A complete, fully revised

Design Handbook
HVAC design reference

HVAC Systems
Thoroughly updated with the latest codes, technologies, and
practices, this all-in-one resource provides details, calculations,
and specifications for designing efficient and effective residential, fifth edition
commercial, and industrial HVAC systems.

HVAC Systems Design Handbook, Fifth Edition, features new

information on energy conservation and computer usage for
design and control, as well as the most recent International Code

HVAC
Council (ICC) Mechanical Code requirements. Detailed illustrations,
tables, and essential HVAC equations are also included. This
comprehensive guide contains everything you need to design,
operate, and maintain peak-performing HVAC systems.

Coverage includes:

Systems
• Load calculations
• Air- and fluid-handling systems
• Central plants
• Automatic controls

Design
• Equipment for cooling, heating, and air handling
• Electrical features of HVAC systems
•D esign documentation—
drawings and specifications

Handbook
• Construction through operation
• Technical report writing
•Engineering fundamentals—fluid mechanics,
thermodynamics, heat transfer, psychrometrics,
sound and vibration
• Indoor air quality (IAQ)
• Sustainable HVAC systems
• Smoke management
Fifth Edition

ISBN 978-0-07-162297-4
MHID 0-07-162297-7 Haines
5 9 9 9 9>
Myers

Roger W. Haines and Michael E. Myers

CONSTRUCTION
9 780071 622974
Cover Design: Mary McKeon
 HVAC Systems
Design
Handbook

Roger W. Haines, P.E.

Michael E. Myers, P.E., LEED AP

Fifth Edition

New York Chicago San Francisco

Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City
Milan New Delhi San Juan
Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto

HVAC_book.indb i 9/1/09 1:45:52 PM

 Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file with the Library of Congress

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ISBN 978-0-07-162297-4
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HVAC_book.indb ii 9/1/09 1:45:52 PM

 Contents

Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi
Introduction xiii

Chapter 1. HVAC Engineering Equations for Daily Use 1

1.1 Introduction 1
Part 1—Frequently Used HVAC Equations
1.2 Air Side Equations 3
1.3 Fan Laws 6
1.4 Heat Transfer Equations 7
1.5 Fluid Handling 8
1.6 Power and Energy 10
1.7 Steam Equations 11
Part 2—Infrequently Used HVAC Equations
1.8 Air Side Equations 12
1.9 Fluid Handling 15
1.10 Smoke Management 16

Chapter 2. HVAC Engineering Fundamentals: Part 1 21

2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Problem Solving 21
2.3 Value Engineering 22
2.4 Codes, Regulations and Standards 23
2.5 Fluid Mechanics 23
2.6 Thermodynamics 23
2.7 Heat Transfer 24
2.8 Psychrometrics 25
2.9 Sound and Vibration 25
2.10 Energy Conservation 25
2.11 Summary 25

Chapter 3. HVAC Engineering Fundamentals: Part 2 27

3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Comfort 27

iii

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 iv Contents

3.3 HVAC Cycles 28

3.4 Control Strategies 29
3.5 Architectural, Structural and Electrical Considerations 29
3.6 Conceptual Design 30
3.7 Environmental Criteria for Typical Buildings 30
3.8 Designing for Operation and Maintenance 33
3. 9 Codes and Standards 34
3.10 Summary 34

Chapter 4. Design Procedures: Part 1—Load Calculations 37

4.1 Introduction 37
4.2 Use of Computers 38
4.3 Rule of Thumb Calculations 38
4.4 Design Criteria and Documentation Forms 39
4.5 Factors for Load Components 45
4.6 Load Calculations 79
4.7 Dynamic versus Static Load Calculations 86
4.8 Ventilation Loads 86
4.9 Other Loads 87
4.10 Summary 88

Chapter 5. Design Procedures: Part 2—General Concepts

for Equipment Selection 89
5.1 Introduction 89
5.2 Sustainable Systems and Equipment 89
5.3 Maintainability of Systems and Equipment 90
5.4 Criteria for System and Equipment Selection 90
5.5 Options in System and Equipment Selection 97
5.6 The Psychrometric Chart 100
5.7 Effects of Altitude and Temperature 103
5.8 Software-Based Equipment Selection 105
5.9 Summary 105

Chapter 6. Design Procedures: Part 3—Air Handling Systems 107

6.1 Introduction 107
6.2 Fans 107
6.3 Air Duct Design 121
6.4 Registers and Grilles 141
6.5 Louvers 143
6.6 Dampers 144
6.7 Filters 147
6.8 Air Distribution with High Flow Rates 148
6.9 Stratification 152
6.10 Noise Control 154
6.11 Indoor Air Quality 155
6.12 Summary 155

Chapter 7. Design Procedures: Part 4—Fluid Handling Systems 157

7.1 Introduction 157
7.2 Steam 157

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 Contents v

7.3 Water 165

7.4 High-Temperature Water 167
7.5 Secondary Coolants (Brines and Glycols) 167
7.6 Piping Systems 169
7.7 Pumps 196
7.8 Refrigerant Distribution 204
7.9 Summary 205

Chapter 8. Design Procedures: Part 5—Central Plants 207

8.1 Introduction 207
8.2 General Plant Design Concepts 207
8.3 Central Steam Plants 208
8.4 Low-Temperature Hot Water Central Plants 210
8.5 High-Temperature Hot Water Central Plants 212
8.6 Fuel Options and Alternate Fuels 213
8.7 Central Chilled Water Plants 214
8.8 Thermal Storage Systems 221
8.9 Central Plant Distribution Arrangements 224
8.10 Cogeneration Plants 225
8.11 Summary 230

Chapter 9. Design Procedures: Part 6—Automatic Controls 231

9.1 Introduction 231
9.2 Control Fundamentals 232
9.3 Control Devices 237
9.4 Instrumentation 268
9.5 Typical Control Systems 269
9.6 Electrical Interfaces 280
9.7 Computer-Based Controls 281
9.8 Control Symbols 284
9.9 Summary 284

Chapter 10. Equipment: Part 1—Cooling 287

10.1 Introduction 287
10.2 Refrigeration Cycles 287
10.3 Compressors 291
10.4 Chillers 295
10.5 Condensers 297
10.6 Cooling Towers 300
10.7 Cooling Coils 304
10.8 Radiant Cooling 313
10.9 Evaporative Cooling 313
10.10 Refrigerants 316
10.11 Summary 317

Chapter 11. Equipment: Part 2—Heating 319

11.1 Introduction 319
11.2 General 319

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 vi Contents

11.3 Boilers 320

11.4 Boiler Types 321
11.5 Combustion Processes and Fuels 322
11.6 Fuel-Burning Equipment 324
11.7 Boiler Feedwater and Water Treatment Systems 328
11.8 Boiler Codes and Standards 331
11.9 Boiler Design 331
11.10 Acceptance and Operational Testing 332
11.11 Direct- and Indirect-Fired Heating Equipment 332
11.12 Heat Exchangers—Water Heating 332
11.13 Heat Exchangers—Air Heating 333
11.14 Unit Heaters and Duct Heaters 337
11.15 Terminal Heating Equipment 340
11.16 Heat Pumps 342
11.17 Heat Recovery and Reclaim 346
11.18 Solar Heating 354
11.19 Humidification 354
11.20 Summary 358

