Process Controls

Lecture 1
Introduction to Course
 Gain Knowledge in the theory and practice of control
Gain systems

Understand existing control systems with respect to

Understand their components

Course Select and

specify
Select and specify input, output variables and the
control methods

Learning
Design Procure components and design the physical system
Outcomes
Analysis of Design the system and analyze its performance against
Design the desired output

Trouble Trouble shoot control systems to get the desired

shoot output
Course Schedule
Week Date Topics
1 04 Sept Intro to course and Intro to control systems
2 11 Sept System Modelling and Tutorial 1
3 18 Sept Signal Flow graph and Tutorial 2
4 25 Sept Public Holiday
4 02 Oct Transient Analysis and Tutorial 3
5 09 Oct In Course Examination
6 16 Oct PID Control and Tutorial 4
7 23 Oct Stability Analysis and Tutorial 5
8 30 Oct Root Locus Design and Tutorial 6
9 6 Nov Laboratory session and Project work
10 13 Nov Laboratory session and Project work
12 20 Nov Last Class and In-course Project Presentations
14 Nov 27 - 28 Study Days
15 Nov 29 - Dec 13 Final Examinations
Course Assessment and Reading
ASSESSMENT
Incourse Exam 20
Labs 20
Project 20
Final Exam 40

READINGS
•System Dynamics K Ogata
•Control Systems W Bolton
•Control Systems Engineering Nise
•Modern Control Systems R Dorf
Overview of the course
• Introduction
• Block Diagram and Signal flow graph
• Transfer functions
• Transient Analysis
• Gain and Phase Margin Analysis (if time permits)
• PID Control
• Stability Analysis
Introduction
• What is Control System?

Elevator Performance
Advantages of Control Systems
• Power Amplification – Eg., Radar Antenna
• Remote Control - Eg., Robots
• Convenience of Input Form – Eg., Thermostat
• Compensation for Disturbances – Eg., Antenna
 History

James Watt’s centrifugal Nyquist developed a method

Root-locus method due to Learning controls are begun to
governor for the speed control for analyzing the stability of
Evans was fully developed investigated and developed.
of a steam engine. controlled systems

1920s 1940s 1960s Present

18th Century 1930s 1950s 1980s

Frequency response methods and on-going research fields.

Minorsky worked on automatic made it possible to design State space methods, optimal Recent application of modern
controllers for steering ships. linear closed-loop control control, adaptive control and control theory includes such
systems non-engineering systems such
as biological, biomedical,
economic and socio-economic
systems
Liquid Level Control
• 250 BC Water Clock by Ctesibius of Alexandria

Ref: Wikipedia
Liquid Level Control – 1st Century AD

• Philon’s Self re-filling oil

lamp using Capillary Tubes

• 1st Century AD weight

regulated liquid filling
device by Heron,
Alexandria, Egypt
Watt’s Flyball Governor – 18th Century
System Configuration
Definition of Terms
1. Input – Reference or External variable applied to the system
2. Output – controlled variable or actual response of the system
3. Disturbance – signal that affects the output of the system
4. Feedback loop – Takes the system output as input and enables the
system to adjust its performance to meet the desired output
response
Open Loop Systems

Advantages
• Simple design
• Less costly
Disadvantage
• Sensitivity to disturbances
• Less accurate
 Closed Loop System

Advantages
• Greater Accuracy
• Less sensitivity to disturbances
and changes to environment
• Output can be easily
controllable
Disadvantages
• More complex
• Expensive
Design Procedure
• Steps to follow when designing control system for an application
Example of Modern Control System
 Step 1
Determine
the Physical
system and its
requirements
 Step 1
Draw a
functional
block
diagram
 Step2
Draw the
physical
system into a
schematic
diagram
 Step 3
Transform
Schematic
Diagram to
Block Diagram
 Step 4: Mathematical model of block diagram,
signal flow graph or state space representation

Input Potentiometer Power Amplifier Motor, Load and Gears

Preamplifier
𝜃𝑖 (𝑠) 100 0.2083 𝜃𝑜 (𝑠)
1 + K
𝑠 𝑠 + 100 𝑠(𝑠 + 1.71)

1
𝑠

Output Potentiometer
Step 5: Reduce the block diagram to single
block
Preamplifier
and Potentiometer Power Amplifier Motor, Load and Gears
𝜃𝑖 (𝑠) 100 0.2083 𝜃𝑜 (𝑠)
+ 1
𝑠 𝑠 + 100 𝑠(𝑠 + 1.71)

𝜃𝑖 (𝑠) 𝜃𝑜 (𝑠)
6.63𝐾
𝑠 3 + 101.7𝑠 2 + 171𝑠 + 6.63𝐾
 Step 6
Analyze, design
and Test to see
that requirements
and Specifications
are met
 Example of closed loop
control system in business

A feedback control
system model of
national income
Design Example

• Blood Glucose
Level Monitor
 Design Example

Block Diagram
description of Blood
Glucose Level
Monitor
References
1. Control Systems Engineering – Norman S.Nice
2. https://www.slideshare.net/leonidesdeocampo/Lecture1ME1761In
troduction
3. http://www.ieeecss.org/siteindex/SITEindex.html
Session Tasks
1. Describe few disasters due to the failure of the control system
design in the past decades

2. Draw a block diagram for a system that you are familiar with, stating
the control objective clearly.
Contact Details
Dr. Chitra Venugopal
Associate Professor in Electrical Engineering
Utilities Engineering
Room: AB 107, Point Lisas Campus
email: [email protected]
Mathematical Analysis of the
System
Lecture 2
Mathematical Model
• A Control System is a collection of physical components connected
together to serve an objective
• The input-output relations of various physical components in a
system is governed by differential equations
• The response or output of a system can be studied by solving the
differential equations for various input conditions
Superposition Theorem for Control System
• The super position theorem implies that if a system model has
responses 𝑦1 𝑡 and 𝑦2 𝑡 for the given inputs 𝑥1 𝑡 and 𝑥2 𝑡
respectively then the system response to linear combination of these
inputs 𝑎1 𝑥1 𝑡 and 𝑎2 𝑥2 𝑡 is given by the linear combination of
individual outputs 𝑎1 𝑦1 𝑡 and 𝑎2 𝑦2 𝑡 where 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are
constants
Superposition Theorem for Control System
contd.,
• Principle of super position can be explained diagrammatically
𝑟1 𝑡 𝑐1 𝑡
𝐺 𝑟1 𝑡
𝑎1
System 𝑎1 𝑟1 𝑡

