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Design of Ventilation Systems

Introduction In the previous section we looked at fluid flow

in a pipe.

Buildings may include a large number of pipes

and form complex pipe networks.

The analysis of ventilation systems therefore

requires the study of a number of pipes or
ducts, which usually involves ducts branching
from a central duct within which air is
drawn/supplied.

Obviously, the study of ventilation systems

requires the use of air as the moving fluid; the
analysis of liquid flow through pipe networks
will be tackled further on.
 Estimating Demands
Internal Design Conditions Ventilation requirements can either be for fresh air or
(Chapter 5.3) the extraction of stale or contaminated air

Air Extraction: Dilution of Contaminants

Minimum Supply Rate (Occupants behave in

sedate manner):
2 Litres/second per person

Maximum Supply Rate (Occupants behave in

an energetic manner):
12 Litres/second per person
Heat gains and losses Temperature control via heat transfer rates
(Section, 6.1)
• •
Q HT = m c p T [W ]

where cP is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure

•
Q HT = uA c p T [W ]

• •
Q HT =  Q c p T [W ]

For typical atmospheric conditions cp = 1 KJ/kg K and =1.225 kg/m3

 Supply air flow rate: Control of relative humidity
(Chapter 6.2)

Recommended number of changes of air per hour: 0.5 to 2.

Exp 1: A room of volume 300 m3, with floor area of 100 m2 and ceiling height
of 3 m. The ventilation flow for the room can be expressed as

300 m3/hr = 5 m3/min = 0.083 m3/s = 83 litres/s.

Exp 2: A building of volume 12,000 m3, which might have 10 storeys, each
with floor area 200 m2. The ventilation flow for the building is

12,000 m3/hr = 200 m3/min = 3.33 m3/s = 3330 litres/s.

Principles of duct seizing
Conservation of mass - Continuity

At every point in the system the mass flow

rates must balance.
(Density of air is approximately constant, so
usually balance volumetric flow rates)

Conservation of energy – “Pressure Balancing”

The net pressure loss through any system must

balance the pressure rise across the fan driving air
through it.
Pressure balancing example
Room 1.
Q1

(1)
Fan
(3)
Q3
(F) Room 2. Room 3.
(2)

Q2

Considerations: - pipe ductwork is circular

- Point F to lie just after the fan

Energy balance between fan and room 1:

hWF →1 = 0
 pF u F2  p u2 
 + + z F  −  1 + 1 + z1  = hLF →1 − hWF →1 zF − z1  0
 g 2 g   g 2 g 

Neglect:
- Hydrostatic change in density of air.
- Buoyancy effects due to variations in air temperature
  pF u F2   p1 u12 
 + − +  = hLF →1 Pressure in room ~ atmospheric
 g 2 g   g 2 g 

pF uF2 u12
+ − = hLF →1
g 2 g 2 g
uF2 u12
Common practice industry assumption: − 0
2g 2g

pF
= hLF →1 pF = ghLF →1 = pF →1
g or

This means that the pressure generated by the fan (pF) is

exactly balanced by the energy losses due to friction
along the ductwork running between the fan and Room 1

If we do the same for room 2: pF = pF →2 and therefore pF = pF →1 = pF →2

Hence for any room pF = pF →1 = pF →2 = pF →3 = pF →n

→ Irrespective of route taken from the fan to an exit from the ducting
system, the pressure drop due to friction must always be the same
 Noise levels
Table 3.1.

Suggested maximum velocities for ductwork systems

where noise generation is a controlling factor.
Low Velocity Systems (m/s)

Building Type Main ducts Branch ducts

Domestic buildings (bedrooms) 3.0 2.5
Theatres, concert halls 4.0 2.5
Auditoria, lecture halls, cinemas 4.0 3.5
Bedrooms (non-domestic buildings) 5.0 4.5

Table 3.2.

