GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Mr. Nguyễn Thành Danh, Ph.D.

Department of Technology for pharmaceutical Chemistry,
Institute of Chemical Technology-Vietnam Academy of
Science and Technology (VAST)
Website: www.thanhdanh.edu.vn
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 References

[1] Hóa Đại Cương

Nguyễn Đình Soa, NXB ĐHQG Tp.HCM

[2] General Chemistry: Essential concepts

R. Chang, McGraw-Hill Co.

[3] General chemistry

D. D. Ebbing, S. D. Gammon, Houghton Mifflin Co.

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 Contents

Chapter 1. Atomic structure and periodic table

Chapter 2. Molecular structure – chemical bond
Chapter 3. Chemical thermodynamics
Chapter 4. Chemical Kinetics
Chapter 5. Solutions – electrochemistry

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 Chapter 1
ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND PERIODIC TABLE

- Atomic concepts
- Atomic structure
- Periodic table and Periodic
Properties of Atoms

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 1.1. Atomic Concepts
History of Atomic Structure

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 Thomson’s Model
J.J. Thomson (1856-1940 ) provided the first hint that an atom is
made of small particles.

The Atom based on Thomson’s experiment:

 A ray of particles is produced between two
metallic electrodes.
 These particles are negatively charged
 all atoms must contain electrons
 e/m = -1.76 x 108 C/g
 Atoms = neutral! Positive charges are located
somewhere.
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 Rutherford’s Model
All of an atom’s positively charged particles were contained in the
nucleus. The negatively charged particles were scattered outside
the nucleus around the atom’s edge

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 Bohr’s Model
Electrons move in definite orbits around the nucleus, much like
planets circle the sun. These orbits or energy levels are located at
certain distances from the nucleus

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Modern Quantum Model

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 Atomic Concept
Electrons

Atoms Compounds

Nucleus
(Protons + neutrons)

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1.2. Atomic Structure From Quantum Theory
1. Principles
a. Particle – Wave properties of matter
 All moving particles have wave properties

h
= De Broglie equation
mν
 = Wavelength
h = Planck Constant
m = Mass
ν= Velocity of the particles

→ The electron bound to the nucleus similar to a standing wave →

Use of wave function to describe move of an electron.
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1.2.1. Principles
b. Heisenberg uncertainty principle
 There is a fundamental limitation to just how precisely we can
know both the position and the momentum of a particle at a
given time.

 
xp  orxv  Where Δx, Δp and Δv are the standard
2 2m deviation of position, momentum and
Velocity, respectivelyand h is Plank
h Constant (h=6.626x10-27erg.s)

2
 We can not describe exactly position of an electron.
→ Probability of finding an electron.

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Examples
 Determine uncertainty in proton position when the protons are speeding at close
to c (case 1), 2.5x 107 m.sec-1 and the speed of light (case 2), c = 2.998 x 108 m.sec-1
with the same measuring precision 1% and the rest mass of proton mp = 1.673x10-27
kg?
 Solution
Case 1. Case 2.
The uncertainty in velocity is

By Heisenberg uncertainty principle

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1.2.1. Principles
c. The Schrödinger equation
 The probability distributions and allowed energy levels for
electrons in atoms and molecules can be calculated using the
following equation

 each wave function corresponds to a different possible

probability distribution for the electron
 2(x,y,z) is probability of finding an electron at point (x,y,z).

 Meaning: The space ground nucleus which has the maximum

probability of finding electron (90-99%) called atomic orbital
(AO)

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The Schrödinger equation for Hydrogen atom

the Schrödinger equation for electron of Hydrogen atom

Where m and E are mass and total energy of electron

V is potential energy of electron, V = -(e2/(4πεor))
2 is probability of finding an electron

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1.2.2. Quantum numbers
 When solving this equation, each electron in atom is
characterized by four following quantum numbers:
 n = principal quantum number : size and energy of
the orbital

 l = angular momentum quantum number : 0 to n-1 :

Character of
Atomic Orbital (AO) shape of the orbital

 ml = magnetic quantum number : -l to +l :

orientation in space of the angular momentum

 ms = spin quantum number: -1/2 and +1/2.

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a. Principal quantum number (n)
 Put it simply the principal quantum
numbers ‘n’ represent the different P
O
energy levels in an atom, with n = 1 at N
M
the lowest energy level. The principal
L
quantum numbers are also called as the
main shells.

