peer . Clee ‘ OQ Concer Digad von faged van gl d = | a Advantages pee erent wean mat be Stored a4 - But. generation ot lower Conte: bebe ment Ly hanger + Comeniedly, -frangrittes| overtorg AMéfance) duwretten- + Effie soli ahuiced A pera mqudrem eps. tarany 2 BBE Ken Coer099 ¥ Indicator PA ree conde cues _Gnaumbtion (4 Te Cara G Eunamie “ae eee fags Cae a Cantey. 1a! C2293 oe ) 4g ta Ke us Jur a ) ae * Device or CatezHon Pagers Gngume Hedhrcal & Be Comnectad Lead: ¥ 4 Sum gd, Srna sy pests AH leads Connecpecl Pe cia averages! r Demand — eri {iced iret 's dlraion, fron the Boureedovera Spesified ime: nderal | + instwtenens Demand. Srefeined Demand: Cismin, 20 & Sepmecsins = Semandiion Peek: Lent & May. demand over & Spuific Hime Intervet + Stheps in Regge co a aa 4s aaa) SfaHon: + Fen: steHon mua be cafelele meeting. He mat temas * ate Plant sy equipments, Mrerearesbalth Increare in wad, aleuond: orterger) 2) Paxt demand 1g alvs 2684 “Han Connected ela sa 2 have ag + Bee. pi tan”, Demand Getval) CP erneafad Comat Graumed Ina Given peried Foto hours In that Hme- period + Peader | Diss tutor | Senite malig.Neeaye Suuo-frandmiAgiot: |ewet i FS & OrBumerg 5 Sey — 138Kv- plas Medion nding oatNaS Gua) Fastor CDF)= Gteniee Marimum Lreal on the Ea ae + Gives me cUversi ca treed. ce Unent te cheats ieee F Bx ffidert| ge Ptat,) Plan} - y Dpwia be Wa eee dividual man’ temand Came et Same Hme- ve Dts vole. pent equal ov Gratertian (1) $abiaF dom, 3B do wot ety at He Bame Hime, Bah Here 1 CGnd-ve) DF C Pesy De) High de mrans: eae ee mars dema ral’ ~ beed- Gare | Lee Dipabion Curve * = ee e Ay: Demand) Demard/Zanct— Png teued Cepecs nicky | r | Plan} Use feces asa as Tee X Tire (iohD he Pha ha se ete agee ain operation, Crventional VS Renescable Bre EWoarere wortegeven. (Clubwne eT Ling) a dvd -P Pz. - + Var gee Cost ot Bleatric bower ig usualy + .* bes Bo fectetege fe ns Depends on Gakisemanct) Srderest ZS epretiation chaguon tnstattesh pomerstebion ieee aed 4) Raet-charges § Woges Ge Se fe. ita Tye Semple Tariff. Et Rabe TenHe = 3000 hours From A ADF and ABC, 5,00,000-P _ 3000 5,00,000° ~ 8760 % P = 328, say 330 MW ‘Capacity of thermal plant = 170 MW 170% 3000 1 Energy generated by thermal plant = Haine tone 8 = 255 x 10°kWh Energy generated by hydro plant = 1935 x 10° kWh Total annual cost = Rs 340.20 10°year 5 340.20x10° Overall generation cost = ——— x100 = 15.53 paise/kWh, 2 ew Fig. 1.3 Load duration curve Example13 _ A generating station has a maximum demand of 25 MW, a load factor of 60%, a plant capacity factor of 50%, and a plant use factor of 72%. Find (a) the daily energy produced, (b) the reserve ity of the plant, and (c) the maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant, while running as ‘per schedule, were fully loaded. Solution average demand /lor maximum demand average demand/tee4- a en Load factor = “average demand Mond 3 i C—O sean ro installed capacity Is ae installed capacityDaily energy produced = average demand x 24 = 15 x 24 = 360 MWh Energy corresponding to installed capacity per day = 24 x 30 = 720 MWh __ Actual energy produced in a day plant use factor 61 = 7 7 500MWhiday. Maximum energy that could be produced Example 1.4 —_Froma load duration curve, the following data are obtained: Maximum demand on the system is 20 MW. The load supplied by the two units is 14 MW and 10 MW. Unit No. 1 (base unit) works for 100% of the time, and Unit No. 2 (peak load unit) only for 45% of the time. The energy generated by Unit | is 1 x 10° units, and that by Unit 2 is 7.5 10° units. Find the load factor, plant capacity factor and plant use factor of each unit, and the load factor of the total plant i Solution Annual load factor for Unit | = 10 100 _ g1 540, } 14,000x8760 ‘The maximum demand on Unit 2 is 6 MW. xm = 142% 60008760 Annual load factor for Unit 2 ae Load factor of Unit2 forthe time it takes the load = —2S%10" 100 6000 x 0.45 x 8760 = 31.71% Since no reserve is available at Unit No. 1, its capacity factor is the same as the load factor, i.e., 81.54%, Also since Unit 1 has been running throughout the year, the plant use factor equals the plant ‘capacity factor, ie., 81.54%. 7.5x10° «100 1087601000 — eis Plant use factor of Unit 2 = —19X10°*100__ 19 950, 100.45 x 8760x1000 1.075108 x 100 20,000.x 8760 Annual plant capacity factor of Unit 2 = = 61.35%. he various plant factors, the capacity of base and peak load units can thus be found out curve, The load factor of the peak load unit is much less than that of the base load | 9st Of power generation from the peak load unit is much higher than that from the b and a demand of 3 KW at 7 pan, jat I] am, a load of 2 kWFower-S4s}er- 1. i sa ac and ee eee een pores ess aa Af fenta He capital Cosh ty die. sa Conckurtor mebe re tae} en . SF gan hye he Sat gs Nathage 4 [2 Fase dh Shem Shakil. ; y ao / =e Pivicege => I ae aes i = Creag GeeHioral a> Ss Rv cond | 4 Me Ce va | ersity (Afni) SeeeeneesnaNaeettersh Choettpore tp gienty.: meee Gated, : Po wer Lesa > eer x ee LLL AV Gee Pea £,-,fe> phase) 3% eae ee : aoe meK Bees clas TN: Cog 0 % Less t3 Uncen prepertion of ste System WHtege 9. Pacey Peter ha) SL fe Perc enfon @ Vittege drop tn He Une, SER eon = St stews Vv Vv >: Vestege dre 1% fonstart-fevr Raton vmtine of Cirrent een (ty a= feve: Arh decreases HN Inrcore Inrt tego ee t G@rdutey Materiel! dlensity Pretoria Nt ae Nofevial ETc A nyYe i: Dad pP . See OT Cin ep Uinetaages Pe ry peta 7 Sf Vr Cog 90 Beet, Vveeaxe CE PL, increases Sigh Inerente uy System ures 3 PF eee ees” ae ee ed a es System Vatiese ig Lagh ee: Peessi ications fbnes C Becta eat) eee! [-96, 2telre. \-wire earthed, 19 Dire, earth ue 1 Desire, mhd~Pdrt cartel B-- Breire. Beetle. 72%, Brolre. : ey traits Bore. ines, ee gaatLoad Characteristics 7 1.1 INTRODUCTION From the very outset energy has played a vital role in the development of civilization. There has been a universal basic drive towards better living through expanded utilization of energy. The history of civilization shows a close relationship between the utilization of energy and the progress of mankind. The degree of energy used is the symbol of the progress of a country. Energy consciousness in the people has created interests in them to tap new sources of energy from time to time. Of the various forms so far discovered the electrical energy has contributed a lot to the world’s energy requirements. 4.2 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY Electrical energy is the most refined form of energy. The advantages derived from the electrical energy are many in number. Some of its important advantages over other forms of energy are : 1. It can be generated in large quantities at comparable cost with other types of energy. 