Suggested maximum velocities for ductwork systems

where noise generation is a controlling factor.
High Velocity Systems (m/s)

Building Type Main ducts Branch ducts

Private offices, libraries 6.0 5.5
General offices, restaurants, banks 7.5 6.0
Department stores, supermarkets, shops, 9.0 7.0
cafeterias
Industrial buildings 10.0 8.0
Velocities within rooms

Guidelines by the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE)

Generally design velocities for air movement within ventilated spaces

are lower than those in supply or extraction ducting. These velocities
are determined not by considerations of noise, but by the comfort of
occupants of the ventilated space. The velocities desired by or
acceptable to occupants depend upon the air temperature and
humidity, and thus (in the absence of air conditioning) on the time of
year.

For commercial buildings design values in the summer are usually

between 0.17 m/s and 0.40 m/s, and in the winter between 0.13 m/s
and 0.28 m/s. Evidently it is necessary to admit air in such a way that it
does not impinge directly upon occupants, perhaps by locating supply
points near the ceiling, or by using grilles to deflect inflowing air
towards the ceiling.
Cost Considerations
Obviously, many factors have to be balanced before arriving at an optimum
system design, and the cost of a system must be included.
These factors may be summarised below:

Influence of Duct Size on System Characteristics

Small Large Ducts

Ducts
Typical velocities High Low
Pressure drops High Low
Noise High Low
Fan power High Low
Running costs: Fan/Motor High Low
First Cost: Ductwork, High
installation Low
Volume occupied Low High
 Low velocity systems
Low velocity systems are the most common
systems in modern building services. We will
look at three design philosophies:

- Equal Pressure Drop Method

- Velocity Method
- Balanced Capacity Method

Ballpark numbers: – Low velocity systems 3 – 5m/s

– High velocity systems 7.5 – 15m/s
 Equal pressure drop method
Principle: to balance pressure drop per unit length for every duct run

Methodology:
1. Fix the velocity in the duct next to the fan
2. Find the pressure drop per unit length in the duct next to the fan ( p L).
3. Use the p L value found in (2) as the p L for every other duct in the
system.
4. Add dampers where necessary, so that after (3) we have maintained our
pressure balance.

Note: The addition of dampers is usually necessary to ensure conservation of

mass and energy. If dampers are not added conservation of mass and energy
will still be enforced, but this may give values for velocity and p L then
specified.
 Velocity method
Principle: to set the maximum velocity (velocity is prescribed in every duct run)

Methodology:
1. Fix the velocity in the duct next to the fan and in all other ducts in the
system.

2. Use the velocity in (1) and the pre-determined volume flow rates to
identify the diameter and p L for each duct.

3. Add dampers where necessary in order to make sure (2) is implemented

correctly, that is, the dampers are used to enforce pressure balancing.
 Balanced capacity method
Principle: to design system without dampers

Methodology:
1. Identify the index run: this is the run with the largest equivalent length.

2. Choose either the equal pressure drop, or velocity method, to size the
ductwork in the index run.

3. By using the principles of pressure balancing, we can then size all other
ducts that do not belong to the index run.

Note: Whilst it may be advantageous to have a system without dampers, it

results in a loss of control of the velocity in some ducts as the system will
balance naturally.
Also, the balanced capacity methods generally delivers higher velocities than
the equal pressure drop method, so care needs to be exercised when sizing
branch ducts.
Implementation of design philosophies
Implementation starts after specifying the inlet/outlet requirements according to CIBSE
guidelines.
Recall: Conservation of mass to be applied at every junction + conservation of energy
→ Losses in each duct are found by ‘pressure balancing’:

pF = pF →1 = pF →2 = pF →3 = pF →n

pF = pF →n
pF
= hLF →1
g

u2  L 
hL =  4 f + K
Recall from chapter 2 2g 
1
d 

Frictional losses at duct wall Specific losses due duct discontinuities

 Q1
(1)
Fan Duct 1
Duct A Duct B (B2) (3)
Q3
(B1) Duct 3
(F)
Duct 2
(2)