 Higher numbers of ‘n’ indicate higher

energy levels. K

 The ‘n’ values are whole numbers, the possible values are n = 1, 2, 3 …

 Among the known elements the ‘n’ values do not exceed the number ‘7’.

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b. Angular momentum quantum number (l)
 Determining Shape of the orbital (sphere, lobes,… )
 The electrons which have the same value l, locate on the same sub-shell.
 Values: With each value n, we have n of values l: 0, 1, 2,…, (n-1).
ℓ Name (Letter) Shape
0 Sharp (s) sphere
1 Principal (p) Two dumbbells
four dumbbells or unique
2 Diffuse (d)
shape one
eight dumbbells or unique
3 Fundamental (f)
shape two

s p d f

1 2 3
nodal plane – zero probability of finding an
electron in this region of space 18
Examples
Example – 1 Find the values of l for n = 1

1–1=0

Example – 2 Find the values of l for n = 2

2–1=1

 Warning: This answer does not mean that ‘l ’ has a

value of one.
 It means that it includes number 1 and anything below one
including 0 (zero). Therefore, we have two subshells, with
the Angular Momentum Quantum Numbers 0 and 1.

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Examples
Example – 3 Find the values of l for n = 4

4–1=3

 It means that it includes number 3 and anything below

including 0 (zero). Therefore, we have four subshells, with
the Angular Momentum Quantum Numbers 0, 1, 2 and 3.

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c. magnetic quantum number (ml)
 Orientation in space of an atomic orbital (AO)
 Each ml corresponding to 1 AO orientation in space.
 The values magnetic quantum number (ml) range from – l to + l. To find the
magnetic quantum number (ml) first we have to know the value of angular
momentum quantum number.

Example – 1 Find the values of ml for l = 0 (s orbital).

This zero says that, there is only one type of s

orbital in any given energy level.

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Examples
Example – 2 Find the values of ml for l = 1 (p orbital).

– 1, 0, + 1

This answer says that there are three types of p

orbitals in any given energy level.

Example – 3 Find the values of ml for an where l = 2 (d orbital).

– 2, – 1, 0, + 1, +2

This answer says that there are five types of d

orbitals in any given energy level.

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Examples
Example – 4 Find the values of ml for l = 3 (f’ orbital).

– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, + 1, +2, +3

This answer says that there are seven types of f

orbitals in any given energy levels.

Example – 5 Find the values of ml for l = 4

– 4, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, + 1, +2, +3, +4

This answer says that there are nine types of orbitals corresponding
to l = 4, but no known element contains these type of orbitals.

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Summary
With each value l, we have (2 l +1) AOs
With each value n, we have n2 AOs
Each AO is characterized by 3 quantum numbers: n, l, ml

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The s orbital (l = 0)
 Each principal level will have an s orbital.

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The p orbitals (l = 1)
 Each principal level with n = 2 or higher will have p orbitals. There are
no p orbitals in n = 1 level.
 There are three p orbitals (ml = – 1, 0, +1), these three are called, px, py
and pz based on their orientation.

px py

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pz
The d orbitals (l = 2)
 Each principal level with n = 3 or higher will have d orbitals. There are
no d orbitals in n = 1 and n = 2 levels.

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The Spin Quantum Number (ms)
Electrons within atoms interact with a magnet field in one of two ways:

Electrons can spin in either direction

in the presence of an external
magnetic field. This gives the spin
quantum number, ms with allowed
values of + ½ (spin “up”) or – ½
(spin “down”).

Electron spin is important in determining electronic structure

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1.3. Periodic table
State of electron in Atom

 An electron affected by gravitation (lực hút) effect of nucleus and repelling

(lực đẩy) effect of inner-layer electrons. → Shielding (chắn) effect

 State of an electron determined by following principles and rule:

 Aufbau Principle (Nguyên lý vững bền)
 Pauli Principle
 Hund rule
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a. Aufbau Principle (Nguyên lý vững bền)
 A maximum of two electrons are put into orbitals in the order of increasing
orbital energy: the lowest-energy orbitals are filled before electrons are
placed in higher-energy orbitals

 Klechkowski Rule: Orbitals with a lower n + ℓ value are filled before

those with higher n + ℓ values.

g contain 9 orbitals l = n-1 = 4 so -4,-

3,-2, -1, 0, 2, 3, 4 each
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Electron configuration
b. Pauli Principle

 No two eletrons in an atom can have the same set of four

quantum numbers (n, l, ml and ms)
→ No atomic orbital can contain more than two electrons
c. Hund’s Rule
 electrons are placed in orbitals to give the maximum total
spin possible (the maximum number of parallel spin)

→ Fill electron into an sub-shell as follows:

 Adding 1 e having the same spin (↑) into each AO.
 Next, adding the reversed electron into the other AO.

