ABd.

Alim
CTEC – 15
 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

Chapter
01 The physical structure of fiber 02
Theories of fiber structure – 11
Chapter
02 Mechanical Properties 14
Tensile Properties – 14, Torsional Properties – 25, Flexural Properties – 28
Chapter
03 Swelling Properties 32

Chapter
04 Frictional Properties 39

chapter
05 Optical Properties 48

chapter
06 Thermal Properties 57

chapter
07 Static Electricity 67

chapter
08 Fiber & Yarn structure and their properties 71
Twist contraction & Retraction – 75, Packing of fibers – 83, Structure of yarn – 85
chapter
09 Fabric Geometry 86
Jamming – 91, Mathematical Problem – 94
chapter
10 Fiber Migration in Yarn 96

chapter
11 Share and Drape of Fabric 101

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The Physical structure of Fiber

Fiber structure:
The Textile institute defined, as units of matter that is characterized by fiber fineness, flexibility and
high ratio of fiber length to diameter.

Describe the basic requirements of fiber forming polymers. 21, 20, 18, 16, TECN_CT_1
Requirements of fiber formation or fiber forming polymer
1. Hydrophilic: Hydrophobic polymer fibers, which are non-polar and water-attracting, are used in
textile applications, but must be blended with hydrophilic fibers to achieve desired properties.
2. Chemical resistance: Polymers, used in filter fabrics and protective clothing, should be chemically
resistant against common degrading agents, but not inert, ensuring they are not toxic or hazardous
to wear.
3. Linear: Linear fiber polymers are preferred as they form crystalline regions, resulting in numerous
inter-polymer forces of attraction within the polymer system.
4. Capable of being oriented: Fiber polymers should be oriented in a parallel order along the fiber's
longitudinal axis, with two forms of orientation in any fiber polymer system. The two forms of
polymer orientation are:
▪ Amorphous regions (random)
▪ Crystalline regions (highly ordered, highly oriented)
5. Long: Fiber polymers should be long, ideally 100 nanometers long, and easily oriented for optimal
strength and cohesiveness. Alignment maximizes inter-polymer forces, resulting in a strong fiber.

Figure: Long fiber as it has long ‘path of break’ Figure: Weak fiber as it has long ‘path of break’
6. Able to form high melting point polymer systems: Fibers require high melting point above 225°C
for textile manufacturing and apparel use. Longer polymers and better orientation form cohesive
systems, requiring more heat to break inter-polymer forces.

Orientation. 17
Orientation for fiber can be define as the structural arrangement of the molecules on the fibrous
matter.

Effects of Orientation
▪ The molecules slide over each other.
▪ The molecules turn into the direction of the drawing, that’s why after being drawn the fiber axis is
oriented parallel.
▪ Increased fiber crystallinity.
▪ Fiber properties are modified by the increase in the degree of orientation.

Amorphous polymer orientation: 22, 22, 21, 20, 20, 18, 18, 17
Polymers are oriented or aligned at random fashion in amorphous region, i.e., shows no particular
order of arrangement.

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Crystalline polymer orientation: 22, 22, 21, 20, 20, 18, 18, 17
In crystalline regions the polymers are oriented or aligned longitudinally into more or less parallel
order.

Difference between amorphous and crystalline fiber.

Amorphous Crystalline
Amorphous polymers are polymers that contain Crystalline polymers are polymers with crystalline
amorphous regions where molecules are regions where molecules are arranged in a partial
arranged randomly. pattern.
Amorphous polymers are polymers that have no Crystalline polymers are polymers that have a
ordered pattern in its molecular structure. well-organized structure.
Amorphous polymers are made out of atactic Crystalline polymers are made out of syndiotactic
polymer chains. and isotactic polymer chains.
Amorphous polymers have weak attraction forces Crystalline polymers have strong attraction forces
between polymer chains. between polymer chains.
Amorphous polymers have a low density. Crystalline polymers have a high density.
Amorphous polymers have a low chemical Crystalline polymers have a high chemical
resistance. resistance.
Polymer chains are arranged in an atactic manner Polymer chains are arranged in a syndiotactic and
in amorphous polymers. isotactic manner in crystalline polymers.
Amorphous polymers are transparent. Crystalline polymers are translucent

Properties of more amorphous fibers: 22

▪ Formation of less effective inter-polymer forces of attraction. (weak)
▪ Permits easier entry of water and dye molecules as well as molecules, ions and/or radicals of
degrading agents. So more absorbent and more easily dyed.
▪ Allows the polymers to be more readily displaced when the fiber is subjected to stresses and
strains during wearing.
▪ Less durable.
▪ More easily degraded by chemicals.
▪ More pliable, softer handling.

Properties of more crystalline fibers: 22

▪ Formation of more effective inter-polymer forces of attraction.
▪ Restricts the entry of water and dye molecules as well as molecules, ions and/or radicals of
degrading agents. So less absorbent and less easily dyed
▪ Does not allow the polymers to be displaced when the fiber is subject to stresses and strains during
wearing.
▪ More durable.
▪ Less easily degraded by chemicals.
▪ Less pliable, stiffer handling.
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Mention the relationship between fiber properties and structure of fiber. 18, 15, 15
Relation between fiber structure & fiber properties:
1. Tensile strength:
a. Proportional to bonding strength.
b. Proportional to the molecular weight.
c. Proportional to the degree of crystallinity.
d. Proportional to the degree of fiber orientation.
2. Extensibility:
a. Proportional to chain length.
b. Proportional to helical angle.
c. Reciprocal to the degree of crystallinity.
d. Reciprocal to the degree of molecular orientation.
3. Moisture regains:
a. Proportional to the number of polar groups.
b. Reciprocal to the degree of crystallinity.
4. Electrical conductivity:
a. Proportional to the no. of polar groups.
b. Reciprocal to the degree of crystallinity.
5. Electrical properties: (Formation of static electricity)
a. Charge magnitude is proportional to degree of crystallinity.
b. Charge magnitude is proportional to degree of molecular orientation.

Write down the names of methods used for the investigation of fiber structure. 20, 15
Methods of fiber structure investigation:
1. X-ray diffraction method
2. Absorption of Infra-red radiation
3. Electron microscopic method
4. Optical microscopic method
5. Thermal analysis
6. Nuclear magnetic resonance methods
7. Density
8. Physical properties
9. The chemistry of fiber material

X-ray diffraction (XRD) method: SARSTEC_CT_1

X-ray fiber diffraction is used to study the molecular structure of long assemblies of identical
subunits. Such an assembly will normally have minimum energy when all subunits have the same
environment.

Properties of X-ray Diffraction Method:

▪ Determination of chemical groups.
▪ Determination of molecular spacing.
▪ Determination of chemical bonding.
▪ Determination of degree of crystallinity & orientation.
▪ Determination of water absorption.

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Write down the advantages of X-ray diffraction method. 18

The main advantages of X-ray diffraction are:
1. It is a rapid and powerful technique for identifying unknown
materials.
2. It gives information about the shape of scattering particles.
3. It gives information about internal structure of the fiber.
4. XRD measurement instruments are widely available.
5. It gives information about the distribution of spacing
between the particles.
6. It can be used to determine the Alpha and Beta molecular
configuration of fiber.
Disadvantages:
1. As scientist Taylor commented that it’s an indirect, trial and
error method.
2. If the required angle isn’t made by the x-ray beam, reflection
won’t occur.
3. Not possible to identify the chemical formula.
4. Not influenced by the molecules of amorphous regain.

X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrum of crystalline, semi-crystalline and amorphous polymer: SARSTEC_CT_1

Prove that n = 2dsin in the case of x-ray diffraction method. 22, 20, 18
State the X-ray diffraction method for investigation fiber structure. 18, 15
Discuss the X-ray diffraction method for investigating the fiber structure. 16
Bragg’s law:
If a beam of x-rays is directed at a crystal, it is strongly reflected whenever it strikes layers of atoms
at an angle ϴ°, such that
n = 2d sin 
Here,
n = integer number (1, 2, 3……)
λ = wave length of x-rays.
d = distance between two atomic layers of crystal.

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Derivation of Bragg’s law:

Let, a beam of x-rays is directed at a crystal. The beam strikes the layers AA′ at point C and BB′ at
point D at an angle θ. The beam is reflected from the layers at the same angle. d is the distance between
two layers and λ is the wave length of X – rays beam. Now, draw CE⊥DA and CF⊥DA′.

From figure, ∠BDC = ∠B'DC = 90°

∴∠EDC = ∠FDC = (90° – θ)
Here, ∠CED = 90°
In ∆CED, ∠CED + ∠EDC + ∠DCE = 180°
 90° + 90° −  + ∠DCE = 180°
∴ ∠DCE = 
DE DE
sin  = DC = d
DE = d sin 
Again, ∠CFD = 90°
In, ∆CFD, ∠CFD + ∠FDC + ∠DCF = 180°
 90° + 90° −  + ∠DCF = 180°
So, ∠DCF = 
DF DF
Sin  = =
DC d
DF = d sin 
So, DE + DF = 2d sin 
 n = 2d sin  [Proved]
𝐧
 d = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧  [Proved]
So, if d  → Atomic layer distance → Crystallinity 

Describe the Electron microscope method for investigating fiber structure with figure. 17
Electron microscope/Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM): SARSTEC_CT_1
The electron microscope is exactly analogous to the optical microscope.
The rays from an electron source are condensed on the specimen and then
focused by electric or magnetic fields acting as lenses to give a magnified image
on a fluorescent photographic plate.
An electron microscope consists of –
1. Source of electron.
2. Electron lens (condenser lens).
3. Projector lens.
4. Screen to take the image of specimen.

Advantages:
1. Gives information about the crystallinity of fibers.
2. Gives information about the orientation of fibers.
3. Magnifying power 6000 – 20000 unit.
4. Resolving power lies between 2 Å – 200 Å which is much less than compound microscopy.
5. Gives more info about the internal structure of fiber.
6. Explains the molecules of amorphous region.

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Disadvantages:
1. Obtaining sufficient contrast is difficult.
2. Fibers are not easiest specimen to difficult.
3. Specimen has to be dry, not wet.
4. Specimen has to be thin. [Less than 0.1 m]

IR method:
Infra-red spectroscope is one of the most common and widely used spectroscopic techniques.
When electromagnetic waves interact with matter, they are scattered and absorbed. In infrared
spectroscopy, radiation with wavelengths between 1 – 15 m is absorbed at certain characteristics
frequencies, which yield structural information.
By using an infrared spectrometer, the variation in absorption can be found and plotted against
wavelength or wave number.
𝟏
Wave number = 𝐖𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐢𝐧 𝐜𝐦
The wave number at which absorption takes place depends on,
1. The nature of the two atoms.
2. The bond between them.
3. The other groups in the neighborhood.

State the infrared radiation method for investing fiber structure. 21, 15
How fiber structure can be investigated using IR absorption method? 20, 18
Absorption of Infra-red radiation
When infrared radiation, composed of electromagnetic waves of wavelength lies between 1 – 15
m passes through a material, it is highly absorbed at certain characteristic frequencies.
By using an infrared radiation spectrometer, the variation of the absorptions can be found. And if we plot
this against the wave length / wave number we can get following figure for nylon:

Figure: Infra – red radiation absorptions spectrum of nylon.

Here,
Full line: Electro vector perpendicular to fiber axis.
Broken line: Electric vector parallel to fiber axis.
In figure:
The peaks are due to
1540 cm-1 uncertain involves (– NH) and neighbors’ bonds
1640cm-1 stretching of C = O 2860 and
2930 cm-1 stretching of – CH2
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3305 cm-1 stretching of – NH

The picks occur where the frequency of the electromagnetic waves corresponds with the natural
frequency of variation between two atoms in the material. If these are associated with an electric dipole,
then the variations in the electric field set up the vibration and energy is absorbed from the radiation. The
wave number at which absorption takes place depends primarily on the nature of the two atoms and of
the bond between them.

To a similar extent, the absorption frequency is influenced by the other groups in the neighborhood.
Instruments consists of –
I) Source of infrared radiation
II) Diffraction grating
III) Sensitive heat detector
IV) Output display.

Write down the advantages and disadvantages of IR method. 22, 15

Advantages:
▪ Identification of certain chemical groups in the molecule, leading to the identification of its
chemical formula.
▪ The amount of water in fibers can be determined.
▪ To identify and estimate quantitatively the presence of giben substances by observing of their
characteristic's spectrum.
▪ Degree of orientation of the molecules in a fiber can be investigated.
▪ Find the direction in which a particular group points in a molecule of unknown form.
▪ It is influenced by all the molecules in the fiber, in both crystalline and non-crystalline regions.
Disadvantages:
▪ Can’t give about the shape of scattering particles.
▪ Can’t give about the spacing differences of scattering particles.

Compare between IR radiation and X-ray diffraction method. 21, 17, TECN_CT_1
Write down the difference between IR method and X – ray diffraction method. 19, 17, 16, 15
IR method X – ray diffraction method
In IR method, the light source of 1 – 15 m In X ray method, the X – ray is used for
wavelength is used. investigating fiber.
It gives information both crystallinity & non It gives information about only crystallinity of a
crystallinity of fibers. fiber.
It can be used to determine the amount of water It can’t use to determine the amount of water in
in fibers. fibers.
It is possible to identify the chemical group of Don’t possible in X – ray method.
fiber in IR method.
It doesn’t give information about the distribution It gives information about the distribution of
of spacing between the particles and shape of spacing between the particles and shape of
scattering. scattering.
Infrared spectrum in used as the main X – ray source, colorimeter & photographic film is
component. used as the main component.
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What are the advantages of IR radiation method over x – ray diffraction method to investigate fiber
structure? 22, 21, 20, 18,
IR radiation X-ray diffraction
The degree of orientation of the molecules in a The degree of orientation of the molecules in a
fiber can be known. fiber can’t be known.
IR may also be used to find the direction in X-ray diffraction method cannot be used to
which a particular group points in a molecule of investigate the direction of a group points in a
unknown form. molecule.
An advantage of the infrared absorption The X-ray diffraction method gives detailed
method is that it is influenced by all the information only about the crystalline regions of
molecules in the fiber, in both the crystalline the fiber.
and non-crystalline regions.
The method can also be used in routine analysis This method can’t be used to identify the presence
to identify and estimate quantitatively the of a given substances.
presence of given substances, even in small
quantities in a mixture, by observation of their
characteristic spectrum. For instance, it can be
used to determine the amount of water in
fibers.
Can identify the chemical formula. Can’t do so.

Mention the properties of infrared radiation absorption method. 17

Some of the properties of infrared radiation absorption method are:
▪ It is a rapid, economical and non-destructive physical method for structural analysis of materials.
▪ It is based on the absorption of infrared radiation by molecular vibrations that depend on the
atomic mass, bond length, bond strength and force constants of interatomic bonds.
▪ It is influenced by the symmetry of the unit cell, the site symmetry of each atom, the degree of
crystalline order, the size and shape of the particles, and the orientation of the particles relative to
the electric vector of the radiation.
▪ It can provide information on the identification of chemical groups, the amount of water, the
degree of orientation, and the surface properties and reactions of materials.

Optical diffraction Method:

▪ The orientation of the polymer molecule can
be estimated.
▪ A beam of light passing through the
photographic slide.
▪ Recombine the information of picture by using
lens.
▪ A diffraction grating of regularly spaced line,
illuminated by parallel light. With the maxima
of the bride bands at angle  defined by
relation.
N = a sin 
[Where, N is an integer and  is the wave length of the light.]

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Describe the effects of structural factors on fiber properties. 17

1. Chemical bonding arrangement.
a. Single bonds (– C – C – C –)
i. Less strength.
ii. More flexibility.
iii. Easy moveable polymer system.
b. Double bonds (–C = C – C = C–)
i. More strength.
ii. Less flexibility.
iii. No moveable polymer system.
2. Crystallinity: Crystallinity is the arrangement of fiber molecules in the polymer chain. Crystallinity
can be classified as (a) crystalline region (b) nor crystalline region.
a. Crystalline region: In crystalline molecules are arranged parallel. So,
− More strength.
− More density.
− Elastic property lower.
− More stiffness and rigid.
b. Non crystalline: Here the fiber molecules are arranged randomly without any arrangement. So,
− Lower strength.
− More elastic.
− More flexible.
For example, cotton fiber contains 65% crystalline and 35% non-crystalline region. Generally
manmade fibers are greater strength due to its higher crystallinity.
Write down the characteristics of highly oriented fiber. 16
3. Orientation: Orientation refers to the arrangement of molecular chains in fibers, with high oriented
fibers having parallel, compact molecules, and low oriented fibers having random arrangements.
Properties of a highly oriented fiber:
▪ Higher strength
▪ Higher crystalline
▪ Less absorbent
▪ Less elastic due to less extensibility
▪ Good shininess.
4. Chain character
a. Long chain (– CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 –) n: More strength and less flexibility.
b. Short chain (– CH2 – CH2 –) n: Less strength and more flexibility.
c. Long side chain: More strength and less flexibility.
d. Short side chain: Less strength and more flexibility.
5. Nature of repeating unit
a. Same monomers (homo-polymer): More strength and less flexibility.
b. Different monomers (co-polymer): Less strength and more flexibility.
6. Molecular packing
a. Regular packing: More strength and less flexibility.
b. Irregular packing: Less strength and more flexibility.
– CH2 – CH2 – HCCH3 – CH2 – CH2 – HCCH3 – CH2 – CH –
Regular packing

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– CH2 – CH2 – CH3CCH3 – CH2 – CH2 – HCCH3 – CH2 – CH2 –

Irregular packing
7. Degree of Polymerization: Degree of polymerization is the no. of total monomer present in a
polymeric chain. Length, strength, fineness, elongation depends on it. In the case of nylon fiber, if
DP is 10000 to 20000 then strength of the fiber increases, also cotton and acrylic are of higher
strength due to their higher DP. Acetate and wool are weak as their DP is low.
8. Cross link effect: If cross link is present in fiber the main chain cannot sliding, as result fiber
strength is increased, crystallinity will increase and does not create crease.

Macro structure: 15
The structure / physical structure which is visible to naked eyes or to a low powered microscope is
called Macro structure.

Effect to properties:
1. Length & cross-sectional area.
2. Surface appearance.
3. Color and light reflection etc.

Micro structure: 15
Micro structure is concerned to the issues of fiber type & size and to the pattern by which
molecules are arranged.

Effects: Strength, Elasticity, Specific gravity etc.

Theories of fiber structure

Micellar Theory:
▪ Originated in the 19th century.
▪ Non homogeneity of polymer and fiber structure.
▪ The original micellar theory, as formulated by Niigeli,
envisaged the existence of –
"Crystalline micelles embedded in an inter micellar
Fig.: Micellar structure
material or substance of an unspecified mature."
▪ The discovery that fibers and other plant materials were able to defect x-rays provided great
support for the micellar concept.

Continuous Theory:
▪ In the early part of the 20Th century.
▪ Length of the polymer molecules as much greater than previously
envisaged and that could be accommodated in the Nligeli micelles.
▪ This led to postulation of a theory of continuous structure.
Fig.: Continuous structure
▪ Polymer was considered as –
✓ A large continuous imperfect crystal, with the crystalline imperfection being associated with
the ends of the molecular chain.
▪ An amorphous polymer –
✓ Consisted of a random network of intertwined polymer molecules with no three-
dimensional order or structural regularity.

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Fringed Micelles Theory:

▪ As molecular dimensions become better established by both chemical and physical methods, the
Niigeli micelles had to be abandoned.
▪ Most polymer and fiber scientists, however, were not willing to accept the continuous model.
▪ Polyphase concept was so successful polymers.
▪ A solution was found in the proposal of fringed micelles.
▪ In this model crystalline micelles were still embedded in amorphous regions.
▪ Individual polymer chains were able to pass through several crystalline micelles
and amorphous regions in a more or less alternating manner.
▪ The crystalline micelles were interconnected by primary molecular forces
orientation with respect to the fiber axis.
▪ In addition to accommodation the large molecular dimensions, the fringed
micellar concept was able to interpret –
✓ Mechanical properties.
✓ X-ray diffraction. Fringed micelle's
structure
✓ Optical birefringence and
✓ Such physical properties as density, sorption and swelling.

Fringed Fibrils Theory: SARSTEC_CT_1

▪ Fringed fibrillar theory of fiber structure which replaces the dimensionally
discrete micelle of the fringed micellar theory with a continuous fibril was
proposed.
▪ In this concept, essentially crystalline fibrils run along the length of fiber, with
some polymer chains traversing from one fibril to another.
▪ Thus, forming the fringed, imperfectly ordered or amorphous regions.

Fibril:
Fibrils are composed of linear biopolymers, and are characterized by rod-like structures with high
length-to-diameter ratios.

Fringe: Fringe is an edging or border of loose threads, tassels or loops.

▪ The part of fringe containing both warp and weft is known as 'Heading'
▪ The part of fringe containing only weft is 'Skirt'.

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Distinguish between fibrils and fibers.

Fibrils Fibers
Fibrils are composed of linear biopolymers, and are Fiber is a natural or artificial substance that is
characterized by rod-like structures with high significantly 100 or 1000 times longer than its
length-to-diameter ratios. diameter.
Its size is smaller Longer than a myofibril.
It has a cylindrical organelle structure. A cell will a nucleus and other organelles, including
mitochondria.
Composed of two types of myofilaments called thin Composed of numerous myofibrils.
and thick filaments.

BKMEA: The Bangladesh Knitwear Manufacturers and Exporters Association.

Degree of Polymerization: SRTEC & SKTEC_CT_2

The degree of polymerization, or DP, is the number of monomeric units in a macromolecule or
polymer or oligomer molecule.
𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐨𝐥𝐲𝐦𝐞𝐫
Degree of Polymerization = 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐫

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Mechanical Properties

Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of textile fibers, the responses to applied forces and deformations, are
probably their most important properties technically, contributing both to the behavior of fibers in
processing and to the performance of the final product.

Different types of mechanical properties

▪ Tensile properties.
▪ Flexural properties
▪ Tortional properties
▪ Frictional properties etc.

Tensile Properties
Tensile properties:
Tensile properties are composed of the reaction of the materials to resist when forces are applied
in tension.
Example: Tensile strength, Tenacity, Breaking extension, Work of rupture, Initial modulus, Yield
modulus, Yield stress, Yield strain, Work factor, Elastic recovery, etc.

Load:
The application of a load to a specimen in its axial direction causes a tension to be developed in the
specimen.

Breaking load:
Breaking load is the maximum load or force that a material can withstand before it breaks or fails. It
is typically measured in units of force, such as pounds or newtons. The formula for breaking load is:
𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐚𝐭 𝐛𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤
Breaking load = 𝐂𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐬−𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚

Stress: 21, 17
Stress is the applied force per unit area that a material experiences when subjected to an external
load. It is typically measured in units of pressure. The formula for stress is:
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐅
Stress, σ = 𝐜𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐬−𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 = 𝐀
Unit: σ is stress (N/m2 or Pa)

Specific stress (Mass stress): 16, 15

Mass stress is the ratio between the force applied to the linear density.
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝 (𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝) 𝐅
Mass stress/Specific stress,  = =𝐏
𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲,
Units are: N/tex, mN/tex, cN/tex, cN/dtex, gf/denier.

Engineering stress:
Engineering stress can be equated to the load applied per original cross-sectional area.
𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐅
Stress, σE = 𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 = 𝐀
𝐨

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True stress:
True stress can be equated to the load applied per instantaneous (actual) cross sectional area.
𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐅𝟏
Stress, σT = 𝐈𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐜𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 = 𝐀

Why specific stress is important in textile materials?

Specific stress is a useful parameter to describe the fiber cross-sectional fineness. In textile
materials, conventional stress (force per unit area) is very difficult to practically estimate the cross-
sectional dimensions. Besides, specific stress (force per unit linear density) is more useful for fibers and is
the usual mode in the textile community.

Elongation:
Elongation is defined as the length at breaking point expressed as a percentage of its original
length (i.e., length at rest)

Strain:
Strain is defined as the ratio of the change in dimension to the initial dimension of the metal. It
does not have a unit.
𝐄𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐥−𝐥𝟎
Strain, 𝛆 = 𝐈𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 = 𝐥𝟎
Where,
l0 is starting or initial length (mm)
l is stretched length (mm)

Stain hardening:
Stain hardening is a process in which a fiber is permanently deformed in order to increase its
resistance to further deformation or Some materials show increased stress during plastic flow, with a
phenomenon called strain hardening.