Q2

pF
= hL F →1 = hL F →2 = hL F →3
g

Consider run (F) to (1): Pipe friction in duct A and in duct plus specific losses at
the branch:
pF
= hLFrictional + h Frictional
+ h Specific

g DUCT A LDUCT 1 L@ B1

or

2
pF uDuct A  4 f1Duct A LDuct A  uDuct
2
 Duct1 LDuct1  uDuct
1 4 f1
2

=  +  +
A
K B1
g 2g  d Duct A  2 g  d Duct1  2 g
Important notes:
- For the specific loss it is common practice to write K values in terms of
the upstream velocity, which is uDuct A in this example – see also the
CIBSE guides. Pay careful attention to the velocities used when reading
specific losses from tables! Duct1
The specific loss at B1 has two values, one for Duct 1, K B1 , and
Duct B
another for Duct B, K B1 .

Then repeat similarly for exits (2) and (3) giving

2
pF uDuct A  4 f1Duct A LDuct A  uDuct
2
 4 f1Duct B LDuct B  uDuct
2
 4 f1Duct 2 LDuct 2  2
uDuct 2
uDuct
=  +
B
 +
2
  + A
K Duct B
B1 + B Duct 2
K B2
g 2g  d Duct A  2g  d Duct B  2g  d Duct 2 
2g 2g

2
pF uDuct A  4 f1Duct A LDuct A  uDuct
2
 4 f1Duct B LDuct B  uDuct
2
 4 f1Duct 3 LDuct 3  2
uDuct 2
uDuct
=  +
B
 +
3
  + A
K Duct B
B1 + B Duct 3
K B2
g 2g  d Duct A  2g  d Duct B  2g  d Duct 3 
2g 2g

Applying Darcy’s equation will give very accurate determination of the losses
but requires determination of the friction factor which is tedious
→ Use Chart 1 in the appendix to quantify frictional losses in circular ducts.
Chart quantifies frictional losses only for air at 20˚C, 1.013 bar and a relative
humidity of 43% and for round ducts with an absolute roughness of 0.15mm
(galvanised steel) and for fully turbulent flow.
For the specific losses, the factor K is often a function of the velocity
though.
→we do not know the velocity until we have sized the duct, but we
cannot size the duct until we know the losses → iterative process

→However, we are looking at low velocity systems with u<~5.1 m/s,

therefore K is independent of u.

Therefore we can write the specific loss as:

u 2  4 f1 LEquivalent  u 2
hSpecific
=K 
2 g   2g
L
d 

u 2  4 f1 L 4 f1 LEquivalent
Therefore Darcy’s equation can be written as hL =  + 
2 g  d d 

u 2  4 f1 ( L + LEquivalent) 
or hL =  
2 g  d 
Equivalent lengths for circular ductwork:

15 m 1.5 m
1.5 m

11 m
90° Branch 45° Branch

3m 1.5 m

90° Bend 45° Bend

Adaptation to Rectangular Ducts

Note: Moody Chart and Chart 1 are for circular ducts/pipes

Adaption of an equivalent diameter is required for

rectangular ducts

Two Approaches based on : a) Equal Volume Flow Rate

b) Equal Velocity
 a) Equal Volume Flow Rate
When: To be used when system is the volume flow rate is the primary design
parameter.
For the same volume flow rate one is choosing a circular duct with the same
pressure loss characteristics.
For a given rectangular duct of dimensions ( a X b ), the equivalent diameter, de,
is given as 0.2
 32 a 3b3 
de =  
 (a + b )
2
 b) Equal Velocity
When: To be used when velocity is the prime design parameter (e.g. when
noise is an issue).
Here the equivalent diameter is chosen such that the velocity is the same in both, the
rectangular and the circular duct.
For a given rectangular duct of dimensions ( a X b ), the equivalent diameter, de,
is the same as the hydraulic diameter, dh, therefore
2ab
de = dh =
a+b


IX3.1 Find the hydraulic diameter of a rectangular duct of dimensions 350 mm

250 mm, which.
a) carries the same volumetric flow rate as a duct of circular section
b) carries the same velocity as a duct of circular section