Chapter 12. Equipment: Part 3—Air-Handling Systems 361

12.1 Introduction 361
12.2 AHU System Arrangements 363
12.3 Package AHUs 375
12.4 Built-Up (Field-Assembled) AHU 378
12.5 Terminal Units 379
12.6 Individual Room AHUs 380
12.7 Humidity Control 383
12.8 Control of Outside Air Quantity 384
12.9 Effects of Altitude 386
12.10 Exhaust Systems 387
12.11 Smoke Control 387
12.12 Summary 387

Chapter 13. Electrical Features of HVAC Systems 389

13.1 Introduction 389
13.2 Fundamentals of Electric Power 389
13.3 Common Service Voltages 390
13.4 Power Factor 391
13.5 Motors 391
13.6 Variable Speed Drives 393
13.7 Electrical Interface 394
13.8 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) 396
13.9 Standby Power Generation 397
13.10 Electrical Room Ventilation 397
13.11 Lighting Systems 398
13.12 National Electrical Code 398
13.13 Summary 398

Chapter 14. Design Documentation: Drawings and Specifications 401

14.1 Introduction 401
14.2 The Nature of Contracts 402

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 Contents vii

14.3 Drawings 403

14.4 Specifications 404
14.5 Summary 415

Chapter 15. After Design: Through Construction to Operation 417

15.1 Introduction 417
15.2 Participation During Construction 417
15.3 Commissioning 421
15.4 Summary 422

Chapter 16. Technical Report Writing 425

16.1 Introduction 425
16.2 Organization of a Report 425
16.3 Writing with Clarity 427
16.4 Use of Tables and Figures 427
16.5 Printing and Binding 428
16.6 Letter Reports 428
16.7 Summary 428

Chapter 17. Engineering Fundamentals: Part 1—Fluid Mechanics 431

17.1 Introduction 431
17.2 Terminology in Fluid Mechanics 431
17.3 Law of Conservation of Mass 432
17.4 The Bernoulli Equation (Law of Conservation of Energy) 432
17.5 Flow Volume Measurement 434
17.6 Summary 435

Chapter 18. Engineering Fundamentals: Part 2—Thermodynamics 437

18.1 Introduction 437
18.2 Thermodynamics Terms 437
18.3 First Law of Thermodynamics 438
18.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics 439
18.5 Efficiency 440
18.6 Coefficient of Performance 440
18.7 Specific Heat Cp 441
18.8 Summary 441

Chapter 19. Engineering Fundamentals: Part 3—Heat Transfer 443

19.1 Introduction 443
19.2 Heat Transfer Modes 443
19.3 Thermal Conduction 443
19.4 Thermal Convection 446
19.5 Thermal Radiation 448
19.6 Latent Heat and Moisture 449
19.7 Summary 451

Chapter 20. Engineering Fundamentals: Part 4—Psychrometrics 453

20.1 Introduction 453
20.2 Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air 453

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 viii Contents

20.3 Tables of Properties 455

20.4 Psychrometric Charts 455
20.5 HVAC Processes on the Psychrometric Chart 461
20.6 The Protractor on the ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart 465
20.7 Effects of Altitude 467
20.8 Summary 468

Chapter 21. Engineering Fundamentals: Part 5—Sound and Vibration 469

21.1 Introduction 469
21.2 Definitions 469
21.3 Methods of Specifying and Measuring Sound 470
21.4 Sound and Vibration Transmission 473
21.5 Ambient Sound Level Design Goals 475
21.6 Reducing Sound and Vibration Transmission 477
21.7 Summary 484

Chapter 22. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) 485

22.1 Introduction 485
22.2 Basics of IAQ Design 486
22.3 Methods of Providing Acceptable IAQ 487
22.4 Design Considerations for Acceptable IAQ 490
22.5 Additional Design Considerations for Acceptable IAQ 497
22.6 Protection of Outside Air Intakes 499
22.7 IAQ and Energy Conservation 504
22.8 Summary 506

Chapter 23. Sustainable HVAC Systems 507

23.1 Introduction 507
23.2 Energy-Efficient “Green” Buildings 508
23.3 HVAC Sustainable Design Approaches 508
23.4 Energy Efficiency Compliance 509
23.5 Indoor Air Quality Compliance 509
23.6 Bridging the Gap Between Energy Efficiencies and IAQ Requirements 510
23.7 Summary 521

Chapter 24. Smoke Management 523

24.1 Introduction 523
24.2 Basics Statements, Codes, Definitions and
Design Guides for Smoke Management Systems 524
24.3 Atrium and Mall Smoke Management Design Requirements 526
24.4 Zoned Smoke Management System 541
24.5 Design Procedure for Zoned Smoke Control 544
24.6 Zoned Smoke Management Calculation Example 545
24.7 Implementation and Performance Testing 548
24.8 Testing of Zoned Smoke Control Systems 549
24.9 Note of Caution on Smoke Machine or Smoke Bomb Testing 550
24.10 Summary 552

Index 553

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 Preface

I had already written what seemed like a pretty good preface, but after
working a while on the text I realized that there was a major change since
the fourth edition and that the change was the computer. The computer has
made a sea change in the attitude of the HVAC designer. But, understand-
ing computer usage cannot substitute for an understanding of the subject
the computer is being used on. So, while this fifth edition recognizes the
changes that are taking place and talks a great deal about energy conserva-
tion, as well as computer usage for design and control, we are still empha-
sizing the fundamentals of HVAC.
When I started as an apprentice in my father’s heating and sheet metal
business in 1938, HVAC was not in the vocabulary. Most residential heat-
ing systems were coal-fired furnaces with air distribution by natural grav-
ity. Larger homes and offices probably had steam or hot water radiation.
Control was manual as was the need to shovel in some coal from time to
time. Air cooling systems were limited to movie theaters and a few public
buildings and many of these used ice banks as a cooling source. The first
residential forced-air HVAC systems came out in the early 1940s and we
had to do a lot of learning.
I have been an HVAC designer/engineer since 1953, which is almost
pre-computer. My introduction to computer usage was the opportunity to
design the HVAC system for the “Stretch” computer, built for the Los Ala-
mos Lab in the late1950s—custom-built, three million dollars, 30 feet long,
and fully dependent on a climate- controlled room. Today’s desktop is much
faster and has more memory and doesn’t need air conditioning, but that is a
matter of evolution over many years.
In the early 1960s a group of mechanical engineers formed APEC (Au-
tomated Procedures for Engineering Consultants) to combine forces to
write programs for HVAC calculations. It was moderately successful, us-
ing punch card input and the best computers available at the time. By the
late 1960s the HVAC control manufacturers were racing to be first in the
growing field of computer-based controls and controllers. By 1970 this

ix

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 x Preface

had developed to the extent of getting considerable notice and discussion

in my book on control systems for HVAC.
By trial and error and a great deal of ingenuity the computer control
business has grown to include even small systems, and now we have wire-
less technology to make it even easier. And, of course, we now use com-
puters for calculations, drafting, specifications and everything else in the
design office.
What Michael Myers and I are trying to do in this book is to talk about
the basics of HVAC design, whether manual or computerized, so that the
reader can understand why and how the design fills the need. If we lose
sight of the fundamentals—what things mean and how they work—we are
in for trouble. We hope you can avoid that.
Roger W. Haines