2. It can be conveniently transmitted over long distances. 3. It can be utilized efficiently in a number of processes requiring energy. 4, It has got maximum flexibility and has most sensitive susceptibility control. 1.3 LOAD ‘A device which uses electrical energy is said to impose a load on the system. The term load is used in a number of ways. * To indicate a device or collection of devices which consume electrical energy. To indicate power required from a given supply circuit. « To indicate the current or power passing through a line or machine. The load may be resistive, inductive, capacitive, or some combination of them. 1ial, commercial, and residential. The ads, and induction motors form a high proportion of these loads, strial mposite lo: i These erieievans a functions of voltage and Peery, e ae ti on ¥ ii i ist largely of lighting, f system load. Commercial and residential loads consist larg igibly tenallcesctile FOREN These loads are independent of frequency and consume neg! Loads on power systems are divided into industri 4.4 CONNECTED LOAD Connected load is the sum of continuous ratings of all loads connected to the system or any part thereof, 1.5 DEMAND The demand of an installation of a system is the load that is drawn from the source of supply at the receiving terminals averaged over a suitable and specified interval of time, The load may be given in kilowatts (kW), kilovars (kVAr), kilovoltamperes (kVA), oF amperes (A). 1.6 DEMAND INTERVAL Demand interval is the period over which the load is averaged. There are two demands : {@) Instantaneous demand (©) Sustained demand ‘The former is not very important because all the machines are designed for overloads. The Sustained intervals are generally taken as 15 min, 30 min, or even longer. But 30 min is the basis time in India. 1.7 MAXIMUM DEMAND (MD) OR PEAK LOAD ‘The maximum demand of an installation or system is the greatest of all demands which have occurred during the specific period of time. - The maximum demand statement should also express the demand interval used to measure it For example, the specified demand might be maximum of all demands such as daily, weekly monthly, or annual. ' 4 Knowledge of maximum demand helps in determinin; i k 2 1 ig the installed capacity of a generatin; Station. The generating station must be capable of meeting the maximum demand Hence ihe cost of plant and equipment increases with the increase in maximum demand. 1.8 DEMAND FACTOR DF The demand factor is the ratio of the’ actual’ maximu im demand connected load of the system. Therefore, the demand factor (DF) isn? SE™ (© the total maximum demand total connected load The demand factor can also be found for a part of - the ij 2 commercial consumer, instead of for the Mio dee GD For example, an industrial or DFSIn practice, consumers do not use all the devices at full load simultaneously. The maximum demand of each consumer is, therefore, less than his connected load. The demand factor depends Upon the nature of load. Lighting loads have higher demand factors than power loads. The demand factor is usually less than 1.0, 1.9 AVERAGE LOAD OR AVERAGE DEMAND It is the ratio of energy consumed in a given period of the time in hours. energy consumed in a given period hours in that time period Average load = 1.10 LOAD FACTOR Load factor of a system is the ratio of the average load over a given period of time to the maximum demand (peak load) occurring in that period. Load factor 2 average load peak load Multiplying the numerator and denominator by. time’ T, Load factor = 2Vetage xT _ energy consumed during a time of T hours peak load x T peak load x T hours This relation shows that the load factor can also be defined as the ratio of the actual energy consumed during a given period to the energy which would have been used if the maximum demand (peak load) had been continuously maintained throughout that period, Depending upon the number of hours in days, weeks, months, or years we define different load factors. For daily load factor, the period of time 7 is taken as 24 hours and for annual load factor T = 8760 hours. Mathematically, , total kWh during 24 h of the day et eee Fete oad in KW) X24 Monthly loa apie = total kWh during the month (peak load in kW) x (number of hours in the month) ___ total kWh during the year ee = (rab Toad in kW) x (8760 hous) Load factor plays an important role on the cost of generation per unit (kWh). The higher the load factor, the lesser will be the cost of generation per unit for the same maximum demand, 1.11 DIVERSITY FACTOR Fo The maximum demands of the individual consumers of a group are not likely to occur simultaneously. Thus, there is a diversity in the occurrence of the loads, Due to this diverse nature of the load, power is never required to supply all connected loads to their full capacity at the same time. Diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the various subdivisions of a system to the maximum demand of the whole system. Thus,eh, ( individual maximum demands) Satie d of the whole system) ae 4 PaSaIyRSnT (Coincident maximum deman +Di +... +D Fo 8 Di+Dr Mn Ds a pa Font! or be. where D; = maximum demand of the load i, irrespective of the time of occurrence. De = Divers... +n) = coincident maximum demand of group of n loads Diversity factor can be defined for loads, substations, feeders, and generating, stations. Usually cur at the same time and the simultaneous the maximum demand of various consumers do not oc ; SIM (coincident) maximum demand is less than their total maximum demand. The diversity factor f the diversity factor is generally greater than ‘can be equal to or greater than 1.0. The value o! ives 0 represents a poor diversity. 1.0 with a high value representing a good diversity and 1, e effect of reducing the maximum demand. Consequently, lesser A large diversity factor has th plant capacity is required. Thus, the capital investment on the plant is reduced and the cost of generation is also reduced. A high diversity factor may be obtained by giving incentives to industries and farmers to use electrical energy at night or light-load periods. 