Tenacity: 17, 15, 15

Tenacity is calculated as the maximum load or breaking force that a material can withstand before
it breaks or fails, divided by its linear density. In textile and fiber science, tenacity is typically expressed in
units of grams per denier (g/d) or grams per tex. The formula for tenacity is:
𝐁𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝
Tenacity = 𝐋𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲

Breaking Length/Tensile strength: 20, 19, 17, 16, SKTEC_CT_1

The breaking length is the length of the specimen which will just break under its own wt. when
hung vertically. Unit of breaking length is kilogram.
𝐁𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝
Breaking length = 𝐋𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐥
Unit: N/m2, dyne/cm2

In between, nylon and polyester, which one has more breaking force?
Breaking force is related to the diameter of the fiber. Breaking force is proportional to the diameter
of the fiber. We know that, Diameter of nylon>diameter of polyester So, nylon has more breaking force
than polyester.

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

Work of rupture: 22, 15, CTEC_CT_1

Work of rupture is define as the energy required to break a specimen and is typically measured in
units of joules per unit volume. The formula for work of rupture is:
𝐛𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤
Work of rupture =∫𝟎 𝐅 × 𝐝𝐥
𝟏
= 𝟐 (Breaking load × Breaking extension)

Work factor: 20, 19, 17, 16, 15, SKTEC & SRTEC_CT_1
If the fiber obeyed Hooke’s law, the load – elongation curve
would be a straight line, and the work of rupture would be given by:
1
work of rupture = 2 (breaking load × breaking elongation).
𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐨𝐟 𝐫𝐮𝐩𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞
Work factor = 𝐁𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 ×𝐁𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝟏
×𝐁𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 ×𝐁𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝟐
= 𝐁𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 ×𝐁𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝟏
=
𝟐
a. In ideal state, the work factor will be ½.
b. If the load elongation curves lie mainly above the straight line the work factor will be more than ½.
c. If the load elongation curves lie mainly below the straight line the work factor will be less than ½.

Extension percentage: The ratio of elongation and initial length per hundred; that is the expression of
strain in percentage is known as extension.
𝐄𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
Extension% = 𝐈𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 × 100%

Gauge length: The gauge length is the original length of that portion of the specimen over which the strain
or change of length is determined.

Initial modulus/ Young’s modulus / Stiffness: 2222, 18, 18, 17, 15, 15, TECN_CT_1
Young's modulus or the initial modulus (IM) is a measure of the amount of
deformation that is caused by a small stress.
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬
Initial modulus, tan  = 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧

Mention the effect of initial modulus in textiles. 15, TECN_CT_1

The effect of initial modulus in textiles:
1. Chemical structure: Higher Ring structure of molecular chain in fiber, Higher initial modulus.
2. Orientation: For Higher orientation of molecules, Higher I.M.

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

3. Crystallinity: for Higher crystallinity of fiber, Higher, I.M.

4. Extensibility: for lower extensibility of fiber, Higher I.M.
5. Stiffness: for Higher stiffness of fabric, Higher I.M.

Describe stress-strain curve when load is applied on a fiber. 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, PTEC_CT_1
Stress- strain curve / Tensile properties:
When external force is applied to a material, it is balanced by internal forces development in the
molecular structure of the material. By increasing the stresses, material will deform and follow the stress –
strain curve.
Region O to A: Linear region involves elongation in deformation of
amorphous regions, recovering most extension and exhibiting elastic
property, hence called elastic deformation.
Region A to B: Long chain molecules undergo plastic deformation,
resembling their original form, at the breaking point B, as secondary bonds
break, causing the material to exhibit plastic properties.
Yield point: 17, 15, SKTEC & SRTEC_CT_1
The point (A) up to which a material shows elastic properties (up to
elastic deformation), after which the fiber shows plastic properties (plastic
deformation) is called Yield Point.
𝐀𝐀′
tan  = 𝐎𝐀′
Since the stress–strain curve is approximately linear up to the yield point, the work to the yield point will
be almost equal to ½ (Yield stress × Yield strain)
Yield stress: The stress at yield point is called yield stress.
Yield strains: The strain at yield point is called yield strain.
Yield strength: The stress at which material strain changes from elastic
deformation to plastic deformation, causing it to deform permanently.

Two theories of yield point construction

a. Meredith’s construction: Meredith has suggested defining the
yield point as the point at which the tangent to the curve is
parallel to the line joining the origin to the breaking point.
b. Coplan’s construction: Coplan used a different construction and
defined the yield point as occurring at the stress given by the
intersection of the tangent at the origin with the tangent having
the least slope.
Breaking extension: The extension to break the material to the initial
length of that material is known as breaking extension. It is expressed as %.
𝐄𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐭 𝐛𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤
Breaking extension (%) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐈𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡
Elastic recovery: The power of recovery from a given extension is called elastic recovery. Elastic recovery
depends on types of extension, fiber structure, types of molecular bonding and crystalline of fiber.
𝐄𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐄𝐱𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
Elastic recovery =  100%
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐄𝐱𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
Elasticity: SKTEC & SRTEC_CT_1
Tendency of a material to recover the extension of material when stress is removed.

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

Plasticity: SKTEC & SRTEC_CT_1

After elastic limit if stress to recover material cannot recover the extension.

Elastic recovery depends on –

4. The type of extension
5. The time allowed for recovery
6. Type of molecular bond
7. The moisture in the specimen 5. Structure of the fiber

Work recovery: The ratio between work returned during recovery and total work done in total extension is
called work recovery.
𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐞𝐝 𝐝𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐲
Work recovery (%) = 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐝𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐝𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐞𝐱𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧  100%

Describe Recovery work of rupture on durability. 16, CTEC_CT_1

Recovery work of rupture on durability/ Durability phenomenon: Durability means, how long time a
material will give service. When fibers are frequently subjected to a shock of given energy, below their
work rupture it does not break initially, but a succession of repeated shocks can be led up the stress strain
curve to the breaking point.
If, imposed shock has an energy = w
Work of recovery in given cycle = r
Amount of energy used in the cycle = w (1 – r)
If the no. of shocks up to break the fiber = N
The total energy required to break is equal to work of rupture 'W' of the fiber, that means the life time of
the fiber expressed in terms of the number N of shocks.
So, work of rupture, W =∑N 1 w (1 – r)
For constant value of w and r the relation is,
Nw(1 – r) = W
𝐖
N = 𝐰(𝟏−𝐫)
Durability of textile materials will be high if –
1. Gentle use or giving low value of (w)
2. The use of fiber having high work of rupture(W)
3. Good recovery of the material on value and close to one (1)

Load-elongation curve: When the load on a specimen is plotted against the elongation, load-elongation
curve is produced. This curve describes the behavior of the
specimen from zero load and elongation up to breaking
point.
From the load-elongation curve, the following
information can be obtained –
a. Initial Young Modulus
b. Work of rupture
c. Yield point
d. Work factor.

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What is creep? Explain its type. 19, 15, CTEC_CT_1

Creep: 22, 21, 18, 18, 17, 15, 15
When a material is subjected to a constant load, it deforms continuously. The material will continue
to deform slowly with time indefinitely or until rupture or yielding causes failure. This phenomenon of
deformation under load with time is called creep.

Creep is of 2 types:
1. Primary creep: starts at a rapid rate and slows with time.
2. Secondary creep: has a relatively uniform rate.

Primary creep: 16
▪ It is fully recoverable in times.
▪ Fibers will come back to its original position after removing the applied
force.
▪ Elastic deformation is occurred.
▪ Molecular chain is stretched slightly.

Secondary creep: 16
▪ It is non recoverable in time.
▪ Fibers can’t be come back to its original shape after removing the applied
force.
▪ Plastic deformation occurred.
▪ Molecular chain break.

Characteristics of Creep
▪ Creep in service is usually affected by changing
conditions of loading and temperature
▪ The number of possible stress-temperature time
combinations is infinite.
▪ The creep mechanisms are often different between
metals, plastics, rubber, concrete.

Differentiate between primary and secondary creep. 21

Primary creep Secondary creep
Primary creep starts at a rapid rate and slows Secondary creep has a relatively uniform rate
with time
It is fully recoverable in times It is non recoverable in time
Fibers will come back to its original position after Fibers can’t be come back to its original shape after
removing the applied force. removing the applied force
Elastic deformation is occurred. Plastic deformation occurred
Molecular chain is stretched slightly. Molecular chain break.

Fatigue behavior of textile fiber:

When a textile fiber is used in long time then losses it’s some tensile properties such as elastic
deformation, plasticity etc. this behavior of textile fiber is called fatigue behavior of textile fiber. If applied a
load for a long time in elastic limit, occurred the tiredness of fiber chain and fatigue is happened
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Crimp:
When a crimped fiber is inserted in the tester without any
limited tension, the load-elongation curve will have the form
shown in fig. The origin of the curve may put at A, where it
diverges from zero line, but this point is difficult to locate precisely.
A better procedure is to put the origin at O, the extrapolated point
corresponding to a hypothetical straight fiber. The crimp is given by
AO and may be expressed as a percentage of initial length.
𝐏𝟐 −𝐏𝟏
Crimp% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐏𝟏
Here, P1= Initial length (Crimped length)
P2 = Straightened length

Stress relaxation 22, 18, 18, 17, 15, 15

Stress relaxation is a thermomechanical phenomenon where elastic strain is slowly converted to
plastic strain, even at stress levels far below the yield strength.
▪ Creep is an extension with time under constant load and the complementary effect is ‘relaxation’-
the reduction of stress with time under a given extension.
▪ Stress relaxation describes how the polymers relieve stress under constant strain.
Strain

Stress

Time Time

Factor determining the results of tensile experiment:

1. The material and its condition: The behavior of a material depends on the nature and arrangement
of the molecules of which it is composed and these will vary not only from one type of fibers to
another but only from one types of fiber to another are a given sample.

Condition means –
▪ The chemical treatment to which it has been subjected.
▪ The mechanical treatment that is has received.
▪ The amount of moisture that it contains.
▪ The temperature.

2. The arrangement and dimension of the specimen: The dimensions of the specimen will have a
direct effect on the results of tests. The breaking load of a fiber will increase in proportion to its
cross-sectional area and its elongation will increase in proportion to its length.
3. The nature and timing of the test: The result of experiments will be affected by time allowed and
by the way on which the load is applied whether it is by constant rate of loading, constant rate of
elongation, reduction from a higher load or any other sequence of events.

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Principles of Tensile Experiment or Method of Tensile Experiment

▪ CRL method (constant rate of loading)
▪ CRE method (constant rate of elongation)
▪ CRT method (constant rate of traverse)

Illustrate constant rate of loading (CRL) method for tensile experiment. 22, 20, 17, SKTEC & SRTEC_CT_1
Constant Rate of Loading (CRL):
▪ A specimen 'S' is gripped in a fixed to 'P' jaw 'J1' and bottom jaw 'J2' which is
movable.
▪ A force 'F' is initially zero but increases at constant rate along the direction to
downwards. In fig.
▪ By adding constant rate of water in a container which is attached to jaw 'J2'
may increase the load gradually.
▪ Constant rate of flow gives constant rate of loading.
▪ The function of this applied force is to extent the specimen, until it eventually
breaks.
▪ Here loading causes elongation.

Explain the constant rate of elongation (CRE) method with a neat sketch. 21, 19
Constant Rate of Elongation (CRE): SKTEC & SRTEC_CT_1
▪ A specimen 'S' is gripped in a fixed jaw 'J1' and bottom jaw 'J2' which is movable
to downwards at a constant velocity by a screw mechanism.
▪ Initially the tension in 'B' is zero but when the bottom jaw 'J2' moves at a
constant rate, the specimen is extended and an increasing tension is developed
until the specimen break down.
▪ In this case, the extension causes loading.

Constant Rate of Traverse (CRT): In this type of machine two pulling clamps are used to evaluate the
tensile strength of the sample. One clamp moves with constant speed and application of the load is done
by the second clamp, while is responsible for the activation of a load measuring mechanism. Normally old
machines use this mechanism, such as the old fabric tensile strength testing machine.

Difference between CRL and CRE:

It will be shown that, creep in fibers under load results
in a difference between tests at constant rate of elongation and
tests at constant rate of loading. The curves may also have
quite a different shape since in a constant rate of elongation
test. It is possible for the load to decrease while elongation
increases. As in fig. this is not possible in CRL tests where the
load must increase throughout the test.
CRE CRL
CRE means Constant rate of elongation. CRL means Constant rate of loading.
CRE method contains screw mechanism. CRL contains container and water flow used to
increase load gradually.
In CRE elongation/extension causes loading. In CRL method loading causes elongation.
CRE is used for measuring fabric quality. CRL is also used for measuring fabric quality.
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Distinguish between yield point and breaking point. 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 15, TECN_CT_1
Yield point Breaking point
The point up to which a material shows elastic After Yield point, for further increasing the stresses
properties and after which the fiber shows plastic the material will break down in the point is called
properties is called Yield point. breaking point.
Follow Hooke’s law Don’t follow Hooke’s law
In this point, the material will not break. In this point, the material will break.
Shows Elasticity Doesn’t show electricity.

Write some typical strength testing instrument. 15

Some typical tensile strength testing instrument:
CRL: CRE:
a. The Cambridge extensometer. a. The Cambridge extensometer.
b. Scott inclined plane tester. b. The instron tensile tester.
c. Cliff tester. c. Pendulum lever mechanism.
d. Krais instrument.
e. Pressly fiber strength tester.

Factors affecting tensile results

1. The material and its condition: The behavior of a material depends on the nature and arrangement
of the molecules of which it is composed and these will vary not only from one type of fibers to
another but also from one fiber to another in a given sample.
Condition means –
– The chemical treatment to which it has been subjected.
– The mechanical treatment that it has received.
– The amount of moisture that it contains.
– The temperature.
2. The arrangement and dimension of the specimen: The dimensions of the specimen will have a
direct effect on the results of tests. The breaking load of a fiber will increase in proportion to its
cross-sectional area and its elongation will increase in proportion to its length.
3. The nature and timing of the test: The result of experiments will be affected by time allowed and
by the way on which the load is applied whether it is by const rate of loading, const rate of
elongation, reduction from a higher load or any other sequence of events.
4. Capacity of machine

Write down the factors that affecting the tensile properties of fibers. 17, 15, 15
Factors affecting the tensile properties of textiles:
1. Test specimen length.
2. The capacity of the machine.
3. The effect of humidity and temperature.
4. The previous history of the specimen.
5. The form of the test specimen.
6. The time of loading and the time to break the specimen
Explanation:
1. Test Specimen length: The "weak link" effect occurs when a specimen is tested at a shorter gauge
length, increasing its apparent strength.

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

2. The capacity of the machine: The capacity of a machine should be chosen to ensure that the time
required to break a weak specimen is close to the recommended time.
3. The effects of humidity and temperature: Humidity significantly impacts textile material strength
and expansion, with hydrophobic materials hardly affected and high regains affecting most.
Temperature affects strength within normal room temperatures, with some fibers becoming brittle.

Figure: The effect of moisture on load – extension characteristics

4. The previous history of the specimen: Straining and chemical treatment can affect the mechanical
and tensile properties of a specimen.
5. The form of the test specimen: Changes in twist factors can affect yarn strength, elasticity,
liveliness, and luster, and fabric warp and weft properties differ.
6. Time of loading and breaking: A rapid test produces a higher breaking load than a slow test.
Let, FT=the breaking load for a time to break of T sec, and
F10=the breaking load for a time to break of 10 sec.
Then,
FT = F10(1.09-0.09 log T)
By rounding off the figures we obtain,
FT = F10(1.1-0.1 log T)

Tensile properties of fibers:

Breaking Work of rupture Initial modulus
Fiber Tenacity (N/tex)
extension (%) (mN/tex) (N/tex)
Cotton 0.19 – 0.45 5.6 – 7.1 5.1-14.9 3.9-7.3
Jute 0.31 1.8 2.7 17.2
Silk 0.38 23.4 59.7 7.3
Nylon 0.47 26 76 2.6
Polyester 0.47 15 53 10.6
Wool 0.11 – 0.14 29.8 – 42.9 26.6 – 37.5 2.1 – 3.0
Viscose 0.18 – 0.27 15.2 – 27.2 18.8 – 30.6 4.8 – 6.5

Elastic and plastic behavior of textile fiber

Elasticity or Elastic recovery is a property of material to tend to recover original size and shape
after deformation. When a material is allowed to recover from its maximal deformation, the part of the
total deformation which is recoverable is called elastic, and the other part that is non recoverable is called
plastic, as shown in Fig.
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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

Here, OA = initial length of the specimen

OA = final length after recovery
BC = elastic extension
AB = plastic extension
Total extension = Elastic extension + Plastic extension
Total work = work required for elastic extension + work required for plastic extension
Elastic Extension
So, Elastic recovery (%) = ×100
Total Extension
Plastic Extension
And Plastic Recovery (%) = ×100
Total Extension

If a textile fiber is subjected to shocks of 0.5 joule and work of recovery for this shoch is 95%. The
comments about the life time of that fiber. (Where work of rupture of that fiber is 100 joule). 16
Solution:
We know, Here,
𝐖 W = 100 joule
N = 𝐰(𝟏−𝐫)
𝟏𝟎𝟎 w = 0.5 joule
= 𝟎.𝟓×(𝟏−𝟎.𝟗𝟓) = 4000 (Ans.) r = 95% = 0.95

Comments: In this textile fiber 4000 shocks will be held up to break.

If the work of recovery in a given shock of a material is 100%, then what will be the longevity of that
material?
Solution:
We know, r = 100% = 1
𝐖 𝐖
N = 𝐰(𝟏−𝐫) = 𝐰×(𝟏−𝟏) = 
So, Longevity is infinity. (Ans.)

If the bundle wt. of the fiber is 0.2 gm and breaking load is 200 lb. [ 90.0 kg = 200lb or 1400000 grains.
As 1 kg = 2.2lb & 1 lb. = 7000 grains] Find the tensile strength in lb./inch 2, gm/tex.
Solution:
𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝟐𝟎𝟎
1. Tensile strength = (P.I.5.36) = 5.36 gm/tex. (Ans.) P.I. = 𝐰𝐭. = 𝟎.𝟐×𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 1
2. Tensile strength = [(10.812P.I.) – 0.12]  103 lb./tex.
= 10.692  103 lb./tex. (Ans.)

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

In a bale of cotton fibers of 20 mgs bundle weights. Find their strength in gm/tex. [Where the breaking
load is 15 lbs.]
Solution:
Tensile strength in gm/tex. = P.I.  5.36 = 4.02 gm/tex. (Ans.) P.I. =
Load 15
= = 0.75 lb/mgs
wt. 20

Torsional Properties
Torsional properties
The behavior shown by the materials when it is subjected to a torsional force is called its torsional
properties. It indicates the behavior of fiber during twisting.

Important torsional properties

▪ Torsional rigidity.
▪ Breaking twist.
▪ Shear modulus.

State the importance of torsional properties in textile fiber. 17, 15

Importance of torsional property
Torsional properties are important in textile properties because they play a key role in determining
the behavior of fibers and fabrics when they are subjected to twisting forces. Here are some specific ways
in which torsional properties are important in textiles:
1. Yarn strength: The torsional properties of fibers and yarns can affect their strength and durability.
Fibers with higher torsional rigidity can withstand greater twisting forces, which can result in
stronger and more durable yarns.
2. Crease resistance: The torsional properties of fibers can also affect their ability to resist creasing.
Fibers with higher torsional rigidity are more resistant to creasing, which can result in fabrics that
are more wrinkle-resistant.
3. Elasticity: The torsional properties of fibers and fabrics can also affect their elasticity. Fibers that
are highly torsional rigid may be less elastic, while those that are less torsional rigid may be more
elastic.
4. Comfort: The torsional properties of fabrics can affect their drape and feel, which can in turn affect
their comfort. Fabrics that are too stiff or too limp may be uncomfortable to wear, while those with
appropriate torsional properties can be more comfortable.

Modulus of rigidity/shear modulus

Shear modulus is defined as the ratio of shear stress & shear strain. Shear modulus is measured in radians.
𝐬𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬
Shear modulus = 𝐬𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧

Breaking twist: 15
The twist for breaking of a yarn is called breaking twist. It also can be defined as
the number of twists required to break a yarn. Breaking twist depends on the diameter of
fiber and it is inversely proportional to its diameter.
𝟏
That is, Tb∞ 𝐝
Where, Tb = Breaking twist, d = diameter of fiber

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

Breaking twist angle: 21, 20, 18

This is the angle through which outer layer of fiber is sheared at breaking.
Mathematically,
α = tan-1 (πdTb)
Where, α = breaking twist angle, d = diameter of fiber, Tb = breaking twist per unit length

Breaking twist angle of different fibers:

Fiber Breaking twist angle (α)
Cotton 35°
Viscose 33°
Polyester 50°
Wool 40°
Silk 39°
Glass 4°

Torsional rigidity: 21, 18, 17, 17

Torsional rigidity is the resistance of a material to twisting. It is defined as the torque required to produce
unit twist per unit length.
𝐓𝐨𝐫𝐪𝐮𝐞
Torsional rigidity = 𝐔𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐭𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐭 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡
𝛆𝛈𝐓 𝟐
= 𝛒
Where,  = shape factor, ɳ = specific shear modulus, T = linear density, ρ = density of the materials.

𝛆𝛈𝐓 𝟐
Show that torsional rigidity, . 22

Derive the equation of torsional rigidity. 20, 20, 17
Consider the twisting of a cylinder l and radius r. after it has been twisted through an angle of θ, a
line AB has been sheared through an angle to the new position AB’.

The shear stress up gives an internal couple opposed to the applied torque. The shear angle ()
which is zero at the center, increased in proportion to the distance from the center. Consider an element
of area δA at a distance x from the center.
The line AB, parallel to the axis before the cylinder is twisted. On twisting, since the point B shifts
to B’. The line AB ta es place the position AB’, such that before twisting if the hollow cylinder were to be
cut along AB and flatted out, it will form the rectangular plate ABCD but after twisting it ta es the place
AB’CD’ (as fig.)
So, the shearing of cylinder after twisting = BAB’ = 
BB’ = l also BB’ = x
BB′ BB′
= and  =
l x

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

 l = x
𝐱
= 𝐥
 will be the maximum when x is greatest.
So, the shearing stress is not uniform all through the cylinder.
Shearing Force F
Since, Shear modulus,  = Strain or angle of shear = 
x
 F =  = . l
x
So, Total Shearing force of the area of A = . l . A
x x2 
Therefore, The moment about the center line =  l . A. x =  . A
l
x Ak2 
Total torque or twisting couple on the cylinder = ∑ 𝑥 2 A =  __________ (i)
l l
Where, Ak2 = ∑ x 2 A
∑ x2 A
A = A; k2 = ∑ A
We know,  = s = 
T εA
A = ρ; k2 = 2π; [ = Shape factor, A = Area, T = Linear density,  = Density]
εA  T ε T  εT2  εT2 
So, Total torque = A 2π . l = .ρ . 2π . ρ . l = = ( 2πρ ) l ; [Putting the value in equation (i)]
2πρl
We know, the torsional rigidity is defined as the torque needed to produce unit twist per unit length.
εT2 2π
Torque or unit twist per unit length = ( 2πρ ) ; [1 twist = 2π]
l
𝛆𝐓 𝟐
=( ) [Proved]
𝛒
𝛆
And specific torsional rigidity = [T = 1 tex.] [Proved]
𝛒

Specific torsional rigidity: 15

Specific torsional rigidity can be defined as the torsional rigidity of a fiber of unit linear density.
𝛆
Mathematically, specific torsional rigidity = 𝛒
Unit: N-m2 /Tex

Some typical value of specific torsional Rigidity.