+ 𝑎1 𝑟1 𝑡 +𝑎2 𝑟2 𝑡 𝑐3 𝑡
G
𝑟2 𝑡 𝑐2 𝑡 +
System
𝐺

System 𝑟2 𝑡 𝑎2 𝑟2 𝑡
𝑎2 𝐼𝑓 𝑐3 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑟1 𝑡 +𝑎2 𝑟2 𝑡
Then system G is linear
Definitions
• Linear Time Invariant System
If the coefficients of the differential equation describing the system are constants then the model is Linear Time
Invariant
• Linear Time Variant System
If the coefficients of the differential equation describing the system are functions of time then the model is Linear
Time Variant
• Transfer Function
The differential equations of linear time invariant system can be reshaped into any form for analysis. One such form
for single input single output system analysis is called Transfer Function analysis

𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ቤ 𝑎𝑡 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Mechanical Translational system
• Mass
The weight of the mechanical system is represented by Mass and it is
assumed to be concentrated at the center of the body
• Spring
The elastic deformation of the body is represented by spring
• Damper
The friction experienced by the body is represented by damper or
dash-pot. The damper is a piston moving inside a cylinder filled with
viscous fluid
Newton’s second law of Motion
• The sum of applied forces is equal to sum of the opposing forces on a
body

When a force is applied to a mechanical translational system, it is opposed

by opposing forces due to Mass, Spring and Damper.
Force balance equations of idealized
elements
Ideal Mass Element with one end fixed to Reference

𝑓 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑓𝑚 = 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑓𝑚 𝛼 2 or 𝑓𝑚 = 𝑀 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑥
By Newton’s second law f = 𝑓𝑚 = 𝑀 2
𝑑𝑡
Force balance equations of idealized
elements contd.,
Ideal Frictional Element Damper with one end fixed to Reference

𝑓 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑓𝑏 = 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑓𝑏 𝛼 or 𝑓𝑏 = 𝐵
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥
By Newton’s second law f = 𝑓𝑏 = 𝐵
𝑑𝑡
Force balance equations of idealized
elements contd.,
Ideal Frictional Element Damper with displacement at both ends

𝑓 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑓𝑚 = 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑑 𝑑
𝑓𝑏 𝛼 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 or 𝑓𝑏 = 𝐵 𝑥1 − 𝑥2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑
By Newton’s second law f = 𝑓𝑏 = 𝐵 𝑥1 − 𝑥2
𝑑𝑡
Force balance equations of idealized
elements contd.,
Ideal Elastic Element Spring with one end fixed to Reference

𝑓 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑓𝑘
= 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑓𝑘 𝛼 𝑥 or 𝑓𝑘 = 𝐾𝑥

By Newton’s second law f = 𝑓𝑘 = 𝐾𝑥

Force balance equations of idealized
elements contd.,
Ideal Elastic Element Spring with displacement at both ends

𝑓 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑓𝑘 = 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑓𝑘 𝛼 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 or 𝑓𝑘 = 𝐾 𝑥1 − 𝑥2

By Newton’s second law f = 𝑓𝑘 = 𝐾 𝑥1 − 𝑥2

Guidelines to determine Transfer Function
• Nodes are meeting points of elements. Generally nodes are Mass
elements of of the system. In some cases nodes are without Mass
elements in the system
• The linear displacement of the masses are assumed to be 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 . .
and assign a displacement to each mass (node).
• Draw the free body diagram of the system. The free body diagram is
obtained by drawing each mass separately and marking all forces
acting on that mass (node)
• for each mass(node) write one differential equation by equating the
sum of applied forces to the sum of opposing forces
 𝑋(𝑠)
Write the differential equation governing the mechanical system and determine the transfer function
𝐹(𝑠)

Case Study 1
 𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝑋2 (𝑠)
Determine the transfer function and
𝐹(𝑠) 𝐹(𝑠)

Case Study 2
Mechanical Rotational System

• Elements of Mechanical Rotational System

Moment of Inertia of Mass J
Weight of the rotational system is concentrated at the center of the
body and is represented by Moment of Inertia M
Damper or Dash-pot with rotational frictional coefficient B
The friction existing in the mechanical rotational system is represented
by Damper B.
Torsional Spring with stiffness K
The elastic deformation of the system is represented by Torsional
Spring K
Torque balance equations of idealized elements
Ideal Rotational Mass Element with one end fixed to Reference

T= 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
𝑇𝑚 = 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

𝑑2 𝜃 𝑑2 𝜃
𝑇𝑗 𝛼 2 or 𝑇𝑗 = 𝐽 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝜃
By Newton’s second law T = 𝑇𝑗 = 𝐽 2
𝑑𝑡
Torque balance equations of idealized
elements contd.,
Ideal Frictional Element Damper with one end fixed to Reference

𝑇 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑇𝑏 = 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑇𝑏 𝛼 or 𝑇𝑏 = 𝐵
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝜃
By Newton’s second law T = 𝑇𝑏 = 𝐵
𝑑𝑡
Torque balance equations of idealized
elements contd.,
Ideal Frictional Element Damper with displacement at both ends

T= 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑇𝑗 = 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑑 𝑑
𝑇𝑏 𝛼 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 or 𝑇𝑏 = 𝐵 𝜃1 − 𝜃2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑
By Newton’s second law T = 𝑇𝑏 = 𝐵 𝜃1 − 𝜃2
𝑑𝑡
Force balance equations of idealized
elements contd.,
Ideal Elastic Element Spring with one end fixed to Reference

𝑓 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒

𝑓𝑘 = 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑇𝑘 𝛼 θ or 𝑇𝑘 = 𝐾𝜃

By Newton’s second law T = 𝑇𝑘 = 𝐾𝜃

Force balance equations of idealized
elements contd.,
Ideal Elastic Element Spring with displacement at both ends

T= 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
𝑇𝑘 = 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑇𝑘 𝛼 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 or 𝑇𝑘 = 𝐾 𝜃1 − 𝜃2

By Newton’s second law T = 𝑇𝑘 = 𝐾 𝜃1 − 𝜃2

 𝜃(𝑠)
Write the differential equation governing the mechanical system and determine the transfer function
𝑇(𝑠)

Case Study 4
 𝜃(𝑠)
Write the differential equation governing the mechanical system and determine the transfer function
𝑇(𝑠)

Case Study 5
 Electrical Systems
• Current – Voltage Relation of R,L and C
Obtain the transfer function of the electrical system

Case Study 6
Transfer function of Armature Controlled Separately Excited DC motor