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Periodic table
Valence electrons = electrons from the outermost principal
quantum level of an atom.
 Period: Elements in a row: the same n value
 Group : Elements in a column : Same valence configuration

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Rules to make the periodic table

Additional Rules:
- After 4s and 5s, we fill 3d and
4d.
- After lanthanum, the lanthanide series
occur.  filling of 4f instead of 5d

- After actinium, the actinide series

occur.  filling 5f instead of 6d
- Groups 1A8A (main group elements)
indicate the total number of valance
electrons.

- 2 exceptions to learn by heart : Cr [Ar]4s1d5 and Cu [Ar]4s13d10

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Examples
Example – 1 Configuration of C (Z = 6)?

Example – 2 Configuration of F (Z = 9)?

F (Z = 9): 1s22s22p5

Example – 3 Configuration of Fe (Z = 26)?

Fe (Z = 26): Energy level: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
→ Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2

3s 3p 3d 4s 34
Summary
Sub-level s p d f
Number of AO 1 3 5 7
Max electron 2 6 10 14

Stable Configuration:
 Saturated configuration: s2, p6, d10, f14, s2p6
 Semi-saturated configuration: p3, d5, f7
 Electron configuration of ions
 Cations: removing e from the highest n number first
Ex: Zn (Z = 30) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2
→Zn2+: 1s22s22p63s23p63d10
 Anions: adding e into the highest sub-level number.
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1.4. Periodic Properties of Atom
Ionization Energy (IE) : Energy required to remove an electron from a
gaseous atom or ion. IE in kJ or eV (1 eV = 1.602x10-19J)
X(g)  X+(g) + e- (IE)
Koopmans’ theorem : IE of an electron = energy of the orbital from which it
came.
Al(g)  Al+(g) + e- I1 = 580 kJ/mol
Al+(g)  Al2+(g) + e- I2 = 1815 kJ/mol
Al2+(g)  Al3+(g) + e- I3 = 2740kJ/mol
Al3+(g)  Al4+(g) + e- I4 = 11 600kJ/mol

[Ne]3s23p1 : First e- come from 3p, second from 3s

I1<I2<I3  Why? Positive charge increases  Electron more and more tightly
bound.
I4 is very high : Al3+ : 1s22s22p6 : core electrons are bound very tight!

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Trend of Ionization Energy (năng lượng ion hóa)

 The first ionization energy increases across a period and decreases down
a group. In other words, the metal properties decreases across a period
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and increases down a group.
Trend of Atomic Radius (bán kinh nguyên tử)
 Atomic radius is typical distance from the center of the nucleus
to the boundary of the surrounding cloud of electrons

 The atomic radius decreases across a period and increases down a group.

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Trend of Electronegativity (độ âm điện)
 Electronegativity (χ) can be understood as a chemical property
describing an atom's ability to attract and bind with electrons

 The Electronegativity increases across a period and decreases down a group.

→ χF = 4 is the highest.

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Trend of Electron Affinity (Ái lực electron)
 Electron affinity is the ability of an atom to accept an electron. Unlike
electronegativity, electron affinity is a quantitative measurement of
the energy change that occurs when an electron is added to a neutral
gas atom.

 The Electron affinity increases across a period and decreases down a

group.
 Oxidation number, commonly:
 Maximum Positive oxidation number = number of group
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 Minimum negative oxidation number = 8- number of group
Summary

Properties Period (left to right) Group (top to bottom)

Reductive decrease increase

Oxidative increase decrease
Atomic Radius Decrease (except d Increase (except some
elements) d elements)
The first ionization energy (I1) Increase (except Decrease
saturated and semi-
saturated configuration)
Electronegativity Increase decrease
Electron affinity Increase decrease

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