1.12 LOAD DIVERSITY It is the difference between the sum of the peaks of two or more individual loads and the peak of the combined load. Load diversity 2 | )) Di|- De i= 4.43 UTILIZATION FACTOR Fu It is the ratio of maximum demand of a system to the rated capacity of the system. ‘4 _ maximum demand “rated system capacity The utilization factor can also be found for a part of the system Fu 1.14 PLANT FACTOR OR CAPACITY FACTOR It is the ratio of the total actual energy produced or supplied over ‘fi 7 a specified time (0 the energy that would have been produced or supplied if the plant (or he ime continuously at maximum rating. The maximum plant rating in the total installed pl a city including the reserve capaci alled plant capa tual ene i Plant factor & actual energy produced or supplied maximum plant rating x 7Plant factor is mostly used in generation studies, For example, annual plant factor = zcual annual energy generation maximum plant rating x 8760 : The capacity factor indicates the extent of the use of the generating station. If the plant is always. a at its rated capacity, the capacity factor is 1.0 (100%). It is different from load factor because of the fact that the rated capacity of each plant is always greater than the maximum demand. The Power plants have always some reserve capacity to take into account the future expansion, increase in load and maintenance. It is to be noted that capacity factor = cxbeak lost plant capacity A Thus, if the rate plant capacity equals peak load, the capacity factor and load factor become identical. That is, in absence of reverse capacity, capacity factor = load factor X load factor 4.15 LOSS FACTOR Fis It is the ratio of the average power loss to the peak-load power loss during the specified period of time. rye 2 —average power loss _ 1S ~~ power loss at peak load This relationship is applicable for the copper losses of the system but not for the iron losses. 1.16 LOAD CURVE Load curve (or chronological load curve) is a graphical representation between load in kW (or MW) in proper time sequence and time in hours. It shows the variation of load on the power station. When it is plotted for 24 hours a day, it is called daily load curve. If the time considered is one year (8760 hours) then it is called the annual load curve. It is to be noted that the daily load curve of a system is not the same for all days. It differs from day-to-day and season-to-season. In practice, two types of curves are drawn — one for summer and the other for winter. 4.17 INFORMATIONS OBTAINED FROM LOAD CURVES The following informations are obtained from load curves : 1. Load variation during different hours of the day. 2. The peak load indicated by the load curve gives the maximum demand on the power station. 3. The area under the load curve gives the total energy generated in the period under consideration. 4, The area under the load curve divided by the total number of hours gives the average load.6 Electrical Power Systems id cu tio of the area under the loa‘ : rid Miasnten, But in practice, load curved are far vont i flat load curve. But in Pp , ears 16r6 i savas = nat factor will be higher. Higher ae ae a eid OF tdaticham ity ik with less variations in load, This is desirable from the Pe eaihl idiiad’ pairs of associated equipment which are selected on the basis to the total area of the rectangle in which it irve 4.18 UTILITY OF LOAD CURVES On the basis of above informations load curves are useful as follows : (a) To decide the installed capacity of a power station, ; () To choose the most economical sizes of various generating units. (©) To estimate the generating cost. (@ To decide the operating schedule of the power station, that is, the sequence in which different generating units should run. 1.19 LOAD-DURATION CURVE A load duration curve is also a graph between load and time in which the ordinates representing tthe load are plotted in the order of descending magnitude, that is, with the greatest load at the left, lesser loads towards the right and the lowest load at the time extreme right. The load duration curve is derived from the load curve and therefore, represents the same data as that of the load curve. The load duration curve is constructed by selecting the maximum peak points and connecting them by a curve. 1.20 PROCEDURE FOR PLOTTING THE LOAD-DURATION CURVE (@) From the data available from the load curve, determin a the ee ee end ¢ the maximum load on the system (b) Take the next lower load and determi i i oo lctermine the total time, during which this and the previous i Plot the load against time during which it occurs, Joad-duration curve can be ‘plotted for any durati i week, or a month, or a year. The abscissa of dies ae gee ee tay oe i ee ch a curve can . Percentage of time for which it Occurs, The whole duration is nee a a | og 5 a 0 pu or 100%. The load duration curv i MK € plotted for 24 hours of day is called the daily load duratio ion curve. Similarly, the load duration ee urve plotted for 8760 hours of a year is called the 1 annual ~ © Any point on the load duratj Power pl; 8 lurat * lants, corresponding load and all ent © gives the ; Sreater value, aeLoad Characteristics 7 (@) The areas under load curve and corresponding load duration curve are equal. Both these areas represent the same associated energy during the period under consideration. (©) The Average demand during some specified time period such as a day, or month, or year can be obtained from the load duration curve as follows ; Average demand = kWh (or MWh) consumed in a given time period hours in the time period = area under the load duration curve "base of the load duration curve Example 1.1 A consumer has the following connected load : 10 lamps each of 60 W 2 heaters each of 1000 W Maximum demand 1500 W On the average he uses 8 lamps for 5 hours per day, each heater 3 hours per day. Find (@) average load, (6) monthly energy consumption, (c) load factor. Solution Average load = actual energy consumed 8x 60x5+2x1000x3 time duration 24 Monthly energy consumption = (8 x 60x 5 +2 x 1000 x 3) x 30 Wh = 252 kWh factor = —averageload 350 _ Seer ss mmattigon, demand 1500 0° =350W Example 1.2 There are four consumers of diversity having different load requirements at different timings. Consumer I Average load = 1 kW Maximum demand = 5 kW at 8 p.m. Consumer 2 Maximum demand = 2 kW at 9 p.m Demand of 1.6 kW at 8 pm. Daily load factor = 0.15 Consumer 3 Maximum demand = 2 kW at 12 noon Load of 1 kW at 8 p.m. Average load of 500 W Consumer 4 Maximum demand = 10 kW at 5 p.m. Load of 5 kW at 8 p.m. Daily load factor = 0.25 The maximum demand of the system occurs at 8 p.m, Determine (a) the diversity factor,Load Characteristics 9 Example Titer 1.4 Plot the load duration curve from the Chronological load curve shown in Fig. Time 8 10742424 6 28 fonstecb awatne, am noon pm am Fig. 1.1. (a) Chronological load curve. Solution The data available from the given chronolo gical load curve are tabulated as follows. Here the total time is 24 hours or 100%, ; Se a ene Load in MW Hours in a day Time in percentage 4 30 4 34 * 100 = 16.67% 9 20 44+5=9 3g * 100 =37.5% 2B 8 24445412=23 [57x 100= 95.83% 45-100 = 100% 5 44+54+2+ 1241 = 24/5, 100= The load duration curve is shown in Fig. 1.1 (b). SMW. Time 0 2 4 