Fiber Specific torsional rigidity (mN-mm2/tex2)
Cotton 0.16
Viscose rayon 0.085
Polyester 0.067
Nylon 6,6 0.06
Wool 0.12
Silk 0.16

The breaking twist of cotton fiber of 0.017mm diameter is 60. Find out the BTA of that fiber. 20, 15
Solution:
We know, Here,
-1
α = tan (πdTb) d = 0.017 mm
-1
= tan (3.140.0172.362) Tb per inch = 60
𝟔𝟎
= 7.19° (Ans.) Tb per mm = = 2.362 𝟐.𝟓𝟒×𝟏𝟎

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

Breaking twist of cotton fiber is 60 & diameter is 0.015mm. Find out the breaking twist angle of that
fiber. 17, 17
Solution:
We know, Here,
-1
α = tan (πdTb) d = 0.015 mm
-1
= tan (3.140.0152.362) Tb per inch = 60
𝟔𝟎
= 6.35° (Ans.) Tb per mm = 𝟐.𝟓𝟒×𝟏𝟎 = 2.362

If a fiber holds 40 breaking TPI and diameter is 0.1 mm; find out the BTA.
Solution:
We know, Here,
-1
α = tan (πdTb) d = 0.1 mm
𝟒𝟎 Tb per inch = 40
= tan-1 (𝟑. 𝟏𝟒𝟎. 𝟏
𝟐.𝟓𝟒×𝟏𝟎
)
𝟒𝟎
= 26.31° (Ans.) Tb per mm = 𝟐.𝟓𝟒×𝟏𝟎

Find out TPI (twist per inch) of yarn, where diameter of yarn is 0.15 mm and breaking twist angle 35°.
Solution:
We know, Here,
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛂 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟑𝟓° d = 0.15 mm
Tb = 𝛑𝐝 = 𝛑×𝟓.𝟗𝟏×𝟏𝟎−𝟑
= 5.91  10–3 inch
= 37.71 (Ans.)
 = 35°

Flexural Properties
Flexural Properties: The behavior shown by the materials during bending is known as flexural properties.

Important Flexural properties:

3. Flexural rigidity.
4. Bending recovery.
5. Bending modulus.

What are the influences of flexural properties on the textile materials? 22

Flexural Properties Influences:
▪ The behavior of yarn: Flexural properties affect the bulkiness, softness, and elasticity of yarns.
They also influence the yarn twist, which determines the strength and appearance of the yarn.
▪ The drape and handle properties of fabrics: Flexural properties influence fabric's hang and fold,
aesthetics, functionality, and touch sensation, influencing user comfort and preference.
▪ The recovery from bending: Flexural properties of textile materials influence their ability to regain
their original shape after being bent or creased, influencing durability, appearance, and ease of
care and maintenance.
▪ The wear of fabric: Flexural properties influence fabric resistance to abrasion, tearing, and pilling,
as well as friction and static electricity, potentially causing discomfort and fire hazards.
▪ The arrangement of fiber in the yarns: Flexural properties influence yarn's strength, fineness,
uniformity, and inter-fiber cohesion, affecting stability and cohesion.

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

Impotence:
1. The flexural properties are related to handle and drape of fibers.
2. The recovery from bending is a factor of creasing.
3. Bending play an important role in the arrangement of fibers in the yarn.
4. Bending strength is important in wear.

Bending Recovery: 20, 15, SKTEC & SRTEC_CT_2

Recovery from a given curvature is called Bending recovery.
Nylon & Polyester shows complete recovery for a small curvature. The blending recovery of denier nylon
100% recovery for a small curvature but 20% for high curvature.

Bending Modulus: SKTEC & SRTEC_CT_2

The ratio of bending stress and bending strain is called Bending Modulus.

Flexural Rigidity: SKTEC & SRTEC_CT_2

Flexural rigidity is the stiffness of a fiber in bending. It is defined as the couple required to bend
the fiber to unit curvature.
𝐀𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐮𝐩𝐥𝐞
Flexural Rigidity = 𝐔𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞
𝟏 𝛈𝐄×𝐓 𝟐
= 𝟒𝛑× mN-mm²
𝛒
Where, E = Specific modulus
T = Linear Density
 = Density of the materials
 = Shape factor
Sp. F.R.  → Fiber flexibility  → Quality 

Specific Flexural Rigidity: 20, 15

The specific flexural rigidity is the flexural rigidity of a fiber of unit linear density.
𝐂𝐨𝐮𝐩𝐥𝐞/𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞
Specific Flexural Rigidity = 𝐋𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲²
𝟏 𝛈𝐄
Rf = 𝟒𝛑× 𝛒 mN-mm²/Tex²

Flexural rigidity influences:

1. Recovery from bending.
2. Behavior of yarn.
3. Arrangement of fibers in yarn.
4. Weariness of fabric.
5. Handle & drape properties of fabric.

Derive the equation of flexural rigidity. 22, 20

𝟏 𝛈𝐄𝐓 𝟐
Show the flexural rigidity = 𝟒𝛑 ; Where, η = Shape factor, E = Specific modulus, T = Linear density of a
𝛒
fiber and ρ = Density of fiber. 18
Flexural rigidity for small curvature:
Suppose we have a specimen of length l, bent through an angle θ to a radius of curvature r.

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

Its outer layers will be extended and its inner layers compressed,
but a plane in the center, known as the neutral plane, will be
unchanged in length.
As a result of the extension and compression, stresses will be set up
that give an internal couple to balance the applied couple.
Consider an element of area of cross-section δA, at a perpendicular
distance x. from the neutral plane:
Length of curvature = l,
Radius of curvature = r, Angle = θ. So, l = r θ
Length after elongation = (r + x) θ
Therefore, Elongation = (r + x) θ – rθ = xθ
xl
Elongation of the element δl = xθ = r
F
Stress δA F×l
Young’s modulus, Y = Strain = δl = xl
δA×
l r
x
Therefore, Force on the element = r × Y × δA
x Y
The moment of the element about the neutral axis = Fx = (r × Y × δA) × x = r × x 2 × δA
Y
Total internal couple = r × ∑( x 2 × δA)
Y ∑(x2 ×δA)
=r× ∑ δA
× ∑ δA
Y
= r × k 2 × ∑ δA; [K = radius of gyration]
Y
= r × k 2 × A _______________________ (i)
1
Again, k 2 = 4π A; [=shape factor]
1 T
= 4π × ρ
And, Y = ρ × E [E = Specific modulus, N/Tex]
Putting the value of k 2 , A & E in the equation (i).
Y
Total couple = r × k 2 × A
(ρ×E) 1 T T
= × (4π  × ρ) × ρ
r
1 ȠET2
= 4π × ; [For unit curvature, r = 1]
ρ
1 ET2
Therefore, flexural rigidity = 4π × mN-mm2
ρ
1 ȠE T2
= 4π × × 10−3 N-mm2 [Proved]
ρ
[When, E = N/tex; T = tex; ρ = gm/cm3 ]
This is the equation for flexural rigidity.

Unit of Flexural rigidity:

1 ET2
We know, Flexural rigidity = 4π × ρ
Here,
Specific modulus, E = N/tex
Linear density, T = tex
Density of the material, ρ = gm/cm3
Shape factor, η = 1 (for circular fiber)
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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ
N gm
1 1× tex2 1 1×N×tex 1 1×N× 1 N×cm3
tex 1000m
So, Flexural rigidity = 4π × gm = 4π × gm = 4π × gm = 4π × 1000m
cm3 cm3 cm3
1 N×10mm×10mm×10mm
= 4π × 1000×1000mm
1
= 4π ×10–3N – mm2
1 1
= 4π mN–mm2 = mN – mm2; [4π = constant]
This is the unit of Flexural rigidity.

Write short note on shape factor. 22, 21, 20, SKTEC & SRTEC_CT_2
Shape Factor: It’s the quantity which is determines the shape of a textile material. The shape factor
becomes greater and the rigidity increases, the more distant the material is from the center. It will be seen
that with an asymmetrical shape they may be a difference according to the direction of bending. In practice,
the fibers will usually twist so the bend about the easiest direction.

Shape factor is 1 for the fiber which is completely round.

Shape factor is less than 1 for the fiber whose thickness is reduced while bending.

Shape factor is more than 1 for the fiber whose thickness is increased while bending.

Shape factor (η) and Specific Flexural Rigidity for different fibers:
Specific flexural rigidity, R1
Fiber Shape factor, η
(mN-mm2 /Tex2)
Viscose 0.74 0.19
Acetate 0.67 0.08
Wool 0.80 0.20
Silk 0.59 0.19
Nylon 0.91 0.14
Glass 1.0 0.89

Tensile and bending stress strain curves of a fiber:

In most cases, the bending stress strain curve lay below the tensile
curve. This is because the compressive side of the fiber yields more easily than
the tensile side. The typical tensile and bending stress strain curves of
polymer fibers.

Find out the flexural rigidity of viscose fiber where specific modulus 0.2×10 3 N/tex., shape factor = 0.74,
linear density = 0.2 tex. and density = 1.12 gm/cc. 21
Solution:
𝟏 𝐄𝐓 𝟐 Specific modulus, E = 0.2x103 N/tex,
Flexural rigidity = 𝟒𝛑 × 𝛒
Shape factor,  = 0.74
𝟏 𝟎.𝟕𝟒×𝟎.𝟐×𝟏𝟎𝟑 ×𝟎.𝟐𝟐
= 𝟒𝛑 × 2
= 0.42 mN – mm (Ans.) Linear density, T = 0.2 tex,
𝟏.𝟏𝟐
Density,  = 1.12 gm/cc

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

Swelling Properties

Swelling of fiber: 22, 21, 21, 20, 20, 19, 18, 18, 16, PTEC_CT_1, SKTEC & SRTEC_CT_1, SARSTEC_CT_2
Dimensional change due to absorbing of water by any fiber in known as swelling.

Explain different types of swelling. 22, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 16, PTEC_CT_1, SKTEC & SRTEC_CT_1
Types of swelling: The swelling may be expressed in terms of the increase in diameter, area, length or
volume.
1. Traverse diameter swelling:
Fractional increase in diameter of fiber is traverse diameter
swelling. It is expressed by,
∆D
SD = D
Where, D = Original dia. of fiber, ∆D = Increase diameter of fiber after
swelling
2. Traverse area swelling:
Fractional increase in area of fiber is traverse area swelling. It is
expressed by,
∆A
SA = A
Where, A = Original area of fiber, ∆A = Increased swollen area of fiber.
3. Axial swelling: 21, SARSTEC_CT_2
Fractional increase in length of fiber is axial swelling. It is expressed by,
∆l
SL = Figure: Changes in dimensions on swelling.
l
Where, l = Original length of fiber, ∆l = increased length of fiber.
4. Volume swelling: 21, SARSTEC_CT_2
Fractional increase in volume of fiber is volume swelling. It is expressed by,
∆V
SV = V
Where, V = Original volume of fiber, ∆V = Increased volume of fiber.
All are expressed by percentage.

Write down the significance of swelling in textile. 18,

Write the importance of swelling of textile material. 21, 20, 17, 16, 15, TECN_CT_1, SARSTEC_CT_2
Technical significance / Effect / Importance of Swelling:
▪ Improve the absorption of dyes and chemicals.
▪ Increase the dimensional stability of the fabric.
▪ Due to swelling, the pores of closely interlaced woven fabric will be completely blocked and they
may produce water proof fabric.
▪ Improve fastness of dyed materials.
▪ Elastic properties changed.
▪ Swelling is also an important factor in creeping, due to the increased twist angle in a swollen yarn,
and in drying and dyeing.

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

Derive the relation: SV = SL + SA + SLSA; Where, SV= Volume swelling, SA= Area swelling, SL= Axial swelling.
22, 21, 17, 16, 15, CTEC_CT_1
We know,
∆A
Traverse area swelling, SA = A
∆l
Traverse axial swelling,SL = l
∆V
Volume swelling, SV = V
If the fiber is uniform along its length, we have original volume of fiber, V = Al
where, l is the original length and A is the original area of the fiber.
After swelling, the swollen volume of fiber, V + ∆V = (A + ∆A)  (l + ∆l)
∆V V + ∆V−V
SV = =
V V
(A + ∆A) (l + ∆l)−Al
= Al
Al + Al + Al + Al − Al
= Al
Al Al Al Al Al
= Al + + + – Al
Al Al Al
A l A l
= + + 
A l A l
= SL+SA+SLSA
𝐒𝐕 = SL + SA + SLSA
This is the relation between Volume swelling, Area swelling, Axial swelling.

Find the relation between traverse area swelling and traverse diameter swelling. 21, 20, 20, 18, 18
Establish a relation between area swelling and diameter swelling. 17, PTEC_CT_1, SARSTEC_CT_2
Derive the relation, SA = SD2 + 2SD, where SA = area swellings, SD = diameter swelling. 22, 19, 15
We know,
∆A
Traverse area swelling, SA = A
∆D
Traverse diameter swelling, SD = D
For circular cross-sectional fibers, we have original area of fiber,
D 2
A = r2 = ( 2 )
Similarly, for the swollen fiber, Cross-sectional area of the fiber,
π
A + ∆A = 4 (D + ∆D)2
π
= 4 (D2 + 2D∆D + ∆D2 )
πD2 π∆D2 π∆D2
= + +
4 4 4
∆A
Now we get, SA = A
A + ∆A−A
= A
πD2 π∆D2 π∆D2 πD2
+ + −
4 4 4 4
= πD 2
4
∆D ∆D2
=1+2D + –1
D2
= 2SD + SD2
 SA = SD2 + 2SD
So, this is the relation between traverse area swelling and traverse diameter swelling.

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

Describe the measurement of volume swelling with density. 15

Measurement of volume swelling:
If we consider a specimen of mass 1 gm when dry,
1
We get, Volume, V = ρ
o
1+m
And Swelling volume, V + ∆V = ρs
Where, o = Density of the specimen when dry
S = Density of the specimen when swollen
m = Mass of water absorbed
r = Regain%
r
1+
100
So, V + ∆V = ρs
∆V V+∆V−V V+∆V
Now, SV = = = –1
V V V
r
1+
100
= –1
ρs
100+ r 1
×
100 ρs
= 1 –1
ρo
100+r
= 100.ρ хρ0 – 1
s
ρ0 100+r
=ρ х –1
s 100
ρ0 r
= [1 + 100
] –1
ρs
𝛒 𝐫
 𝐒𝐕 = 𝛒𝟎 [𝟏 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎
] –1
𝐬
This is the relationship among volume swelling, density and regain. Thus, Volume swelling can be
found from measurement of density and regain.

Discuss the relation between Swelling & Relative humidity. 16

The variation of swelling with humidity usually follows the change of regain, with hysteresis
showing between swelling and humidity. Typical curves are shown in figure.
a = Cotton (SA) area swelling is absorption and desorption
b = Wool (SD) diameter swelling.
c = Nylon (SA) area swelling
d = Nylon (SD) diameter swelling
e = Cotton (Sl) length swelling

Figure: Swelling of fibers between dryness and saturation

Fig. (a): Variation of length in Fig. (b): Hysteresis between

absorption and desorption length change and regain.

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

Mackay and Downes found that single wool fiber can maximum length between 75 and 85% RH, as
shown in figure (a). They also found hysteresis between length swelling and regain as shown in figure (b).
Treloar found a similar result for horsehair.

Mechanism/Reason of Fiber Swelling

Swelling phenomenon in fibers:
In a highly oriented fiber, the molecular chains are lying parallel to the fiber axis. As a result, fiber
has a low molecular space between the chains and swelling
will be lower. So,

Orientation→ swelling  (due to lower molecular space)

Amorphous region→ Swelling

When the fibers are immersed into water, the water

molecules enter the molecular space of fiber and pushed
the fiber chain and these will be considerable increase in diameter but very little increase in length.

Rate of Swelling depends on:

▪ Types of fiber such as cotton, viscose, Jute, acrylic.
▪ Several parameters of fiber such as crystalline structure, density, porosity, surface coating and
treatment of fiber.
▪ Amount of wetting liquid present.
▪ Different parameters of the wetting liquid such as hydrogen bonding capability, molecular size,
cohesive energy, viscosity, density, and basicity.
▪ External condition, i.e., Temperature, Relative Humidity.
▪ Chemical content, i.e., oil, wax and other impurities.

Why viscose swelling is greater than Nylon swelling? 22, 21, 17, 15, PTEC_CT_1
Nylon is more oriented than viscose. In Nylon, the molecules are lying parallel to the fiber axis. So,
Nylon has a low molecular space between the chains and in viscose there are high molecular spaces.
When the fibers are immersed in water, the water molecules can easily penetrate in molecular space of
viscose than Nylon. So, Nylon fibers show resistance to penetrate water causing less swelling.

“Water proof fabric can be produced by applying swelling phenomenon”-Explain. 15

How water proof fabric is made using swelling phenomenon? 20
When fibers absorb water, this has technical consequences in the dimensional stability of fabrics,
the predominant traverse swelling usually resulting in a shrinkage of twisted or interlaced structures. The
pores of closely woven fabrics will be completely blocked when the fibers are swollen and they may be
impermeable to water.

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

How does Swelling improve the absorption of dyes?

How does swelling improve fastness of dyed materials?
Swelling improves the absorption of dyes and chemicals in fiber. Research has been showed that an
increase in volume swelling with increase of dye absorption is accompanied by decrease in degree of fiber
orientation. As for example, relation among swelling, dye absorption and orientation of viscose fiber was
shown in below Table.

Here higher value of double refraction indicates higher degree of orientation in fiber. It has been
found in research work that only a small fraction of the volume of swollen fiber is actively participated for
absorbing dyes molecules. So, when volume swelling of fiber is high, the distance between the adjacent
cellulose surface increase which improves effective cellulose surface to be dyed. By increasing dye
absorption fastness properties of fabric also increase.

Swelling recovery: When a fiber is wetted, it usually extends owning to swelling but swelling recovery may
cause a net contraction. Viscose rayon shows almost complete recovery in water, as does silk in steam, but
acetate shows only partial recovery.
Swelling recovery may be useful as a reason of restoring the original fiber properties.

Measurement of Transverse swelling:

Microscopy methods are used to examine fibers, but their accuracy is limited by the microscope's
resolution, which is about 0.5µm. For a fiber of 20µm
diameter, it is possible to distinguish detail down to one-
fortieth of the fiber diameter. However, if the diameter
swelling is 10%, it can only be measured to an accuracy of
0.5 in 2, resulting in a 25% error. Microscopy methods are
used for examining the fiber profile and measuring the
apparent diameter or the area of cross-section with a
planimeter. Diameter swelling is not a reliable way to
express transverse swelling of irregular fibers, as it varies
depending on the position of the 'diameter'. Area swelling
is necessary for irregular fibers.

Measurement of Axial Swelling

The axial swelling of a continuous filament may be found by hanging up a length under a low
tension and measuring the change in length with a cathetometer or some form of extension gauge.
Observations of the change in length of short fibers may be made with a travelling microscope by using
appropriate procedure.

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

Swelling of fibers in Water:

Transverse Swelling (%)
Fiber Axial Swelling (%) Volume Swelling (%)
Diameter Area
Cotton 20, 23, 7 40, 42, 21 – –
Mercerized Cotton 17 46, 24 0.1 –
Flex 47 0.1, 0.2 –
Jute 20, 21 40
Viscose Rayon 25, 35, 52 50, 65, 67, 66, 3.7, 4.8 109, 117, 115, 119,
113, 114 123, 126, 74, 122, 127
Acetate 9, 11, 14 6, 8 0.1, 0.3
Wool 14, 8, 17 25, 26 36, 37, 41
Silk 16.5, 16.3, 19 1.6, 1.3 30, 32
18.7
Nylon 1.9, 2.6 1.6, 3.2 2.7, 2.9 8.1, 11.0

The effect of hydrophilic groups

Cellulose Fiber: Cellulose, a cellulose molecule, contains three hydroxyl groups for each glucose residue,
and hydrogen bonds can form between water molecules. Despite being chemically similar, glucose
dissolves in water, while cellulose swells to a limited extent due to water penetration into non-crystalline
regions and fibrils. In crystalline regions, active groups form crosslinks, making it difficult for water
molecules to penetrate, and absorption requires breaking crosslinks for active groups to be freed.

In Regenerated cellulose: Regenerated cellulose has a less compact crystal structure and changes upon
absorption due to the formation of a hydrate with one water molecule per three glucose residues,
resulting in a 3.7% regain in the crystalline region.
In Cellulose acetate: In cellulose acetate, all or most of the hydroxyl groups have been replaced by the
comparatively inert acetyl (CH3—COO—) groups. These groups do not attract water strongly, so the
absorption of water by acetate is low. In particular, there is no rapid rise at low humidities owing to the
initial absorption on strongly attractive groups.
Protein Fibers: The protein fiber contains amide groups (—NH—) in the main chain, to which water can be
hydrogen bonded, and other water-attracting groups such as —OH, —NH₃⁺, —COO–, —CO—NH₂, in the
side chains. Wool contains many active groups in the side chains, but silk contains only a few.
Synthetic fibers: All the synthetic fiber so far produced contain few if any water-attractive groups, and this
accounts for their low moisture absorption. The polyamide fiber, nylon 6.6 and 6 and aramids, contain one
amide (—NH—) group for every six carbon atoms in the chain, which would give a regain of 16% of each
amide group held one water molecule. The polyester fiber, polyethylene terephthalate, are composed only
of benzene rings, —CH2— groups, and —CO·O— groups, none of which attracts water strongly.
Polyethylene is simply a -CH2-chain, polypropylene has additional –CH3 side groups, and the vinyl fiber are
similar except for the substitution of —Cl, —O·CO·CH3, or other comparatively inert groups for some of the
Page | 37
 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

hydrogen atoms, and consequently these fibers absorb little water. Acrylic fiber, containing —CN groups
and other groups from the minor components, absorb slightly more than the other vinyl fiber, and
polyvinyl alcohol, containing some —OH groups, absorbs still more.
Inorganic fiber: Inorganic fiber including carbon, do not attract water absorption.

Why axial swelling is greater than diameter swelling for nylon fiber? 17
Nylon fiber's axial swelling is greater than its diameter swelling due to its molecular structure and
orientation. Nylon fiber is made up of long chains of amide groups linked by peptide bonds, which have a
strong affinity for water molecules. When immersed in water, water molecules interact with the amide
groups, causing them to expand and stretch. The expansion and stretching are more pronounced in the
axial direction, as the polymer chains are more oriented and aligned in the axial direction, resisting the
swelling force exerted by water molecules.

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Frictional Properties

Friction: 21, 15
Friction is the resistance that one surface or object encounters when moving over another.

Types of friction
1. Static Friction: The friction between two or more solid objects that are not moving relative to each
other. The coefficient of static friction, typically denoted by as µS, is usually higher than the
coefficient of kinetic friction.
2. Kinetic Friction: Kinetic friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub
together. The coefficient of kinetic friction, typically denoted by as µK, is usually less than the
coefficient of static friction.

Write the advantages of friction on textiles. 21, 16, 15

Merits/Importance of friction in textile
1. Friction is the force that holds together the fibers in a spun yarn and the interlacing threads in a
fabric. Friction holds the fibers in a sliver and hence the sliver does not break due to its’ own
weight.
2. If the friction is too low, the yarn strength will fall, and the dimensional stability of cloth will be
reduced. Here high friction is an advantage, enabling a greater proportion of the strength of the
individual fibers to be utilized.
3. Uniform tension can be maintained during winding & warping because of friction.
4. Friction helps in drafting and drawing.
5. Friction helps to make yarn by twisting during spinning.
6. Friction increases luster and smoothness of the yarn and the fabric.
7. Friction makes more clean material.
8. There are some aspects influenced by the frictional characteristics of the fibers: the handle and
wear resistance of fabrics; the behavior of fibers during drafting; and, especially in wool, the
process of felting.

“Friction creates some potential problems in textile.” Explain. 20, CTEC_CT_2

Discuss the demerits (problems) of friction on textile materials. 22, 18, 18, 17, 16, 15, PTEC_CT_2
Demerits of friction in textile
1. High friction in yarn processing increases the breakage and over straining may cause the
permanent damage. High static friction causes high breakage of yarn during weaving.
2. If the frictional force is high, the handle properties of fabric will be low.
3. In stitching, high friction of needle with fabric causes it red hot. Threads cannot slide over one
another. These lead to high thread breakage at the seam line.
4. Friction causes nep formation & increases yarn hairiness.
5. Friction worn out parts of machine.
6. Friction generates temperature and therefore static electricity is developed which attracts dust, dirt
etc. and the materials become dirty.

Frictional properties: 15
During processing, friction is developed between textile materials. Due to that friction, the
properties shown by the textile materials is called frictional properties.

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State the effect of friction in textile processing. 17, 15

Write down the effect of friction on fiber, yarn and fabric stage. 21, 17
Influence/effect of frictional properties
Fiber stage
▪ The behavior of fiber during drafting.
▪ Frictional force holds together the fiber in yarn.
Yarn stage
▪ Twist needs more for staple fiber. As a result, cohesion force increased in yarn. For inserting high
twist in yarn, frictional force needs to be increased.
▪ If the frictional force is too high, yarn strength will be low.
▪ Friction increases the luster and smoothness of yarn.
▪ Friction makes more clean yarn.
▪ Friction occurs nep formation.
Fabric stage
▪ Fabric feelings varied for difference between static and kinetic friction.
▪ Fabric will be slippery if µs < µk
µs = Co-efficient of static friction.
µk = Co-efficient of kinetic friction.
▪ If the frictional force is high, the handle properties of fabric will be low.
▪ High static friction causes high breakage of yarn in spinning, weaving, knitting.