0.2
 32 a 3b3   32  0.25 3  0.35 3 
0.2

a) de =   de =   = 325 mm
 (a + b )
2
  2 (0.25 + 0.35 ) 

b) 2ab 2  0.25  0.35

de = dh = dh = = 292 mm
a+b 0.25 + 0.35
 Duct Sizing using the Equal Pressure
Drop Method
Note: for simplicity we initially consider circular ducts
Principle: to balance pressure drop per unit length for every duct run
Method:

Step 1 Prepare a plan of the ducting system and mark in the volumetric flow rates at which
air is to be delivered or extracted at each point. As explained in Section 3.1, these flow rates
are found from the number of air changes required for rooms devoted to particular purposes,
or from the requirement that known heat inputs must be extracted by ventilating air.

Step 2 Apply the mass continuity equation in order to compute the flow rates in each pipe
section and hence the total volume flow through the fan.

Step 3 Select the admissible velocity for the duct next to the fan on the basis of guidance
provided by Tables 3.1 and 3.2, supplemented where possible by experience of similar
installations and building types.
 Duct Sizing using the Equal Pressure
Drop Method - continued
Method:

Step 4 With the volumetric flow rate adjacent to the fan known, the duct size required in
that portion can readily be determined from the continuity equation (1.9). For a circular cross-
section we have
ud 2
Q = then
4
4Q 16Q 2
d= or u =
u  2d 4
Alternatively, we could find the diameter of the duct from Chart 1 in the appendix.

Step 5 With the volumetric flow rate and velocity adjacent to the fan known, the pressure
drop per unit length p L is read from Chart 1. Of course, it is easiest here to combine
Steps 4 and 5, and to read both d and p L from the chart at the same time.
Duct Sizing using the Equal Pressure
Drop Method - continued
Method:

Step 6 Using the p L value found in Step 5, size all of the other ducts. You can do this
because you have both, the volume flow rate and p L for all the other ducts. Using Chart 1,
this data will allow you to read both the velocity and the diameter.

Step 7 Balance the system. After applying Step 6, the system is not balanced. Here, we
must use dampers to ensure that the pressure drop from the fan to each outlet is the same. It
is easiest to do this by first calculating the pressure drop for each duct run, then finding the
largest pressure drop, and then adding in a damper to bring the losses in each duct run up to
the same value as that in the run with the largest losses.

Note that Step 7 requires the addition of specific losses when finding the pressure drops
along each duct run. Here, specific losses (for bends, junctions, etc.) can be obtained from
Charts in the Appendix, or for equivalent lengths from Fig. 3.3. In addition, loss
coefficients may be given using the symbol z rather than K.
 Size the ducting system in Figure IX3.2 using the equal pressure drop
IX3.2 method. Identify the dampers required in order to balance the system.
This is a low velocity system so work to a maximum velocity of 5 m/s.

0.6 m3/s

(E)
Fan 6m
5m 6m (C) (D) 1.1 m3/s
(B) 4m
(A)
4m
(F)

0.2 m3/s

Step 1
Figure IX3.2. Lay-out of air distribution system.

Step 2: Continuity: Q BC = 0.2 + 1.1 = 1.3 m3 /s

Q AB = 0.6 + 1.3 = 1.9 m3/s

 0.6 m3/s

(E)
Fan 6m
5m 6m (C) (D) 1.1 m3/s
(B) 4m
(A)
4m
(F)

0.2 m3/s

Step 3: Admissible velocity in duct next to the fan: umax = uAB = 5 m/s,

Step 4: Determine duct size next to fan

 2 4Q AB 4 1.9 2
Q AB = u AB  AAB = u AB  d AB d 2
= = m
 uAB   5
AB
4

dAB = 0.696 m

Step 5: Determine pressure drop per unit length in main duct→ Chart 1:

With Q = 1.9 m3 / s, and u = 5 m/s, pAB L = 0.36 Pa/m

(and also dAB = 0.7 m !)
 Step 6: Using the pressure drop per unit length, size all other ducts:
0.6 m3/s

(E)
Fan 6m
5m 6m (C) (D) 1.1 m3/s
(B) 4m
(A)
4m
(F)

0.2 m3/s

Use chart 1
 Step 7: Pressure balancing the system by adding dampers to account for losses
0.6 m3/s

(E)
Fan 6m
5m 6m (C) (D) 1.1 m3/s
(B) 4m
(A)
4m
(F)

0.2 m3/s

Duct C-D: Equivalent length

Le = LBranch + LFrict

Here LBranch is the equivalent length for the branch losses at C in

the direction C-D (see Figure 3.3). This gives

Le = 1.5 + 4 = 5.5 m
p pCD
From step 6: pAB L = 0.36 Pa/m as =
Le Le
 p 
pCD = Le   = 5.5  0.36 = 1.98 Pa
 Le 
 
 Then repeat for Duct C-F: Le = 15 + 4 = 19 m
 p 
pCF = Le   = 19  0.36 = 6.84 Pa
 Le 
 
0.6 m3/s

(E)
Fan 6m
5m 6m (C) (D) 1.1 m3/s
(A)
(B)
4m
4m
pA = pA→ E = pA→ D = pA→ F
(F)

0.2 m3/s

Then apply the same for C: pC = pC→D = pC→F

However, from before we have pCD = 1.98 Pa

unequal pressure drops!
pCF = 6.84 Pa
Damper needs to be added in
pCD
Damper
= pCF − pCD duct CD to ensure an equal
pressure drop 4.86 + 1.98 = 6.84 Pa
pCD
Damper
= 6.84 − 1.98 = 4.86 Pa
Then again equivalent lengths and pressure drops for ducts B-C and B-E:
0.6 m3/s

(E) Duct B-C Le = 1.5 + 6 = 7.5 m

Fan 6m
(D) 1.1 m3/s
 p 
5m 6m (C)

pBC = Le   = 7.5  0.36 = 2.7 Pa

(B) 4m
(A)
4m
(F)  Le 
 
0.2 m3/s

Duct B-E Le = 15 + 6 = 21 m
 p 
pBE = Le   = 21  0.36 = 7.56 Pa
 Le 
 

? Is duct B-E balanced? → compare with another exit!

pB = pB→E = pB→F = pB→D
Unbalanced!
Choose e.g. run B-F, then pBF = pBC + pCF
pBF = 2.7 + 6.84 = 9.54 Pa

another damper in B-E pBE

Damper
= 9.54 − 7.56 = 1.98 Pa
 0.6 m3/s

(E)
Fan 6m
5m 6m (C) (D) 1.1 m3/s
(B) 4m
(A)
4m
(F)

0.2 m3/s

Now determine pressure in A for the fan: pA = pAB + pBE or

pA = pAB + pBC + pCD or

pA = pAB + pBC + pCF

 p 
As p = L   = 5  0.36 = 1.8 Pa this gives
AB e
 Le 
 
pA = pAB + pBE
*
= 1.8 + 9.54 = 11.34 Pa

p A = pAB + pBC + pCD

*
= 1.8 + 2.7 + 6.84 = 11 .34 Pa

pA = pAB + pBC + pCF = 1.8 + 2.7 + 6.84 = 11.34 Pa

Note: ducts normally have standard sizes and this means one may not be able to choose the exact
value required for p L . In this case, choose the appropriate standard size for d (perhaps the
nearest larger size if this can be accommodated), then read off a new value for p L and re-calculate
the pressure drops and the size of the dampers.
 Size the ducting system in Figure IX3.3 using the
IX3.3
equal pressure drop method. Identify the dampers
required in order to balance the system.
This is a low velocity system so work to a maximum
velocity of 5 m/s.

2m
0.4 m3/s
(D)

Fan 3m
6m (B) 4m
(A)
3m
8m
0.3 m3/s
(C)