G6 6 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Time in hours Fig. 1.1. (b) Load-duration curve.. i a 10 Electrical Power Systems Example 1.5 The load-duration curve for a system ‘is shown in Fig. 1.2. Determine the load factor. Solution 5 From the load-duration curve, the actual energy consumed 3 = 15x84 10x8+5x8=240 MWh § 240 Average load = 5 = 10 MW a Maximum demand = 15 MW Tne in hours Seitepere vere load 10 666 Fig. 1.2. maximum demand = 15 Example 1.6 The yearly load duration curve of a power plant is a straight line. The maximum load is 500 MW and the minimum load is 400 MW. The capacity of the plant is 750 MW. Find (a) plant capacity factor, (b) load factor, (c) utilization factor, (d) reserve capacity. Solution Average annual load = 5004400 _ 450M : oad _ 450 es = AVerage annual load _ 450 _ 9, Be oGr capieiry erthe plant 750 "°° 7 =—®erage load _ 450 _ Pe teraxtinidemind 3007 °° aiatic i demand 500 Utilization factor = 2Ximum demand _ 500_ mation Factor = pacity of the plant = 750 = 567 Reserve capacity = plant capacity ~ maximum demand = 750 — 500 = 250 MW Example 1.7 A power system had the daly load curve given by the following table Time Load in MW 12.00 night to 2 a.m. 20 2am. to 8 am, 10 8 a.m. to 12,30 noon 50 12.30 noon to 1.00 p.m. 40 1.00 p.m. to 6 p.m. 50 6 p.m. to 12 night 70 a Plot the following curves : (a) Chronological load curve (b) Load-duration curve ck 8 ses os 4oe ) © ‘Elecincal' rower sys dual maximum. demands gt eee eee maximum demand on the station = diversity factor _ (25+20 +30) _ 45.45 MW * 1.65 ity = 25 + 20 + 30 = 75 MW Installed capacity = 2: Wd a Average load = load factor x maximum demand = 0.6 7 65 _ 0.675 5 MWh Energy supplied per year = ~"-£=-~ x 8760 = 238909 EXERCISES 1. Define the following terms : Connected load, maximum demand, demand factor, load factor. What is the effect of the load factor on the cost of generation? 2. Define the term diversity factor. Prove that the load factor of a power system is improved by an increase in diversity factor. 3. Define the terms plant capacity factor and plant use factor and explain their importance in an electrical power system. 4. The load curve of an electrical system is linear with the following values at different times of the day : Time 12 midnight] 4 am. | 9 am. |12 noon| 5 p.m. | 8 p.m. |12 midnight Load (MW) 40 40 100 100 120 150 40 Plot the following curves : (@) Chronological load curve (b) Load-duration curve (©) Load-energy curve Calculate the energy required by the system in one day and the system dail load factor. 5. The load on a power station on a typical day is as follows : Z al Time Load (MW) 12 midnight to 6 am, 40 6 am. to 10 am, 60 10 am. to 6 p.m, 120 6 pm. to 10 p.m, 180 10 p.m, to 12 midnight 406. Fe 8. Plot the chronological load curve and load duration curve. Determine the load factor of the power station and the energy supplied by the power station in 24 hours. a If the installed capacity of the plant is 200 MW, determine the capacity factor and the utilization factor, The maximum demand of a power station is 100 kW. The capacity factor is 0.6 and the utilization factor is 0.8, Find (a) load factor, (b) Plant capacity, (c) reserve capacity, ) annual energy production, The maximum demand on a power station is 200 MW. If the annual load factor is 0.55, calculate the total energy generated in a year. ; A.generating station has a connected had of 600 MW and the maximum demand is 450 MW. The energy generated per year is 2x 10? kWh. Calculate the demand factor and the load factor, The yearly load duration curve of a power station is a straight line from 50 MW to 10 MW. Three alternators each of 20 MW are installed to meet the demand. Determine (@) the installed capacity, (b) plant factor, (c) maximum demand, (4) load factor and (©) utilization factor. ANSWERS 4. 1995 MWh; 0.554 5. 0,518, 2240 MWh, 0.4667, 0.9 6. (a) 0.75, (b) 125 MW, (c) 25 MW, (d) 657000 MWh 7. 963600 MWh 8. 0.75, 0.5074 9. (a) 60 MW, (b) 0.5, (c) 50 MW, (d) 0.6, (e) 0.833 a i sa ua= Supply Systems 19 2.8 SYSTEM VOLTAGE AND TRANSMISSION EFFICIENCY The system voltage very much affects the capital cost of a transmission line. The weight of conductor material, the efficiency of the line, the voltage drop in the line and the system stability depend upon the system Voltage. The choice ¢ of voltage, therefore, becomes a major factor in the line design, Considering a n-phase system of transmission, let P= power to be transmitted per phase in watts, V= voltage to neutral in volts, ‘urrent in each phase in amperes, = length of the line in metres, A = cross-sectional area of each conductor in m?, © = specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm-m, R =resistance of each conductor in ohms, = current density in A/m?, and cos @ = power factor of the load. Ip Tie Then, P=Vicoso; Pca pt aa eye The resistance of each conductor is given by plaVcosp R=p—= ip (a) Power Loss 2 ri ie 1 apiP The power loss in the line per phase, p, =/R = Vag ~p(01.a.Veos 2 xe which shows that the power loss in the line is inversely proportional to both the system voltage and the power factor. () Voltage Drop in Resistance tu The voltage drop in resistance per phase = IR=A 0.p-—-= ap! 2 - IR apl ‘The percentage voltage drop in resistance in the line =x 100% = mi x 100% tage drop in resistance per phase is, therefore, constant for a given value of current oa a i roaainde voltage drop in resistance decreases with the increase in the system voltage. ; (c) Weight of Conductor Materia / } ‘ a 5 ioe density of the material. The weight of conductor material required for each phasea 20 Electrical Power Systems “ i the line will decrease This indicates that the weight of the conductor material required for the with the increase in supply voltage and power factor. (@) Transmission Efficiency a : i line output ay The efficiency of transmission, r= line output + line loss fp PL) 222 approx.) -(1+7285] Vcos @ of supply voltage and power factor. os (©) One more reason for using higher voltages is the enhancement of system stability. In the above discussion, for the effect of system voltages and power factor, P, 1, p and o . | The above relation shows that the efficiency of transmission also increases with the increase | are assumed to be constants. The corona and leakage losses are neglected. 