How excessive frictional intensity can be minimized? 21, 17, 15

1. By processing with Lubricant: Lubricant materials as emulsion is used before jute spinning. Sizing is
done during weaving preparation process.
2. By chemical treatment: By using acid or alkali. Wool scale sharpness will be reduced by chemical
treatment.
3. By finishing
i. Mechanical finishing: Ironing or calendaring.
ii. Chemical finishing: By using resin, reduce surface.
Irregularity and remove crease.
iii. Using softener: By using softener can minimize frictional intensity.

State the factors affecting frictional force. 22, 15

Factors affecting frictional intensity/force
1. Composition of the materials: For PVC → Higher frictional force.
Glass → Higher frictional force.
2. State of the surface: For roughness → Higher frictional Friction
For smoothness → Higher frictional force.
3. Pressure between the surfaces: Higher pressure → Higher frictional force.
4. Cross sectional shape: For hexagonal fiber → Friction
For round fiber → Friction 
5. Temperature: Temperature  → Friction 
6. Relative humidity: Relative humidity  → Friction 
7. Effect of water: Moisture regain → Friction
8. Load: Load  → Friction 
9. Area of contact: Area of contact→ Friction 
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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

10. Fiber weight: Fiber wt. → Friction

11. Speed of sliding: Speed of sliding – Friction 
12. Oil contact and viscosity: The frictional force increases both as the oil content is increased and as
the viscosity of the oil increases.

Laws of friction
Laws of static friction
▪ The magnitude of forces of friction is exactly equal to the force which tends the body to move.
▪ The magnitude of limiting frictional bears a constant ratio to the normal friction between two
surfaces.
F
= ;
N
F = limiting friction, N = Normal reaction
▪ The force of friction is independent of area of contact between two
surfaces.
▪ Force dependent on the roughness of surface.
Laws of kinetic friction
▪ The frictional forces always act in direction opposite to that in which the body is moving.
▪ The magnitude of kinetic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal friction between two
surfaces.
▪ Frictional force remains constant but decreases slightly with the increase of speed.

State Amonton’s law of friction. 17

Amonton’s law of friction
▪ These laws state that the frictional force is independent of the area of contact between the two
surfaces.
▪ Frictional force is proportional to the normal force between them.
▪ kinetic friction is independent of the speed of sliding; this is sometimes called the third law of
friction.

When a yarn passes round a guide by an incoming tension T 1, leaving tension T2 and producing an angle of
contact , if follows the from of Amonoton’s law.
𝐓𝟐
= 𝐞𝛍𝛉
𝐓𝟏
In reality, these are not universal laws.

Co-efficient of friction: 17, 15

Frictional force is proportional to the normal or perpendicular of a material due to its own weight.
𝐅
That is, F α N Or, F = μN Or, μ = 𝐍
Where, F = Frictional force, N = Normal / perpendicular force. Here, μ is the proportional constant known
as “co-efficient of friction”. So, co-efficient of friction can be defined as the ratio of frictional and
Perpendicular force.
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Mention the methods on measuring co-efficient of friction. How would you measure the inter fiber
friction? 15
Methods of measuring co-efficient of friction:
Capstan method is most commonly used to measure co-efficient of fraction. Capstan method can be
classified into two classes-
i. Static capstan method.
ii. Dynamic capstan method

Other methods-
1. Buckle & Pollitt’s method
2. Abboh & Grasberg method
3. Gutheric & Olivers method

State the static capstan method measurement for the co-efficient of friction. 16
Static capstan method:
We know from Amonton’s law.
T2
T1
= eμθ
A loop of yarn is placed over the guide and a small load placed on two
sides. The load on the other side is then decreased until slippage
commences. If incoming tension is T1 and leaving tension T2 and angle of
contact is .
Then we get,
T2
= eμθ
T1
T
log(T2 ) = 
1
1 T
 = θ log(T2 )
1
1 T2
 = π log(T ); [ =  = 1800]
1
From above equation we can measure the co-efficient of friction.

Describe dynamic capstan method for measuring co – efficient of friction. 19, 15

Briefly describe “dynamic capstan” method. 17
Dynamic capstan method:
In this method, yarn is running continuously over the guide. The tension may also be measured with
tension meters. In the typical form of apparatus, shown in figure. They would be given with resistance,
capacitance or inductance pick-ups.
So, From Amonton’s law,
T2
= eμθ
T1
T
log(T2 ) = 
1
1 T
 = θ log(T2 )
1
1 T2
 = π log(T ); [ =  = 1800]
1

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Measurement of inter fiber friction:

▪ For the measurement of inter fiber friction, Lindberg and Gralén introduced a
method in which two fibers are twisted together.
▪ If a difference between the tensions applied to the opposite ends of each fiber
in increased, the fiber will eventually slip over one another. It is shown that,
𝐓𝟐

 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝛑𝐧𝛃
𝐓𝟏

[Where, n= Number of turns,  = Angle between the axis of two fibers, T1 & T2 = The
tensions in fiber]

Effect of Lubricant on frictional force:

1. Lubricants reduce the frictional force between two surfaces at a certain level. In case of metals,
lubricants may reduce the value of µ from 1.0 to 0.05 but in case of fibers, it has comparatively
little effect and will usually reduce the value between 0.2 to 0.7.
2. A good lubricant acts by forming monolayer on the surface and
preventing the adhesion of the two surfaces at a point of contact.
3. A scoured cotton on steel give µ = 0.7 but raw cotton. (5% oil and
waxes) give µ = 0.25 and lubricated scoured cotton on steel gives
the value of 0.14-0.35.
4. If the amount of lubricant is too high, then the friction increases.
When acetate yarn passes over a guide then the frictional force
increases with the increases of oil content yarn.
5. Again, the viscosity of lubricant has effect on friction.
Frictional force  → Viscosity of the lubricant 

Explain the irreversible shrinkage of wool fiber. 17,

Illustrate about directional frictional effect (DEF) for a wool fiber. 15
Directional frictional effect:
The friction of the wool fiber depends on the direction in
which it is pulled. The scales than when it is pulled with them.
This is known as the directional frictional effect (DFE).
a) Directional friction in wool between fibers placed in
same direction.
b) Directional friction between fibers against scales.
c) Directional friction between fibers with scales.
d) Directional friction on plane surface against scales.
e) Directional friction on plane surface with scales.
This effect has important technical consequences, since it means
that, in a mass of wool, individual fibers will show preferential movement in one direction and will
continually entangle themselves with the remaining fibers: this is the process of felting.

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Theory of directional frictional effect:

The simplest geometrical theory is that the wool fiber acts as ratchet with the scales interlocking
with one another or catching against asperities on another surface. Motion against the scales would be
strongly resisted, since it would involve rupture or deformation of the scales. The resultant force R Acting
at the contact may be resolved either into components W and F acting perpendicular and parallel to the
direction of motion or components N and P acting

Perpendicular and parallel to the tangent at the contact. If the angle between these directions is 
we must have,
N = W cos + F sin _____________(i)
P = F cos – W sin _____________(ii)
For slippage to occur, the junction must be sheared. The force necessary to do this will be given by the
general relation:
P = aNn
From equation (ii),
F cos – W sin = aNn
F cos – W sin = a (W cos + F sin )n; [From equation (i)]
Linclon gives a graphical solution of this equation, showing the values of F for various values of a and 
2
when n = 3

2
Figure: Variation of F with n =
3

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Discuss the effect of moisture on frictional properties. 16

Moisture regain: The frictional force usually increases as the regain of the fiber is increased.

Figure: Change of coefficient of friction with regain for nylon on nylon, wool on horn and cotton on steel.
The above figure shows the effect of MR on frictional properties of different fibers.

Felting Properties of Wool:

Felting of wool is the irreversible shrinkage
of the length, breadth and thickness of the
material. Wool felts because of the serrated
surface of its fibers which is formed by the
overlapping epithelial cells or scales. Because of
this serrated structure, less friction will result if the
fiber moves in a rootward direction than if it moves
in a tip ward direction. This difference in surface
friction between the two directions is known as
the directional frictional effect (DFE). Felting of
fiber is enhanced by heat, acid or alkali. Heat will
make the wet fiber easier and more likely to move
and it will also cause the fiber to swell more and
this effect is enhanced in acid or alkaline conditions. Increased swelling results in more inter-fiber contact
and increased inter-fiber friction.

What are the differences between Static and Kinetic friction? 15

Static friction Kinetic friction
Static friction is the frictional force acting between Kinetic friction is the frictional force acting
two surfaces which are attempting to move, but between two surfaces which are in motion against
are not moving. each other.
Static friction acts when the surfaces are not in Kinetic friction acts when the surfaces are in
relative motion against each other. relative motion against each other.
Static friction increases linearly with the force Kinetic friction remains constant regardless of the
applied until it reaches a maximum value. force applied.
Static friction could have a value less or greater Kinetic friction has a value less than the maximum
than the value for kinetic friction. value of static friction.
Dependent on magnitude of force Independent on magnitude of force
It is opposition to the beginning of motion. It is the opposition relative to motion of the body.
Value can be zero. Value can never be zero.
Expression: Fs = μsFN Expression: Fk = μkFN
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Establish a relation among friction, load and area of contact.

Relation among friction, load and area of contact:
The ratio of frictional force ‘F’ to normal load ‘N’ for fibers is found to decrease as the load
increases, in other words, the Amonton’s law is not obeyed. Some typical expels are given in figure.

Figure: Variation of coefficient of friction of fibers with load (D = fiber diameter)

Among the various mathematical relations, that have been used to fit the experimental data are the
following –
F = oN + S
F
= A – BlogN
N
F = aN + bnC
Where, S = Area of contact and o, A, B, a, b, c is constant.
The most successful relation is F = aNn
Where a and n are constant.
This is a form of equation previously found by Bowden and Young to apply some non – metals.
2
The value of n generally lies between 3 to 1.
Suppose for a load N on an area A1, the frictional force is F1, then F1 = aNn
For the same load on area A2,
N n
f = a( x )
N n
F2 = ∑ f = xa( x )
𝐍 𝐧
𝐅𝟐 𝐱𝐚( ) 𝐀 𝟏−𝐧
= 𝐱
= x (1 – n) = (𝐀𝟐 )
𝐅𝟏 𝐚𝐍𝐧 𝟏
The two classical laws of friction replaced by the relations.
F = aNn for constant apparent surface area in contact
F = bA(1 – n) for constant load.
Where a and b are constant dependent on the area and respectively.

Limiting friction/Static friction:

The force that resists the movement of an object in any direction is known as the limiting
friction/Static friction.

Sliding friction/Dynamic friction:

The frictional force that opposes movement when the object is in motion is known as sliding or
dynamic friction.

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Some experimental values for the directional frictional effects of wool are given in table:
Value of μ
Direction Friction in Wool
With Scales Against Scales
Dry wool (twisted fibers) 13 0.11 0.14
Wool in water (twisted fibers) 13 0.15 0.32
Wool unswollen on ebonite swollen in benzene (36) 0.58 0.79
Wool swollen in water on ebonite unswollen (36) 0.62 0.72
Wool swollen in water on ebonite swollen in benzene (36) 0.65 0.88
Wool on horn, dry (41) 0.3 0.5
Untreated 0.3 0.6
Chlorine treated 0.1 0.1
Wool on horn, wet pH 4.0 (49)
Alcoholic-caustic-potash treated 0.4 0.6
Sulphuryl-chloride-treaded 0.6 0.7
It has been shown that the effect persists, though to a reduced extent, when the fibers are lubricated or
coated with thin films of gold or silver, water or other swelling agents, the difference is the coefficients of
friction is greater than it is in air. On the other hand, the difference is less after mechanical abrasion or
chemical treatments, designed to reduce shrinkage, which attack the outer layer of the wool fiber.

𝟑𝛑
A nylon fiber Pulling over a porcelain guide with an angle of contact of radian. If the outgoing tension
𝟐
is 10 times of input tension, then find out the coefficient of friction of nylon fiber with porcelain.
Solution:
We know, Here,
𝐓𝟐 T2 = 10 T1
= 𝐞𝛍𝛉
𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟐
×
𝟑𝛑 = 10
 10 = 𝐞 𝟐 𝐓𝟏
𝟑𝛑
  = 0.4886 (Ans.) = 𝟐

𝟑𝛑
A nylon finer is pulling over a porcelain guide with an angle of contact of radian. If the coefficient of
𝟐
friction of nylon fiber with porcelain is 0.489, find out the relation between outgoing tension and input
tension.
Solution:
We know, Here,
𝐓𝟐 𝟑𝛑
𝐓𝟏
= 𝐞𝛍𝛉 = 𝟐
𝐓𝟐 𝟎.𝟒𝟖𝟗×
𝟑𝛑
 = 0.489
𝐓 = 𝐞 𝟐 = 10
𝟏
T2 = 10 T1
The outgoing tension is 10 times of input tension.

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Optical Properties

Optical Properties
When light falls on a fiber, it may be partly transmitted, absorbed or reflected, depending on the
structure of the light. The transmission, reflection and absorption of light determine the visual appearance
of an individual fiber. So, visual appearance of any fiber depends on the optical properties of fiber. Thus,
the optical properties of fabrics need to be taken into consideration when dyeing, printing or color
matching fabrics.

Polarization and light:

Light is an electromagnetic wave. When light travels, it is distributed in two ways such as electric
field and magnetic field.

The process of transforming unpolarized light into polarized light is known as polarization.
Polarized light has its 'E' field in one direction.

Refractive index: 21, 18, 17, 15

The index of refraction or refractive index is a ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the
velocity of light in the medium.
𝐕𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐢𝐧 𝐯𝐚𝐜𝐮𝐮𝐦
∴ Refractive index (n)= 𝐕𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐦
The refractive index of a material varies with the temperature and with the wave length of the light
being transmitted.

Snell’s law is related to the index of refraction

𝐕 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 𝐧
Snell's law = 𝐕𝐀 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉𝐀 = 𝐧𝐁
𝐁 𝐁 𝐀
Where,
VA & VB = The speed of light in two mediums
nA & nB = The refractive index of two the mediums
θA = The angle of incidence
θB = The angle of incidence
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Fiber density affects the refractive index of a fiber.

The refractive index of fibers is affected by the fiber density. This is because, the refractive index
will increase when the number of molecules present increase. For many fibers, the relation between
refractive index and fiber density (ρ) can be expressed by Gladstone and Dale’s law:
(𝐧−𝟏)
= Constant
𝛒
Where, ρ = density of the material, n = R.I. of the material.

Effect of moisture regain on the refractive index of fiber:

The refractive index of water is 1.33. The refractive
index values of most fibers are greater than of water, and
hence they decrease with increase in moisture regain. Figure
shows schematically the effect of moisture on the average
refractive index of fibers. For some fibers, an increase in
refractive index is observed at low moisture regains and this
probably is caused by the filling up of voids or defects in the
fibers by water.

Effect of moisture on the refractive index can be described by:

vMR(nMR-1) = v0 (n0 -1) + 0.333MR
Where, v0 = volume of 1 gm of dry fiber
vMR = volume of sample fiber at a frictional moisture reign of MR
n0 = refractive index of dry fiber
nMR = refractive index of moisture fiber

Relation among Refractive index, Density & Swelling:

Refractive indices of a material are determined by an appropriate summation of polarizabilities of
the bounds present in each of its molecules. So, R.I. will increase if no. of molecules i.e., density increases.
By Gladstone and Dale's law,
(𝐧−𝟏)
= Constant
𝛒
Where, ρ = density of the material, n = R.I. of the material.
1
V (n – 1) = Constant; [Where ρ = V, m = 1]
A similar relation applies to mixtures.
If Vm and nm are the volume and R.I. respectively of a mixture and V1, V2, V3, ……. and n1, n2, n3, ………….
Are the corresponding quantities for the individual components, the relation is,
Vm (nm – 1) = V1 (n1 – 1) + V2 (n2 – 1) + V3 (n3 – 1) + ……
For, the two components cellulose and water with the refractive index of water taken 1.3333
So, Vr (nr – 1) = Vo (no – 1) + 1.3333r
Where, Vo is the volume of 1 gm of dry cellulose
Vr = is the volume of the specimen at a fractional regain, r.
And no and nr are the R.I. of the dry and swollen cellulose.
This equatrion applies to both the Refractive indexes n|| and n⊥.
The equation is,
Vr (n|| - n⊥)r = Vo (n|| - n⊥)

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Write short notes on Birefringence. 20, PTEC_CT_2

Birefringence: 18, 17, 17, 15
When a beam of light falling on a textile fiber, it splits up into two refracted beam, one polarized
parallel to the fiber axis and the other polarized perpendicular to the fiber axis.

State the factors on which birefringence property depends on. 17, 15, 15
Write the property of Birefringence. 21, 18
▪ In general, an anisotropic material will have three principle refractive
indices, but fibers are usually axially symmetrical so that the refractive
indices perpendicular to the fiber axis are all the same. The principle
refractive indices, shown in Fig. are thus n|| for light polarized parallel to
the fiber axis, and n⊥ for light polarized perpendicular to it.
▪ The difference (n|| – n⊥) between the principle refractive indices is known
as the birefringence of the fiber.
▪ The birefringence of a fiber is due to the orientation of the crystal axes in
the crystalline regions and of the individual molecules in the non-
crystalline regions.
▪ Greater the value of birefringence indicates the most molecules are lined
up parallel to the fiber axis.

Factors effect on birefringence:

This depends on two factors:
1. The degree of orientation of the molecules.
2. The degree of asymmetry of the molecules themselves.
▪ Highly oriented fibers will have high birefringence value. The magnitude of
birefringence ranges from 0.005 for Triacetate to 0.188 for Terylene.
▪ If all the atoms in a molecule are arranged in a straight chain (fig: a) if, as usually
happens, the bond polarizabilities are greatest along the line joining the atoms then a
high birefringence will be expected.

▪ The actual molecules in fibers do not have this form and their birefringence will be
reduced for two reasons. Firstly, most main chains have a zigzag form (fig: b) but,
provided that the bonds diverge from the main axis by less than about 55°, this still
gives a positive birefringence.
▪ The coiling of the keratin molecule will have a similar effect in wool.

▪ There will be side groups attached to the main chain, as in Fig. c, and these will have
the effect of providing atomic bonds at right angles to the main axis. This will increase
the value of n⊥ and reduce the birefringence. In triacetate and acrylic fibers, the side
groups have a greater effect than the main chain, and the birefringence is negative.

Explain optical orientation factor. 16, 15

Optical orientation factor:
Birefringence depends on the relation between the direction of polarization of light and the
direction of alignment of the molecular chain. Birefringence value will be greatest when the molecules are

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

all lined up parallel to the fiber axis. Herman's has defined an optical orientation factor 'f', as the ratio of
the birefringence of the fiber to that of an ideal fiber in which the molecules are perfectly oriented parallel
to the fiber axis.
𝐧 −𝐧⊥ 𝟑
f = 𝐧||′ −𝐧′ = 1 – 𝟐 sin2 ____________ (i)
|| ⊥

Where, n|| and n⊥ refer to the ideally oriented fiber an imaginary fiber in which all molecules are
arranged at the same angle and which has the same B.F. as the actual fiber.
In the ideally oriented fiber, f = 1 and  = 0
In an isotropic fiber, f = 0 and  = 55o
Where there is no B.F.

Measurement of Refractive Indices

There are various methods for measuring the refractive index of textile fibers.
▪ The Becke line method (Heyn).
▪ Wavelength varying technique.
▪ fiber refractometer (Rapid).
▪ Interference technique (Faust).

The Becke line method

In this method, the fiber is immersed in a liquid and compared the refractive index. If the index is
same, then its boundary ceases to be visible. By trial and error with a series of liquid mixtures of varying
composition, the observation of this effect may be used as a mean of measuring the refractive index of
fiber. It is necessary to use polarized light so that only one refractive index is concerned; it gives the
refractive index of the surface layer of the fiber.
If the refractive index of the fiber is different, a bright line can be seen at the boundary between
them. When the objective of the microscope is raised the line moves towards the medium of higher
refractive index.

Interference technique:
In this technique both double beam and multiple – beam interference technique used.
In double beam fig (a) method the light is split into two beams, one of
which passes through the specimen, while the other by
passes it. The two are then combined and give an
interference pattern.
In multiple beam method fig (b), the specimen is
placed between two partly silvered mirrors. A series of
beams, which have passed through the specimen for a
differing number of times, depending on the number of
reflections are transmitted by the system and combine to
give the interference pattern.

Write short notes on Dichroism. 20, PTEC_CT_2

Dichroism: 17, 16, 15
The variation in the absorption of radiation by a colored fiber (by dyeing) with the direction of
polarization of the light is called Dichroism which may result in the differences in the depth of shade or
even in the actual color.
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We get,
𝐤 ||
Dichroic or Dichroitic ratio or constant,  = 𝐤
⊥
Where, k|| = Absorption coefficient for light polarized parallel to the fiber axis.
k⊥ = Absorption coefficient for light polarized perpendicular to the fiber axis.

Write down the requirements of dichroism. 17, 16, 15

There are three requirements of dichroism:
1. The dye molecule must be asymmetrical so that its absorption of radiation varies with the direction
of the electric field exciting the characteristics vibration.
2. The dye molecule must be absorbed on to the fiber molecule in a particular direction so that all the
dye molecules make the same angle (or a limited range of angles) with the axis of the chain
molecules.
3. The chain molecules must be preferentially oriented

How can measure the birefringence value by retardation method? 18, 17

Measurement of Birefringence:
The B.F. of fiber can be measured directly by determining the retardation or difference in optical
path length:
Since the optical path length equals the product refractive index and the thickness of the specimen
that which the light passes;
So, Optical path retardation = (N +δN) λ = (η|| -η⊥) t ___________(i)
Where, (N +δN) λ = Total number of wave length, λ = Wave length, t= Thickness.
So, the equation (i)
Optical path retardation = Birefringence × Thickness.
(𝐍 +𝛅𝐍 ) 𝛌
Birefringence = 𝐭
Where, n∥ = Refractive index for light polarized parallel to the fiber axis.
n⊥= Refractive index for light polarized perpendicular the fiber axis.

Why cross fiber absorbs more radiation than the parallel one? 17, 16
Cross fiber absorbs more radiation than parallel fiber
When light passes through the two Dichroic fibers,
there is a greater total absorption if they are crossed than
there is if they are parallel.
If the fibers are crossed, the first fiber absorbs a large
part of one component and the second fiber absorbs a large
part of the perpendicular component. But if the fibers are
parallel, the same component is transmitted through both
little absorptions.

Example of dichroism:
When light passes through two dichroic fibers, absorption is
greater if they are crossed than if they are parallel.
When the fibers are crossed, the first fiber absorbs a large part
of one component and the second fiber absorbs a large part of the

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perpendicular component, thus looks darker, but if the fibers are parallel, the same component is
absorbed by both fibers, and the perpendicular component is transmitted through both with little
absorption.

Dichroic or Dichroitic ratio or Dichroitic constant:

It is the ratio of absorption coefficient for light polarized parallel to the fiber axis to the absorption
coefficient for light polarized perpendicular to the fiber axis.
𝐤
 = 𝐤 ||
⊥
Where, k|| is absorption coefficient for light polarized parallel to the fiber axis and k⊥ absorption
coefficient for light polarized perpendicular to the fiber axis.

Dichroic constant for direct dyes on cellulose:

Fiber Dichroic constant
Ramie 9
Viscose rayon 1.4 – 2.3
Cellophane 1.5

Lusture: 16, 15
Lusture is an important aesthetic property of textile fabrics. If a beam of light falls on a surface, it
may be reflected specularly, along the angle of reflection as in Fig. (a) diffusely, (b) in varying intensity over
a hemisphere or (c) in a combination of both. The reflection may vary with the angle of incidence and with
the color and polarization of the light. The total visual appearance resulting from these reflections
determines the lusture of the material.