HVAC_book.indb x 9/1/09 1:45:55 PM

 Acknowledgments

It is impossible to remember or acknowledge all the people who have con-

tributed to my education over these ninety-odd years. My father taught me
the sheet metal trade. The faculty at Iowa State University gave me good
theoretical training. All the people I’ve dealt with in my work experience
have helped—other engineers, contractors, manufacturer’s representatives,
clients. I still remember the owner who took pity on a poor apprentice
and taught me how to properly file a screwdriver tip. My many friends at
ASHRAE taught me much through formal and informal discussion.
A few names must be mentioned: Ted Neubauer was my first model of
a truly professional engineer. John Blossom introduced me to the problem
solving process in Chapter 2. Ralph Thompson and Doug Hittle taught me
electronics and many other things. Frank Govan wrote the section on boil-
ers in Chapter 11. Don Bahnfleth taught me how to write reports. Frank
Bridgers and Don Paxton gave me my first job as an engineer, along with
basic training in design and professional attitudes. My editors at McGraw-
Hill, Larry Hager and Joy Bramble Oehlkers, helped me organize for pub-
lication. My new co-author, Michael Myers, has helped greatly in bringing
us up-to-date in a changing environment.
Finally and always, I could accomplish nothing without the support,
encouragement and patience of Wilma, my wife of sixty-nine years.
Roger W. Haines

xi

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 ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Roger W. Haines, P.E., a distinguished 50-year member of
ASHRAE, is widely recognized as one of the foremost authori-
ties in the field of HVAC engineering. He is the author of Roger
Haines on HVAC Controls and is a frequent contributor to HPAC
Engineering magazine.

Michael E. Myers, P.E., LEED AP, has been an HVAC,

plumbing, and fire protection consulting engineer for 30 years.
A member of ASHRAE, an ASHRAE Region XII Chair, and
an ASHRAE Distinguished Lecturer for Smoke Management
Systems Design, he is currently a Senior Mechanical Engineer
with JALRW Engineering Group, Inc., in Ft. Myers, Florida.

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 Introduction

I.1 Definition and Purpose of HVAC Systems

Heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) is defined as the simul-
taneous control of temperature, humidity, radiant energy, air motion and
air quality within a space for the purpose of satisfying the requirements of
comfort or a process. Not included in the definition, but often required, is
the control of pressure in the conditioned space relative to adjacent areas.
Another factor that becomes important in many applications is the noise
level associated with the air conditioning equipment. For engineering pur-
poses the definition should also be extended to include the lowest life-
cycle cost of conditioning the air by right-sizing of equipment to meet the
particular application with the lowest operating and maintenance costs.
Since a major use of our energy on this planet goes toward conditioning
the air that we breathe in the built environment we must place an emphasis
on more sustainable, i.e., “green,” HVAC systems, that use less energy
and include environmentally friendly methods and components to reduce
the system’s impact on the world’s fuel supplies while providing healthy
indoor environments.
Most people associate air conditioning with cooling but, as the defini-
tion states, air conditioning is a great deal more than that. Comfort must
also be defined—a difficult task because the sensation of comfort varies
with the individual and the level of activity. Cleanliness relates to the broad
subject of indoor air quality, which includes not only dust and dirt but also
gaseous contaminants, viruses, and bacteria.
It quickly becomes evident that to accomplish true air conditioning is not
all that simple and, in some industrial or institutional applications, it may be
very difficult. Not unlike medicine, HVAC is part science and part art.
This book discusses various air conditioning design procedures and sys-
tems and to give the reader the tools necessary to understand and solve
many air conditioning problems. Intertwined in the pages of this book is the

xiii

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 xiv Introduction

emphasis on designing systems that are more energy efficient than in the
past and promote a healthy indoor environment for the building occupants.
HVAC engineers and designers are increasingly required to know and im-
plement the latest methods for improving indoor air quality, providing com-
fort, lowering energy usage and using environmentally friendly refrigerants.
For simplicity the acronym HVAC (Heating, Ventilating and Air Condition-
ing) is used unless only one of these factors is being discussed. Throughout
the book frequent reference is made to the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Handbooks1, the
primary and authoritative reference books for the HVAC and refrigeration
industries. The reference book entitled Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of
Recommended Practice2 is also definitive in many applications.

I.2 Engineering as a Business

One of the fallacies of engineering education in an earlier day, perhaps
even at present, is the failure to recognize and teach that engineers are
business people first and engineers second.
A simplified version of the fundamentals of business identifies the divi-
sions of marketing, management and production. Most engineers become
proficient in production, i.e., in the mastery and use of technical knowl-
edge, but only some engineers are effective managers and few engineers
are successful marketers. The reader is, therefore, asked to remember the
importance of satisfying the customer, be it client or boss, and of conduct-
ing the work in a technically correct but also profitable manner, encourag-
ing a repeat performance.
In the context of this book, being an engineer in a businesslike way
implies designing HVAC systems which achieve the desired level of per-
formance with a satisfactory combination of first costs and subsequent
operating and maintenance costs, all in a timely and efficient design pro-
cess. The businesslike engineer is also communicative and easy to work
with. The modern HVAC engineer must be open minded and willing to
explore new methods with the client in order to meet the client’s needs
and expectations. The successful business minded HVAC engineer must
be part of the design team with input to and from the owner, architect and
contractor. The business minded engineer should also embrace the latest
methods of producing and issuing his or her design through the use of
B.I.M. (Building Information Management) design-drafting CADD soft-
ware or equivalent.

I.3 HVAC System Design

“HVAC system design is an intellectual process, commonly involving
teamwork and iteration, which leads to a device, system and/or process
which satisfies a need.”3

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 Introduction xv

The design of HVAC systems is based on scientific principles of math-

ematics, physics and chemistry as developed in discussions of thermody-
namics, fluid mechanics, heat transfer and psychrometrics. Discussions of
these topics are provided in later chapters. Beyond the basic science are a
great many empirical and experience factors which modify the calculated
data. These make the HVAC process an art as well as a science. This book
offers procedures and encourages the reader to develop insights which will
lead to intuitive understanding of many engineering problems.