Case Study 7
Equivalent Circuit of Electrical System of the Motor

Equivalent Circuit of Mechanical System of the Motor

Electrical Analogous of Mechanical Translational Systems

• Systems remains analogous as long as the differential equations

governing the system or transfer function are in identical form
• The three basic elements Mass, Damper and Spring that are used in
modelling the mechanical translational system are analogous to
resistance, inductance and capacitance of electrical systems
• The input force in mechanical system is analogous to either voltage
source or current source in electrical system. The output velocity in
mechanical system is analogous to either current or voltage in
electrical system
 Analogous
Elements in
Force – Voltage
Analogy
 Analogous
quantities in
Force – Voltage
Analogy
 Analogous
Element in
Force – Current
Analogy
 Analogous
quantities in
Force – Current
Analogy
Write the differential equation governing the mechanical system. Draw the force-voltage
and force – voltage electrical analogous circuit and verify them by writing mesh and node
equations

Case Study 8
Write the differential equation governing the mechanical system. Draw the force-voltage
and force – current electrical analogous circuit and verify them by writing mesh and node
equations

Case Study 8
Liquid Level - Single Tank System

Mathematical Modelling of Fluid System

Resistance and Capacitance of Liquid-Level
Systems
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑚
𝑅=
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
If the flow through this restriction is laminar, the relationship between the steady
state flow rate and steady-state head at the level of restriction is given by
𝑄 = 𝐾𝐻
Where Q = steady-state liquid flow rate, 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
K= coefficient, 𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
H=steady-state head, m

For laminar flow, the resistance 𝑅𝑡 is obtained as

𝑑𝐻 𝐻
𝑅𝑡 = = where 𝑅𝑡 is analogous to the electrical resistance
𝑑𝑄 𝑄
Resistance and Capacitance of Liquid-Level
Systems contd.,
If the flow is turbulent, the steady-state flow rate is given by
𝑄=𝐾 𝐻
𝑑𝐻 𝐾
𝑅𝑡 = where, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝐻
𝑑𝑄 2 𝐻

𝑑𝐻 2 𝐻 2 𝐻 𝐻 2𝐻
we have = = = = 𝑅𝑡
𝑑𝑄 𝐾 𝑄 𝑄
Resistance and Capacitance of Liquid-Level
Systems contd.,
The capacitance C of the tank is defined as the change in quantity of
stored liquid necessary to cause a unit change in the potential (head).
The potential is the quantity that indicates the energy level of the
system
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑,𝑚3
𝐶=
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑,𝑚

The capacity in 𝑚3 is different from capacitance in 𝑚2 . The capacitance

of the tank is equal to its cross-sectional area. If the area is constant,
the capacitance is constant for any head.
Resistance and Capacitance of Liquid-Level
Systems contd.,
Resistance and Capacitance of Liquid-Level
Systems contd.,
 Liquid Level Systems – Two
tank system

• Derive a mathematical
model for the system
Mathematical modelling of Thermal System
• Heat can flow from one substance to another in three different ways:
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
Mathematical modelling of Thermal System
• Resistance and Capacitance of the thermal system
Mathematical modelling of Thermal System
contd.,
Mathematical modelling of Thermal System
contd.,

Where,
Case Study 9
Derive a mathematical model for the system shown
Solution

Eliminating q1

Eliminating q1 and q0
Session Task 2

• Write the differential equation

governing the mechanical
system. Draw the force-
voltage and force – current
electrical analogous circuit
and verify them by writing
mesh and node equations
• Closing Date for Session Task – 29 Sept 2017
Block Diagram Reduction
Lecture 3
 Block Diagram

• It is a pictorial representation of the functions

performed by each component of a system and
of the flow of signals
• In a block diagram all system variables are
linked to each other through functional blocks
• The functional block or block is a symbol for the
mathematical operation on the input signal to
the block that produces the output
Constructing Block diagram
• The differential equations governing the system are used to construct
the block diagram
• By applying Laplace transform the differential equations are
converted into algebraic equations with variables and constants
• Input and output variables are identified
• Block diagram for each equation can be drawn and each equation
forms one section of the block diagram
• The output of one section will be input for another section
• Various sections are interconnected to obtain the overall block
diagram
Constructing Block Diagram
• Summing point
The summing points are used to add
two or more signals in the system.
The plus or minus sign at each
arrowhead indicates whether the
signal is to be added or subtracted
It is important that the quantities Summing Point
being added or subtracted have the
same dimensions and the same units.
• Branch point
A branch point is a point from which
the signal from a block goes
concurrently to other blocks or
summing points
Branch Point
Case Study 1
• Construct the block diagram of armature controlled dc motor
Rules for reducing the block diagram
• Block diagram can be reduced to find the overall transfer function of the
system
Rule 1 Combining the blocks in cascade

Rule 2 Combining parallel blocks

Rules for reducing the block diagram
Rule 3 Moving a branch point after of the block

Rule 4 Moving a branch point before the block

Rules for reducing the block diagram
Rule 5 Moving the summing point after of the block

Rule 6 Moving the summing point before the block

Rules for reducing the block diagram
Rule 7 Interchanging summing point
Rules for reducing the block diagram
Rule 8 Splitting summing points

Rule 9 Combining the summing point

Rules for reducing the block diagram
Rule 10 Elimination of negative feedback

Rule 11 Elimination of positive feedback

Case Study 2
• Reduce the block diagram shown and find C/R
Step 1 Move the branch point after the block

Step 2 Eliminate the feedback path and combine the blocks in cascade
Step 3 Combine the parallel blocks

Step 4 Combine the blocks in cascade

Case Study 3
• Using block diagram reduction technique find closed loop transfer
function of the system shown
Step 1 Move the branch point before the block

Step 2 combine the blocks in cascade and eliminate the parallel blocks
Step 3 Move summing point before the block

