activities from day to day and week to week. See also Culture. the curriculum. Content validity can range from high instruction.
(including communications with others) and (b) (when the representation is high) to low (when the

E
personally constructing knowledge. Concept maps and mind maps representation is low).
Graphic organisers that can be used to visually connect
Alignment bits and pieces of information. A concept map is a visual Creative thinking
The degree to which objectives, assessment, instruction, presentation of a concept`s characteristics using a The ability to think about something in novel and Ecosystemic approach
and learning resources fit well together at one point connected and hierarchical organisation. A mind map is unusual ways or to come up with up with unique A method of dealing with problem behaviour on the
in time (horizontal alignment) or over time (vertical a method of note-taking used to visually solutions to problems. part of students that is based on the concept of schools
alignment). See also External alignment. structure information. It is often created around a central and classrooms as ecosystems, that is, connected and
key word, text or idea to which associated Criteria interactive units that require a dynamic balance. In the
Assessment ideas, words and concepts are added. The standards used to judge how well an objective ecosystemic approach, the focus is placed on changing
The process by which information is gathered or (or objectives) has been achieved. Accuracy (e.g., the setting or situation, rather than dealing with one or
collected for a specified purpose. Traditionally, there Conditions correctness or reasonableness) and speed (e.g., how more problem students.
are two general purposes: assessment of learning (or In stating objectives, conditions describe the quickly something is learned or can be performed) are
summative assessment) and assessment for learning circumstances under which the student is expected to two frequently used criteria. Empathy
(or formative assessment). More recently, a third purpose demonstrate his or her learning relative to the objectives. Ability to register, recognise, and understand signals
has been added, namely, assessment as learning, which Conditions include the tools or assistance to be provided. Critical thinking coming from others (particularly sensitivity for students’
is the process of developing and supporting students’ The ability to actively and skillfully conceptualise, cognitive and learning needs).
active participation in assessment as part of the overall Cognitive complexity analyse, synthesise, and evaluate information, ideas,
learning process. The level, extent, or depth of thinking that is required in products, or performances. Empowerment
order to master a particular objective. The abstractness Attempts to increase the level of students’ autonomy and
Asymmetrical interactions of the content and the number of steps in an algorithm Culture self-determination, enabling them to learn independently,
Interactions in which one partner (e.g., a teacher, increase cognitive complexity. The shared values, norms, and beliefs that characterise monitor and regulate their learning, and evaluate their
an advanced student) is more experienced and a group or organisation (e.g., an entire school or a learning in a reasonably objective manner.
knowledgeable than the other (e.g., a student in general, Cognitive processes classroom within a school). A culture typically takes a
a novice student). The various ways in which people remember, fairly long time to form and, perhaps, as a consequence, Evaluation
understand, apply, and, in general, “think about” lasts quite a while. Therefore, a culture is often difficult A judgment about a person or a characteristic of a
Attribution their experiences and the information they encounter. to change. person (e.g., attitude, achievement) based on the
An explanation of the causes and/or consequences Common cognitive processes include interpret, classify, information that you have at your disposal. The
of behaviours or events. The two major types of explain, differentiate, organise, evaluate, and create. information may be good or bad and the judgment may
Glossary 250 251 Glossary

be good or bad. Good information does not necessarily Graphic organiser Item skills and abilities), affective (emotions, attitudes, and
lead to good judgments. Visual tools that are intended to help students learn and One of the tasks (e.g., questions) included on a test values), psychomotor (physical skills), and social (skills
retain information. Graphic organisers differ in terms of or quiz. in managing oneself in social situations and relating to
Expectations their purpose. Some are intended to help students see others).

J
Beliefs about what you think might or will happen in the relationships between more abstract concepts and more
future. As teachers our expectations may apply to what concrete examples; others are intended to help students Learning environment
students will or will not do or what students will or will understand sequential and causal relationships; still The setting (or settings) in which learning is intended to
not learn. others, like flow charts, are intended to help students Joint activity take place. The learning environment can be examined in
carry out work in a systematic fashion. Activity undertaken in pairs or groups in order to several ways. Among the more common are the physical
External alignment co-construct knowledge by means of asymmetrical environment (e.g., seating arrangement), the social

H
The interrelationships between and among what can be interactions. Co-construction of knowledge is environment (e.g., expected or tolerated interpersonal
controlled within a school or school system and what critical to developing shared meaning or a common interactions), the academic environment (e.g., the
lies beyond the control of educators working within a understanding. See also Asymmetrical interaction. subject matter), and the emotional environment (e.g.,
school or school system (e.g., laws, policies, working Horizontal alignment feelings of enjoyment or belongingness).