I.4 Computers in HVAC Design and Operation

Short of the ability to reason or to exhibit a sense of right or wrong, the
computer, processing gigabytes of information in nanoseconds, challenges
and often, though not always, surpasses the human mind in information
management.
Beginning with the APEC programming effort in the 1960s and early
attempts to use computers for system design and control in the 1970s, we
realize that today computers are ubiquitous in the HVAC industry. Later
chapters In this book will discuss computer usage in detail. For now, note
that, while we must and should deal extensively with computers, it is nec-
essary to remember that computers (so far) lack the judgment of the expe-
rienced professional.
The computer can handle more data than we might ever pursue were we
limited to manual calculations. Therefore, our solutions may seem more
precise. But remember the GIGO (Garbage In, Garbage out) rule. We must
not tout output to ten significant places when the input had only three. Nor
should we be excited about volumes of information when all we want to do
is differentiate between a small or medium or large piece of equipment.
Computers are managed by software programs which manipulate and
present information. The programs are created by and are only as good as
the programmer. Programs may reflect the biases of a sponsor. Program
cost is no indication of value.
The strength of the computer in quickly manipulating input information
to a useful output form is also a weakness if the input is erroneous. There is
no substitute for the knowledgeable provider of input and the experienced
interpreter of output. For the tyro, this means extra care in both input and
interpretation, together with the willingness to ask advice of the experi-
enced co-worker.
This book begins with a discussion of the “old fashioned” manual cal-
culation procedures so that the reader may provide a manual “check” of
computer results. Systems can be designed without resort to computers.

I.5 Need for Orderly Procedures

Abraham Lincoln’s alleged composition and editing of the Gettysburg
Address on the back of an envelope was an oratorical success but a bad

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 xvi Introduction

example for the technical professions. In today’s highly technical, regu-

lated and litigious society there is no substitute for organized analysis and
documented design effort. Detailed, orderly design records, with the un-
derlying assumptions clearly stated and with explanations of how and why
decisions were made, are worth their weight in lawyers when inevitable
questions arise. Good design notes and calculations make for easy check-
ing. They also help when there is a change in assignment and someone else
takes over or supplements the work. Experience has shown that the details
of a design procedure cannot be recalled accurately after a lapse of six
to twelve months. Yet, it is typically at or beyond that time that questions
arise in the operation, review or alteration of the system.
For purposes of consistency and effective use of time, many design pro-
cedures are standardized with the use of forms or formats, computer pro-
grams, spreadsheets, and the like. Such standardization serves the design
process by compacting the repetitive and mundane, thus allowing more
time for creativity. This book describes some useful procedures but leaves
great latitude for individual designers to develop their own design methods
and procedures.

I.6 Equations
A new and unusual feature of this edition is the first chapter on “equa-
tions.” This contains most or all of the equations used in HVAC, with the
“most used” placed first. This is in the front of the book as an easy refer-
ence for the experienced designer. The derivation of some of these equa-
tions is discussed in later chapters and will make them more understand-
able. We recommend skipping this chapter until the reader has acquired a
better sense of how these equations apply.

References
1. ASHRAE Handbooks, four volumes, one volume republished each year. Available from
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, 1791 Tul-
lie Circle, NE, Atlanta, GA 30329. All material from the Handbooks is copyright by
ASHRAE. (The Handbooks are now available on CDs.)
2. Industrial Ventilation, A Manual of Recommended Practice, American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc. (ACGIH)
3. F.W. Incropera, Purdue University, Annual Newsletter, 1992.

HVAC_book.indb xvi 9/1/09 1:45:56 PM

 Chapter

HVAC Equations for Everyday Use

1

1.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to place the frequently (and not so frequent-
ly) used equations for everyday HVAC calculations in one location. Have
you ever needed to know how to calculate the brake horsepower of a pump
quickly but don’t remember the equation for it? Or have you ever needed
to calculate the EDR of a steam system in order to size a steam conden-
sate return pump and receiver? It can be a tedious and time-consuming
process to find this information. Therefore, this chapter will give some of
the most important as well as some of the least known HVAC equations
for your use in one convenient location.
The following equations are stated without derivation or example appli-
cations. Some of the equations will be used in examples in later chapters of
this book. This chapter is divided into two parts. The first covers frequently
used equations. The second part contains equations that will not be fre-
quently used but are needed for comprehensiveness. It is the responsibility
of the user to understand and apply the equations in the proper and correct
manner. We suggest that this chapter be used after basic HVAC knowledge
has been attained by the reader.

HVAC_book.indb 1 9/1/09 1:45:57 PM

 2 Chapter One

PART 1—FREQUENTLY USED HVAC EQUATIONS

1.2 Air Side Equations
1.2.1 Abbreviations and Definitions for Air Side Equations

1. CFM  cubic ft per min

2. V  velocity, ft/min
3. TMIXED  mixed air temperature, °F
4. TOA  outside air temperature, °F
5. TRA  return air temperature, °F
6. TSAROOM  supply air temperature to room, °F
7. TSROOM  desired sensible room temperature, °F
8. TSACOIL  supply sensible air temperature leaving coil, °F
9. TSADUCT  duct supply air temperature, °F
10. EAT  entering air temperature, °F
11. LAT  leaving air temperature, °F
12. SP  static pressure, in of H2O
13. VP  velocity pressure, in of H2O
14. TP  total pressure, in of H2O
15. ACH  air changes per hour
16. BTU  British Thermal Unit
(1 BTU = energy to raise 1 pound of water 1°F)
17. BTUH  British Thermal Units per hour
18. BTUHSROOM  sensible load of the room/space
19. MBH  1000 BTUH
20. MAT  mixed air temperature, °F
21. BHP  brake horsepower
22. h  enthalpy, BTU/lbm
23. lbm  pound mass
24.   density of air, lbm/ft3
25. L  duct length, ft
26. Dh  hydraulic diameter, in
27. pf  total static pressure differential, in of water
28. P  perimeter of duct, in
29. A  area of duct, in2
30. a  major axis, in
31. b  minor axis, in

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 HVAC Equations for Everyday Use 3

32. De  equivalent duct diameter, in

33. SH  specific heat at design temperature and pressure, Btu/lb · °F
34. dr  density ratio for air compared to sea level
35. te  temperature air entering duct section
36. tl  temperature air leaving duct section
37. ta  temperature air surrounding duct section
38. D  diameter of duct, in
39. L  length of duct, ft
40. U  overall heat transfer coefficient of duct wall, BTU/h · ft2 · °F
41. d  density of insulation, lb/ft2
42. KA  Dimensional constant for altitude

1.2.2 Air Side Equations

BTUHSROOM
Supply CFM to room: CFM = (1.2.1)
(TSROOM − TSAROOM ) × 1.08
Basic outside air requirement for the space breathing zone:

Vbz = Rpz × Pz + Raz × Az1 (1.2.1a)