Step 4 Interchange summing point and modify branch points

Step 5 Eliminate the feedback path and combining blocks in cascade

Step 6 Eliminating the feedback path

Step 7 Eliminate the feedback path
Case Study 4
• For the system represented by the block diagram shown, find
𝐶1 /𝑅1 and 𝐶2 /𝑅1
• Step1: To find 𝐶1 /𝑅1 , set 𝑅2 and 𝐶2 as 0, the block diagram reduces to as
shown below and eliminating the feedback loop
• Step 2: Combining blocks in cascade and splitting the summing point
• Step 3: Eliminating the feedback path
• Step 4: Combining blocks in cascade
• Step 5: Eliminating the feedback path
• Step 6: Combining the blocks in cascade
• Step1: To find 𝐶2 /𝑅1 , set 𝑅2 and 𝐶1 as 0, the block diagram reduces to as
shown below and eliminating the feedback loop
• Step 2: Combining blocks in cascade and splitting the summing point
• Step 3: Eliminating the feedback path
• Step 4: Combining blocks in cascade
• Step 5: Eliminating the feedback path
• Step 6: Combining the blocks in cascade
Block Diagram reduction using MATLAB
• Consider the transfer function of the two systems given below
8 4
𝐺1 𝑠 = and 𝐺2 𝑠 =
𝑠2 +2𝑠+9 𝑠+6
Write a MATLAB program to find the overall transfer function if the two
systems are connected as cascade system, parallel system and feedback
system
GP=tf('s'); system1
G1 =
GF=tf('s'); 8
num_cof1=[0 0 8]; -------------
s^2 + 2 s + 9
den_cof1=[1 2 9]; Continuous-time transfer function.

disp('system1'); system2

G1=tf([num_cof1],[den_cof1]) G2 =

num_cof2=[0 4]; 4
-----
den_cof2=[1 6]; s+6
Continuous-time transfer function.
disp('system2'); series system

G2=tf([num_cof2],[den_cof2]) GC =

[num_cofc, 32
-----------------------
den_cofc]=series(num_cof1,den_cof1,num_cof2 s^3 + 8 s^2 + 21 s + 54

,den_cof2); Continuous-time transfer function.

disp('series system') parallelsystem

GC=tf([num_cofc],[den_cofc]) GP =

[num_cofp,den_cofp]=parallel(num_cof1,den_c 4 s^2 + 16 s + 84
-----------------------
of1,num_cof2,den_cof2); s^3 + 8 s^2 + 21 s + 54

disp('parallelsystem'); Continuous-time transfer function.

GP=tf([num_cofp],[den_cofp]) feedback system

[num_coff,den_coff]=parallel(num_cof1,den_c GF =

of1,num_cof2,den_cof2); 4 s^2 + 16 s + 84
-----------------------
disp('feedback system'); s^3 + 8 s^2 + 21 s + 54

GF=tf([num_coff],[den_coff]) Continuous-time transfer function.

Session Task 3
• Reduce the block diagram of shown to find the transfer function
Session Task 4
• Determine the differential equations governing the field controlled DC
separately excited motor
• Draw the block diagram representation of the differential equations
• Determine the transfer function of the system using block diagram
reduction technique
Time Response Analysis
Time Response
• Time response of the system is the output of the closed loop system
as a function of time
• The time response of a control system consists of two parts
a. Transient Response
Response of a system when the input changes from one state to another
a. Steady State Response
Response of a system as time t approaches infinity
Test Signals
• Standard test signals are
1. Step Signal, Unit Step Signal
2. Ramp signal, Unit Ramp Signal
3. Parabolic Signal, Unit Parabolic Signal
4. Impulse Signal
5. Sinusoidal Signal
 Test Signals

1. Step Signal
A step signal is a signal whose value changes from
zero to A at t=0 and remains constant at A for t>0.

A step signal resembles actual steady input to a

system

The mathematical expression for step signal is

𝑟 𝑡 = 𝐴 ;𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑟 𝑡 = 0 ;𝑡 < 0
When A = 1, then it is called unit step signal
 Test Signals

1. Ramp Signal
A ramp signal is a signal whose value increases linearly
with time from an initial value of zero at t=0.

A ramp signal resembles a constant velocity input to a

system

The mathematical expression for step signal is

𝑟 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 ; 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑟 𝑡 = 0 ;𝑡 < 0
When A = 1, then it is called unit ramp signal
 Test Signals
1. Parabolic Signal
A parabolic signal is a signal whose instantaneous value
increases as square of time from an initial value of zero at
t=0.

A parabolic signal resembles a constant acceleration input

to a system

The mathematical expression for step signal is

𝐴𝑡 2
𝑟 𝑡 = ;𝑡 ≥ 0
2
𝑟 𝑡 = 0 ;𝑡 < 0
When A = 1, then it is called unit parabolic signal
 Test Signals
4. Impulse Signal
A signal of very large amplitude which is available for very
short duration is called impulse signal

An ideal impulse signal is a signal with infinite magnitude

and zero duration but with an area of A

The mathematical expression for step signal is

𝛿 𝑡 = ∞ ;𝑡 = 0

+∞
𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴
−∞

𝑟 𝑡 = 0 ;𝑡 ≠ 0
When A = 1, then it is called unit impulse signal
Standard Test Signals
Name of the Time domain equation Laplace Transform
signal of the signal r(t) of the signal, R(s)

Step A 𝐴
𝑠
Unit Step 1 1
𝑠
Ramp At 𝐴
𝑠2
Unit Ramp t 1
𝑠2
Parabolic 𝐴𝑡 2 𝐴
2 𝑠3
Unit Parabolic 𝑡2 1
2 𝑠3
Impulse 𝛿(𝑡) 1
Order of a System
• The order of the system is given by the order of the differential
equation governing the system

where order of the system is given by the maximum power of s in the

denominator polynomial of the system

n= 0, system is zero order system

n=1,system is first order system
N=2, system is second order system and so on
Zeros and Poles of the system
• The zeros and poles are critical value of s at which the transfer
function attains extreme values such as 0 or ∞

Where,
Zeros and Poles of the system
Zeros and Poles of the first order system
• A pole of the input function generates the form of forced response
• A pole of the transfer function generates the form of natural response
• A pole on the real axis generates an exponential response of the form
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 where -a is the pole location on the real axis. The farther to the
left a pole is on the negative real axis, the faster the exponential
transient response will decay to zero
• The zeros and poles generate the amplitudes for both the forced and
natural responses
First order system
• The closed loop first order system with unity feedback is shown

𝐶(𝑠) 1 1
Transfer function = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠
𝑅 𝑠 1+𝑇𝑠 1+𝑇𝑠
First order system
If the input R(s) is unit step then the response of the system in s- domain is
1 1 1 1/𝑇
𝐶 𝑠 = = = 1
𝑠 1+𝑇𝑠 𝑠(1+𝑇𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠+ )
𝑇

the response of the system in time domain for unit step input is
1
−𝑇𝑡
𝐶 𝑡 =1−𝑒
 Second order system
• The closed loop Second system with unity feedback is shown

𝐶(𝑠) 2
𝜔𝑛
Transfer function = where, 𝜔𝑛 is the natural frequency of oscillation
𝑅 𝑠 𝑠 +2𝜔𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛
2 2

 is the damping ratio

Analysis of second order system
• Characteristic equation of the second order system is
Analysis of second order system
• Characteristic equation of the second order system is

