I.

THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics is the study of heat and work.

A pure substance is a working substance whose chemical composition remains the same even if there is a change
in phase. (most common example is water)

An ideal gas is a working substance which remains in gaseous state during its operating cycle and whose equation
of state is PV = mRT. (most common example is air)

PROPERTIES OF WORKING SUBSTANCE

1. PRESSURE

Pressure, in general, is the ratio of force per unit area.

Gage pressure is the pressure reading from the gage pressure instrument h
which is higher or lower than the atmospheric pressure.

Vacuum pressure is a pressure that is less than atmospheric pressure.

Force
Pressure = , KN/m2, lb/in2 Above atmospheric

Absolute pressure (Pabs) = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric Pressure

Pabs = Pg + Patm

A. Pressure Conversions

1 atm = 0 kPag = 101.325 kPa = 14.7 psi = 29.92 in Hg = 760 mm Hg

B. Hydrostatic Pressure, P P = wh

where: w = density of fluid = (SG x ww)

h = height of fluid ww = density of water
= 1000 kg/m3 = 9.81 KN/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3 = 1 kg/li P h

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2. TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance or body.

A thermometer is an instrument used to measure the temperature

of a body or a substance.

A pyrometer is an instrument used to measure high temperature gases.

A. Relation between C and F scales( Arbitrary Temperature)

C = 5/9 (F – 32) F = 9/ 5 C + 32

B. Absolute temperatures:

K = C + 273 R = F + 460

C. Temperature Difference:

C = 5/9 F F = 9/5 C

C = K F = R

D. Absolute-Zero Temperature = -273oC = -460oF

3. DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

Density is defined, in thermodynamic terms, as the mass per unit volume of a substance

Specific volume is the volume per unit of mass in a substance. It is also the reciprocal of density.

Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a standard (water for liquid and air
for gas).

m 1
A. w = = B. v = C. SG =
V v

If two fluids are mixed together:

wm = m1 + m2 = m1 + m2 vm = V1 + V2 = m1 / v1 + m2 / v2 SGm = wm
V1 + V2 m1 / v1 + m2 / v2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 wwater
SGm = specific gravity of mixture wm = density of mixture

4. INTERNAL ENERGY(U)
Internal energy is the heat energy due to the movement of molecules within the brought about its temperature.

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5. FLOW WORK

Wf = Pressure x Specific Volume Wf = P(V2 - V1) , KJ Wf = P(v2 - v1), KJ/kg

6. ENTHALPY, H

h = Internal Energy + Flow Work h = U + Pv or h = U + (P2v2 – P1v1)

7. STAGNATION ENTHALPY

hs = ho + vo2 /2000 where: vo = initial velocity, ho = ordinary enthalpy

8. ENTROPY

s = Q/T

GENERAL FLOW EQUATIONS

1. Volume flow rate, (Q) m3/sec Q = Area x Velocity = A x v = m v

where: A =  / 4 D2 (for circular cross section) A = L x w (for rectangular)

2. Mass flow rate, (m), kg/sec m = Q/v m = Av /  = A v w

Where: w = density  = specific volume

A1 v 1 A2 v2
3. For steady flow process: m1 = m2 = A1 v1 w1 = A2 v2 w2
1 2

4. If Q is constant:

Q1 = Q2 A1 v1 = A2 v2

(D ) V = (D ) V (D1)2 V1 = (D1)2 V2

Where: A1 = inlet area A2 = exit area

v1 = inlet velocity v2 = exit velocity

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 II. CONSERVATION OF MASS AND ENERGY
The law of conservation of mass states that the total mass is a constant. This means that the total mass entering
to a system is equal to the total mass leaving.

FORMS OF ENERGY

1. Potential Energy, P - is an energy produced due to the change in elevation.

P = mgh P = P2 - P1 = mg(h2 - h1)

where: m = mass of the body h = height or elevation

Unit Analysis: (SI Unit – English Unit)

mgh mh kJ Btu
PE = PE = kJ, Btu kW, Btu/min
1000 778 kg , lb
m Not known kg, lb kg/s, lb/min
(m = 1 kg/kg, 1lb/lb)
h m, ft m, ft m, ft

2. Kinetic Energy, KE - is an energy produced due to the mass and velocity.

1
KE = mv2
2
where: m = mass W = weight v = velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity

3. Work, W - is the product of the displacement of the body and the component of the force in the
direction of the displacement.

Work = Force x Distance

Note: 1. Work done by the system is positive (out from the system)
2. Work done on the system is negative (entering to the system)

5. Heat, Q - heat is formed due to the temperature difference.

Q = mcp(t2 - t1)

where: m = mass cp = specific heat t = temperature

Note: 1. Heat is positive when heat is added to the system.
2. Heat is negative when rejected from the system.

III. LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when the two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with the
third body, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other and hence are at the same temperature.

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 2. First Law of Thermodynamics

States that one form of energy may be converted into another form.
All energy entering = All energy leaving

A. P1 + K1 + Wf1 + U1 + W = P2 + K2 + Wf2 + U2 + Q
B. W = (P2 - P1) + (K2 - K1) + (U2 - U1) + (Wf2 -Wf1) + Q
C. W = P + K + U + Wf + Q But: h = U + Wf
D. W = P + K + h + Q
E. Neglecting Potential energy, Kinetic energy & Heat: W = h = h2 - h1

3. Second Law of Thermodynamics

Kelvin-Planck Statement: “It is impossible to construct a heat engine which operates in a cycle and receives a
given amount of heat from a high temperature body and does an equal amount of work”

4. Third Law of Thermodynamics

States that the absolute entropy of a pure crystalline substance in complete internal equilibrium is zero at zero
degrees absolute.

IV. IDEAL GAS

Ideal gas is a substance that has the equation of state:

PV = mRT PV = 8.314 n T

where: P = absolute pressure m = mass of gas V = volume of gas

R = gas constant T = absolute temperature n = number of mols

Boyle’s Law: (T = C ) P1 V1 = P2 V2

V1 T1 P1 T1
Charles’s Law: (P = C and V = C) = =
V2 T2 P2 T2

BASIC PROPERTIES OF IDEAL GAS

1. Relationship between cp, cv, R and k

R Rk cp
A. cp = cv + R B. cv = C. cp = D. k =
k −1 k −1 cv
k = 1.4 for cold air k = 1.3 for hot air
where: cp = constant pressure specific heat cv = constant volume specific heat
k = specific heat ratio R = gas constant

For air: cp = 1.0 KJ/kg-K = 0.24 Btu/lb-R

cv = 0.7186 KJ/kg-K = 0.171 Btu/lb-R
R = 0.287 KJ/kg-K = 53.3 ft-lb/lb-R

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2. Universal gas constant of any gas is given by:

8.314 1545
R = , KJ/kg-K = ft-lb/lb-R

where: M = no. of moles of gas

For common gases:

Ammonia, NH3 ( M = 17) Helium (M = 4, k = 1.667) Air (M = 28.97)
Oxygen, O2 (M = 32) Nitrogen, N2 (M = 28) Carbon dioxide, CO2 (M = 44)

3. Density of air, w

4. Specific volume of air, v

5. Standard density of air, w = 1.20 kg/m3 = 0.0749 lb/ft3

Standard temperature of air = 70oF = 21.11oC
Standard pressure of air = 14.7 psi = 101.325 kpa

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