Where
Vbz  uncorrected outside air to the breathing zone, CFM
Rpz  CFM/person (See Table 22.2)
Pz  zone/room population
Raz  CFM/ft2 of the zone/room (see Table 22.2)
Az  floor area of the zone/room, ft2
⎛ ⎞
( CFM ) × ⎜⎜ 60 minutes
hour
⎟
⎟
⎝ ⎠
Air changes per hour: ACH = (1.2.2)
volume room (ft 3 )

CFM
Duct velocity (FPM): V= or (1.2.3a)
area ft 2

V = 4005 × VP (1.2.3b)
Total pressure (in of H2O):
TP = SP + VP (1.2.4)
2
⎛ V ⎞
VP(standard air): VP = ⎜ (1.2.5a)
⎝ 4005 ⎟⎠

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 4 Chapter One

V(based on pressure): V = 1096.7 VP


(1.2.5b)

V(standard air): V = 4005 VP (1.2.5c)

V(at given pressure): V = K A VP (1.2.5d)

Where 4005 = dimensional constant at sea level  KA
4005
Dimensional constant: KA = (1.2.5e)
dr
See Table 4.3 for values of dr.

( )
CFM in duct:
CFM = area ( ft 2 ) × ( V ) (1.2.6)
Mixed air temperature:

⎛ CFM SA − CFM RA ⎞ ⎛ CFM SA − CFM OA ⎞

MAT = ⎜ ⎟ × TOA + ⎜ ⎟ × TRA (1.2.7)
⎝ CFM SA ⎠ ⎝ CFM SA ⎠
Fan heat (motor in air stream):
⎛ watts ⎞ ⎛ BTUH ⎞
( )
Q fan = BHP × ⎜ 745.7
⎝ ⎟
hp ⎠ ⎝
× ⎜ 3.413
watt ⎟⎠
(1.2.8)

Fan heat air temperature rise:

Q fan
Δ t of =
) (
(1.2.9)
( CFM fan × 1.08 )
Where CFMfan is adjusted for altitude. See Table 4.3.

Total cooling coil Load:

( )
BTUH total = CFM × h( EAT ) − h( LAT ) × 4.5 × 0density
.075 lbs
ft3
(1.2.10)

density
Where 0.075 lbs3
is the air density ratio adjustment based on altitude
ft
or temperature. See Table 4.3 for elevation adjustment.

Coil sensible load:

BTUH sensible = CFM × (1.08 × ΔT) × 0density
.075 lbs
(1.2.11)
ft3

Air factor:
AF =  (air density)  SH  60 min/hr (1.2.12)

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 HVAC Equations for Everyday Use 5

VAV terminal unit coil heating capacity:

( ) ( ) ( )
BTUH total = TSROOM − TSADUCT × Heating CFM space × 1.08 + BTUH SROOM
(1.2.13)
BTU/hr
Where 1.08  1.08 at sea level
ft 3
× °F
min
See Table 4.3 for values at different elevations.
Rectangular to round duct equivalent2:
⎛ ⎞
1.3 × ( wh)0.625
De = ⎜ ⎟ (1.2.14)
Where (
⎜⎝ w + h 0.250 ⎟⎠ )
w  duct width
h  duct height
De  equivalent round duct diameter, in
See Chapter 6.
Round to flat oval duct equivalent2
1.55 A0.625
De = (1.2.15)
P0.25
⎛ b2 ⎞
A=⎜
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎟ +b a−b ( ) (1.2.16)

P  b  2(a  b) (1.2.17)
See Chapter 6.
Duct insulation heat gain/loss2:
⎡ UPL ⎛ t + t ⎞⎤
Q=⎢ × ⎜ e l − ta ⎟ ⎥ (1.2.18a)
⎢⎣ 12 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
2
Duct leaving air temperature :

tl =
( )
te y − 1 + 2ta
(1.2.18b)
y +1
2.4 A × Vd
y= rectangular ducts (1.2.18c)
U × P× L
0.6 D × Vd
y= round ducts (1.2.18d)
U×L
See Chapter 6, Equation 6.11.

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 6 Chapter One

1.3 Fan Laws

1.3.1 Fan Law Abbreviations
1. CFM  cubic ft per min
2. D  fan diameter, in
3. SP  static pressure (in of H2O)
4. TP  total pressure (in of H2O)
5. RPM  revolutions per min
6. HP  horsepower
7. d  density of air, lbs/ft3
8. CFMMAX  maximum CFM of fan based at critical speed
9. CFM1  original CFM of fan
10. RPMMAX  critical speed
11. HPName Plate  motor name plate horsepower
12. Subscript1  original condition; subscript2  new condition;
subscripttested  actual field-tested values
13. SE  static efficiency

1.3.2 Fan Law Equations1

3
⎛ D ⎞ ⎛ RPM 2 ⎞
CFM 2 = CFM1 × ⎜ 2 ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ (1.3.1)
⎝ D1 ⎠ ⎝ RPM1 ⎠
2 2
⎛ D ⎞ ⎛ RPM 2 ⎞ ⎛ d2 ⎞
SP2 = SP1 × ⎜ 2 ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟ (1.3.2)
⎝ D1 ⎠ ⎝ RPM1 ⎠ ⎝ d1 ⎠
5 3
⎛ D ⎞ ⎛ RPM 2 ⎞ ⎛ d2 ⎞
HP2 = HP1 × ⎜ 2 ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟ (1.3.3)
⎝ D1 ⎠ ⎝ RPM1 ⎠ ⎝ d1 ⎠
2
⎛D ⎞ RPM 2 d1
CFM 2 = CFM1 × ⎜ 2 ⎟ × × (1.3.4)
⎝ D1 ⎠ RPM1 d2

⎛D ⎞ SP2 d1
RPM 2 = RPM1 × ⎜ 1 ⎟ × × (1.3.5)
⎝ D2 ⎠ SP1 d2
3
2
⎛ D ⎞ ⎛ SP ⎞ 2 d1
HP2 = HP1 × ⎜ 2 ⎟ × ⎜ 2 ⎟ × (1.3.6)
⎝ D1 ⎠ ⎝ SP1 ⎠ d2

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 HVAC Equations for Everyday Use 7

3
⎛ D ⎞ ⎛ CFM 2 ⎞
RPM 2 = RPM1 × ⎜ 1 ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ (1.3.7)
⎝ D2 ⎠ ⎝ CFM1 ⎠
4 3
⎛D ⎞ ⎛ CFM 2 ⎞ ⎛d ⎞
SP2 = SP1 × ⎜ 1 ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ 2⎟ (1.3.8)
⎝ D2 ⎠ ⎝ CFM1 ⎠ ⎝ d1 ⎠
4 3
⎛D ⎞ ⎛ CFM 2 ⎞ ⎛ d2 ⎞
HP2 = HP1 × ⎜ 1 ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟ (1.3.9)
⎝ D2 ⎠ ⎝ CFM1 ⎠ ⎝ d1 ⎠