Where,
Analysis of Second order system
Analysis of Second Order System
Analysis of Second Order System
Analysis of Second order system
Analysis of Second order system
Analysis of Second Order System
Characteristics of control system
• The characteristic of control system for unit step input can be defined interms of
Delay time, 𝑡𝑑
It is the time taken for the response to reach 50% of the final value for the very first
time
Rise time, 𝑡𝑟
It is the time taken for response to raise from 0% to 100% (underdamped) or 10%
to 90% (over damped) or 5% to 95% (critically damped)for the very first time
Peak time, 𝑡𝑝
It is time taken for the response to reach the peak value for the very first time
Maximum overshoot, 𝑀𝑝
It the ratio of maximum peak value to the peak value
Settling time, 𝑡𝑠
Time taken by the response to reach and stay in the final value within a specified
error. The usual tolerable error is 2% to 5%
Characteristic of second order system
Characteristic of second order system
Expression for time domain specifications
The unit step response of second order underdamped system is given by

and
Damping Ratio Vs Percent Overshoot
Damping Ratio Vs Rise time
Case Study 1
The servomechanism is subjected to a step input and the response is
given as
𝑐 𝑡 = 1 + 0.2𝑒 −60𝑡 − 1.2𝑒 −10𝑡
Obtain an expression for closed loop transfer function.
Determine the undamped natural frequency of oscillation and damping
ratio
Case Study 2
A positional control system with velocity feedback is shown in the fig.
What is the response of the system for unit step input. Find the natural
frequency of oscillation and damping ratio
Case Study 3
Finding 𝑇𝑝 , %𝑂𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Damping ratio
7
 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = cos 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 0.394
3
𝜔𝑛 = 72 + 32 = 7.616
𝜋 𝜋
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑇𝑝 = = = 0.449𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜔𝑑 7
−(
𝜋 )
1−2
%𝑂𝑆 = 𝑒 𝑋100 = 26%
4 4 4
𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑇𝑠 = = = = 1.333𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜔𝑛 𝜎𝑑 3
Case Study 4
• Given the system shown below, find J and D to yield 20% overshoot
and a settling time of 2 seconds for a step input of torque T(t)

Ans:
D=1.04N-m-s/rad
J=0.26 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2
Case Study 5
• An Unmanned Free-Swimming Submersible (UFSS) vehicle is shown in
the fig.1. The depth of the vehicle is controlled as follows. During
forward motion an elevator surface on the vehicle is deflected by a
selected amount. This deflection causes the vehicle to rotate about
the pitch axis. The pitch of the vehicle creates a vertical force that
causes the vehicle to submerge or rise. The pitch control system for
the vehicle is used here.
The block diagram for the pitch control system is shown in fig. 2.
In this case study we investigate the time response of the vehicle
dynamics that relate the pitch angle output to the elevator deflection
input.
The transfer function relating pitch angle, 𝜃 𝑠 , to elevator surface
angle, 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠), for the Unmanned Free-Swimming Submersible vehicle is
a. Using only the second-order poles shown in the transfer function,
predict percent overshoot, rise time and settling time
b. Using Laplace transforms, find the analytical expression for the
response of the pitch angle to a step input in elevator surface
deflection
c. Evaluate the effect of the additional pole and zero on the validity of
the second order approximation
d. Plot the response of the vehicle dynamics and verify your
conclusions found in (c ).
Session Task 4
• This problem uses the same principle that were applied to case study
5.
Ships at sea undergo motion about their roll axis as shown in fig. 1. Fins
called stabilizers are used to reduce the rolling motion. The stabilizers
can be positioned by a closed loop roll control system that consists of
components, such as fin actuators and sensors, as well as ship’s roll
dynamics.
 Assume the roll dynamics,
which relates the roll-angle
output 𝜃 𝑠 , to a disturbance
–torque input 𝑇𝐷 𝑠 , is
𝜃(𝑠) 2.25
= 2
𝑇𝐷 (𝑠) 𝑠 + 0.5𝑠 + 2.25

Do the following
a. Find the natural frequency, damping ratio, peak time, settling time, rise time
and percentage overshoot
b. Find the analytical expression for the output response to a unit step input in
voltages
Steady State Error and
Stability Analysis
Steady State Error
• The steady state error is the value of error signal e(t) when t→ ∞
• The steady state error measures the accuracy of the signal
• The steady state performance of a stable system is generally judged
by its steady error to step, ramp and parabolic inputs
• In a closed loop system the error signal can be evaluated as
Steady State Error
Type number of a system
Static Error Constants
• The value of steady state error depends on the type number and input signal
• Type 0 system will have constant steady state error when the input is step or
positional signal
• Type 1 system will have constant steady state error when the input is ramp or
velocity signal
• Type 2 system will have constant steady state error when the input is parabolic or
acceleration signal

Where 𝐾𝑝 , 𝐾𝑣 and 𝐾𝑎 are in general

called static error constants
Static Error constants for
various type number of systems

Steady state error for

various types of inputs
Generalized Error Coefficients
• Generalized error coefficients gives the steady error as a function of
time
• The steady state error can be found for any type of input signal
The error signal in s-domain can be expressed as
Generalized Error Coefficients

The coefficients 𝐶0 , 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 …. 𝐶𝑛 are called generalized error coefficients

or dynamic error coefficients
Evaluation of Generalized Error Coefficients
Case Study 1
Stability of the System
• A system is stable, if its output is bounded (finite) for any bounded
(finite) input
• For a bounded input signal, if the output has constant amplitude
oscillations then the system may be stable or unstable under some
limited constraints. Such a system is called limitedly stable
• If a system is stable for all variations of its parameters, then the
system is called absolutely stable
• If a system output is stable for a limited range of variations of its
parameters, then the system is called conditionally stable
• A system is unstable if for a bounded disturbing input signal, the
output is of infinite amplitude or oscillatory
Rules for stability of the system
The stability of the system depends on the location of the roots of the
characteristic equation
Characteristic equation = 1+G(s)H(s)
1. If all the roots of the characteristic equation has negative real parts,
then the system is stable
2. If any of the root of the characteristic equation has a positive real
root or if there is a repeated root on the imaginary axis then the
system is unstable
3. If the condition (1) is satisfied except for the presence of one or
more non repeated roots on the imaginary axis, then the system is
limitedly or marginally stable
Roots of the characteristic equation
The roots of the characteristic equation are function of coefficients in
characteristic equation
Consider a nth order characteristic equation