K
conditions). The focus of external alignment may be on See Alignment.
one point in time, over time, or both. Learning objectives
Human resources Learning objectives are statements of what we want

F
All persons who are able to contribute to the teaching- “Knowledge Society” our students to learn as a result of the instruction we
learning process, including teachers, parents, guest A society in which knowledge, rather than capital, labor, provide. There are three primary levels of objectives:
lecturers, business persons, and the students themselves. or anything else, is the primary production source. global (program aims or goals), educational (course
Feedback or unit goals or objectives), and instructional (lesson

I L
Providing students with information and tools that objectives). All objectives can be written in the same
enable them to understand their strengths and format: subject (the student or students), verb (the
weaknesses and improve their learning by taking intended cognitive process), and object (the content or
appropriate actions to play on their strengths and Inappropriate behaviour Learning knowledge).
overcome their weaknesses. Periodic feedback is an Behaviour that is inadmissible in a school or classroom. A change in achievement over time. If there is no change
essential part of the teaching-learning process and often There are two primary types of inappropriate behaviour. in achievement during a semester, for example, then no Lesson plans
takes the form of a dialogue between teachers and Misbehaviour is behaviour that violates a school or learning has occurred. A fairly detailed description of a single lesson (that is, 45
students. classroom rule (e.g., “Do not talk when someone else See also Achievement. to 90 minutes in a single day or, perhaps, two days) that
is talking”). Disruptive behaviour is behaviour that is meant to guide instruction during that time frame.
Flexibility interferes with the teaching-learning process (e.g., when Learning activities Lesson plans typically include quite specific objectives, a
A willingness to adapt or adjust teaching to new or a student shoves a student who accidently bumps into Activities that are intended to actively engage brief summary of activities, materials needed, and a way
different conditions and situations. another student and a melee occurs). students in learning. Such activities tend to possess of assessing the objectives specified. See also Scenario.
two characteristics. First, they are appropriate for the
Formative assessment Information and Communication particular students for whom the learning activity is Learning resources
See Assessment. Technology (ICT) designed. Second, they are relevant to the achievement The entire set of tools (including equipment and
Any product that stores, retrieves, manipulates, of the learning objectives as stated. Learning activities materials) that enable or support the teaching-learning

G
transmits, or receives information electronically in a are often confused with learning objectives. A learning process. Learning resources include all means by which
digital form. Examples include personal computers, objective (see below) is the desired end result of the a teacher might attempt to engage students in learning
digital television, e-mail, and social media. teaching-learning process. A learning activity is the and facilitate their learning and achievement.
Goal-orientation means by which that end is achieved.
Establishing and working toward the accomplishment Instructional media See also Learning objectives. Learning journal
of stated goals. These goals, once established, are A subcategory of learning resources that includes A way of systematising self-assessment, by having
communicated to everyone involved. Accomplishment of auditory (e.g., songs), visual (e.g., photographs), audio- Learning domains students write about what they have learned, their
the goals is of paramount importance, overshadowing visual (e.g., films), and interactive (e.g., Skype) media. Categories of learning outcomes. Over time, four perceived level of mastery of objectives, any problems
competing goals such as promoting positive learning domains have been identified. They are: they have encountered, and what they plan to do with
relationships among individuals. cognitive (subject-matter knowledge and intellectual the new learning in the future.
Glossary 252 253 Glossary

M P
Rubric Skills, Knowledge, and Attitudes and is most useful for
A scoring tool that teachers use to assess and evaluate formulating course and unit objectives.
student learning. It consists of a set of criteria, a rating
Meaningful learning PISA scale for each criterion, and a verbal description of each Small-group instruction
Meaning learning refers to learning that “makes sense”. The Programme for International Student Assessment, point on the rating scale that includes how each point Providing instruction to students who have been placed
Meaningful learning is understanding. When students which is designed, administered, scored, and reported differs from the adjacent points. in organisational units smaller than the whole class but
truly understand something, they can transfer their under the auspices of the Organisation for Economic larger than the individual student. Groups can be formed

S
learning, extending what has been learned in one Co-operation and Development (OECD). PISA evaluates based on common needs, common interests, or designed
context to new contexts. education systems worldwide, testing the knowledge diversity. Optimal group size ranges from three to five
and skills of 15-year-old students on a periodic basis students. To ensure success of small-group instruction,
Metacognition (e.g., every three years). Scaffolding teachers initially must take time to teach students how
Technically speaking, it means “thinking about thinking”. Providing assistance that helps students connect the to work effectively and efficiently in groups.
Metacognition enables students to “see themselves” Personalisation objective to what they already know and can do.
as they engage in learning activities, monitoring their The match of a particular learning environment and/or Once the student achieves the objective, the scaffolding SMART method
learning and making adjustments as needed to learn instructional approach to interests, abilities, and needs can be removed to allow the student to move forward to A mnemonic to use when setting lesson objectives.
more or better. Metacognition has three components: of individual students. the next objective. It stands for Specific, Measurable, Action-oriented,
self knowledge, knowledge of tasks, and knowledge of Reasonable, and Time-bound.
strategies. Primary sources Scenario
Learning resources that include objects from the natural Borrowed from theatre, a scenario is a collage of the Student progress cards
Multimedia environment as well historical artifacts such as written actions and events that take place in a particular Cards that contain a series of longer-term objectives
The integration of different forms of instructional documents, statistical data, photographs, and films. setting, with particular attention paid to the scenes, on which students can reflect from time to time to
media (text, video, audio, and interactive) to provide characters, and situations and the relationships between determine how well they are doing in terms of achieving

R
a more comprehensive, often more authentic, learning and among them. When planning and implementing the objectives and how confident they are that they
experience. scenarios, teachers assume the role of director and have mastered each objective.
students assume the roles of actors.