“Fiber lusture depends on several factors” – Describe the factors. 17, 15, 15
What are the factors that will influence luster of textile fiber? 22, 21, 18, 18, 17, 16
Lusture Depends On:
1. Incident angle of light: The diagram illustrates
how a fiber's reflection of light varies depending
on its direction, a fundamental aspect of textile
lusture, emphasizing the importance of fibers
aligning parallel in a lustrous yarn or fabric.
2. Fineness of fiber: Finer fibers in fabric increase
the number of reflecting surfaces per unit area,
affecting lusture character. Coarser fibers have
more lusture than finer ones.
3. Irregularity of the fiber surface: Irregularities in fiber surface and cross-sectional shape reduce
lusture, making uniform filaments like silk and manufactured fibers ideal for achieving maximum
luster.
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4. Fiber Shape: Fiber shape significantly influences lusture, with nylon, rayon, and silk exhibiting
varying types due to their circular, serrated, and triangular light reflection patterns.

Circular → More lusture → →Nylon

Serrated → Dull lusture → → Rayon

Triangular → Less lusture → → Silk

5. Maturity of fiber: If the maturity is high then the reflection will be high and so the lusture.

Immature fiber Mature fiber

6. Presentation of small particles on fiber like TiO2 or Minimize the lusture of M.M.F: Light falls on a
fiber, reflected and transmitted. Small particles like TiO2 or Cavities scatter light, creating diffuse
reflection. TiO2 is used as dellustrants in MMF to reduce its lusture.

Electronic polarization on fiber atoms:

Light is composed of electromagnetic waves, and the
change in velocity is associated with the electric polarization
that occurs under the influence of the electric field. The
frequency of the waves is very high, so that only the
polarization of the electron distribution round the nuclei of
atoms (i.e., the relative displacement of positive and negative
change) is important. Larger scale effects, such as the rotation
of permanent dipoles, cannot take place rapidly enough. The
outer electrons, which are taking part in covalent bonds, are
those affected, since electrons in the inner complete shells are
not easily displacement: this is illustrated in following figure
(A). It is therefore possible to assign a polarizability to each
chemical bond, although this is influenced to some extent by
other atoms nearby. The polarizability will also vary with the
direction of the electric field, as illustrated in fig. (B) and (C): it
is usually greater when the field is directed along the line
joining the atoms.
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In anisotropic materials, such as textile fibers, the molecules are lined up in certain preferred
directions, and the refractive index will therefore vary with the direction of the electric field, being usually
greatest when the field is parallel to the axis of the molecules. The direction of the electric field in an
electromagnetic wave is known as the vibration direction. In ordinary light, there are vibrations in all
directions at right angle to the direction of transmission.

Anisotropy: Anisotropy is defined as the “variation of a physical property depending on the direction in
which it is measured”

Retardation: In anisotropic crystals, the two rays of light produced by double refraction travel at different
velocities through the crystal. It takes the slow ray longer to traverse the crystal than it takes the fast ray.
The fast ray will have passed through the crystal and traveled some distance ∆ beyond the crystal before
the slow ray reaches the surface of the crystal. This distance ∆ is called the retardation.
∆ = c (tS – tF)
Units: m = (m/s)

Distinguish between refractive index and birefringence of textile fibers.

Refractive index Birefringence
The ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the The difference between the refractive indices for light
velocity of light in the medium. polarized parallel and perpendicular to the fiber axis.
A single value for isotropic fibers, such as cotton and A positive or negative value for anisotropic fibers,
wool, that do not split light into two beams. such as polyester and nylon, that split light into two
beams.
Affected by the fiber density, swelling, and dyeing. Affected by the degree of orientation and asymmetry
of the fiber molecules.
Measured by using a refractometer or a polarizing Measured by using a polarizing microscope or a
microscope. compensator.

Compare specular reflection with diffuse reflection.

Specular reflection Diffuse reflection
Occurs on smooth surfaces like mirrors or calm Occurs on rough surfaces like clothing, paper, or
water. asphalt.
Causes light rays to reflect at the same angle as Causes light rays to scatter in different directions
they hit the surface. after hitting the surface.
Produces clear and sharp images of the light Produces no images or blurred images of the light
source. source.
Depends on the angle of incidence of the light rays. Does not depend on the angle of incidence of the
light rays.

What are the possible approaches to produce de lustered fiber.

There are two main approaches to produce de-lustered fibers: chemical and physical.
▪ Chemical de-lustered: Chemical delustering involves adding a pigment, such as titanium dioxide, to
the polymer melt before extruding the fibers. The pigment particles scatter light and reduce the
luster of the fibers. The amount and type of pigment used can affect the color, brightness, and
abrasiveness of the fibers.
▪ Physical de lustered: Physical delustering involves modifying the shape or surface of the fibers to
create irregularities that scatter light. This can be done by using spinnerets with non-circular
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orifices, such as triangular, star-shaped, or lobed, to produce fibers with non-round cross-
sections. Alternatively, the fibers can be crimped, twisted, or textured to create surface roughness.

Why is birefringence so important in fiber science?

When fibers absorb a large amount of moisture, water molecules mainly enter the amorphous
phase and change its refractive angle. Therefore, in wet fibers, the refractive index difference between the
crystalline and amorphous phase become larger and the form of birefringence starts to make contribution
to the total fiber birefringence. The effect of from birefringence become significant only when the
moisture regain is greater than 15%.
Optical orientation factor is generally defined as the average angle of inclination of the chain molecules in
the crystalline regions with respect of fiber axis. Mathematically,
f= 0.5[3cos2θ – 1]
Where,
θ = angle between the elongation direction and main optical axis.
Here,
f = 1.0 for maximum parallel orientation (θ=0)
f = -0.5 for maximum perpendicular orientation (θ=90)
f = 0 for random orientation
The birefringence values can be related to optical orientation factor or the average angle of orientation of
the molecule.
𝚫𝐧
F = 𝚫𝐧′ = 0.5[3cos2θ – 1]
Where,
f = optical orientation factor, Δn = birefringence of the experimental sample, Δn’ = birefringence
value of a perfectly oriented specimen, θ = average angle of orientation of the chain molecules

Calculate the optical orientation factor of 80% stretched viscose rayon fiber if the average angle of
inclination of the molecules in that fiber is 25°.
Solution:
We know, Here,
𝟑 𝟑
f = 1 – 𝟐 sin  = 1 – 𝟐 (sin 25°) = 0.732 (Ans.)
2 2  = 25°

If the birefringence value and thickness of a textile fiber is 1.8 and 0.06 mm respectively. Find out the
value of retardation.
Solution:
We know, Here,
 = ft = 1.80.06 = 0.108 f = 1.8
–1
= 1.0810 mm (Ans.) t = 0.06 mm

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Thermal Properties

Write the thermal properties of textile fiber. 18, 18

Thermal properties of textile fiber:
The thermal properties of fiber/textile fiber are not extensively investigated. The thermal behaviors
of textile fiber are influenced by the factors are –
− Thermal conductivity.
− Heat expansion and contraction.
− Melting temperature (Tm)
− Glass transition temperature. (Tg)
− Heat setting
− Heat of wetting or heat absorption
− Flammability

Thermal conductivity: 22, 22, 20, 19, 18, 17, 17, 16, 15, 15
Thermal conductivity refers to the ability of a given material to conduct/transfer heat. It is
generally denoted by the symbol 'k' but can also be denoted by 'λ' and ''. The reciprocal of this quantity is
known as thermal resistivity.
Every substance has its own capacity to conduct heat. The thermal conductivity of a material is
described by the following formula:
𝐐𝐋
k= 𝐀∆𝐓
Where, k is the thermal conductivity in W/m.K
Q is the amount of heat transferred through the material in Joules/second or Watts
L is the distance between the two isothermal planes
A is the area of the surface in square meters
ΔT is the difference in temperature in Kelvin

Typical value of thermal conductivity of some fibers:

Fibers Thermal conductivity (mW/mK)
Silk 50
Wool 54
Cotton 71
Polyester (PET) 140
PVC 160
Nylon 250
Polyethylene 340

Factors affecting thermal conductivity:

Thermal conductivity mainly depends on following matters.
Temperature: Thermal conductivity of amorphous polymers increases gradually in glassy resin, decreasing
slowly or remaining constant in rubbery region, while crystalline polymers decrease steadily with
temperature increase.
Degree of crystallinity: Thermal conductivity depends on the degree of crystallinity; a polymer with highly
crystalline and ordered structure will have higher conductivity than amorphous polymer.
Density of polymer: The thermal conductivity increases with the increasing of density of polymer.

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Orientation of chain segments: The thermal conductivity of polymers is significantly influenced by the
orientation of the chain segment, with crystalline polymers having higher thermal conductivity than
amorphous polymers.
Structure: Foamed polymers' cell size affects thermal conductivity, with smaller ones resulting in lower
values, often 10 times lower than the same polymers.

Why natural fiber/fabric is more comfortable than synthetic fiber/fabric. 15

Why synthetics dresses are not suitable in winter season? 22, 22, 20, 19, 17, 17, 16, 15
Synthetic dresses are not suitable in summer or winter season:
The value of thermal conductivity of synthetic fiber. i.e., Polyester, Nylon is higher than natural (i.e.,
Cotton, Silk, Woolen etc.) fiber. as a result, the synthetic dresses are more conductive, hence rate of
transfer of heat along a body is very high. So, in summer season, atmospheric heat is easily felt and in
winter season, low temperature of air is also affected on the body by synthetic fiber dresses and
disgusting.
That’s why, the synthetic dresses are not suitable in summer or winter season.

Why silk is warm in winter and cold in summer?

Thermal conductivity of the silk fiber is expressed in terms of the rate of heat conductance
(thermal conductivity co-efficient). The thermal conductivity is poor and the specific heat is higher than
other natural fibers and thus silk is warm in winter and cool in summer. This is due to the fact that the
cocoon filament is a porous fiber having numerous vacuum spots capable of accommodating large
quantity of air.

Why wool fabric is more comfortable in winter season than any other fabric? 21
Woolen dresses are more suitable than cellulosic dresses
− Due to the lower thermal conductivity.
− There are provided air pocket into the wool fiber structure, as air prevent the cooling. atmosphere.
So, wool dresses are warm in winter.

Glass transition temperature (Tg): 20, 19, 17, 17, 15

The temperature at which the fiber behaves as a glass and brittle
condition is called glass transition temperature. It is denoted by ‘Tg’. The
glass transition occurs only in the amorphous region, and the crystalline
region remains unaffected during the glass transition in the semi-
crystalline polymer.
The range of Tg for linear polymer is – 1000C to 3000C

Briefly discuss the importance of Tg in textile processing specially in dyeing. 17

Importance of Tg:
▪ To know property of amorphous region.
▪ Above Tg: disordered amorphous solid in which portions of molecules can wiggle around.
▪ Below Tg: disordered amorphous solid with immobile molecules.
▪ A second order of transition.
▪ Tg is used as a measure for evaluating of polymer molecules.
▪ The Tg value along with Tm value give an identification of the temperature region at which
polymeric materials transforms a rigid solid state to a soft viscose state.
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State the factors influencing Tg of fiber. 20, 19, 17, 17, 15

Factor influence the Tg:
1. Flexibility of chain bond decrease the value of Tg
2. Composition of ring structure in molecular chain raises the value of Tg
3. Bulky side groups raise the value of Tg
4. Flexibility of side group decrease the value of Tg
5. Tg increases with molecular weight up to 20,000.
6. Polarity of side groups increases the value of Tg.
7. Random co-polymer has lower value of Tg than homo-polymer.
8. Increase the orientation of fiber chain restrict the chain movement and increase the value of T g.

Typical value of thermal conductivity of some fibers:

Fiber Thermal conductivity
Cotton 71
Polyester 140
Nylon 250
Wool 54
Silk 50

What are the factors affecting Tg?

Chemical structure:
Molecular weight : In straight-chain polymers, increasing molecular weight decreases chain
end concentration. This results in the decrease of free volume at the end
group region and an increase in Tg.
Molecular structure : Insertion of bulky, inflexible side group increases Tg of material due to a
decrease in mobility.
Chemical cross linking : An increase in cross-linking decreases the mobility of the polymer. This
leads to a decrease in free volume and an increase in Tg.
Polar groups : The presence of polar groups increases intermolecular forces, interchain
attraction, and cohesion. This leads to a decrease in free volume resulting
in an increase in Tg.
Addition of plasticizers: The plasticizers increase the free volume between polymer chains, spacing them
apart. The polymer chains slide past each other at lower temperatures resulting in a decrease in T g.
Water or moisture content: An increase in moisture content forms hydrogen bonds between the
polymeric chains. These bonds increase the distance between the chain structures. This results in an
increase in free volume and decreases Tg.
Pressure and free volume: An increase in pressure of the surrounding leads to a decrease in free volume
and ultimately high Tg.
Other factors governing Tg: Other factors have a significant impact on the glass transition temperature of
polymers. These include: Branching, Alkyl chain length, Bond interaction, Flexibility of polymer chain, Film
thickness etc.

Melting temperature: 20, 18, 16, 15

The range of temperature at which the fiber melts is called melting
temperature (Tm). A polymer has variable melting temperature as small crystal
melts quickly than larger one. The value of temperature at which the larger crystal
melts taken as the melting temperature of that polymer.
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At melting temperature fiber loses its density and changes to viscous liquid. The fiber loses
strength and a bit of wt. for melting.
Cellulose and protein fiber decomposes before melting.

Effect of temperature on fiber deformation:

Increase of cellulosic fiber, for increasing the temperature, if deform toe decompose and finally
turn toe ashes. For thermoplastic fibers, it deforms to soften and melts. This melting is regarded as first
order transition temperature.
Before melting point, a fiber can deform any desired form at a certain temperature which is called
second order transition temperature.

What are the factors on which melting temperature depends? 17, 16

Melting point depends on:
Composition : Polyester Tm = 264
PVC Tm = 310
Structure : Larger polymer structure = Tm
Rigid structure = Tm
Bonding force : Covalent Bond, Hydrogen bond = Tm

Factors influence the Tm:

1. Flexibility of chain bond decreases the value of Tm.
2. Flexibility of side group decreases the value of Tm.
3. Polarity of side groups increases the value of Tm.
4. Bulky of side groups increases the value of Tm.
5. Composition of ring structure in the molecule chain raises the value of Tm.
6. Random co – polymer has a lower value of Tm than homo polymer.
7. Tm increases with molecules weight up to 20,000.

Mention the Tm and Tg value of Nylon 6.6, PVC, Nylon 6 and PET. 17, 17
Glass transition and melting temperature of fibers:
Fiber Tg (oC) Tm (oC)
Nylon 6 50 250
Nylon 6, 6 50 270
PVC 81 310
PET 69 264
Nylon 4,6 69 281
Polyester 64 269
Tri – acetate 73 306
PAN 97 314
Poly styrene 100 250

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Specific volume vs Temperature curve with Tg and Tm for amorphous and semi – crystalline polymer:

Figure: A schematic diagram showing the variation of specific volume with temperature for an amorphous and semi – crystalline
polymer.
Fig. shows the decrease of specific volume with temperature for amorphous and semicrystalline polymers.
Semi-crystalline polymers experience a sudden drop in specific volume as they cool from liquid to melting
temperature. Amorphous polymers do not experience this drop, and their specific volume decreases
linearly until the glass transition temperature. In the rigid glassy state, the volume decreases slower.

Differentiate between glass transition temperature and melting temperature. 16

Glass transition temperature Melting temperature
Glass transition temperature is the temperature at Melting temperature is the temperature at which a
which a hard glassy state on an amorphous solid material is covered into its liquid form.
material is covered to rubbery state.
Describes the transition of a glass state into a Describes the transition of a solid phase into a
rubber state. liquid phase (phase transition).
Can be observed in amorphous and semi – Can be observed in crystalline substances.
Crystalline compounds.
Depends mainly on the chemical structure of the Depends mainly on the chemical bonding of
substance. molecules in the substance and the external
pressure.
It is the secondary transition. It is the primary transition.

Heat setting: 17, 15

Heat setting is a process of heat finishing that will stabilize many manufactured fiber, yarn and
fabrics in order so that there will not be may subsequent change in their shape or size.

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Objects of heat setting:

▪ To impact dimensional stability.
▪ To remove shrinkage of fabric.
▪ To impart crease resistance.
▪ To increase elasticity and resiliency.

Application:
Heat setting is used to permanently import a crease, a pleat or a durable into a fabric or garment
that will remain through still after many repeated washings and dry cleanings.

Classifications:
There are three types of heat-setting
1. Temporary heat setting
2. Semi-permanent heat setting
3. Permanent heat setting
Temporary heat setting: Regular use of materials like stream pressed cotton textile can destroy this type
of heat setting.
Semi-permanent heat setting: Heat setting raises material above its Tg, transforming it into a new form,
but loses setting when subjected to severe conditions like hot washing or steaming.
Permanent heat setting: Heat setting is a process where materials undergo a change that doesn't reverse
until they are destroyed by rising above their melting point, like developing new crystallites.

Advantage:
1. Stabilize the crimp by heat treatment.
2. Impart dimensional stability.

Disadvantage:
1. Fiber become very stiff.
2. Crystallinity increase but dye takes decrease.
3. Fiber color may be change.
4. Uneven shade due to the uneven heat set.

Purpose of heat setting:

▪ The purpose of heat setting is dimensionally stabilizing fabrics containing thermoplastic fiber.
▪ Polyester and nylon are the principal fibers involved. Blended polyester/ cotton fabrics are
produced in large quantities. These fabrics may shrink, or otherwise become distorted either
during wet processing or in the consumer’s hands. Heat setting is a way of reducing or eliminating
these undesirable properties.
▪ The process is relatively simple – pass the fabric through a heating zone for a time and at a
temperature that resets the thermoplastic fiber’s morphology memory.
▪ The new memory relieves the stresses and strains imparted to the fiber by the yarn – making and
weaving process, and makes stable the configuration it finds itself in flat smooth fabric.
▪ This time and temperature needed for the heat treatment depend on fabric density and previous
heat history of the polyester. Time and temperature must exceed that imparted by previous heat
treatments.

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▪ Usually 15 – 19 seconds at temperatures of 385 oF – 4150oF will suffice. The heat setting equipment
can be hot air in a tented frame or surface contact heat from hot cans. While the process is simple,
careful is required.

Methods of Heat Setting:

Different methods of heat setting used in textile industry are described below:
− Contact method
− Steam-setting method
− Hydro-setting method
− Heat-setting using stenter machine
− Selective infra-red emitters method

Stages of heat setting:

Heat-setting can be carried out at three different stages in a processing sequence i.e.,
1. In grey condition (scarcely applied)
2. After scouring. (Frequently applied)
3. After dyeing (Scarcely applied).

Machines used for heat setting:

Machines used: Stenters.
▪ Fluctuating temperatures inside the stenter cause a consistent variation of crystallinity in the fiber
structure, which leads to different affinity for dyes.
▪ The moisture in the fiber produces soft hand but variable moisture percentages in the different
fabric sections.
▪ Too low temperatures do not allow a good setting while to high temperatures and too long.
▪ Setting times cause yellowing (PA and elastic fibers), stuff hand (acrylics) and loss of elasticity
(elastic fibers).
▪ The presence of combustion gas (NOx) produces a yellowing of elastomers.
▪ The heat setting process carried out before scouring could fix the stains on the fabric or make the
scouring process more difficult due to the modification of the lubricating products (cracking with
emission of polluting gas).
▪ Heat setting after dyeing could lead to the sublimation of disperse dyes (if not accurately selected).

Describe the effect of heat setting on fiber properties. 20

Effect of heat setting on fiber properties:
▪ Heat-setting is a heat treatment by which shape retention, crease resistance, resilience and
elasticity are imparted to the fibers.
▪ It brings changes in strength, stretchability, softness, dyeability and sometimes on the color of the
material.
▪ All changes of fiber relate to the structural and chemical modifications occurring in the fiber.
▪ Heat setting is the process applicable to fabrics made from synthetic fibers
▪ The fabric is subjected to the action of high temperature for a short time to make it dimensionally
stable so that the garments made from such fabrics retain their shape on washing and ironing.
▪ The main aim of heat setting process is ensure that fabric do not alter their dimensions during use.

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Why is heat setting so important in textile? 20, 15

The importance of heat setting:
1. To modify crystalline structure.
2. To improve dimensional stability.
3. To resist wet creasing during washing.
4. To increase safe ironing temperature.
5. To avoid shade variation.
6. Affect water inhibition.

Discuss the structure changes of fiber due to heat setting. 16, 15

Structural changes due to heat setting:
Synthetic fibers, primarily polyester and nylon, consist of
long chain molecules held together by inter-chain bonds. After
stretching, they become parallel to the fiber axis, forming H-bonds
and strains between chains. After cold drawing, heated fibers
shrink until reaching thermodynamic equilibrium. When heat is
supplied, chain molecules vibrate, breaking some bonds and
relaxing others. The fibers crystallize under tension and relaxation,
and when energy is stopped, they are cooled quickly, freezing H-
bonds. The newly formed bonds are more difficult to break, and
the fibers remain dimensionally stable.

Parameters of heat setting:

1. Time and Temperature: Heat-setting is a thermal process that maximizes crystallization in
amorphous fibers, with optimal temperatures and time affecting orientation and loss of
orientation.
Fiber Minimum Temperature, oC Maximum Temperature, oC Time (in seconds)
Polyester (PE) 170 210 15 – 40
Polyamide PA 6.6 170 210 15 – 40
Polyamide PA 6 160 180 15 – 40
Triacetate 160 180 15 – 40
Acrylic (PAC) 160 180 – 200 15 – 40
Elastomers 170 180 – 200 15 – 40
2. Tension given to the material during heat-setting: Heat-setting of yarn can be done in loose or taut
forms, with loose forms causing fiber shrinkage and low connectivity. Applying tension during heat-
setting can improve connectivity and tensile strength, but may not reach 100% set.

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3. Moisture in the starting material and its sensitivity to it: Nylons are sensitive to moisture, causing
their Tg to decrease and chains to relax and fold easily in wet conditions, while in dry conditions,
they loosen.

Nylon tends to be heat set at a higher temperature than polyester

There is an important difference between the behavior of the two common polyamides (nylon 6
and nylon 6.6) and polyester, because of their different behavior towards water. Polyester is non-
absorbent, so the heat setting behavior is not affected by water. However, nylon will absorb sufficient
water to obtain a temporary set that is based on hydrogen bonding and is destroyed on boiling in water.
The consequence of this is that to obtain a permanent set on nylon, the water has to be removed from the
fiber so that crystallization can take place. Therefore, nylon tends to be heat set at a higher temperature
than polyester.

Mechanism of Heat Setting:

The setting temperature used is above Th. In heat setting, inter-chain
bonds, break. This allows the molecular chains to move and adopt new, stress –
free positions. New intermolecular bods then form with the fabric in a relaxed
condition at the setting temperature. After cooling, the polymer molecules in
the filaments become frozen in place. The new bonds are stable up to the heat
setting temperature. The reorganized internal polymer structure, and the
material's dimensions, will be stable.

Thermal expansion:
Thermal expansion can be measured by co-efficient of thermal expansion and which is defined as
the fraction increase in length of a specimen to rise in temperature by 1 oC.
𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐡 𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐝 ∆𝐋
Co – efficient of thermal expansion = 𝐈𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧 = 𝐋

Heat of wetting:
When a textile fiber absorbs moisture or water it gives off some amount of heat which is called
heat of wetting or heat of absorption. Heat of absorption resulting from changes in moisture regain rather
than the thermal conductivity. If 1gm of dried textile fiber is completely wetted then heat in calorie/gm is
involved which is known as heat of wetting of that fiber.

Flammability:
Flammability is defined as how easily a material will burn or ignite or combust. It is measured by
passing a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen over a bearing specimen, and reducing the oxygen level until a
critical level is raised.

Factors of flammability:
Chemical structure : Covalent Bond, H – bond → Flammability 
Cl Bond → Flammability 
Crystallinity : Crystallinity → Flammability  Amorphous  → Flammability 
Rigidity : Rigidity  → Flammability 

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Heat setting during false twist method:

Heat setting stabilizes the crimp of
false twist textured yarn by heating it below
its melting point but high enough to relax
internal stresses and fix the crimp geometry.
The optimal temperature depends on the
type and properties of the synthetic fiber
and desired characteristics.
The typical heat setting temperatures
for different synthetic fibers are:
▪ Polyester: 180-200°C
▪ Nylon: 160-180°C
▪ Polypropylene: 130-150°C
▪ Acrylic: 120-140°C
The heat setting process, involving
methods like hot air, steam, infrared
radiation, or rollers, impacts yarn properties
like bulkiness, softness, and dyeability.
Longer settings increase crimp stability but
decrease bulkiness and softness. Control
and optimization are crucial for optimal performance.