Where , 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 …𝑎𝑛 are coefficients of characteristic equation

Rule
1. If all the coefficients are positive and if no coefficient is zero, then all the
roots are in the left half of s-plane
2. If any coefficient is zero, then some of the roots may be on the imaginary
axis or on the right half of the s-plane.
3. If any coefficient is negative then at least one root is in the right half of
the s-plane
Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Routh Hurwitz Table
Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
• The necessary and sufficient condition for stability is that all of the
elements in the first column of the Routh array be positive.
• If this condition is not met, the system is unstable
• The number of sign changes in the first column of the Routh array
corresponds to the number of roots of the characteristic equation in
the right half of the s-plane
Case 1
• Using Routh criterion, determine the stability of the system
represented by the characteristic equation,
𝑠 4 + 8𝑠 3 + 18𝑠 2 + 16𝑠 + 5 = 0
Comment on the location of the roots of the characteristic equation

Ans:
The system is stable
All the 4 roots are lying on the left half of the s-plane
Case 2
• Using Routh criterion, determine the stability of the system
represented by the characteristic equation,
𝑠 6 + 2𝑠 5 + 8𝑠 4 + 12𝑠 3 + 20𝑠 2 + 16𝑠 + 16 = 0
Comment on the location of the roots of the characteristic equation

Ans:
The system is marginally stable
All the 4 roots are lying on the imaginary axis and 2 roots are lying on
left half of the s-plane
Case 3
• Using Routh criterion, determine the stability of the system
represented by the characteristic equation,
𝑠 5 + 𝑠 4 + 2𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 5 = 0
Comment on the location of the roots of the characteristic equation

Ans:
The system is unstable
All the 2 roots are lying on the right half of the s-plane and 3 roots are
lying on left half of the s-plane
Case 4
• Using Routh criterion, determine the stability of the system
represented by the characteristic equation,
9𝑠 5 − 20𝑠 4 + 10𝑠 3 − 𝑠 2 − 9𝑠 − 10 = 0
Comment on the location of the roots of the characteristic equation

Ans:
The system is unstable
All the 3 roots are lying on the right half of the s-plane and 2 roots are
lying on left half of the s-plane
Case Study 5
• The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given
by
𝐾
G s =
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 25)
By applying the routh criterion, discuss the stability of the closed loop system
as a function of K. Determine the value of K which will cause sustained
oscillations in the closed loop system. What are the corresponding oscillating
frequencies?
Ans:
The range of K value for stable system is 0<K<666.25
The frequency of oscillation is 4.06 rad/sec
Self Study
1. Determine the range of K for stability of unity feedback system
whose open loop transfer function is ,
𝐾
G s =
𝑠(𝑠+1)(𝑠+2)
2. Using Routh criterion, determine the stability of the system
represented by the characteristic equation,
𝑠 7 + 5𝑠 6 + 9𝑠 5 + 9𝑠 4 + 4𝑠 3 + 20𝑠 2 + 36𝑠 + 36 = 0
Determine the location of the roots in the s-plane
Introduction to PID control
Few commercial PID controllers
Control: The necessity and examples
Common experience
Cycle pedaling
Driving a two/four wheeler
Home
Room temperature and air conditioner
Pressure in a pressure cooker
Industry
Temperature of a furnace
Speed of a motor
Mass flow rate (gas/liquid)
A gadget
Read/write head of CD player or a hard disk
 Temperature Control - Illustration

Aim: To control the temperature of a body

The body - A bucket of water

A heater at our disposal to supply heat to the body

Eg. A simple 220V, 1000W immersion water heater
 Understanding Control
No control
Switch on the power to the heater and forget
Let the temperature reach its “own value”

Temperature Water temperature does not increase as

Power
soon as the heater power is on.
Temperature does not follow the input
Reason?
t1! temp!

Left unattended for a while:

Water temperature will reach a value, decided by the heat lost to the
surrounding and the heat input from the heater
If left unattended indefinitely, the result will be disastrous.
Eventually water will evaporate,… heater will start burning the bucket,… and…
 Understanding Control
Manual intervention
Switch on the power to the heater and
switch off the power after some time
Temperature

No control over temperature

Power
t1! t2! time!

Water temperature will not increase as soon as the heater power is on nor it will
fall as soon as the heater power is off. Reason: Thermal inertia.
 Simple On-Off control
Switch on power to the heater and monitor the temperature
Switch off the power once the temperature of the body exceeds the
set temp. Switch on when the temperature goes below set temp.
Repeat this process
Temperature
Set temp

Power

time!
Water temperature will not follow the heater, but
it will swing about the set value (goes above and below)
Useful, when precise control is not needed.
Commonly used in:
Iron press (box), refrigerator, air conditioner, kitchen oven, water heater...
 Proportional Control
Sense/Measure the temperature of the body continuously
(Temperature sensors: Thermocouple, Diode thermometer,…)
Find, ∆T(t) the difference between the set and the actual temperature
Temperatures are measured in terms of voltages: ∆T (t) ∝ eR (t)
eR(t) is the error voltage and eR(t) will be zero, when ∆T(t) is zero.

Proportional control:
A voltage, VP(t) proportional to eR(t) is sent to the heater

VP (t) = K P eR (t)
eR (t ) = ∆T (= Tset − Tmeasured )
Kp is the proportional constant (gain)
 Proportional Control
Set temperature
VP (t) = KPeR (t)
body temperature
eR (t) ∝ ∆T (t)
Input power
time!

Temperature rise will not be the same as that in on-off control

Reason:
Power delivered to the heater is not a step, but ∝ ∆T (t )

Temperature will never reach the set value,

but will settle at a lower value.
Reason:
When ∆T = 0, eR(t) = 0. VP = 0, no power is given to the heater
 Proportional + Integral control
Set temperature
With proportional control,
the body temperature will
never reach the set value body temperature

time!
Send an additional voltage, VI (t) to meet the difference
How to determine VI (t) needed to compensate the difference?
Integrate the error voltage eR(t) from the start:
t

VI (t) = K I ∫ eR (τ )dτ
t0
t
Vout (t) = VP (t) + VI (t) = K P eR (t ) + K I ∫ eR (τ )dτ
t0

KI is the integral gain. Choice of KI is critical (KI < KP)

After a long time, which term will dominate and why?
 Proportional + Integral control
Inclusion of a signal proportional to the integral of eR(t) results
in controlling the temperature of the body at any desired value.
t
Vout (t) = VP (t) + VI (t) = K P eR (t ) + K I ∫ eR (τ )dτ
t0

Set temperature Set temperature

∆T

body temperature body temperature

t0! time! t0! time!
Proportional alone Proportional + integral

Supposing there is a sudden deviation from the set value,

Which terms will act and why?
 Proportional + Integral + Differential control
Proportional + Integral parts will achieve control
A sudden change in system conditions may lead to
sudden change in its temperature
KP and KI both will act and the system temperature may overshoot

Term proportional to the rate of change in temperature is required

Term proportional to derivative of eR(t) will counter sudden changes
deR
VD (t) = K D KD is the differential gain
dt

The PID control output:

t
deR
Vout (t) = VP (t) +VI (t) +V D(t) = K Pe R(t) + K I ∫e R(τ )dτ + K D
t0 dt
 The role of Differential term
t1!
Set temp (voltage)

∆eR1 >!0 ! ∆eR3 = 0!