2.9 WORKING VOLTAGE ‘The above considerations indicate the desirability of using high voltages if the power is to be transmitted over a longer distance. It is also necessary that with the ac systems the load power factor should be as near to unity as possible for maximum economy. It is to be noted that heavy currents are more difficult to handle than high voltages. Considerable saving in the cost of the conductor material is possible when the voltage is high. Although much economy can be effected in the conductor material by employing extra high voltages, the cost of insulation of conductors, whether overhead or underground, increases appreciably. By adopting high voltages the electrical separation or clearances between the conductors is to be increased to avoid electrical discharge. The problems of mechanical supporting structures and right-of-way acquisition become more difficult and expensive. The other problems encountered with high voltages are the insulation of the equipment, corona, radio and television interference. The insulation costs of transformers, switchgear and other terminal equipment increase tremendously. Corona, radio and television interference become very serious at extra high voltages. Thus, higher the Voltage the more costly is the line. The voltage level of a system is, therefore, governed by the amount of power to be transmitted and the length of the line. : 7 2.10 CHOICE OF THE NEXT HIGH VOLTAGE The choice of the highest system voltage for a country is a matter of ignifi is eB ae s Sreat significance. It is ee the connie ener ions to choose the next higher voltage but ile site of power station, location anc msity of the load, : ines be keer in view. y oad, and the technological developments of the times are The next voltage level should be chosen on the basis of determine the best system voltage the alternative plans should be compared by taking into account the power development over a period of about also include the development of Power resources Aen xt periog Cue oe forecast atoll ; ao ig that period, The interval between the existing and the Proposed level should lot. be. too: low asttiantl future requirements c£ load also. Toyotivil ae. jes WIL Ue ten ~The average and maxim sy. The resistivity of conductors varies and 2.873 pQ-cm respectively. T Tis given by the formula for= pao [1 + a0 (¢-20)] iy where p; = resistivity at ec = resistivity at 20°C i = temperature coefficient of resistance at 20°C . in°C t= the operating temperature in +332) at ay = 20) ee ee the resistance of a conductor a where istance i ° lly, is resi at °C, and Ryo is that at 20°C. Usually, 20°C et aig tables. The resistance at the operating temperature can be calculated from the ‘above formula, 29 for hard-drawn copper of 97 per cent conductivity is 0.00381/°C. ozo for hard-drawn aluminium is 0.004/°C. : ‘The resistance of stranded conductor is slightly greater than the resistance of the equivalent ‘solid conductor because of increased length due to spiralling. 3.4 SKIN EFFECT If dc. is passed in a conductor, the current density is uniform over the cross-section of the ‘conductor. In a conductor carrying a.c. there is a tendency of the current to crowd near the Surface of the conductor. This phenomenon, is called skin effect, A qualitative explanation of skin effect is given here. Assume the conductor to be made up of a number of concentric cylinders. The magnetic flux linking a cylindrical element near the centre of the conductor is greater than that linking another element near the surface of conductor. This is due to the fact that the former element is surrounded by the intemal as well as external flux, while the latter by the external flux only. The inner element will possess a greater self-inductance and, therefore, will offer a greater inductive reactance than the outer element. This difference in the inductive reactance gives a ie resistance of the conductor is increased, ; : At low frequencies, such as 50 Hz, there is a sj i y s . mall incre: surface of conductor, but at high frequencies, Such as with the current flows on the Surface of the conductor, Skin effect increases with the increase j ] in frequen The concentration of current near the conductor en Ee fed Anse Conductor the current flows Mostly in the ee oe a neg No Current and gives the high tensile strength to the na istance Motors is obtained from Manufacturer's tables (se ‘ase in the current density near the the radio, Practically the whole of - Conductor diameter and permeability. S enabled the use of ACSR conductor.Chapter 3 3.5 EQUIVALENT COPPER SECTION The area of cross-section of a conductor made of a material other than copper is not specified by its actual value. Conductor sections are usually expressed and standardized in terms of equivalent copper sections. Consider the case of aluminium conductor. Let the suffixes a and ¢ be used for aluminium and copper respectively. For the same length and resistance of aluminium and copper conductors : Ra= Re PH cipeomdaunp Pags= Peas Acme Ae G51) The value of A¢ is called the e area Ag of aluminium conductor. Thus, equivalent copper section of aluminium conductor quivalent copper section for the corresponding cross-sectional 1 (cross-sectional area of aluminium conductor) o/pa | ) 1 . Pa “Te X cross-sectional area of aluminium conductor since ~ = 1.62 3.6 KELVIN’S ECONOMY LAW There are several factors considered in designing a line, Economy is also one of the considerations which is taken into account to select a conductor for the line. The cost of conductor material is a substantial part of the total line cost. It is, therefore, necessary to choose the most economic size of conductor. A design is considered to be most efficient if the total annual cost is a minimum. The total annual cost consists of two parts: (a) The fixed standing charges, “and () the running charges. The fixed charges consist of the interest on the capital cost of the conductor, the allowance for depreciation, and the maintenance cost. The running charges consist of cost of electrical energy wasted due to losses during operation. But the capital cost (and, therefore, the interest and depreciation on it) and cost of electrical energy wasted in the line are governed by the size of the conductor. A bigger size of conductor would be more costly, but due to its lesser resistance the cost of energy corresponding to PR loss will be smaller. On the other hand, if a smaller size of conductor is selected it will be cheaper, but its greater resistance will increase the cost of energy loss, and, therefore, the running charges. The cost of conductor and therefore, the standing charges, namely, the interest and depreciation on the initial investment will be directly Proportional to the area of cross-section of the conductor, The cost of energy loss will be inversely proportional to the conductor section. Mathematically, they can be written as : Annual interest and depreciation cost Crea or Ci=ha and annual cost of energy, dissipated in the line44 Electrical Power Systems k Cre 17a or C="? where ky and kp are