CFM based on critical speed of fan:

⎛ RPM MAX ⎞
CFM MAX = CFM1 × ⎜ ⎟ (1.3.10)
⎝ RPM1 ⎠
New brake horsepower at critical speed:
3
⎛ RPM MAX ⎞
BHPmax rpm = HP1 × ⎜ ⎟ (1.3.11)
⎝ RPM1 ⎠
Maximum RPM of fan with original motor:
HPnameplate
RPM max horsepower = RPM tested × 3 (1.3.12)
BHPtested
Maximum RPM of fan based on fan pressure class:
SPmax fanclass
RPM at max sp = RPM tested × (1.3.13)
SPtested
Fan actual BHP based on total pressure and static efficiency:

CFM × TP
BHP = (1.3.14)
6356 × SE

1.4 Heat Transfer Equations2

1.4.1 Abbreviations and Definitions for Heat Transfer Equations
1. Q  heat, BTU/hr
2. U  U-value of material (conductance), BTU/h · ft2 · °F
3. A  area, ft2
4. SHGC  solar heat gain coefficient, dimensionless

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 8 Chapter One

5. CLTD  cooling load temperature difference, °F

6. Tin  interior air temperature, °F
7. Tout  exterior air temperature, °F
8. L  thickness, in
9. Apf  total area of glass, ft2
10. Et  incident total irradiance, BTU/hr · ft2
11. SC  glass shading coefficient dimensionless
12. MSHGF  maximum solar heat gain factor for fenestration exposure
13. CLF  cooling load factor

1.4.2 Basic HVAC Heat Transfer Equations2

1. Basic conduction: Q  U  A  (T1  T2) (1.4.1)
2. Basic glass heat gain:
Q  U  Apf (tout  tin)  (SHGC)Apf  Et or (1.4.2a)
Q  U  Apf (tout  tin)  A  SC  MSHGF  CLF (1.4.2b)
SHGC
3. SC = (1.4.3)
0.87
4. Q  U  A  CLTD (1.4.4)

1.5 Fluid Handling

1.5.1 Abbreviations and Definitions for Fluid Handling1
1. GPM  gallons per min
2. lbm /minute  pound mass per min
3. EWT  entering water temperature
4. LWT  leaving water temperature
5. ft hd  head in ft of water
6. T  temperature difference, °F
7. P  pressure, lbs/in2
8. Z  height above datum, ft
9. Pabs  absolute pressure, lbs/in2
10. Pgage  gauge pressure, lbs/in2
11. Patm  atmospheric pressure, lbs/in2, 14.7 psia @ sea level
12. SG or  specific gravity,  mass of liquid/mass of water at 39° F
water  1, dimensionless
13. Cp = specific heat, BTU/lb · °F

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 HVAC Equations for Everyday Use 9

14. SW  specific weight at given temperature, lbs/ft3

15. Q  Btu/hr
16. BHP  brake horsepower
ft • lbs
17. 1BHP = 33, 000 minute
18. eff  pump efficiency, dimensionless fraction ⱕ 1
19. RPM  speed, revolutions per min
20. Subscript1  original condition; subscript2  new condition
21. H  feet of head, ft. hd.
22. hg  system pressure, ft. hd.
V2
23. hv  velocity head, , ft. hd.
2g
1.5.2 Fluid Handling Equations
T  EWT  LWT (1.5.1)
Pabs  Pgage  Patm (1.5.2)
1 PSI  2.31 ft hd for clear water, SG  1 (1.5.3)
Calculating required GPM for all fluids:

⎛
GPM = ⎜
( ) (
Q × 7.48 gallons
ft 3
⎞
⎟
) (1.5.4)
⎝ )
⎜ C p × ( EWT − LWT × SG × SW × 60 min
hr ⎠
⎟

Simplified required GPM required using clean water:

Q
GPM = (1.5.5)
(
500 × EWT − LWT )
Head loss for open system:
H  Z  hg  hv (1.5.6)
Pump brake horsepower:

BHP =
(GPM ) × ( ft hd ) (1.5.7)
(3960) × ( eff )
Pump laws (based on constant impeller size, SG, piping system
and variable pump speed):
Change of flow: 2
H f1 ⎛ GPM1 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ (1.5.8)
Hf2 ⎝ GPM 2 ⎠

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 10 Chapter One

Find new flow based on pump speed:

⎛ RPM 2 ⎞
GPM 2 = GPM1 × ⎜ ⎟ (1.5.9)
⎝ RPM1 ⎠
New brake horsepower BHP:
3
⎛ RPM 2 ⎞
BHP2 = BHP1 × ⎜ ⎟ (1.5.10)
⎝ RPM1 ⎠
Pump laws (based on variable impeller size, constant pump speed,
SG and piping system):
⎛ Diameter2 ⎞
GPM 2 = GPM1 × ⎜ ⎟ (1.5.11)
⎝ RPM1 ⎠
2
⎛ Diameter2 ⎞
H 2 = H1 × ⎜ ⎟ (1.5.12)
⎝ RPM1 ⎠
3
⎛ Diameter2 ⎞
BHP2 = BHP1 × ⎜ ⎟ (1.5.13)
⎝ RPM1 ⎠

1.6 Power and Energy

1.6.1 Abbreviations and Definitions for Power and Energy
1. Eff  efficiency, dimensionless ratio
2. Kw  kilowatts
3. VA  volt · amps
4. Amps  amperes
5. PF  power factor, dimensionless 
real power P watts
= =
apparent power S volt • amps
6. HP  horsepower
7. hpout  output horsepower
8. Wattsin  input watts
9. V  volts
10. 3  three-phase

1.6.2 Power Equations3

Efficiency:
Eff =
(746) × ( hp )
out
(1.6.1)
Wattsin

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 HVAC Equations for Everyday Use 11

Three-phase power:

V × Amps × PF × 3
Kw3 = (1.6.2)
1000
VA3 = V × Amps × 3 (1.6.3)

746 × HP
Amps3 = (1.6.4)
3 × V × Eff × PF

746 × HP
Eff3 = (1.6.5)
V × Amps × PF × 3
Single-phase power:
V × Amps × PF
Kw = (1.6.6)
1000
746 × HP
Amps = (1.6.7)
V × Eff × PF
746 × HP
Eff = (1.6.8)
V × Amps × PF

1.7 Steam Equations

1.7.1 Steam Abbreviations and Definitions
1. hfg  enthalpy of steam at given pressure (latent heat of vaporization)
2. Q  heating load in BTU/hr
3. v  specific volume
4. t  temperature, °F
5. m  mass flow rate, lbs/hr
6. hf 1  enthalpy of condensate before steam trap, BTU/lb
7. hf 2  enthalpy of condensate at flashed condensate pressure, BTU/lb
8. hf g 2  latent heat of vaporization at flashed condensate pressure,
BTU/lb
9. P  % of flashed steam

1.7.2 Steam Equations

Heating coil required steam flow rate:
Q
m= (1.7.1)
h fg

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 12 Chapter One

Where hfg = Latent heat of vaporization at specific operating pressure.