∆eR2 < 0 ! !
t3!
body temperature t2!

t1! t2! t3! time!

∆T = Tset – Tmeasured and ! eR (t) ∝ ∆T (t
)
e (t) is the difference between the set voltage (temperature) and the
R
measured voltage (temperature) at any instant of time.
deR /dt is derivative of the difference voltage (error voltage, eR(t)).
∆eR /∆t = [eR(t + ∆t) - eR(t)]/∆t&
Near t1, deR /dt is +ve, differential term will reinforce the other terms
Near t2, deR /dt is -ve differential term will oppose the other terms
Near t3, deR /dt is zero, differential term will have no contribution
 System with PID control
Voltage Differen. PID
Refer. amplifier Adder (System)
Amplifier, KP
VR !T
VR eR(t) + VPID(t)
VR + Integrator, KP ++ Heater
-
To set Differentiator, KI T(t)
Temp. VTh(t)

eR(t) =VR -VTh(t) VTh(t) T(t)

Thermocouple
(Sensor)

A closed loop system, with feedback provided by the sensor

The heater should attain the set temperature as fast as possible and
should continue to remain at the set temperature.
 System analysis: Time domain Vs s-domain
Aim:
Find the response (temp), when the input, VR(t) is set at a given value
Analysis in time domain
Find the impulse response function, h(t) of individual blocks
Find the impulse response function of the whole system
Convolute the impulse response function with input to get the output

Analysis in s-domain (complex domain)

Find the Laplace transform of individual blocks – s-domain
Find the transfer function, H(s) (ratio of output to input in s-domain)
of the individual blocks
Find the transfer function of the whole system
Multiply the transfer function of the whole system by the input (s-domain)
to get the output in d-domain
Take inverse Laplace transform to get the output in time domain
Which procedure is simpler and why?
Integral/differential equations become algebraic equations in “s”
Laplace transform and s-Domain representation
t
1. The PID block deR
VPID (t) = K P (t)eR (t) + K I ∫ eR (τ )dτ + K D
P t0
dt
eR(t) VPID (t) L { VPID (t)} = VPID(s)
I ++
+ KI
VPID(s) = KP ER(s) + s E R(s) + sKD ER(s)
D
(assuming “0” initial values)

The Transfer Function: HPID(s) = VPID(s)/ER(s) = KP + KI /s + sKD

2. The Heater
VHTR (t) T(t)
(VHTR (t) = input voltage)

For a short duration voltage (input) applied at t = 0, the heater temperature

rises to a finite value and for t > 0 decreases exponentially. T (t) ∝ e− at
1
The Transfer function: HHTR (s) = VHTR (s) / T (s) =
1+s
(assuming a =1)
 s-Domain representation
3. Temperature sensor (Thermocouple)
Temperature, T(s) Voltage, VTh(s)

Transfer function: HT h(s) = V Th(s) /T (s)

If the sensor gives 1V for 1K(after signal conditioning), HTh(s) = 1

4. Reference voltage source

Voltage, VR (s)
VR(t)
A constant voltage source, calibrated to set temperature

5. Differential amplifier Compares the temperature sensor voltage and

the reference voltage and gives a voltage
VR (t) + proportional to the difference between them
- eR(t) VR(t) – VTh(t) = eR(t), the error signal
VTh(t) VR(s) – VTh(s) = ER(s)
 PID control – Analysis in s-domain
P
HPID(s)

VR(s) ER(s) VPID(s)

Refer. + I ++ H (s)
- + =VHTR(s) HTR
VTh (s) D T (s)
VTh(s) T (s)
HTh(s)
Aim: To find the transfer function of the whole system that is to
find the ratio of output (T (s)) to input (VR(s))
T (s) = VHTR (s) HHTR(s) = VPID (s) HHTR(s) [VHTR (s) =VPID (s)]
T (s) = ER(s) HPID(s)HHTR(s) [VPID (s) = HPID(s)ER(s)]
ER(s) = VR(s) -VTh (s) = VR(s) - HTh(s)T (s) [VTh(s) = HTh(s)T (s)]
T (s) = [VR(s) - HTh(s)T (s)] HPID(s) HHTR(s)
T (s) [1 + HTh(s) HPID(s) HHTR(s) ] = VR(s) HPID(s) HHTR(s)
 PID control – Analysis in s-domain
The transfer function for the whole system is:
T (s) HPID(s) HHTR(s)
H(s) = =
VR(s) [1 + HTh(s) HPID(s) HHTR (s) ]

Where the individual transfer functions are: HTh(s) = 1

(s2KD + sKP + KI ) 1
HPID(s)= KP + KI /s + sKD = HHTR(s) = 1 + s
s
s 2KD + sKP + KI
H(s) =
[s2(1+KD) + s (1+KP)+ KI ]

Output can be found for any input, as H(s) is known

If the input VR(t) = δ (t), then output T (s) = H(s); L{δ(t)} = 1
If the input VR(t) = u(t), then output T (s) = H(s)/s; L{u(t)} = 1/s
Transfer Function analysis of PID control

Let VR(t) = u(t); u(t) is unit step, KP = 1, KI = 5 & KD = 0

s 2KD + sKP + KI s+5

H(s) = =
[s2(1+KD) + s (1+KP)+ KI ] s2+ 2s+ 5

VR(s) = 1/s
s+5 1 1 s+1
T (s) = H(s)VR(s) = = -
s 2+ 2s+ 5 s s (s+1) 2+ 4)