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Static Electricity

Static Electricity: 22, 21, 21, 20, 19, 18

The electricity which is build up on the surface of the substance is known as the static electricity.
Examples: Shocks from everyday objects, Lightning, A charged balloon sticking to a wall, charged comb
picking up small pieces of paper.

Frictional electricity:
Frictional electricity is the electricity produced by rubbing two suitable bodies and the transfer of
electrons from one body to other. The body which loses the electrons becomes positively charged while
the body which receives the electrons, becomes negatively charged.

Explain Modern theory of static electricity. 22, 20, 19

Briefly explain the different theories of static electricity. 22
Theories of static electricity:
For explaining various circumstances regarding electricity various theories have been given in
various time till now the following 5 theories are available:
1. Two-fluid theory
2. One-Fluid theory
3. Faraday’s theory
4. Lorentz’s theory
5. Modern theory

Now they are shortly described below:

1. Two fluid theory: According to this theory, a maternal has two fluids of opposite charges. Due to
friction, one type of fluid flows from one maternal to another. Thus, the increment or decrement of
charge occur in two bodies and electricity produces.
2. One-Fluid Theory: This theory was postulated by Wattson and Franklin. According to this theory,
everybody has a definite quantity of indestructible charge fluids. If there is an increment of this
fluid the body gets positive charge and due to decrement of this fluid body gets negative charge.
3. Faraday’s theory: According to this theory all the charges produced by static electrical
experimental are moved by electrical cell. We will get current electric.
4. Lorentz Theory: According to this theory positive and negative charges are not two different types
of fluid rather they are two oppositely charged particles.
5. Modern theory: Now a- days the above 4 theories are discarded and the modern electron theories
accepted. According to this theory every atom has a positively changed nucleus (positive charge is
due to proton). Negatively charged electrons and protons are equal in neutral condition. If the No.
of electrons increases the atom because negatively charged and if the no. of electrons decreases
the atom becomes positively charged.

Discuss the measurement of magnitude of change. 22, 22

Measurement of magnitude of charge:
The amount of static charge present should be expressed by the magnitude of charge on the
material. This may be measured by using Faraday’s cylinder. The following figure shows the apparatus used
by Kegging to measure the charge on card Sliver.
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Figure: Measurement of charge by means of Faraday cylinder.

The charged material in the cylinder induces an equal opposite charge on the inside of the cylinder.
Again, outside the cylinder there produces equal charges of some sign This outside charge induces in the
condenser. The potential (v) is measure by a valve voltmeter and if one knows the capacity (C) of the
whole system the charge can be calculated by the following formula.
Q = CV
Where, Q = Amount of charge induced in condenser.
V = Potential differences shown by voltmeter
C = Known Capacity of the whole system.

State the problems created due to static electricity. 22, 21, 21, 20, 19, 18, SKTEC & SRTEC_CT_2
Problems Created due to state Electricity:
Static charge causes various problems in textile material and in processing some of them are
illustrated below:
1) Similar charges repel one another: The issue of material handling can be exacerbated by the
repellent nature of filaments, the ballooning of bundles, and the difficulty of folding cloth neatly
upon finishing.
2) Opposite charges attract one another: The opening of a parachute can be difficult due to the
attraction of soil dust and dirt, resulting in 'Fog marking' in the loom.
3) Charged bodies are attracted by uncharged bodies: Due to these charged fibers will Stick to
earthed parts of the machine happens particularly in carding.
4) High-field discharges, sparks, and clothing sparks pose risks of fire, explosion, and inflammable
vapors, especially in operation theaters and hospitals.
5) Large static charges, particularly in large insulated conductors, can cause shock to people when
they become charged up.
6) Due to static charge the projection fibers remain stickled with the fabric. So, they cannot be
removed by singeing and cropping. So, dyeing and finishing become faulty.
7) While passing over guides, due to state charge, roving experiences more friction and thus breakage
may occur. Again, due to repulsion roving cannot be wound on to bobbin easily.

Describe the method of minimizing static problems. 22, 20, 19, 18, PTEC_CT_2, SKTEC & SRTEC_CT_2
Method of Minimizing Static Problems:
As static charges cause various problems, they should be minimized by the following ways:
1. By processing Aid: By using conducting liquids like emulsion oil friction between materials can be
reduced. Thus, formation static charge will be minimized.
2. By Moisturizing: By increasing humidity static electricity formation can be reduced. So, maintaining
an ideal humid condition in textile factory is very essential.
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3. By using radioactive material: Radio-active material ionizes air which reduces static charge
formation.
4. Antistatic Agent/By Finishing Treatment: In man-made fiber spinning, by using anti-static agent
with spin finish applicator the formation of static charge can be reduced.
5. By earthing: By earthling the metallic machine parts static charge can be neutralized.
6. By Using Conductive Fibers: By blending conductive fibers with non-conductive one, static problem
can be minimized by discharge effect.

Potential difference: 17
Potential difference (or voltage) is a measure of energy, per unit of charge, transferred between
two points in a circuit. A potential difference of 1 volt means that 1 joule of work is done per coulomb of
charge.

Possible mechanism on charge transfer:

1. When two metals come into contact, potential charge transfer occurs due to the difference in
energy levels between them.
2. The distribution of charged particles on contact surfaces will be based on their relative affinity for
each type of particles.
3. Asymmetric rubbing causes uneven heating of surfaces, creating a thermal gradient across the
interface, causing particles to move from hot to cold due to increased energy in hot particles.
4. Symmetrical rubbing can cause local asymmetry due to high spots on surfaces, as seen in
polyethylene sheet distribution and wool lock charges.
5. Double layers or potential ionized groups on one body's surface can cause friction, causing charged
layers to skim off one surface and into the other.
6. Martin suggests that piezo electric polarization due to pressure may cause wool withdrawn from a
lock to charge due to negative root end and positive tip end.
7. Medley observed salt linkages in keratin, causing cations on acidic surfaces and mobile anions on
basic surfaces. Treatment with HCl and NaOH changes ion concentrations.

Why is static electricity also called friction electricity?

If two surfaces some in close contact with each other and charge is created due to friction between
them, the produced change remains enclosed and static in those surfaces. They will not move from one
place to another. Here on by charges are exchanged between the two surfaces, this type of electricity is
called “static electricity.”
For example, due to friction between glass rod and silk glass rod glass rod gains positive and silk
gains negative charger.
This is static electricity, as this type of electricity is produced due to friction, it is also known as frictional
electricity.

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Distinguish between Static & Current Electricity.

Static Electricity Current Electricity
The electricity which is build up on the surface of The current electricity is because of the flow of
the substance is known as the static electricity. electrons.
It induces because of the movement of the The current electricity is because of the movement
negative charges from one object to another. of the electrons.
The static electricity develops both in the The current electricity develops only in conductor.
conductor and insulator.
Not induces the magnetic field. It induces magnetic field.
Exist for short time. Exists for long time.
Gold leaf electroscope is used as measuring Analog and digital meter are used as measuring
device. device.
Example: Lightning strokes, it develops by rubbing Example: The current electricity is used for running
the balloons on hair, etc. the fan, light, T.V etc.

Write down the reasons for the generate of static electricity in textile materials.
Static electric is generated due to unbalanced molecular structure of a relatively non-conductive
material like paper or plastic.
An atom is said to be balanced if it has equal number of protons & electrons in it. Protons are the
(+ve) charges orbiting around the nucleus. If by any means this configuration is disturbed likewise –
If several electrons are removed
from the atoms, we'll ended up with higher
no. of proton into the nucleus and its
deficiency of electrons occurs giving an
overall charge in (+ve) direction. In reverse
or opposite case, if several electrons are
added to the atom, excess electrons give an
overall charge in (– ve) direction.

Piezo-electric polarization: Piezo-electric polarization due to the pressure between two surfaces may
result in a charge separation in crystalline or molecularly oriented surface. This is who shown by Martin in
case of wool.

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Fiber & Yarn structure and their properties

Yarn: 22,
According to the Textile Institute, yarn may be defined as such a product of substantial length,
relatively small cross, and section, maintaining fibers or filaments, having with or without twist.

Show the classification of yarn. 22, 20, 19

Classification of Yarn:

1. Cabled yarn: Cabled yarns are made by twisting together two or more multi folded yarns. e.g.
Cords.
2. Multi folded yarns: They are made by twisting together two or more single yarns. e.g. Sewing
threads.
3. Single yarns: Single yarn is the simplest continuous strand of textile material composed of one of
the following –
i. Continuous filament: Continuous filament yarns are the simplest in structure but can be
subjected to many modifying processes for changing their texture, extensibility, bulk and other
properties. They are of two types:
a) Monofilament: Which containing one filament.
b) Multifilament: Which contains two or more filament. e.g., Polyester, Nylon etc.
ii. Spun yarn: Yarn in which a number of discontinuous fibers are hold together, generally by twist
is called spun yarn. e.g., Cotton. Spun yarns are of two types –
a) Homogeneous – Which are spun from only one type of fiber. e.g., 100% cotton yarn.
b) Blended – Which are spun from more than one type of fibers. e.g., cotton-polyester
blend yarns.
iii. Modified continuous filament: The continuous filament yarns which are textured or modified
to change their appearance and other properties, are called modified continuous filament.
4. Complex yarn: In a complex yarn, either a continuous filament core is surrounded by staple fiber or
a spun yarn core is surrounded by continuous filaments. e.g., core spun yarn.
5. Fancy yarns: Fancy yarns are of decorative interest. They are made by introducing spiral forms of
irregularity or hairiness into either spun continuous filament yarns. e.g., chenille yarns, loop yarn,
slub yarn, snarl yarn.

Yarn Designation: 20, CTEC_CT_2

The factor which are required to express yarn structure and properties wholly are called yarn
designation.
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The factors of yarn designation are: CTEC_CT_2

1. Yarn count. (Linear density): Refers to the thickness or fineness of the yarn, which is crucial for
determining the weight and strength of the fabric.
2. No. of filaments: Indicates the total count of individual continuous fibers that are twisted together
to form a yarn, affecting the texture and appearance.
3. No. of components in folding: Describes the number of yarns that are twisted together to make a
folded yarn, impacting the yarn’s strength and thickness.
4. Direction and amount of twist: Describes the number of yarns that are twisted together to make a
folded yarn, impacting the yarn’s strength and thickness.
5. No. of components in cabling: Specifies the number of folded yarns that are twisted together to
create a cabled yarn, which can enhance strength and durability.
6. Fiber components: Details the types of fibers used in the yarn, such as cotton, wool, or synthetic
fibers, which determine the yarn’s properties like absorbency, warmth, and resilience.
It can be expressed in 3 ways:
1. Yarn density of single yarn can be expressed by yarn notation (single to fold notion)
2. Yarn notation based on the resultant linear density. (Fold to single notion)
3. Abbreviated notion.

Interaction of fiber, yarn and fabric structure and properties:

Molecular properties and fiber structure determine fiber property which along with yarn structure
determine yarn property which is turn along with fabric structure determine fabric properties and endues
behavior.

What are the basic assumptions which are generally taken into account in the study of the yarn
structure of yarn? 18
Assumption of idealized helical yarn structure:
1. The yarns are circular in cross – section and uniform along their length.
2. It's built up on series of superimposed concentric layers of different radii, so that it distances from
the center remain constant.
3. A filament at the center will follow the straight line of the yarn axis, but going out from the center,
the helix angle gradually increases, since length in all layer remain constant.
4. The axis of the circular cylinder coincides with the yarn axis.
5. The no. of filaments crossing the unit area is constant, that's the density of packing fibers remain
constant throughout the model.
6. The structure is assumed to be made up of large number of filaments, this will avoid any
complications arising because of any discrepancies in packing of fibers.

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Mention the limitations of yarn geometry. 22

Limitations of idealized yarn Geometry:
1. A real yarn is not perfectly circular and most fibers do not have circular cross section.
2. The twist level is not uniform along the yarn axis.
3. Fiber may take helical path in the yarn.
4. Fiber in the center of the yarn can be kinked or buckled.
5. In a real spun yarn, many fibers will have ends projected outside the yarn body.

What are the assumptions for idealized helical geometry?

Assumptions for idealized helical geometry
1. The yarn is circular in cross-section & uniform along its length.
2. It's built up on series of superimposed concentric layers of different radii, in each of which the fiber
follows a helical path, so that it distances from the center remain constant.
3. A filament at the center will follow the straight line of the yarn axis, but going out from the center,
the helix angle gradually increases, since length in all layer remain constant.
4. The axis of the circular cylinder coincides with yarn axis.
5. The no. of filaments crossing the unit area is constant, that's the density of packing fibers remain
constant throughout the model.
6. The structure is assumed to be made up of large number of filaments, this will avoid any
complications arising because of any discrepancies in packing of fibers.

𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛂
From idealized yarn structure, Prove that, T = , Where, T = Twist per cm, α = Surface angle of twist,
𝟐𝛑𝐑
R = Yarn radius. 18, CTEC_CT_2
Find geometrical relation from a consideration of the idealized yarn structure. 22, 22, 21, 21, 21, 20, 20, 19
Basic geometry of twisted yarn/geometrical relations from a consideration of the idealized structure:

Let, R = Yarn radius (cm)

r = Radius of cylinder containing the helical path of a particular fiber (cm)
1
n or T = Yarn twist per cm. or no. of turns per unit axial length = h
h = Height/length of yarn having one twist.
α = Helix angle of twist at yarn surface (degrees)
θ = Helix angle at radius r (degree)
l = Length of fiber in one turn of twist at radius r (cm)

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L = Length of fiber in one turn of twist at radius R (cm)

2πr h
From figure (b), sin  = and cos  =
l l
2πr
tan  = ________________________________ (i)
h
From equation (i),
2πR
tan θ = 2πrT and similarly, tan α = 2πRT = h
Again, from figure (b),
l2 = h2 + 4π2r2 _____________________________ (ii)
And from figure (c),
l2 = h2 + 4π2R2 ____________________________ (iii)
Now θ depends on radius,
At yarn center, r = 0 i.e., tan θ = 0, a filament coincides with yarn axis.
At yarn surface, r = R
θ = α; i.e., tan θ = 2πRT = tan α; [ as θ = α tan θ = tanα]
  =  = tan (2πRT)
–1
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛂
T= [Proved]
𝟐𝛑𝐑
The complexity of twisted geometry has been discussed by Schwarz and other experts. Then the
modification of equation.
𝟏 𝐝−𝐝′ 𝟏
tanα = π(d-d′)𝐡 = d ( ) 𝐡 = πdkT [Proved]
𝐝
d−d′
[Where d = Yarn dia., d′ = Fiber dia., k = = Schwarz’s const.]
d

Establish a relation between twist angle and yarn count. 18

𝟏
From idealized yarn geometry prove that, tan = 0.0112𝐕𝐲𝟐 . 18
Relation among Twist angle, Yarn count & Twist factor:
The idealized yarn geometry can be used to express the relation among yarn count, twist angle and twist
factor- Since the volume of unit length of idealized yarn = πR2 cm3 [R = Yarn radius, l = 1 unit]
Volume πR2
Now, mass of 1 cm of yarn = Specific volume = gm; [Vy is specific volume in cc/gm]
Vy
Yarn count, C = Mass of 1 km of yarn.
πR2
C= ×105
Vy

C×Vy
R = √ 105 π ___________ (i)
From idealized helical yarn geometry,
tan α =2 πRT
C×Vy
tan α =2πT√ 105 π
4π2 ×Vy
tan α =T√ ×C
105 π
tan α = 0.0112 T × √Vy × √C
 α = tan–1(0.0112 T × √𝐕𝐲 × √𝐂) [Proved]
𝟏 1
tan α = 0.0112 𝐕𝐲  𝟐
[Proved] [ = Twist per cm = C2 ×T = 9.57 Tm]
𝟏
tan α = 0.0112 𝐕𝐲  9.57 Tm𝟐
[Proved] [Tm = Twist multiplier]
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Twist contraction & retraction

Twist contraction and Twist retraction: 21, 20, 20, 18, TECN_CT_2
The yarn contains fibers which remain in extended state individually. By twisting, the yarn along
with fibers is contracted and its mass per unit length increases. Again, by the twisting the filament of yarn
gets extended. The extension of yarn can be controlled by twist up to a certain level.
For staple fiber yarn, this phenomenon is called contraction for twist or twist contraction and for
filament yarn this is called retraction for twist or twist retraction.

Contraction factor: 18
The factor by which the draft must be adjusted to prevent the twist contraction from decreasing
the yarn size. Contraction factor may be expressed as below –
𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐳𝐞𝐫𝐨 𝐭𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐲𝐚𝐫𝐧
Cy = 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐲𝐚𝐫𝐧
Its value ranges from 1 for no contraction to infinity () for contraction to zero length.

Retraction factor: 18, TECN_CT_2

It represents the factorial decrease in length or increase in linear density on twisting continuous
filament yarns.
𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐳𝐞𝐫𝐨 𝐭𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐲𝐚𝐫𝐧−𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐲𝐞𝐫𝐧
Retraction factor, Ry = 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐳𝐞𝐫𝐨 𝐭𝐞𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐲𝐚𝐫𝐧
Its value ranges from 0 to 1

Yarn size:
The yarn size is a measurement used for the number of count and is many times also referred to as
the spun size.

Twist multiplier or Twist factor:

Twist multiplier is a measure of the twist ‘hardness’ of yarn because they are approximately
proportional to the tangent of the twist angle. Larger the multiplier, larger the twist angle, harder the twist
in the yarn.
For indirect system,
𝐓𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐬 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐡
Twist multiplier, K=
√𝐂𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭
For direct system,
Twist multiplier, K = Turns per inch × √𝐂𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭
Where K is the twist factor, also known as Twist Multiplier (TM).

Optimum twist factor, (OTF = ):

The twist factor at which maximum strength is achieved in any given staple yarn is called optimum
twist factor.

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𝐝𝐧 𝐧𝐡
Prove that, = 𝟐𝛑, where the symbols have their usual meaning. CT _2_ (2 – 1) _CTEC_TECN
𝐝𝐥
𝟏
Derive the equation for contraction and retraction factor; Ry = 1 – where, Ry = Retraction factor,
𝐜𝐲
Cy = contraction factor. 22, 22, TECN_CT_2
𝛂
Prove that Ry = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝟐, where Ry = retraction factor,  = twist angle. 18,
Derivation of equations for contraction and retraction factor:

Here, h = Length of yarn having one turn of twist.

l = Zero twisted length of yarn
h+h sec α
Ī = Mean length = ( )
2
N = No. of filament crossing per unit area perpendicular to axis.
Considering, an element of cross – section of yarn, between the radii (r) & (r + dr). The filament will cross
obliquely at an angle  with the normal shown in figure.
Thus,
No. of crossing dn = n  2r  drcos  ________________ (i)
2πr
And tan  = h
 2r = h tan  __________________________________(ii)
dr
 2 = h sec2 [Differentiating with respect to ]
dθ
hsec2 θ
 dr = d
2π
Now, from equation (i) 
dn = n  2r  dr cos 
h sec2 θ
= (n  h tan    cos  ) d
2π
nh2 sec θ tan θ
= d ______________________________(iii)
2π
Again,
l
sec  = h
 l = h sec 

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dl
dθ = h sec   tan 
 dl = h sec.tan d _____________________________ (iv)
Now, from equation (iii) & (iv)
dn nh2 sec θ tan θ d nh
 = 2πh sec.tan d = 2π [Proved]
dl
That means the no. of filament corresponding for any increment to length is constant.
Minimum length+maximum length h+h sec α h (1 + sec α)
So, mean length, Ī = Mean length = =( )=
2 2 2
Ī h (1 + sec α) (𝟏 + 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝛂 )
Contraction, Cy = h = =
2h 𝟐
Ī−h h 𝟏
 Retraction, Ry = =1– Ī =1–𝐂 [Proved]
Ī 𝐲
1 α
h 2h sec α − 1 −1 1− cos α 2 sin2 
cos α 2
or, Ry = 1 – Ī = 1 – h (1 + sec α) = = 1 = 1+ cos α = α = tan2 𝟐 [Proved]
1 + sec α +1 2 cos2
cos α 2

Assumption:
1. The yarn is assumed to be in the form of a cylinder body.
2. Each fiber follows a uniform helical path around one of the concentric cylinders.
3. A fiber in the center will follow the straight line of the yarn axis.
4. The density of the yarn is the same at all points.

What are the effects of twist on yarn properties? 18

Effect of twist on yarn and fabric properties:
Fabric designers can create various fabric effects by varying twist amount and direction, including
visual, handle, drape, and mechanical aspects like strength or abrasion resistance.
Yarn strength:
▪ Yarn tensile strength increases
in staple fiber yarns as twist
increases up a certain twist
level known as ‘optimum twist’.
▪ Beyond this point, the strength
of the yarn begins to decrease.
▪ On the other hand, filament
yarns are stronger untwisted,
and the strength decreases as
twist increases.
Handle:
▪ Yarn with higher twist levels is smooth. They are hard yarns that are less hairy and therefore
relatively lustrous. When such yarns are woven into fabric, the fabric feels smooth, hard and stiff.
▪ Conversely a fabric produced from a low-twist yarn will be comparatively soft and limp.
Moisture absorption:
▪ High twist in a yarn holds the fibers together thus restricting water to enter.
▪ Very highly twisted yarn is used where a high degree of water repellency is required (e.g., in
gabardine fabric).
▪ Low twist yarn is used where absorbency is required.
Wearing properties:
▪ The level of twist has effects on two aspects of wear: abrasion and pilling.
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▪ A high level of twist helps to resist abrasion as the fibers can’t easily be pulled out of the yarn.
▪ The same effect helps to prevent pilling which occurs when fibers are pulled out of the fabric
construction and rolled into little balls on the surface.
Aesthetic effect:
▪ Incorporating yarns in fabric with varying twist directions produces various effects like shade and
stripe.
▪ Twill lines prominence in fabric depends on warp and weft yarn direction, with S-way weft
subduing twill lines and Z-way weft producing bolder ones.
Crepe effect:
▪ Very highly twisted yarn will be lively and tend to twist
upon itself to produce snarls.
▪ Fabrics made from highly twisted yarns will process a
lively handle.
▪ Crepe yarns have high twist factors (5.5 – 9.0) and are
used to obtain the crepe surface on the fabric.
Curling effect:
▪ The tendency for yarns to untwist can cause the fabric to curl, especially at the corner.
▪ Curling will occur if the untwisting couples of the warp and weft yarns reinforce each other instead
of counter acting each other.
Twill effects: The level of twist is used to chance or subdue (to control) twill effects.

Relation between Twist & Yarn strength / Effect of twist in yarn strength.
The strength verses twist curve can be divided into two sections:
1. A low twist region in which the effect of cohesion out-weights that of obliquity, giving rise to an
increase in strength slow at first up to the point at which fibers may just begin to break and
increasing rapidly as more and more fibers break.
2. A high twist region in which further
increase in cohesion no longer produces
and increase in strength since most of the
fibers break, while the increasing
inclination of the fibers causes the
strength to fall. The division between the
two regions corresponds to the twist at
which the maximum strength is realized.
At this twist the greater proportion of the
fibers break.

Determination of limits of twist in yarn.