N
Rating scale Summative assessment
A set of criteria typically used to make an evaluation School culture See Assessment.
that requires a judgment of the degree to which each See Culture.

T
Note taking criterion is present or has been made. Common rating
Practice of selecting and recording information from scales include five-point scales and ten-point scales. Self-regulation
various sources (e.g., books, videos, conversations, The process of monitoring one’s learning process and
interviews). By taking notes, students record what they “Reading” your students progress and making adjustments as needed to ensure Teaching for Active Learning (TfAL)
believe to be the essence of the information so they can Interpreting students’ behaviour by paying attention learning success. An approach to teaching based on four basic principles
remember and use it later. to non-verbal cues, listening to students carefully, and of learning: learning is constructive, learning is self-
anticipating movements. Sense of belonging regulated, learning is contextual, and learning is

O
Feelings of being accepted and valued by peers, collaborative. For TfAL to be successful, teachers must
Retention of learning teachers, and other adults. first create learning situations that engage students
Remembering what has been learned at one point in actively in the learning process. In addition, teachers
Opportunity to learn time at a later point in time. Sense of well-being must be sensitive to what students are doing and how
The extent to which students have been taught the The positive state of mind that enables a student to they are responding to the learning activities and to the
content and skills that are included in the written Rote learning function effectively within the school and the classroom. tasks they are assigned.
curriculum and/or that they need to have learned to do Memorisation by repetition, most often without A positive state of mind is associated with freedom from
well on external tests. an understanding of the meaning, reasoning, or fear and anxiety. Teaching aids
relationships involved in the content being learned. A category of materials and equipment used routinely
S-K-A method by teachers when they are teaching. Examples include
Acronym used to frame learning objectives. It stands for paper, pencil, chalkboards, and projectors.
Glossary 254 255

V
Teaching/learning
(alternatively teaching-learning)
Rather than seeing teaching and learning as separate,
yet related, processes, the phrase “teaching/learning” Vertical alignment
is meant to indicate that teaching and learning are two See Alignment.
facets of the same interwoven process, with one side

Z
of the dyad influencing, and influenced by, the other.
Teachers sometimes teach and, at other times, they
learn. Likewise, students often learn, but many times are
involved in teaching (as in the case of peer tutoring or Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
making presentations to a group or class). A concept developed by Russian psychologist Lev
Vygotsky that represents the optimal distance between
Textbooks what a student has already learned and what the
The most widely used learning resource for the formal student can learn with guidance or assistance from
study of a subject. Textbooks offer a structured course of adults or more capable peers.
study and a range of exercises and activities. Although
most textbooks are published in printed format,
increasingly they are available in electronic versions.

Traditional Teaching (TT)

A teaching approach in which the teacher is the “main
actor”, who is primarily responsible for disseminating
information to be remembered by students (who are
seen as passive recipients of the information). Traditional
teaching is based on the belief that learning is
the acquisition, collection, and accumulation of bits of
information.

Transfer of learning
Extending what has been learned in one context
to future contexts (that is, settings, situations, and
problems). Applying a mathematical formula (taught in
math class) to a science problem (encountered outside
of school) is an example of transfer of learning.
During the past decade, society’s expectations for schools have increased dramatically in virtually every country.

TEACHING

TEACHING FOR LEARNING

Stated simply, more students are expected to learn at higher levels than ever before. Accordingly, the roles and
responsibilities of teachers must change significantly to meet the new requirements. What are appropriate
learning objectives that ensure success for students now and in the future? How can we assess and evaluate
student learning, providing useful information to students and teachers alike? How should we design learning
environments and use technology? And can we meet the needs of all students? How can instruction focus more
on student learning, rather than on teacher behaviour? These questions and others are addressed in this F O R
reference guide for teachers. It does not provide prescriptions, but rather suggests alternate solutions, allowing

LEARNING
teachers to answer these vital questions for themselves.

A REFERENCE GUIDE
FOR RESULTS-ORIENTED TEACHERS

A REFERENCE GUIDE FOR RESULTS-ORIENTED TEACHERS

Center for Democracy and

Reconciliation in Southeast Europe

The European Union's Instrument for

Pre-accession Assistance (IPA)