constants, and @ represents the area of cross-section of conductor, The annual ars may, therefore, be given by ( C=G4+Gehar® For an economical design there will be one size of conductor at which a total Cost ig minimum. For the most economical cross-section, the total annual cost is differentiated With Tespect to the cross-section and the result is equated to zero. That is, ogy es * ha z {her} 0 a 3.61) Hence the most economical cross-sectional area of the conductor is that which makes the annual cost of energy loss equal to the annual interest and depreciation on the capital cost of the conductor material. This is known as Kelvin’s law, after Lord Kelvin who first Stated it in 1881. Kelvin’s law is itself not sufficient to estimate the cross-section of the conductor. It gives the most economical current density. The most economical cross-section is given by Eq. (3.6.1), 3.7 MODIFIED KELVIN'S LAW In our previous discussion we have not considered the cost of poles or towers, insulators, erection, etc. in an overhead line. Similarly, for an underground cable no account has been taken of the cost of the cable insulation and its laying. In practice, it is Not true. As the size of conductor increases the mechanical stresses are increased, More strong towers and insulators are tequired. The cost of labour for erection also increases, To achieve a close approximation to the true conditions G. Kaj investment on the complete installation of the line may be ‘Part which is independent of the conductor size, and PP assumed that the initial divided into two Parts, namely, (a) one h (b) the other part hich is directl Proportional to the conductor section, Espa The initial investment may, therefore, be written as Ci=Ko+kia where Ko is a constant and represents the Part of the capital j is independent ae ee Pulal investment which is inde yChapter 3 Conductors 45 ‘The total annual cost C=C.+C= Work a) xt 2 For the cost to be a minimum Kixa and any Hence the most economical cross-section is that for which the annual cost of energy loss is equal to the annual cost of interest and depreciation on that part of initial investment of the line which is proportional to the conductor area. This is the modification of Kelvin’s law. ie, 3.8 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION Kelvin’s law can be illustrated graphically as shown in Fig. 3.4. The annual cost C1 of conductor is directly proportional to its cross-section. It can, therefore, be represented by a straight line passing through the origin. The variation of cost C2 of energy wasted with the conductor size is represented by a rectangular hyperbola. The total cost C for any conductor section is the sum of the two component costs, C; and C2, for that cross-section. The sum curve is represented by C in Fig. 3.4. Total cost 1 Cost of energy Annual cost Annual cost Cy Annual ‘conductor Cy cost ° ™m Conductor area Conductor cost Fig. 3.4, Graphical representation of Fig. 3.5. Graphical representation of Kelvin's law. modified Kelvin's law. The lowest point p on the total cost curve C gives the most economical area corresponding to the point of intersection of the two component cost curves C; and Cz, At the point of intersection the two component costs are equal. The most economical area is om and the ‘minimum cost is mp in Fig. 3.4. The modified Kelvin’s law can also be shown graphically in Fig. 3.5. The cost Ci is46 Electrical Power Systems represented by a straight line. The intercept on the cost axis gives the et Cost Of conduey which is not proportional to conductor area. The energy cost curve C2 is Rie by hyperbola. The sum curve C gives the total cost. The lowest point on the total cost curve gives the minimum cost and the most economical conductor section. In Fig. 3.5, om is the economical section and mp the minimum cost. The length ning is the cross-section of Conduite cost which is not proportional to the area of cross section of conductor. 3.9 ECONOMIC CURRENT DENSITY Let a@=area of cross-section of the conductor in sq. mm. R=resistance of the conductor of 1 sq. mm cross-section and 1 km length T=nms value of current in conductor throughout the year. W= weight of conductor of 1 sq. mm cross-section in kgf/km t=number of working hours per year x=cost of electrical energy wasted in rupees per kWh y=cost of conductor per kgf in rupees p= percent annual interest and depreciation on capital cost. 2 Annual energy wasted in one kilometre of the conductor = 4 f x 10° kWh Cost of this energy aR ERs x10 The cost of one km of conductor = Rs way Annual interest and depreciation on this cost = Rs eae By Kelvin’s law, for most economical cross-section, the fixed annual charges on conductor material should be equal to the cost of energy loss during the year. PR. g3-wayp, P_lowyp a 100° @ Rix Economic current density é V BD Almm’, a Rix Example 3.1 A 500 V, 2-core feeder 0.8 km long is required t y stant of I! KW. The cost of the cable including installation charges is Rs Gee naan a the cross-sectional area of each feeder in:sq, cm, Interest and depreciation total 10 pet Determine the most economical size. Cost of energy is 12 paise per unit. Specific resistal copper is 1.75x 10 Q per cm? cross sectional area and 1. cm long, 4 beftiboayEXERCISES 1, A 2-conductor cable 1 km in length is required to supply a constant load of 250 A throughout the year. The cost of cable is Rs (150a + 85) per metre, where a is the area Of the conductor in sq. cm. Determine the most economical cross-section of the Conductor if the cost of energy is 15 paise per kWh and interest and depreciation charges amount to 12 per cent. Specific resistivity of copper is 1.76 x 10 Q-m, 2. The cost of a d.c. 2-wire overhead line is Rs 4000 per sq. cm. section per km length and 10 per cent of this is to be taken as annual cost. Cost of energy lost in the line is 12 paise per kWh. If full load is Supplied for 40 per cent of the year (8760 hours) estimate the most economical current density. The resistance of the conductor material having a cross-sectional area of 1 mm? is 1/58 ohm for 1 m length. 