Let,
l0 = Length of yarn before twist.
R0 = Radius of yarn before twist.
h = Length of yarn after twist.
R = Radius of yarn after twist.
So, volume of yarn before twist = R02l0
Volume of yarn after twist = R2h
It’s considered that volume is not changed. So, after twist we get,
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R02l0 = R2h
πR0 2 l0
R2 = ______________ (i)
πh
Now, twist contraction,
l0 1+sec α
Cy = =
h 2
2l0
 1 + sec  = h
2l0
 sec  = –1
h
2l 2
 sec2  = ( h0 – 1 )
4l0 2 4l0
 1 + tan2  = − +1
h2 h
2πR 2 4l0 2 4l0 2πR
1+( ) = − +1 [tan α = ]
h h2 h h
4π2 R2 4l0 2 4l0
 = −
h2 h2 h
4l0 l0 4π2 R2
 ( h − 1) =
h h2
l0 π2 R 0 2
 −1=
h h2
π2 R 2 l0
 − +1=0
h2 h
 r2R02 – hl0 + h2 = 0
 r2R02 + h (– l0) + h2 = 0
This equation has two solutions:
l0 ±√l0 2 − 4π2 R0 2
h= 2
1 1
Since, h = T; l0 = T
0
1 1
1 ± √1− 4T0 2 R0 2
T =
T0 T0
2

1 1±√1− 4T0 2 R0 2
T= 2T0
T 2
T =
0
1±√1− 4T0 2 R0 2

The value of T will be maximum when 1  42T02R02 = 0 for the maximum value 42T02R02 = 1
T 2
T = 1±√1− 1 = 2
0
 T = T0
For maximum value T is denoted by Tm. So,
1 1
Tm = 2T0 = 2  2πR = πR
0 0
For maximum,
1
Rm2 = R02l0Tm = R02T Tm
0
1
 Rm = R0 2 22 R0πR
0
 Rm2 = 2R02
 Rm = √2 R0
We know,
2πR
tan α = h
= 2RT
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 tan max = 2RmTm

1
 tan max = 2√2 R0
πR0
 tan max = 2√2
 max = tan–1(2√2)
 max = 70.5°

Function of Twist in yarn structure:

Twist plays a vital role in yarn manufacturing which is given below –
1. One of the main functions of twist is to increase the tensile strength of yarn to make it fit for next
various preparatory processes.
2. Twist is given to yarn to binds the fibers and keep them in position. Twist gives coherence of fibers
to the yarn.
3. Another main function of twist is to give a round shape to the yarns, which makes yarns placement
uniform in the fabric.
4. If the twist is low, the fibers can be made to slide past one another, but if it is large, they cannot.
Without twist a strand of fibers has very little strength and in the first instance a yarn must have sufficient
tensile strength to withstand the stresses of preparation and fabric manufacturing.

𝟏
Prove that d = 𝟐𝟖√𝐍𝐞, Where, d = Yarn diameter, Ne = Yarn count in English system. 18
Relation Between Yarn Count and Diameter:
Before considering cloth setting formula it is important to fully understand the relationship
between the count of a yarn and its diameter (or thickness). If the diameter is increased or decreased
then the yarn count is changed
Let,
Yarn count = N tex & Yarn diameter = d cm
Assuming that, specific volume = 1.1 cm3/gm
i.e., the weight of 1.1 cm3 yarn = 1 gm
In tex system, length of N gm yarn = 1000 m
1000 105
Length of 1 gm yarn = m= cm
N N
105
So, length of 1.1 cm3 (volume) yarn is cm
N
Now, volume = Cross sectional area ×Length
d 2 105
 1.1 =  ×(2) × N
1.1×4×N
 d2 =
×105
0.375
d= × √N
100
0.375
d= × √tex _____________________________ (1)
100
d ∝ √tex ; [For direct system]
This is the relation between yarn diameter (cm) and yarn count in Tex system.
Converting cm to inches and Tex to English count (cotton count):
We know,
590.55
Ne × Tex = 590.55  Tex = Ne
0.375
From equation (1) we get, d = × √tex
100

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

0.375 590.55 1
d= ×√ × 2.54 inch
100 Ne
𝟏
 d = 𝟐𝟖√𝐍 inch [Proved]
𝐞
1000
 d = 28√N mills ; [ 1 inch = 1000 mills]
e
𝟑𝟔
d= mills
√𝐍𝐞
1
d ∝ ; [For indirect system]
√Ne
This is the relation between yarn diameter (inch) and yarn count in English count (cotton count) system.

𝟑𝟔
Derivation the equation of d =
√𝐍
Assuming that, specific volume = 1.1 cm3/gm
i.e., the weight of 1.1 cm3 yarn = 1 gm
In tex system, length of N gm yarn = 1000 m
1000 105
Length of 1 gm yarn = m= cm
N N
105
So, length of 1.1 cm3 (volume) yarn is cm
N
Now, volume = Cross sectional area × Length
d 2 105
 1.1 =  ×(2) × cm
N
1.1×4×N
 d2 = cm
×105
0.375
d= × √N cm
100
0.375×590.5
 d (inch) =
100×√N ×2.54
1
 d = 28√N
1000
 d = 28√N mill [1 inch = 1000 mill]
𝟑𝟔
d= [Proved]
√𝐍

Relationship between yarn twist and yarn count.

Let us consider a fiber taking one full turn of twist in a length of yarn L inch. The fiber makes an
angle θ with the yarn axis. For a given length of yarn the angle is governed by the yarn diameter d inch:
𝛑𝐝
tan 𝛉 = 𝐋
The greater the diameter of the yarn, the larger is the angle produced by one turn of twist. As 1/L is
equivalent to turns per unit inch or TPI, then:
tan 𝛉 ∝ d × TPI

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In indirect system, yarn diameter

𝟏
d∝ .
√𝐂𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭
Therefore,
TPI
tan θ ∝
√Count
TPI
tan θ = K
√Count
tan θ
ΤΡΙ = × √Count
K

ΤΡΙ =Tm × √Count

TPI ∝ √𝐂𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭 [Showed]
Tm is termed as twist multiplier or twist factor (for direct system) and is directly proportional to tan θ.
For direct system,
Tm
TPI =
√Count
𝟏
 TPI ∝ [Showed]
√𝐂𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭

Why the strength of ring yarn is higher than rotor yarn?

The results showed that the elongation of the ring spun yarns is more than that of the rotor spun
yarns. This could be due to the factor that the ring spun yarns has less thin places in them and IPI of ring
spun yarn is low than the rotor spun yarns.

Function of twist in yarn structure:

▪ The main function of twist is to be bind the fibers together and helps to keep them in their
respective positions. It thus gives coherence to the yarn.
▪ Without twist a strand of fibers has very little strength and in the first instance a yarn must have
sufficient tensile strength to withstand the stresses of preparation and fabric manufacture.
▪ The main function of twist is to give coherence to the yarn. In order to develop strength in a
twisted strand of discontinuous fibers (e.g., cotton yarn) and so resist breakage, the individual
fibers must grip each other when the strand is stressed. This cohesion arises mainly from twist,
which presses the fibers together as the stretching force is applied and so developing friction
between adjacent fibers.
▪ Twist is also used to bring about novel effects that are prominently visible when the yarn is
converted to fabric. This is achieved primarily by having a combination of yarns with different twist
levels and twist direction in the fabric.

Distinguish between Leather & Textile fiber.

Leather Textile fiber
Not easily identify as separate entities with clearly Textile fibers are clearly individual units. So easily
defined limit identify
It is whole aggregate which is fibrous in form. It is not a whole aggregate.
Leather is costly. Cheap
It is one kind of fibrous sheet It is not fibrous sheet
Extensibility is low High.

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What is Crimp? 15
When warp and weft interlace in fabric, they follow a wavy or corrugated plane. This waviness of
yarn is called crimp of yarn.
On the other hand,
Crimp may be defined as the deviation from straightness of yarn as lie in the cloths. It is expressed
as crimp percentage and crimp ratio.

Packing of fibers
Packing of fiber in yarns:
Schwarz has theorized that the packing of circulars fiber can be described 2 basic forms:
1. Open packing
2. Hexagonal close packing.

Describe the packing of fibers in yarn. 22, 21, 21

Open packing: 21, 18
Open packing in that in which the fibers lie in layers between successive concentric circles. At the
center of circular fibers, there is a single fiber around the six fibers
can be packed to that all seven fibers are touching. Then third layer
and successive layer create by some manner. In this assembly 1st
layer is the single core fiber around which there are 6 fibers
arranged so that all are touching. The 3rd layer which has 12 fibers
are so arranged that the fibers touch the circle that circumferences
the 2nd layer.
 Radius of circle circumscribing nth layer Figure: Concepts of open packed structure.
R = Radius of yarn with n layers = (2n – 1) rf
Radius of center of nth layer = R (n – 1) rf = r

Close packing/Hexagonal packing: 21, 18

Close packing is that in which the fibers fit into a hexagonal pattern. Here with a single fiber core,
close packing of circular fibers given a yarn with a hexagonal outline in which all are touching each other.
As the no. of fibers increases in cross section, the yarn outline tends to become complicated and deviates
from the preferred hexagonal shape.
The distance between the center of center of a layer range from 2(n – 1) rf at the √3 (n – 1) rf at the
middle of the sides.
Where n = no. of layers, rf = The fiber radius.

Figure: Concepts of close packed structure.

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Packing of fibers in yarns:

Name Layer no. Maximum no. of fibers Total no. on fibers
1 1 1
2 6 7
3 12 19
Open packing
4 18 37
5 25 62
6 31 93
1 1 1
2 6 7
3 12 19
Close packing 4 18 37
5 24 61
6 30 91
7 36 127

Packing density or packing fraction:

The yarn specific volume is always more than that of fiber themselves. This relation can be
analytically expressed in terms of a parameter called packing fraction.
The ratio of specific volume of fibers in yarn to specific volume of yarn is called packing fraction.
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐢𝐛𝐞𝐫𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐲𝐚𝐫𝐧
Packing fraction,  = 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐲𝐚𝐫𝐧
𝐕𝐟 𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐢𝐛𝐞𝐫𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐲𝐚𝐫𝐧 𝐘𝐚𝐫𝐧 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝛒𝐲
=𝐕 = = 𝐅𝐢𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 = 𝛒
𝐲 𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐲𝐚𝐫𝐧 𝐟

Normally,  = 1 for filament yarns.

𝟏
Prove that, k = 1 – , Where, k = Schwarz's constant and n = number of fibers in yarn cross section. 22,
√𝐧
22, 21, 20, 18
Schwarz constant:
We know,
Specific volume of fibers in yarn V
Packing factor,  = = V f ______________________ (i)
Specific volume of yarn y

Now considering for unit length of yarn

πd2
Yarn specific volume, Vy = l [l = 1]
4
πd ′2
Fiber specific volume, Vf = ×n [ n = no. of fiber]
4
2
πd′ 2
V ×n d′
Packing fraction,  = V f = 4
πd2
= [d] × n
y
4
d′ φ
= √ n __________________________________________________ (ii)
d

d−d′ d′ φ
But Schwarz's constant, k = = 1− = 1 – √ n ____________________________ (iii)
d d

For, staple yarn (Cotton),  = 0.6

0.6 0.775
k = 1 – √ n = 1 –
√n
For filament yarn,  = 1
𝟏
k=1– [Proved]
√𝐧
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Structure of Yarn
Structure of ring spun yarn:
Ring spun yarn is a type of cotton fiber made by twisting and thinning cotton
strands. It has a tightly bound structure, providing strength, durability, and
versatility. Produced through rollers and spinning frames, it is more durable and
lasts longer than regular yarns but is more expensive. It features a uniform helical
arrangement of fibers.
General features:
1. Yarns are made by the ring-spinning system. It can be carded or combed.
2. Fibers in the yarn exhibit largely true twist and take a helical path crossing the yarn layers.
3. Some fiber points can be in the core of the yarn and others can be in intermediate or outer layers
owing to the phenomenon of fiber migration. They can be made in a wide range of yarn count and
twist.
▪ The strongest yarn of all spun yarns
▪ It can exhibit high hairiness and high mass variation.
▪ The most diverse yarn type as it can be used in all types of fabric from knit to woven.

Structure of rotor yarn:

Rotor yarn is a type of yarn spun in an open-end rotor machine, with a
densely packed core, loosely packed fibers, and wrapper fibers. It has a lower
twist than ring spun yarns, higher mass irregularity, hairiness, and abrasion
resistance, but lower strength, elongation, and softness. Although cheaper
and faster to produce, it's less suitable for fine fabrics.
General Features
1. Yarns are made by rotor spinning.
▪ They can be carded or combed.
▪ Three-layer structure: truly twisted core fibers, partially twisted outer layer and belt fibers
▪ Limited to coarse-to-medium yarn count and requires higher twist than ring-spun.
2. Relatively weaker than ring-spun yarns but has lower mass variation
▪ They can be used for many knit or woven apparels, but greatest market niche is denim
fabrics.
Structure of air – jet spun yarn
Air-jet spun yarn is a modern, fast method of producing yarns using
compressed air to twist and wrap fibers around a core of parallel fibers. It
consists of a core of straight fibers and a wrapper of helical fibers, providing
cohesion and strength. While it offers advantages like high production rates,
low energy consumption, and good abrasion resistance, it has limitations
like low strength and poor evenness.
General Features
1. Yarns are made by compact spinning which is a modified ring-spinning system in which fibers are
aerodynamically condensed to reduce hairiness and improve yarn strength.
2. They are commonly used for fi ne yarns and high-quality apparel.

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Fabric Geometry

Fabric:
Fabric is the basic material of the textile. it is supple structure that can be made by interlacing,
interloping or networking of yarn or fiber. There are many ways of making fabrics from textile fibers. The
most common and most complex category comprises fabrics made from interlaced yarns.

Fabric structure:
In architecture, fabric structures are forms of constructed fibers that provide end users a variety of
aesthetic free-form building designs.

Woven fabric: Woven fabric is produced by inter lacing two set of yarn-warp& weft which are at right
angle to each other in the plane of the fabric.

Woven fabric structure:

1. The warp is along the length and the weft along
the width of the fabric. -Individual warp and weft
yarns are called ends and picks
2. The interlacement of ends and picks with each
other produces a coherent and stable structure.
3. The repeating unit of interlacement is called the
weave.
4. The structure and properties of a woven fabric are
dependent upon the constructional parameters as
thread density, yarn fineness, crimp, weave etc.
5. The woven structures provide a combination of
strength with flexibility. Figure: A. Weave representation. B. Cross sectional view
6. The flexibility at small strains is achieved by yarn along warp, D. Cross sectional view along weft, C. for
crimp due to freedom of yarn movement, whereas plain weave,
at high strains the threads take the load together giving high strength.

Woven fabric parameters: 22,

1. Ends per Inch or Picks per Inch: It is a measure of thread density. EPI and PPI affect the
compactness of the fabric. It is also known as thread count or cloth count. Normally EPI and PPI of
a fabric are described as EPI×PPI. Thus, a fabric of 74×66 means 74 EPI×66 PPI.
Balanced constriction: A fabric is said to be well balanced if the number of warp yarns and weft
yarns per inch are almost equal.
2. Yarn count: It is a measure of fineness. Count is a number which indicates the mass per unit length
or the length per unit mass per yarn.
3. Crimp: Crimp refers to the amount of bending that is done by thread as it interlaces with the
threads that are lying in the opposite direction of the fabric.
Crimp is defined as the ratio of difference of length of yarn (Ly) taken from length of fabric (Lf) to
the length of fabric (Lf).
𝐋𝐲 −𝐋𝐟
Crimp = 𝐋𝐟

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Often it is more convenient and preferable to use percentage values. Thus, we can define crimp
percentage as:
𝐋𝐲 −𝐋𝐟
Crimp% =  100
𝐋𝐟
A crimp will normally give values ranging from 0.01 to 0.14 i.e. (1% to 14%).
4. Weave: It refers to the arrangement of warp and weft in the fabric. Basic woven structure is mainly
three types.
a. Plain weave
b. Twill weave
c. Satin/sateen weave.

Fabric geometry: A fabric consists of millions of fibers assembled together in a particular geometry.

Importance of fabric geometry:

1. Useful for weaving of maximum set structure.
2. Useful for analysis & interpretation of set property relationship of woven fabrics.
3. Useful in determining the entire structure of a fabric.
4. Establishes a base for calculating various changes in fabric.

Geometry Theories Approach:

1. In conventional approaches, the general character of fabrics was idealized into simple geometrical
forms (circle, ellipse, rectangle)
2. They treated the micro-mechanics of fabrics on the basis of the unit-cell approach, i.e., fabrics are
considered as a repeating network of identical unit cells in the form of crimp weaves and constant
yarn cross-section in the woven structure.
3. By combining this kind of geometry with or without physical parameters (material), mathematical
deductions could be obtained.

Geometrical modeling of woven fabric

Four basic geometry model by using circle, ellipse, rack-track approaches, four fabric geometrical
models are formed
1. Peirce model (1937)
2. Modified model (ellipse)
3. Kemp’s race track model (rectangle & circle) (1958)
4. Hearle’s lenticular model (1978)

Write down the assumption of the pierce cloth geometrical model. 22, 21, 20
Geometrical Model of plain cloth woven fabric (Peirce model)
The study of woven fabric geometry was pioneered by Peirce (1937) and many of the later analyses
have been based on his model. In order to simplify his model, Peirce began by assuming that
i) The yarns are perfectly flexible i.e., is their flexural rigidity is zero.
ii) The yarns have circular cross section.
iii) The yarns are incompressible.
iv) The yarns are inextensible.

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Form pierce geometrical thread model prove that P2 = D sin 1 + (l1 – D1) cos 1. 21, 21
Prove that, h1 = D (1 – cos1) + (l1 – D1) sin 1. 21
Draw and identify the pierce geometric fabric model for plain fabric. 22, 20, 19, 18

Here,
d1 = dia. for warp threads
d2 = dia. for weft threads.
P1 = Distance between the center of warp.
P2 = Distance between the center of weft.
l1 = Modular length for warp.
l2 = Modular length for weft.
h1 = Thread amplitude for warp (Maximum displacement of the thread axis from the plane of the cloth).
h2 = Thread amplitude for weft.
1 = Weave angle for warp (Maximum angle of the thread axis to the plane of the cloth)
2 = Weave angle for weft.
C1 = Crimp for warp.
C2 = Crimp for weft.
From the definition of crimp,
l1 −P2
C1 = __________________ (i)
P2
l2 −P1
C2 = __________________ (ii)
P1
Relation between parameters:
DE = DG + GE = DH + HE
D d1 d2 h1 h1
= + = +
2 2 2 2 2
D = d1 + d2 = h1 + h2
Projected warp path on the fabric plane.
P2 = BB' + BC cos 1 + CC' ________________ (iii)
D
 Arc AB = 2 1 = Arc CD [s = r]
D D
 BC = l1 – Arc (AB + CD) = l1 – 2 1 – 2 1 = l1 – D1
Again, From, BE'B'

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ
BB′ BB′
sin 1 = BE′ = D
2
D
 BB' = 2 sin 1
D
Similarly, CC' = 2 sin 1
D
P2 = 2 sin 1 + BC cos 1 + CC'
D D
= 2 sin 1 + (l1 - D1) cos 1 + 2 sin 1
= D sin 1 + (l1 - D1) cos 1 ___________ (iv) [Proved]
Similarly, P1 = D sin 2 + (l2 - D2) cos 2 ___________ (v)
Project plane ⊥ to the fabric plane,
h1 = AB' + BC sin 1 + C'D
= (AB' + C'D) + BC sin 1
[AB' = C'D]
AB' = E'A – E'B'
D D D
= 2 − 2 cos 1 = 2 (1 – cos 1)
D
h1 = 2  2 (1 – cos 1) + (l1 – D1) sin 1
= (l1 – D1) sin 1 + D (1 – cos 1) _________ (vi) [Proved]
Similarly, h2 = (l2 – D2) sin 2 + D (1 – cos 2) _______ (vii)

Derive the equation relating warp and weft spacing of a most closely woven fabric. 20, 18
𝟒
Prove that h1 = 𝟑 P2 √𝐂𝟏 . 22, 21, 19
We know,
θ3 θ5
sin  =  – ∟3 + ∟5 – …….
2 4
cos  = 1 – ∟2 + ∟4 – …….
Substituting the value of sin  and cos  in above two equation and neglect the power of  beyond 2nd
degree. In equation (vi)
θ1 3 θ1 2 θ1 4
h1 = (l1 – D1) (1 – + ….) + D (1 – 1 + – +…….)
∟3 ∟2 ∟4
3 4 2 4
1 D1 D1 D1
 h1 = l11 – l1 – D12 + + − + ……
6 6 2 24
 h1 = l11 ______________________________ (viii)
Again, P2 = (l1 – D1) cos 1 + D sin 1
1 2 1 4 1 3 1 5
 P2 = (l1 – D1) (1 – + – …….) + D (1 – + – …….)
∟2 ∟4 ∟3 ∟5
l1 θ1 2 l1 θ1 4 D1 3 D1 5 D1 3 D1 5
 P 2 = l1 – − − D1 + − + D1 – − + ……
∟2 ∟4 2 24 6 120
l1 θ1 2 D1 3 D1 4
 P 2 = l1 – + − + …….
2 2 24
 P2 = l1 [Neglecting the higher value of 1] _______ (ix)
From equation (i)
l1 − P2
C1 = P2
2 3 4
l θ D D
l1 −(l1 − 1 1 + 1 − 1 )
2 2 24
= l θ D D
2 3 4
l1 − 1 1 + 1 − 1
2 2 24

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ
2
l 1 θ1
= 2
l θ
2 [Neglecting higher value of 1]
l1 − 1 1
2
2
l 1 θ1
= 2
[12 is very small comparing to l1 so wo neglect 12]
l1
θ1 2
 C1 = 2
 θ1 2 = 2 C1
 1 = √2C1
Form equation (viii),
h1 = l11
 h1 = P2√2C1
4
 h1 = √2 P2 √C1 [√2 is replaced by 3]
𝟒
 h1 = 𝟑 P2 √𝐂𝟏 [Proved]
𝟒
Similarly, h2 = 𝟑 P1 √𝐂𝟐

The main advantages in considering this simple geometry are:

1. Helps to establish relationship between various geometrical parameters
2. Able to calculate the resistance of the cloth to mechanical deformation such as initial extension,
bending and shear in terms of the resistance to deformation of individual fibers.
3. Provide information on the relative resistance of the cloth to the passage of air, water or light.
4. Guide to the maximum density of yarn packing possible in the cloth.

Limitation of Peirce model:

▪ It is especially valid in very open structures.
▪ But the assumptions of circular cross-section, uniform structure along the longitudinal direction,
perfect flexibility, and incompressibility are all unrealistic, which leads to the limitations on the
application of this model.

Estimation of yarn diameter:

Let,
Yarn dia. = d cm
Yarn count in tex = gm/1000 m = T
πd2
Now, volume of 1000 m yarn =  105 cm3
4
Volume of fiber in yarn
Again, Packing density,  = Volume of yarn
πd2
 Volume of fiber = Volume of yarn   =  105   cm3
4
We know,
Mass
Volume = Debsity
πd2 mass
  105   =
4 ρ
4 mass
 d2 = π×0.65×105  [For cotton fiber  = 0.65]
ρ
𝐓
 d = 4.44  10–3√𝛒 [Where, T = Count in Tex]

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When filling thread is straight, find out,

1. L1 = D1 + D cot 1
2. P2 = D cosec 1
Proof:
We know,
h1 = (l1 – D1) sin 1 + D (1 – cos 1)
h1 (l1 −Dθ1 sinθ1 )+D (1−cosθ1 )
 =
D D
l1
 1 = D sin 1 – 1 sin 1 + 1 – cos 1 [D = h1 + h2 = h1 + 0 = h1]
l
 D1 sin 1 = sin 1 (1 + cot 1)
 l1 = D1 + D cot 1 ________________ (i) [Proved]
Again,
P2 = D sin 1 + (l1 – D1) cos 1 [From equation (i)]
cos θ
= D sin 1 + sin θ 1
1
D (sin2 θ1 + cos2 θ1 )
= sinθ1
𝐃
P2 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 = D cosec 1 [Proved]
𝟏
When fill thread is straight, we find,
C2 = 0, h2 = 0, P1 = l2, 2 = 0

Jamming
A woven fabric in which warp and weft yarns don't have mobility within the structure as they are in
intimate contact with each other are called jammed structures. In such a structure the warp and weft
yarns will have minimum thread spacing. These are closely woven fabrics and find applications in wind-
proof and bullet proof requirements.

Yarn jamming: When the magnitude of the straight section of the modular length (l) is zero, the pick
spacing (P2) becomes minimum and such situation is called yarn jamming. The jamming point was of use in
calculation the maximum no. of weft yarn which could be woven into fabric of a given size and frequency.

Warp jamming: 22, 22, 21, 20, 19

When fabric is extended to weft direction and magnitude of modular length of a straighten portion
becomes zero, then weft spacing is minimum. This condition is called warp jamming.

Weft jamming: 22, 22, 21, 20, 19

When fabric is extended to warp direction end spacing is minimum it is called weft jamming.

Jamming condition:
l1 – D1 = 0
l
 1 = D1
l π
If D1 > 2, warp would not jam during deformation of fabric.
l π
If D1 < 2, there is the possibility of the thread to be jammed in the fabric.

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Equation for Yarn jamming.