T (t) = L-1{T (s)} = 1 – e-tcos2t

 PID Control – MATLAB simulation

Temp KP = KI = 1; KD = 2

Set temp

KP = KI = 1; KD = 0.5

KP = KI = 1; KD = 0
Input, unit step

Time
 A quick analogy
P
The PID controller output is:
t eR(t) VPID (t)
deR +
K P eR (t) + K I ∫ eR (τ )dτ + K D I +
+
t0
dt
Rewrite the equation as D
d 2eR deR
KD + K + KI eR = f (t)
dt2 P dt Damped SHM: spring-mass
system on rough surface
Let eR = x; KD = m; KP = b and KI = k k
m
d 2x dx
m 2 + b + k x = g(t) Fr
dt dt
Current in an LCR circuit
Let eR = I; KD = L; KP = R and KI = 1/C
d2I dI ~ R C
L 2 +b + (1/C)I = h(t) L
dt dt

Bound electron in alkali halide under EM radiation

.. .
me r + b r + k r = - e EL eiωt
 Quick summary

Necessity for control

The meaning of PID control
Example of PID control of a Heater
Modeling using Transfer function
s-domain analysis of Heater with PID control
Simulation and effect of PID constants
Root Locus Technique
Stability Analysis
Introduction
• Root locus was introduced by W.R.Evans in 1948 for the analysis of
control systems. The root locus technique is a powerful tool for
adjusting the location of closed loop poles to achieve the desired
system performance by varying one or more system parameters.
• The path taken by the roots of the characteristic equation when open
loop gain K is varied from 0 to ∞ is called root loci or root locus
Analysis of root locus
𝐾
The open loop transfer function of the system G(s) =
𝑆(𝑠+𝑝1 )(𝑠+𝑝2 )
The closed loop transfer function of the system with unity feedback is
given by
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠) 𝐾
= =
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺(𝑠) 𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑝1 𝑠 + 𝑝2 + 𝐾
The characteristic equation of the system is
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑝1 𝑠 + 𝑝2 + 𝐾=0
The roots of this equation is a function of open loop gain K.
When K =0, the roots are given by open loop poles
When K= ∞, the roots are given by open loop zeros
Typical sketches of root locus
Importance of root locus
• It is an importance tool in designing control systems with desired
performance characteristics. The desired performance can be
achieved by adjusting the location of its closed loop poles in the s-
plane by varying one or more system parameters
• The root locus can be plotted in the s-plane by varying a system
parameter over a complete range of values.
• The root locus technique can be used for stability analysis.
• The dominant roots are used to estimate the damping ratio and
natural frequency of oscillation of the system
Case study 1
• During ascent the automatic steering program abroad the space
shuttle provides the interface between the low-rate processing of
guidance (commands) and the high-rate processing of flight control
(steering in response to the commands). The function performed is
basically that of smoothing. The simplified representation of the
system is shown in block diagram representation
After simplification, the open loop transfer
of the unity feedback system G(s) is given
𝐾
G s = 2
𝑆(𝑠 +4𝑠+13)
Sketch the root locus of the system
and find the value of K.
The value of K = 52.
Case study 2
• A CD drive is a position control system in which a read/write head is
positioned over a magnetic disk. The system responds to a command
from a computer to position itself at a particular track on the disk.
The gain of the open loop system with unity feedback control is given
as
𝐾
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑆(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 4)

Sketch the root locus of the system and find the value of K so that the
damping ratio of the closed loop system is 0.5
K = 48
The value of K for damping ratio of 0.5 is 8.
Case Study 3
• A model is introduced to control the packet-drop probability in TCP/IP
router by using random early detection (RED) algorithm. Using the
figure below as a model, a specific router queue’s open-loop transfer
function is
𝐾(𝑠 + 9)
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑆(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 11)

Plot the root locus of the system and find the value of K.
The value of K is 8.8
Matlab Commands h=tf([2 5 1],[1 2 3]);
rlocus(h)

• Root Locus
Syntax
rlocus(sys)
rlocus(sys1,sys2,...)
[r,k] = rlocus(sys)
r = rlocus(sys,k)
• Plot the root locus of the
system
2𝑠 2 +5𝑠+1
H 𝑠 =
(𝑠2 +2𝑠+3)
Matlab Commands
• Time Response
Consider the closed loop response transfer function of the following
second order system
16
𝑀 𝑠 = 2
(𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 16)
Write a MATLAB program to find the rise time, peak time, maximum
peak overshoot and settling time from the unit step response of the
system
clc rise_time =
t=0:0.005:5; %set time vector
num_cof=[0 0 16]; %store the numerator coefficients as an array 0.6100
den_cof=[1 4 16]; %store the denominator coefficients as an array
[c,x,t]=step(num_cof,den_cof,t);
n=1; %initialize count as 1 peak_time =
while c(n)<1.001; %count the time index as long as c(t)<1
n=n+1; 0.9050
end;
rise_time=(n-1)*0.005 %rise time = (count-1)*time interval
[cmax,tp]=max(c); %determine maximum value of c(t)and max_overshoot =
corresponding time
peak_time=(tp-1)*0.005 %peak time = (tp-1)*time interval 0.1630
max_overshoot=cmax-1 %compute peak overshoot
n=1001; %initialize count as (5/0.005)+1=1001
while c(n)>0.95&c(n)<1.05; settling_time_5per_err =
n=n-1; % count time index between c(t)>0.95 & c(t)<1.05
end; 1.3200
settling_time_5per_err=(n-1)*0.005
n=1001; %initialize count as (5/0.005)+1=1001
while c(n)>0.98&c(n)<1.02; settling_time_2per_err =
n=n-1; % count time index between c(t)>0.95 & c(t)<1.05
end; 2.0150
settling_time_2per_err=(n-1)*0.005
>> sys=tf([0 0 16],[1 4 16]) rise_time =

sys = 0.6100

16
-------------- peak_time =
s^2 + 4 s + 16
0.9050
Continuous-time transfer function.

>> S3=stepinfo(sys,'RiseTimeThershold',[0.05 max_overshoot =

0.95],'SettlingTimeThershold',0.005)
0.1630
S3 =

RiseTime: 0.4827 settling_time_5per_err =

SettlingTime: 2.2922
SettlingMin: 0.9634 1.3200
SettlingMax: 1.1629
Overshoot: 16.2929
Undershoot: 0 settling_time_2per_err =
Peak: 1.1629
PeakTime: 0.8980 2.0150
Meeting Steady State Error requirements
• Consider the system shown below, where
Choose the value of K to achieve steady state error of 0.1 in response
to ramp input.
• Assuming K=1,
• Calculating the value for K for a steady state error of 0.1
For a type 1, system only 𝐾𝑣 exists, so
• To zoom the value between 39.9 to 40.1
• If the system is modified as shown below to achieve zero steady state error