3. The cost of a d.c. 2-wire overhead line is Rs 4000a + 5000 per km where a is the area of conductor in sq. cm. The interest and depreciation per annum amounts to 12 per cent of capital cost. If the load is supplied for 60 per cent of the year estimate the most economical current density. Cost of energy is 15 paise per kWh. Take resistivity as 1.8 yQ-cm. 4. The cost of a three-phase overhead line is Rs (150a + 10000) per km length where a is the cross-sectional area of the conductor in sq. mm. The rate of interest and depreciation per annum is 10 per cent. If the load is supplied 60 per cent of the year, estimate the most economical current density for the conductor. The cost of energy is 15 p. per kWh and resistivity 1.8 1Q-cm. 5. An 11 kV 3-core cable is to supply a factory which works 48 hours a week with a load of 500 kW at 0.9 power factor lagging. Capital cost of cable per core when laid is Rs (40a + 250), per km where a is the cross-section of the conductor in sq. mm. The interest and depreciation charges are 14 per cent of the capital cost and the energy cost is 16 paise per kWh. Calculate the most economical area of cross-section of the conductor. Take the resistivity of copper as 1.724% 10° Q-m. 6. A factory takes through a 3-core underground cable a load of 500 kW at 11 KV and 0.8 power factor for 2500 hours per annum. Capital cost of cable per core when laid is_ 54 Electrical Power Systems i i in sq. mm. The interes, Rs (35a + 400) km, where a is cross-section of the conductor in sq. mm. iissaieahin ohares are 12 per cent of the capital cost and energy cost of 20 paise per kWh. Calculate the most economical area of cross-section of the conductor. Take the resistivity of copper as 1.724 10° Q-m, siya 7. The daily load cycle of the three-phase 110 kV transmission line is as follows : 15 Mw at 0.8 power factor (p.f.) for 8 hours, 5 MW at unity p.f. for 10 hours, 16 MW at 0.85 pf. for 6 hours. Determine the most economical cross-section if the cost of the line including erection is Rs 9000+ 6000a per km, where a is the cross-section of each conductor in sq, cm, The rate of interest and depreciation is 10 per cent and the cost of energy is 6 paise per kWh. The line is in use for whole of the year. The resistance per km of-each conductor is (0.176/a) ohm. 8. Find the best current density for a three-phase overhead line if it is used for 4000 hours per year. The conductor costs Rs 25 per kgf, has a resistivity of 1.8 4Q2-cm and a density of 8.9 gf/cm’, Energy costs 15 paise per kWh and annual interest and depreciation is 10 per cent of the capital cost of the conductor. 9. A 2-core cable 1 km long supplies a load of 125 kW for 12 hours, 40 kW for 8 hours and is on no load for the remainder of each day. The annual cost of the cable is Rs 0.62 +30 per metre, where a is the cross-sectional area in square millimetres. The supply voltage is 1 kV. Cost of energy per unit is 15 paise. Resistivity of the core material is 1.72x10* Q-m. Determine the most economical core size and the annual cost of the cable. 10, A 2-core cable 1 km long supplies a load of 125 kW at a voltage of 2 kV anda power factor of 0.85. The load is switched on for 16 hours per day for 300 days of each year. The cost of. the cable per metre to manufacture and lay is Rs 60a + 25 per metre where ais cross-sectional area in sq. m. Interest and depreciation charges are 10 per cent and 5 per cent respectively per year, Cost of energy is 15 paise per kWh. Find {@) the most economical size of the core, () the maximum current density. Resistivity of the aluminium core material is 2.8 x 10-8 Qm. ANSWERS L 126.7 mm 3, 0.4112 A/mm? 2 0.5253 A/mm? 55 Selina 4. 0.5934 A/mm? T*166¢i0? 6.47 mm? . 8. 143.5 A/om? 9. 27.46 mm?, Rs J 46476 10. (a) 0.4919 cm? (b) 149.4 Avem?Line Insulators and Supports 5.1 INTRODUCTION Overhead line insulators are used to separate line conductors from each other and from the ee structures electrically. While designing an insulator the following considerations are {a) The insulator should have high permittivity so that it can withstand high electrical stresses. That is, the dielectric strength of the insulating material should be high. The insulator should be able to withstand the overvoltages due to lightning, switching, or other causes under severe weather conditions in addition to the normal working voltage. (b) It should possess high mechanical strength to bear the conductor load under worst loading conditions. {c) It needs to have a high resistance to temperature changes to reduce damages from power flashover. (@ The leakage of current to earth should be minimum to keep the corona loss and radio interference within reasonable limits. (©) The insulator material should not be porous and should be impervious to gases in atmosphere and should be free from impurity and cracks which may lower the permittivity. The electrical failure of insulators occurs either by puncture or flashover. In the case of a puncture the arc passes through the body of the insulator. Flashover is caused by an are discharge between the conductor and earth through air surrounding the insulator. It is either due to line surges or due to the formation of wet conducting layer over the insulator surface. Normally, the insulator is not damaged by a flashover but it becomes useless after the puncture. Sufficient thickness of material is provided in the insulator to prevent the puncture under surge conditions. Flashovers are reduced by increasing the resistance to leakage currents. The length of the leakage path is made large by constructing several layers called petticoats or94 Electrical Power Systems rainsheds, They keep the inner surfaces relatively dry in wet weather and thus Provide sufficiey leakage resistance to prevent a flashover. : a ‘Accumulation of ditt, dust, salt, smoke, etc., on insulator surface Sa area is key minimum by providing semi-conducting glaze over the whole exposed surface of insulator. Thig reduces the surface deposition which may produce flashover at the operating voltage. For satisfactory operation, the flashover should occur before puncture. The ratio of voltage to flashover voltage, called the factor of safety, 18 kept as high as possible. The flashoyer voltage is reduced considerably by moisture and surface deposits. For satisfactory operation, the rainsheds should have the shapes like those of equipotential surfaces and the insulator body should be constructed along the lines of electrostatic field aroung the pin. Also, the leakage resistance and capacitance of various rainsheds should be approximately equal. The flux distribution between pin and cap of a pin-type insulator is shown in Fig. 5.1 (a). Fig. 5.1 (b) shows the construction of a pin-type insulator based upon the principles given above. Line conductor Equipotential lines __ Lines of electrostatic field Insulator pin @ ‘Cement. Rain sheds 0 20 ”mate Line Insulators and Supports 95 5.2 TYPES OF INSULATOR ‘There are three main types of insulator used for overhead lines: 1, Pin type insulator 2. Suspension type insulator 3. Strain or tension type insulator, 5.2.1 Pin Type Insulator The pin insulator is supported on a forged steel pin or bolt which is secured to the cross arm of the supporting structure. The conductor is tied to the insulator on the top groove on straight line positions and side groove