See any steam tables for value of hfg.
Steam condensate trap sizing:
Steam trap capacity minimum  2  lb/hr requirement of (1.7.2)
steam heating coil capacity, heat exchanger or main piping
drip locations.
Steam flash tank sizing:
Percent of condensate flashed to steam:
hf 1 − hf 2
P= × 100 (1.7.3)
h fg 2
PART 2—INFREQUENTLY USED HVAC EQUATIONS
1.8 Air Side Equations
1.8.1 Air Side Abbreviations and Definitions
1.  duct roughness factor, ft
2. v  kinematic viscosity, ft2/s
3. V  duct velocity, ft/min
4. pf  duct friction loss, in of water
5. f, f Colebrook equation duct friction factor, dimensionless
6. Dh  Hydraulic diameter, in
7. Re  Reynolds number, dimensionless
8. TR  temperature, °R Rankine  T(°F)  459.67
9. PSIA  absolute pressure, lb per sq in
10. Ra  gas constant for dry air (53.352 ft · lbf/lbm · °R)
11. Rw  gas constant for water vapor (85.778 ft · lbf/lbm · °R)
12. WS  humidity ratio at saturation, lba/ lbda
13. W  humidity ratio, lba/ lbda
14.  relative humidity, %
15.  degree of saturation
16. pws  saturation pressure, psia
17. pws(t*)  saturation pressure for t*, psia
18. t*  thermodynamic wet bulb temperature, °F
19. t  dry bulb temperature of moist air, °F
20. W *s  humidity ratio at given t*
21. Mw  mass of water vapor in air sample, lbm

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 HVAC Equations for Everyday Use 13

22. Ma  mass of dry air in sample, lbm

23. q  specific humidity, dimensionless
24. va  specific volume of dry air, ft3/lb
25. R  universal gas constant, 1545.32 ft · lbf/lb mol · °R
26.   density of air, lbm/ft3
27. P  perimeter of duct cross-section, in

1.8.2 Duct Friction Loss2

Darcey equation for duct friction loss:
2
⎛ 12 fL ⎞ ⎛ V ⎞
p f = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (1.8.1)
⎝ Dh ⎠ ⎝ 1097 ⎠
Hydraulic radius for noncircular ducts:
Dh  4A/P (1.8.2)
Colebrook equation for duct friction loss:
1 ⎛ 12 2.51 ⎞
= −2 log ⎜ + ⎟ (1.8.3)
f ⎝ 3.7 Dh Re f ⎠
Altshul/Tsal equation for duct friction loss:
0.25
⎛ 12 68 ⎞
f = 0.11 ⎜
'
+ ⎟ (1.8.4)
⎝ Dh Re ⎠
If f ⱖ 0.018: f  f
If f  0.018: f  0.85f  0.0028
Reynolds number for all air conditions:
DhV
Re = (1.8.5a)
720v
Reynolds number for standard air
Re  8.56DhV (1.8.5b)

1.8.3 Psychrometrics2
PSIA  gauge pressure  atmospheric pressure
M
humidity ratio  W = W (1.8.6)
Ma
See Section 20.2.

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 14 Chapter One

W
specific humidity  q = (1.8.7)
(1 + W )

relative humidity  = (1.8.8)

1− 1−( )( f p /p )
s ws

Saturation pressure from 148°F to 32°F 

−1.021416462  + 04
ln( pws ) =
TR
+ ( −4.89350301 + )
( −5.37657944 − 03)T + (1.92023769 − 07)T
R R
2
(1.8.9)
( 3.55758316 − 10)T + ( −9.03446883 − 14 )T
R
3
R
4
+
( 4.1635019) ln (T ) R

Saturation pressure from 32°F to 392°F 

−1.044039708 + 04
ln( pws ) =
TR
+ ( −0.112946496 + )
( −2.7022355 − 02 )T + (1.2890360 − 05)T
R R
2
+ (1.8.10)
( −2.478068 − 09)T + (6.5459673) ln T
R
3
R

Humidity ratio at saturation temperature t*:

Ws*
⎛ p t*
= 0.62198 ⎜
ws ( ) ⎞⎟
( ) ⎟⎠
(1.8.11)
⎜⎝ p − pws t *
Humidity ratio:

W=
(1093 − 0.556t )W *
s
*
(
− 0.240 t − t * ) (1.8.12)
1093 + 0.444t − t *

Humidity ratio at saturation:

⎛ pws t ⎞
Ws = 0.62198 ⎜
()
⎟ (1.8.13)
Degree of saturation:
⎝ p − pws t ⎠ ()
W
= | (1.8.14)
Ws t , p
Volume of moist air mixture  v

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 HVAC Equations for Everyday Use 15

⎛RT ⎞
(
v = ⎜ a R ⎟ 1 + 1.6078W
⎝ p ⎠
) (1.8.15)

Enthalpy of the moist air  (BTU/lb):

h  0.240t  W(1061  0.444t) (1.8.16)
Moist air sample water vapor partial pressure, psia:

pw =
( pW ) (1.8.17)
0.62198 + W
Dew-point temperature for 32°F to 200°F:
td  100.45  33.193ln(pw)  2.319ln(pw)2 
0.17074ln(pw)3  1.2063(pw)0.1984 (1.8.18)
Dew-point temperature for less than 32°F:
td  90.12  26.142ln(pw)  0.8927ln (pw)2 (1.8.19)
Adiabatic mixing of two air streams:
h2 − h3 W2 − W3 ma1
= = (1.8.20)
h3 − h1 W3 − W1 ma 2
Where ma  mass flow rate of air, lb dry air/min.

1.9 Fluid Handling1,2,3

1.9.1 Abbreviations and Definitions
1. Cp  specific heat, BTU/lb · °F
2. Hf  head friction loss, ft of H2O
3. f  Colebrook equation friction factor, dimensionless
4. K  sum of resistance coefficients for fittings and valves in piping
section, dimensionless
5. L  length of piping, ft
6. D  inside pipe diameter, ft
7. d  inside pipe diameter, in
8. g  gravitational constant  32.2 ft/sec2
9. V  velocity, ft/sec
10. Re  Reynolds number
11. e  absolute roughness of pipe, ft

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 16 Chapter One

12. w  density of fluid, lb/ft3

13.  dynamic viscosity lb/ft · sec
14. SG or  specific gravity  mass of liquid/mass of water at 39°F,
water  1, dimensionless

1.9.2 Fluid Handing Equations

Piping friction loss (Darcy-Weisbach equation):

L V2 V2
Hf = f +K (1.9.1)
D 2g 2g
Colebrook equation for piping friction factor:

1 ⎛ e 2.51 ⎞
= −2 log10 ⎜ + ⎟ (1.9.2)
f ⎝ 3.7 D Re f ⎠
Reynolds number for piping:

VDw Vd
Re = all fluids, Re = 7742 for water (1.9.3)

1.9.3 Steam Equation

steam load BTUH

EDR  (1.9.4)
240
Where: EDR  equivalent direct radiation

1.10 Smoke Management Equations4

Steady state fire mass consumption:
Q Δt
m= (1.10.1)
Hc
Where
m  total fuel mass consumed (lb) or (kg)
Q  heat release rate (BTU⁄sec) or (kW)
t  duration of fire (sec)
Hc  heat of combustion of fuel (BTU⁄lb) or (kJ⁄kg)

t-squared fire mass consumption:

333Δt 3
m= (1.10.2)
H c t g2

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 HVAC Equations for Everyday Use 17

Where
m  total fuel mass consumed (lb) or (kg)
tg  growth time of fire (sec)
t  duration of fire (sec)
Hc  heat of combustion of fuel (BTU⁄lb) or (kJ⁄kg)

1.10.1 Smoke Layer Calculations

Steady state fires (uniform cross section for height, A/H2  0.9 to 1.4,
z/H  0.2, prior to smoke exhausting)
⎛ 13 ⎞
tQ
⎜ 4 ⎟
z ⎜ 3 ⎟
= 0.67 − 0.28 ln ⎜ H ⎟ (1.10.3a)
H ⎜ A ⎟
⎜ H2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Where
z  distance from the base of the fire to the bottom of the
smoke layer (ft)
H  ceiling height above the fire surface (ft)
t  time (sec)
Q  heat release rate for steady state fire (BTU⁄sec)
A  cross-sectional area of the space being filled with
smoke (ft2)
⎛ 13 ⎞
tQ
⎜ 4 ⎟
z ⎜ 3 ⎟
= 1.11 − 0.28 ln ⎜ H ⎟ (1.10.3b)
H ⎜ A ⎟
⎜ H2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Where
z  distance from the base of the fire to the bottom of the
smoke layer (m)
H  ceiling height above the fire surface (m)
t  time (sec)
Q  heat release rate for steady state fire (kW)
A  cross-sectional area of the space being filled with
smoke (m2)
Unsteady fires (t-squared fires) (uniform cross section for height, A/H2
= 0.9 to 2.3, z/H > 0.2, prior to smoke exhausting)

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 18 Chapter One

−1.445
z ⎛ t ⎞
= 0.23 (1.10.4a)
H ⎜ 3
⎟
⎜ t 25 H 45 ⎛ A ⎞ 5⎟
⎜⎝ g ⎜⎝ H 2 ⎟⎠ ⎟
⎠
Where
z  distance from the base of the fire to the bottom of the
smoke layer (ft)
H  ceiling height above the fire surface (ft)
t  time (sec)
tg  growth time (sec)
A  cross-sectional area of the space being filled with
smoke (ft)
−1.445
z ⎛ t ⎞
= 0.91 (1.10.4b)
H ⎜ 3
⎟
⎜ t 25 H 45 ⎛ A ⎞ 5⎟
⎜⎝ g ⎜⎝ H 2 ⎟⎠ ⎟
⎠
Where
z  distance from the base of the fire to the bottom of the
smoke layer (m)
H  ceiling height above the fire surface (m)
t  time (sec)
tg  growth time (sec)
A  cross-sectional area of the space being filled with
smoke (m)
The following are the empirical equations from NFPA 92B for atrium
fires that are not under balconies:
zl  0.533Qc ⁄5
2
(1.10.5a)

when z  zl, m  (0.022Qc ⁄3 z ⁄3)  0.0042Qc

1 5
(1.10.5b)

when z ⱕ zl, m  0.0208Qc ⁄5 z

3
(1.10.5c)
Where
zl  limiting elevation (flame height) (ft)
Qc  convective portion of heat release rate (BTU⁄sec)
z  distance above the base of the fire to the smoke interface
layer (ft)
m  mass flow rate in plume at height z (lb⁄sec)

m  0.071Qc ⁄3  z ⁄3  0.0018Qc
1 5
(1.10.5d)

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 HVAC Equations for Everyday Use 19

when z  zl, m  (0.022Qc ⁄3 z ⁄3)  0.0042Qc

1 5
(1.10.5e)

when z ⱕ zl, m  0.0208Qc ⁄5 z

3
(1.10.5f)
Where
zl  limiting elevation (m)
Qc  convective portion of heat release rate (kW)
z  distance above the base of the fire to the smoke interface
layer (m)
m  mass flow rate in plume at height z (kg⁄sec)
The smoke layer temperature can be calculated from the following:4

Qc (1 − )
Ts = To + (1.10.6)
mC p
Where
Ts  smoke layer temperature, °F(°C)
To  ambient temperature, °F(°C)
Qc  convective portion of HHR, BTU⁄sec (kW)
m  mass flow rate of exhaust air, lb⁄sec (kg⁄sec)
Cp  specific heat of plume gases, BTU⁄lb (kg⁄kJ)
  wall heat transfer fraction (dimensionless)
The convective portion of the HHR is determined by:4
Qc  XcQ (1.10.7)
Where
Qc  convective portion of heat release rate, BTU⁄sec (kW)
Q  heat release rate, BTU⁄sec (kW)
Xc  convective heat fraction (0.7 default)
Density of the plume gases can be calculated from the following
equation:4
T
s = r r (1.10.8)
Ts
Where
s  density of exhaust gases, lbm⁄ft (kg⁄m )
2 3

Ts  temperature of exhaust gases, absolute, °R (°K)

Tr  reference temperature absolute, °R (°K)
r  density at reference temperature, absolute, lbm⁄ft (kg⁄m )
2 3

The following are the empirical equations from NFPA 92B for atrium
balcony spill plume:
1
m  0.12 (QW 2) ⁄3 (zb  0.25H) (1.10.9a)

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 20 Chapter One

Where
m  mass flow rate in plume, (lb⁄sec)
Q  heat release rate (HHR) of fire (BTU⁄sec)
W  width of the plume under the balcony (ft)
zb  height above the underside of the balcony
to the smoke layer interface (ft)
H  height of the balcony above the base of the fire (ft)
1
m  0.36 (QW 2) ⁄3 (zb  0.25H) (1.10.9b)
Where
m  mass flow rate in plume (kg⁄sec)
Q  heat release rate (HHR) of fire (kW)
W  width of the plume under the balcony (m)
zb  height above the underside of the balcony
to the smoke layer interface (m)
H  height of the balcony above the base of the fire (m)

References
1. ASHRAE Pocket Guide for Air Conditioning, Heating, Ventilation and Refrigeration
(Inch-Pound Edition), 1993.
2. ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals, 2005.
3. Engineering Cookbook, 1999, Loren Cook Company, Inc.
4. NFPA 92B Standard for Smoke Management in Malls, Atria, and Large Spaces, 2009.

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