𝟏
Prove that for weft jamming, h2 = (𝐃𝟐 – 𝐏𝟐𝟐 )𝟐 . 22, 21, 20, 19, 18
We know,
P2 = D sin 1 + (l1 – D1) cos 1
If, l1 – D1 = 0, then P2 = D sin 1
P2
 sin 1 = ________________________ (i)
θ
Again,
h1 = (l1 – D1) sin 1 + D (1 – cos 1)
If, l1 – D1 = 0, then h1 = D (1 – cos 1)
 h1 = D – D cos 1
D− h1
 cos 1 = D
h1
=1– D
h1
=1–h
1 + h2
h1 + h2 − h1
= h1 + h2
h2
 cos 1 = ________________ (ii)
D
Now, {(i)2 + (ii)2} 
P2 2 +h2 2
sin2 1 + cos2 1 = D2
 D2 2
= P2 + h 2 2
1
 h2 = (D2 − P2 2 )2 , equation for weft jamming. [Proved]
1
Similarly, h1 = (D2 − P1 2 ) , equation for warp jamming.
2

Now,
D = h1 + h2 = √D2 − P12 + √D2 − P22
√D2 −P21 √D2 −P22
1= +
D D
P 2 P 2
 √1 − ( D1 ) + √1 − ( D2 ) = 1
This is the equation relating warp and weft spacing of a most closely woven fabric.

Crimp interchange or Waisting: 22, 22, 21, 20, 18, 18

When a fabric is subject to an axial stress in warp way direction,
its length is deceased, thus warp crimp is reduced & waft crimp
introduced, and vice – versa. This phenomenon is called crimp
interchange or waisting.
So, C1 + C2 = constant [C1, C2 are crimp of warp & weft]
l1 −P2 l2 −P1
Where, C1 = & C2 =
P2 P1
[l1 = Straightened length before weaving & P2 = Crimped length after
weaving]

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Derive the equation for crimp interchange. 22, 22, 20, 18

𝟑𝐃 𝐋 𝐥
Prove that for crimp interchange = 𝟏+𝐂𝟏 √𝐂𝟏 + 𝟏+𝐜
𝟐
√𝐂𝟐 . 20, 19, 18
𝟒 𝟏 𝟐
We know,
C1 + C2 = constant
Where, C1 = Crimp of warp & C2 = Crimp of weft
Equation for crimp interchange.
l1 −P2
C1 = P2
l1
 C1 = P − 1
2
l
 1 + C1 = P1
2
l1
 P2 = 1+C ___________________________ (i)
1
l2
Similarly, P1 = 1+C ____________________________ (ii)
2
4 4 l1
Again, h1 = 3 P2 √C1 = 3 × 1+C × √C1 _______________ (iii)
1
4 4 l2
h2 = 3 P1 √C2 = 3 × 1+C × √C2 _______________ (iv)
2
Equation (iii) + (iv),
4
1 l
2 l
h1 + h2 = 3 (1+C × √C1 + 1+C × √C2 )
1 2
4 l l2
D= ( 1
× √C1 + 1+C
3 1+C1
× √C2 )
2
3D l l
 = ( 1 × √C1 + 2 × √C2 ) [Proved]
4 1+C1 1+C2
This is crimp interchange equation.

Write down the difference between warp jamming and weft jamming. 21, 19
Warp Jamming Weft Jamming
When fabric is extended to weft direction and When fabric is extended to warp direction end
magnitude of modular length of a straighten spacing is minimum it is called weft jamming.
portion becomes zero, then weft spacing is
minimum. This condition is called warp jamming.
Warp yarns becomes completely curved. Warp yarns becomes completely curved.
Weft yarn becomes maximum straight. i.e., C2=0, Weft yarns becomes maximum straight. i.e., C1 = 0,
C1=maximum. C2 = maximum.
Pick spacing is minimum i.e., P2 = 0. End spacing is minimum i.e., P1 = 0.
l1 π 𝐥𝟐 𝛑
1 = < 2 = <
D 2 𝐃 𝟐
h1 = √D2 − P12 h2 = √𝐃𝟐 − 𝐏𝟐𝟐
Fabric is extended to weft direction Fabric is extended to warp direction
Modular length of warp; l1=0 Modular length of waft; l2=0

State the concept of similar cloth. 20

Concept of similar cloth:
Fiber or raw material of two cloths may be same but they can differ in case of other factors. Such as
1. The yarn count may be different.
2. The ratio of yarn count in warp and weft may differ.

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3. The ratio of the yarn spacing may differ.

4. The average of spacing may differ.
5. The weave design may differ.
If there is similarly in cover factor of two cloth but differ in such points, are called similar cloths.

Cover factor: The area covered by the warp and weft thread is called cover factor. It is denoted by k.
𝐝 𝐝 𝐝
k = 𝐏; So, k1 = 𝐏𝟏 & k2 = 𝐏𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
Where,
d1 = Warp dia.
P1 = Warp spacing.
K1 = Warp cover factor.
D2, P2 & K2 are corresponding values of weft.
Fabric cover factor = K1 + K2 +K1K2.
Value of K1K2 is very little; so, it is ignored;
Fabric cover factor = K1 + K2.

Mathematical Problem
𝟐𝟖×𝟐𝟓
Cotton sheeting of 20 Tex warp and 38 Tex weft of 28 ends per cm and 25 picks/cm (𝐨𝐫, 𝟐𝟎×𝟑𝟖) having a
modular length l1 = 0.0448 cm. Calculate all other necessary parameters. (Assuming,  = 1.5 gm/cc,
cotton  = 1.5 gm/cc)
Solution:
T 20
1. Dia. of warp threads, d1 = 4.44  10–3√ ρ1 = 4.44  10–3√1.5 = 0.0162 cm (Ans.)

T 38
2. Dia. of weft threads, d2 = 4.44  10–3√ ρ2 = 4.44  10–3√1.5 = 0.0224 cm (Ans.)
3. Thread displacement, D = h1 + h2 = d1 + d2 = 0.0162 + 0.0224 = 0.0386 cm (Ans.)
1
4. Distance between the center of warp, P1 = 28 = 0.0357 cm (Ans.)
1
5. Distance between the center of warp, P2 = 25 = 0.04 cm (Ans.)
l1 −P2 0.0448−0.04
6. Crimp of warp, C1 = = = 0.12 (Ans.)
P2 0.04
7. Crimp% of warp, C1% = 12% (Ans.)
4 4
8. Thread amplitude for warp, h1 = 3 P2 √C1 = 3 0.04√0.12 = 0.0184 cm (Ans.)
9. Thread amplitude for warp, h2 = D −h1 = 0.0384 – 0.0184 = 0.0201 cm (Ans.)
3h 2 3×0.0201 2
10. Crimp of weft, C2 = (4P2 ) = (4×0.0357) = 0.178 (Ans.)
1
11. Crimp% of weft, C2% = 17.8% (Ans.)
12. Modular length for weft, l2 = P1 (1 + C2) = 0.0357  (1 + 0.178) = 0.042 cm (Ans.)
13. Weave angle for warp, 1 = √2C1 = √2 × 0.12 = 28° (Ans.)
14. Weave angle for warp, 1 = √2C1 = √2 × 0.178 = 34° (Ans.)

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A cotton fibric is of 32 Tex warp and 45 Tex weft with 35 ends/cm and 30 picks/cm having a modular
length = 0.0448 cm. Calculate the maximum thread displacement and crimp% (Assume density = 1.5
gm/cc). 21
Solution:
𝐓 𝟑𝟐 Here,
d1 = 4.44  10–3√ 𝛒𝟏 = 4.44  10–3√𝟏.𝟓 = 0.0205 cm
T1 = 32 Tex
𝐓 𝟒𝟓 T2 = 45 Tex
d2 = 4.44  10–3√ 𝛒𝟐 = 4.44  10–3√𝟏.𝟓 = 0.0243 cm 𝟏
P1 = 𝟑𝟓 = 0.0286 cm
D = d1 + d2 = 0.0205 + 0.0243 = 0.0448 cm (Ans.) 𝟏
𝐥𝟏 −𝐏𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝟒𝟖−𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟑 P2 = 𝟑𝟎 = 0.033 cm
C1% = 𝐏 ×100% = ×100% = 35.76% (Ans.)
𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟑 l1 = 0.0448 cm
𝟒 𝟒
h1 = 𝟑 P2 √𝐂𝟏 = 𝟑 0.033√𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟕𝟔 = 0.0263 cm  = 1.5 gm/cc
h2 = 𝐃 −h1 = 0.0448 – 0.0263 = 0.0185 cm
𝟑𝐡 𝟐 𝟑×𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟓 𝟐
C2% = (𝟒𝐏𝟐 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = (𝟒×𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟓) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏
= 23.54% (Ans.)

Find out the maximum weft yarn displacement, weft yarn axis normal to the plane of the cloth, when
distance between two warp yarn is 0.3 cm and angle between weft yarn axis and plane of cloth is 22°.
Solution:
We know, Here,
𝟒
h2 = 𝟑 P1 √𝐂𝟐 P1 = 0.03 cm
𝛑
𝟒 𝛉𝟐 𝛉𝟐 = 22° = 22  𝟏𝟖𝟎 = 0.384
= 𝟑 P1
√𝟐 𝛉𝟐
𝟒 √𝐂𝟐 =
= 𝟑 0.030.384 = 0.01 cm (Ans.) √𝟐
h2 =?

A cotton fibric is of 24 Tex warp and 45 Tex weft with 30 ends/cm and 28 picks/cm having a modular
length l1 = 0.0448 cm. Calculate the maximum thread displacement and crimp% (Assume density = 1.5
gm/cc). 20
Solution:
𝐓 𝟐𝟒 Here,
d1 = 4.44  10–3√ 𝛒𝟏 = 4.44  10–3√𝟏.𝟓 = 0.0178 cm
T1 = 24 Tex
𝐓 𝟒𝟓 T2 = 45 Tex
d2 = 4.44  10–3√ 𝛒𝟐 = 4.44  10–3√𝟏.𝟓 = 0.0243 cm 𝟏
P1 = 𝟑𝟎 = 0.033 cm
D = d1 + d2 = 0.0178 + 0.0243 = 0.0421 cm (Ans.) 𝟏
𝐥𝟏 −𝐏𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝟒𝟖−𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟕 P2 = 𝟐𝟖 = 0.0357 cm
C1% = ×100% = ×100% = 25.49% (Ans.)
𝐏𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟕 l1 = 0.0448 cm
𝟒 𝟒
h1 = 𝟑 P2 √𝐂𝟏 = 𝟑 0.0357√𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝟗 = 0.024 cm  = 1.5 gm/cc
h2 = 𝐃 −h1 = 0.0421 – 0.024 = 0.0181 cm
𝟑𝐡 𝟐 𝟑×𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟏 𝟐
C2% = (𝟒𝐏𝟐 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = ( 𝟒×𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟑 ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏
= 16.92% (Ans.)

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Fiber Migration

Fiber migration: 22, 21, 21, 20, 20, 18

According to the Textile Institute the fiber migration may defined as the change in distance of a
fiber or filament from the axis of a yarn during yarn production process.
Migration ensures that some parts of the all fibers were locked in the structure.

Explain fiber migration with figure. 21, 20

Fiber migration in yarn:
Migration occurs during spinning both in staple and filament yarns. The
effect of migration is more pronounced in staple yarn than in filament yarn. The
migration of fiber affects many properties of yarn. Mainly it affects yarn strength
& elongation. In ring spinning the outside fibers (in figure A, B, C, G, I, H) are in
greater tension as they follow a longer path. Whereas the fibers, which stay at
center (D.E.F) follow a straight path and remain at lower tension.
The outer fibers lend to move toward center of low-tension zone and the
center fibers try to move outside. This displacement of fibers during spinning is
called fiber migration. According to textile institute “The change in distance of a
fiber or filament from the axis of a yarn during production is called fiber migration”.

Which parameters influence fiber migration? 21, 21, 20, 20, 18, TECN_CT_2
The parameters on which the fiber migration depends on:
1. Staple length of fiber.
2. Tension.
3. Mode of spinning.
4. Form of ribbon on ring frame.
If the staple length of fiber is more, migration will also be more. If the yarn is in tension the fibers
in yarn will migration more. Mode of spinning also affect fiber migration. In ring spinning fiber migration is
more. Whereas in rotor yarn, the strength of yarn is 15-20% less than that of ring yarn. So here fiber
migration is very less.

Classification of Migration:
1. Ideal Migration: 18
As in which the fiber migrates regularly and uniformly from outside to inside and inside to
outside in such a way that packing density remains constant.

2. Random Migration: 18
As one in which the fiber migrates irregularly and not in uniform manner as a result the
packing density varies.
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Ideal migration in yarn:

The ideal helical geometry can be modified to take account of migration in a manner described by
Hearle, Gupta and Merchant. (The ideal migration pattern is defined as one in which the fiber migrates
regularly and uniformly from the outside to the center of the yarn and them back to outside in such a way
that the density of packing of fibers in the yarn is constant throughout the yarn).
If we imagine a length of yarn divided up into cylindrical zones with increments of radius “dr’ then the
length of fiber “dq” crossing each zone must be proportional to the volume of the zone.
Now, volume of the zone  2rdr
dq
and length of the fiber crossing each zone  ( dr )dr
dq
So, ( dr )  r
This relation will be satisfied if r2 varies linearly with q

Mechanisms Causing Fiber Migration:

Morton proposed that one of the mechanisms which cause fiber migration is the tension
differences between fibers at different radial positions in a twisted yarn. During the twist insertion, fibers
are subjected to different tensions depending on their radial positions. Fibers at the core will be under
minimum tension due to shorter fiber path while fibers on the surface will be exposed to the maximum
tension. According to the principle of the minimum energy of deformation, fibers lying near the yarn
surface will try to migrate into inner zones where the energy is lower. This will lead to a cyclic interchange
of fiber position.

Onions and co-workers suggested a different migration mechanism based on diameter and length
differences of staple fibers. During drafting, the longer components are under higher constraints due to
more fiber contact points and tend to pull in or straighten into the center of the drafting sliver. Where
there are differences in diameter in the fibers, the coarser and stiffer fibers can resist the twisting moment
for a longer time than the finer ones, and thus tend to come to the outside of the yarn.

Hearle and Merchant have put forward another migration theory, a modification of Morton's
tension theory, with their study of a seven-ply structure. They assumed that migration will only take place
when the tension on the central ply has dropped to zero and some slack has accumulated. In other words,
even though the outer plies may be under higher tension, the central ply will not be displaced as long as it
is held taut under some tension in the twisting zone. But when it becomes slack and begins to buckle, it
will easily be pushed out and replaced by one of the outer fibers. However, if the tension during twisting is
high enough to keep the central ply under tension, migration will not occur.

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Measurement of migration:
In order to study migration behavior, it is necessary to have a technique for following the path of
individual fiber in yarn. For this many scientists carried out different technique which are mentioned
below:
1. Tracer fiber technique: Gupta carried out mathematical analysis for migration.
2. Cross – section method: Morton and yen invented tracer fiber technique to measure migration.
They studied it for staple fiber yarns like cotton. rayon and nylon.
r
3. Riding method: Riding took the measurement as relative radial position (R ) by projection
microscope the applied the technique to continuous filament yarns containing one colored
filament.

Describe Tracer method to measure fiber migration. 21, 20, 18

Tracer Fiber Technique:
Tracer fiber technique was developed by Morton and Yen. Here a small proportion of colored fiber
(less than 1%) is added to the stock from which the yarn is spun. It is essential that the properties of the
colored fibers, should be identical or almost identical with those of the main stock of un colored (bright)
fibers then the colored and un colored fibers are twisted together to form yarn. This yarn is immersed in a
liquid of the same refractive index as the fibers. As a result, the un colored fibers in yarn become almost
transparent, whereas the colored fibers can be seen easily.

Here the colored fiber is called tracer fiber.

Now the fiber in yarn is observed in a micro projection and thus the migration is measured.
Let. R = radius of yarn r = distance of colored filament from the center of yarn so we get,
𝐛 +𝐛
𝐫 ( 𝐮 𝐞 )− 𝐛𝐟
𝟐
= 𝐛𝐮 −𝐛𝐞
𝐑
𝟐
by the above equation we can measure migration of an individual fiber in yarn.
r
When r – R; it is said that there is no migration. But Hearle and Gupta said that this ratio is not
R
acceptable, because a yarn may not be uniform. It may have thick and thin places. So “r” and “R” may be
changed from place to place of the yarn.

Describe Riding’s experiment to measure fiber migration. 21, 19, 18

The Riding Method:
Riding worked on filament yarns, and expanded the tracer fiber technique by observing the fiber
from two directions at right angles by placing a plane mirror near the yarn in the liquid with the plane of
the mirror at 45° to the direction of observation. Riding used a liquid of same refractive index in which the
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yarn is immersed. He has used one black filament in the yarn to study the migration behavior. He carried
out measurement at interval of data turns of twist 200. The radial position of the tracer fiber along the
yarn was then.

figure: The tracer filament apparatus and measurement by riding

Let, x and y are the distances of the fiber from the yarn axis by the x and y co-ordinates; and dx and
dy are the corresponding diameter measurements.
Now,
r2 = x2 + y2
r2 x2 y2
 R2 = R2 + R2
r 2 x2 y2
 (R) = dx 2
+ dx 2
( ) ( )
2 2
r 2 4x2 4y2
 (R) = dx2 + dx2
r 2 x2 y2
 (R) = 4 [dx2 + ]
dx2
𝐫 𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐
 𝐑 = 2 √𝐝𝐱𝟐 + 𝐝𝐱 𝟐
r
From the above ratio of R, he measured the amount of migration of R of migration of filament in yarn.

Condition for migration to occur in yarn:

Let, z = An element of length of ply yarn formed by twisting 7 single yarns.
 = Helix angle, between axis of ply yarns and axis of yarns in the outer layer.
Ty = Twisting tension = Equal length of single yarn twisting fed.
Suppose the twisting tension has a value of Ty' such that z equals the length of single yarns (as measured
under zero tension) fed through the rollers.
We then have,
Length of path in outer layer = z sec  __________________________________ (i)
z sec  − z
Frictional extension of yarns in outer layer = = sec  – 1 ___________ (ii)
z
And tension in each yarn in outer in layer =  (sec  – 1)

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Where,  is the yarn tension/yarn fractional extension. At one ply yarn axis,
Ty = 6 (sec  – 1) – cos 
1
 Ty = 6 (cos α − 1) − cos 
(1−cos 𝛼) cos 𝛼
 Ty = { }6
cos 𝛼
 Ty = 6 (1 – cos ) _________________________________________ (iii)
If the twisting tension (Ty) is greater than Ty all the component yarns must be extended still more.
Consequently, the core yarn will be under tension and migration will not occur.
If the twisting tension (Ty) is less than Ty the outer filament must be under a smaller tension, and
the length of the ply yarn formed must be less than the lengths of single yarn supplied.
Thus, migration will not occur when the twisting tension Ty > 6 (1 – cos ) and it will not occur
when, Ty < 6 (1 – cos )

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Shear and Drape of Fabric

Buckling of fabric behavior: Buckling in very common phenomenon during the use of fabrics in gts. For
example, the bending of sleeve, the bending of a trouser leg and even the natural folding of garments
often involves buckling.
Certain test methods for producing bucking, it is desirable to give a rare survey of the behavior of
elastic materials during buckling. It is desirable to a rare survey of the behavior of elastic materials during
bulking.
4π2 B
If the specimen is clamped at both ends, the critical PCR = ; B is the flexural rigidity of the
l2
amterial and l the gauge length.

Shear strain: 18
Shear strain is the deformation of the material under a shear force which causes a change in angle
experienced by the sides which were initially perpendicular to the direction of shear.
Mathematically shear strain is define as tan  which is equal to 2tan 
We have to consider the definition of shear strain following the treatment given by Love and Joeger.

Pure Shear Strain: Pure share strain is defined as the deformation of a body by uniform
extension in one side direction and contraction in a perpendicular direction, so that its
area remains constant. For a solid material the thickness also remains constant Pure
shear strain is described by the following figure:

Simple shear strain: In simple shear strain one pain of lines become parallel to their
earlier lines. The actual displacement or shear, of the corners of the squares are a in
the direction of ae, bf, cg and dw which are all parallel to one another.
The shear strain is defined as tan θ, which can be shown equal to 2tanα. For
small strains we can put:
 = tan θ = 2α

Measurement of shear force:

In practice it is virtual impossible to apply forces to a sheet in such a way that an ideal shear stress
is produced.
Treloar introduced a technique to measure shear behavior of fabric in 1995.

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

Working Principle: A square specimen is used in this sample

method. This is shown in figure. The specimen is clamped along
AB and DE and subjected to a vertical load W at C and a
horizontal forces F acting on DE, giving a shear angle θ.
The resultant of the forces W and F gives the force acting
on the lower clamp at C, which must be opposed by an equal and
opposite force from the fabric.
But due to the asymmetry of the direction of force, the
stress distribution is not uniform. This asymmetry and
F
consequent non uniformity of stress distribution varies with shear strain and with the ration W. Higher the
F
ration, higher will be the angle .
W
To remove the problem of uneven stress distribution Treloar suggested for the use of wider
specimens in the experiment, which have the length width ratio 10:1.

Hysteresis Curve of Fabric shear: Causick introduced a shear curve for a square specimen of side which
shows considerable hysteresis effect.
Starting from the origin 'O' the curve OA is followed by a
reproducible hysteresis loop between the points B and D buckling
of the material occurs Causick analyzed the following behaviors of
this hysteresis curve –
▪ Initial shear modulus given by the slope A and C.
▪ Shear modulus at 'zero' shear angle at slope A and C.
▪ The hysteresis of 'zero' shear angle, given by the length AC.
▪ The buckling shear angle at Band D.
With the increase of shearing couple shear stress increases at and at B the material buckles curve backs
reverse but does not follow the previous way to reach D. this is the hysteresis effect.

Effect of normal load on shear behavior:

Normal load impacts shear behavior through properties like wrinkling, frictional effect, and elasticity,
depending on specimen size (sequence or short wide).
Square specimen: Treloar's study reveals that normal load significantly impacts the shear behavior of a
square cotton fabric specimen, with wrinkling starting at the top left corner and gradually spreading
throughout the surface.
Short wide specimen: Normal load minimally impacts short wide specimen shear behavior, causing
simultaneous wrinkle appearance and gradual increase in intensity. Friction is influenced by fabric stress
and strain.
Drape Property: Drape is a fabric's ability to hang gracefully, giving it a graceful appearance, unlike
stiffness. Examples include screen drapes and ladies' skirts.
Drape is measured by drape co-efficient. Drape co-efficient is the ratio of the projected area of draped
specimen to its undraped area of draped specimen to its undraped area, after deducting the area of
supporting disk from them,
Drape co-efficient is denoted by 'D' and
𝐀 −𝐀 𝐀 − 𝚷𝐑𝟐
D = 𝐀 𝐒 − 𝐀𝐝 = 𝚷𝐑𝐒𝟐 − 𝚷𝐑𝟐𝟐
𝐃 𝐝 𝟏 𝟐

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 Textile Physics | ÀÅŔ

Where,
AS = Actual projected area, R2 = Radius of supporting disk, R1 = Radius of circular specimen,
AD = Area of the specimen, Ad = Area of the disc.
Generally, R1= 30 cm and R2= 18 cm.

Drape co-efficient: 18
The drape coefficient is the ratio of the projected area of the fabric sample
to its undraped area, in which the area of the supporting disk is deduced.
(𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐡𝐚𝐝𝐨𝐰 – 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐤)
Drape coefficient = (𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧 – 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐤)100%

The Drape meter:

[Drape co-efficient can be measured by drape meter which is developed by fabric research
laboratory of U.S.A.] Causick developed this form.
In the drape meter a circular piece of fabric is clamped between two smaller circular plates, so that
its free edges drape down under its own weight.
A circular specimen of about 10" diameter is supported on a circular disc of about 5" diameter.
Then the unsupported area of the fabric will drape over the edge as in figure below.
If the fabric were totally stiff, no draping occurred, and the projected area would be equal to the
occurred, and the fabric. But as the fabric is limb so draping occurs and it assumes a folded appearance
and the projected area will be something like figure below:

Figure: Schematic diagram of drape meter

Now there is a point source Bulb in drape meter and under the bulb there is a screen. In the screen
the shadow of draped fabric is created.

Now the three are S are measured and from the following formula drape coefficients calculated
𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐜𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚−𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐮𝐫𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐬 𝐀 − 𝚷𝐑𝟐
D = 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐚𝐛𝐫𝐢𝐜 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧−𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐝𝐢𝐬 = 𝚷𝐑𝐒𝟐 − 𝚷𝐑𝟐𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
Where, R1 = Radios of fabric specimen. R2 = Radios of supporting disc.

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