in angle positions by annealed binding wire of the same material as conductor. A lead thimble is cemented into the insulator body to receive the pin. A pin insulator is shown in Fig. 5.1 (b). Single piece type pin insulators are used for lower voltages, but for higher voltages two or more pieces are cemented together to provide sufficient thickness of porcelain and adequate Teakage path or creepage path. Fig. 5.2 (a) shows a single piece insulator. Two-piece and three-piece insulators are shown in Figs. 5.2 (b) and 5.1 (b) respectively Fig. 5.2. (a) One piece pin insulator. Fig. 5.2. (b) Two-piece pin insulator. Fig. 5.3 shows dry and wet acting distances. As pointed out earlier, the flashover voltage for moist and dirty surfaces is less than that for dry and clean surfaces, The total ‘dry arcing distance is the sum of all direct distances through air. In Fig. 5.3 it is shown by (a+b +c). The total wet arcing distances is shown by (A+B+C). The increased size, weight, and cost of pin type insulator put a limit to its use above 66 kV and, therefore, the suspension insulators are used for high voltage work.Fig. 5.3. Dry and wet arcing distances. Fig. 5.4. Insulator string. 5.22 Suspension Insulators A suspension insulator consists of a number of separate insulator units connected with each other by metal links to form a flexible chain or a string. The insulator string is suspended from the cross arm of the support. The coniductor is attached to the lowest unit. An insulator assembly is shown in Fig. 5.4. Suspension insulators offer the following advantages : 1. Each unit is designed for operating voltage of about 11 kV, so that a string cam be assembled by connecting several units to suit the service voltage and weather conditions: 2. In case the line is to operate on a higher voltage in future to cope with the increasifg Joad, additional units would be introduced to the same string. In case of damage t0 om of the units, only the damaged insulator, but not the whole string, is replaced by anew one, 3. The string is free to swing in any direction and, therefore ibility is provide ear : 7 » greater flexibility is prov! The tension in the successive spans are balanced, The lines can osecaaed be des for longer spans and higher mechanical loading. ‘ 4. There is a decreased liability to lightning disturbances if the string i : string is suspended metallic supporting structure, which works as a lightning shield a pater igSince the string is hung from the support, the tower height is to be increased. Greater spacing ‘between the conductors is to be provided to allow for swinging. The types of suspension insulators in use are : 1. Cap-and-pin type. 2. Hewlett or interlink type. The first type is more common. A galvanised cast iron or forged-steel cap and a galvanised forged-steel pin are connected to porcelain in the cap-and-pin type construction. The units are joined together either by ball and socket or clevis-pin connections. The ball and socket type and pin and clevis type constructions are given in Fig. 5.5. Fig. 5.5. Suspension insulators. (a) Pin and clevis type; (b) Ball and socket type. The interlink type unit (Fig. 5.6) employs porcelain having two curved channels with planes at right angles to each other. U-shaped level covered steel links pass through these channels and serve to connect the units. Interlink type insulator is mechanically stronger than the cap-and-pin type unit. The metal links continue to support the line if the porcelain between the links breaks. Thus, the supply is not interrupted. The Hewlett type of insulator suffers from the disadvantage that the porcelain between the links is highly stressed electrically and, therefore, its puncture strength is lesser as compared to other types. Fig. 5.6. Interlink type insulator. 5.23 Strain or Tension Insulators Strain or tension insulators are designed for handling mechanical stresses at angle positions where there is a change in the direction of the line or at terminations of the line. Shackle and pin insulators serve the purpose for low voltage lines. For high voltage lines having longer spans and greater mechanical loading, suspension insulator strings are arranged in a horizontal position. In case’a single string is not sufficient to take the load, two or more strings in parallel may be employed for higher conductor tensions. Ose i a5.3. V-STRINGS A single string of insulator follows the conductor and Sways like a pendulum in a strong side wind. V-strings are used to prevent conductor movement at towers. They find increased application in high voltage transmission systems, V-string construction (Fig. 5.7) offers the following advantages + 1, The insulator swing is reduced and, therefore, lesser spacing can be provided between the conductors. 2. Right-of-way width is reduced. 3. Reduction in phase spacing reduces line . reactance and, therefore, the system power limits are higher. 4. The sizes of the tower and the cross arm decrease. This results in saving in cost, 5. lightning performance is improved. ‘V-strings are particularly suitable for single circuit lines. Fig. 5.7. V-string. 5.4 INSULATOR MATERIALS Overhead line insulators are produced from toughened glass or high quality wet p porcelain. Porcelain insulators are usually glazed in brown colour over all exposed surface, sometimes creamglazed insulators are also used. Porcelain has been used from the beginning as an insulator material and is still being used. Prestressed or toughened glass has also been employed in constructing line ins Toughened glass insulators have their surface layers in state of high compression due to-whik their resistance to withstand mechanical and thermal stresses is greater. The toughening prod consists in heating the glass uniformly to a temperature above its strain temperature. Itis allowed to cool usually by blowing air on its surface. Some of the advantages of toughened glass insulators over porcelain insulators are * 1. The toughened glass insulators have greater puncture strength. x 2. They posses greater mechanical strength and, therefore, there is less breakage in tram and installation. : ei 3, They have high thermal shock resistance and, theref wer fl is : , ‘ore, damage from power Ts 4. If an insulator is damaged by electrical or mechanic: : al cause, the outer shed bres falls on the ground. The cap and pin remain suffici . condue Gash potion, ciently strong to support the __ 5. The life of a toughened glass insulator is long, _, The ms meen has the disadvantage that moisture readily condenses on its suff Most of the lines use porcelain as an insulator material, but toughened glass ins! popes _ large quantities in eee atall voltages upto,275 kV and on the >)