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36 views6 pagesQuantum Mechanics
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QUANTUM MECHANICS
NEWTONIAN MECHANICS AND QUANTUM MECHANICS
The fundamental difference between newtonian mechanics and quantum mechanics lies in what it is
that they describe. Newtonian mechanics is concerned with the motion of a particle under the influence
of applied forces, and it takes for granted that such quantities as the particle’s position, mass, velocity
and acceleration can be measured. This assumption is, of course, completely valid in our everyday
experience, and newtonian mechanics provides the “‘correct” explanation for the behaviour of moving
bodies in the sense that the values it predicts for observable magnitudes agree with the measured values
of those magnitudes.
Quantuin mechanics, too, consists of relationships between observable magnitudes, but the uncertainty
principle radically alters the definition of “‘observable magnitude” in the atome realm, According to
the uncertainty principle, the position and momentum of a particle cannot be accurately measured at the
same time, while in newtonian mechanics, both are assumed to have definite, ascertainable values at
every instant. The quantities whose relationships quantum mechanics explores are probabilities. Instead
of asserting, for example, that the radius of the electron’s orbit in a ground-state hydrogen atom is
always exactly 5-3 x 10-!! m, quantum mechanics states that this is the most probable radius if we
conduct a suitable experiment, most trials will yield a different value, either larger or smaller, but the
value most likely to be found will be 5-3 x 10-1! m.
At first glance, Quantum mechanics seems a poor substitute for newtonian mechanics, but closer
inspection reveals a striking fact : Newtonian mechanics is nothing but an approximate version of
Quantum mechanics. The certainties proclaimed by newtonian mechanics are illusory, and their
agreement with experiment is a consequence of the fact that macroscopic bodies consist of so many
individual atoms that departures from average behaviour are unnoticeable. Instead of two sets of physical
principles, one for the macroscopic universe and one for the microscopic universe, there is only a single
set, and quantum mechanics represents out best effort to data in formulating it.
¥% THE WAVE FUNCTION (y) (Physical significance of wave function)
[BORN INTERPRETATION]
The wave function (7'.t) describes the behaviour of a particle and its magnitude-is large in the
region where the probability of occurance of the particle is large, in other region where the particle is
less likely to be found, the magnitude of y is small, i.e. we may regard as a measure of the probability
of finding a particle around a particular position (The wave function y cannot be measured directly by
any physical experiment).
Born interpreted that the wave function y measure the probability and ll? is proportional to the
Probability of finding the particle at a given point in space and at any given time. Since probability of
finding a particle must be real and non-negative whereas is complex. In general we may assume that
the position probability density P( 7,1) is given by p*p.
et PU. =pty=ly(ror. . we(3.1)
Thus the square of the absolute value of wave function (rt) measure the probability per unit
volume (i.e. probability density) of finding the particle at any position r at time t.
Inone dimension, the probability per unit length of finding the particle at position x at time tis given by
Py D=y p=ly (dF wa(3.2)
The probability of finding a particle in a finite volume V ( = dx dy dz) is given by
PV) = SSS pty de dy de .
1
(3.3) 2 MODERN'S QUANTUM PHYSICS (B.Sc. II, PANJAB & PUN Jag,
i]
3.3 NORMALIZATION OF WAVE FUNCTION
in space is proportional to | y ? or y*p but itis Beng
since probability P of finding a particle 1 ;
ability P of finding the particle described by i rapt
* convenient to have |’ ? or y*y equal to prol
merely be proportional to P,
| Since the probability of fin
dling the particle somewhere must be equal to unity, $0 We musty
PHD =yys lyor = f ptpdrsl 4
‘The wave function which obey equation (3.4) is said to be normalized. Every acceptable y
function can be normalised by muitiplying by an appropriate constant.
Conditions for normalization of a wave function — _
‘A normalized wave function should fulfil following conditions :
(i) must be single valued function at every point in space.
(ii) must be finite at every point in space.
(iii) -y and its first derivatives 2%,2¥ 2% gmust be continuous.
ax’ ay dz
34
7 A free particle is that on which no external force is acting.
Ifa free particle has velocity v and mass m then, rate of change of momentum is given by
WAVE FUNCTION FOR A FREE PARTICLE
dp
a ext
But for a free particle, Fax, = 0
ap
a 79
p =constant
or
Similarly, the kinetic energy E is given by
2
P= constant
2m
‘Thus in a macroscopic system a free particle has constant momentum and energy, but in a microst
system, the particle is always associated by a wave called de-Broglie wave or matter wave, and
displacement of matter wave is governed by some function p(x, y, z, 1) called wave function.
If a particle is travelling along positive x-direction at any time f having frequency v and wave le
2, then the wave function is given by
- wa, ) =A et @r-k)
Since w = 2 mv and k= om
YO 1) = A caller —xih)
Buty =E/handA = hip
Ex
¥G) =A fara
2x1
or va) = Ae kh
= neh EPP) E (QuaNTUM MECHANICS dey f 3
This is the equation of a plane travellin
energy E along positive x-direction.
3.5: SCHRODINGER THEORY OF QUANTUM MECHANICS
a _... Se
(Need for a differential Equation)
Classical (or Newton's) mechanics is concemed with the motion of macroscopic particle under the
influence of an external force and taken for granted that the position and momentum of a particle can be
determined very accurately simultaneously, but in microscopic case, the behaviour of the particle is
yery complicated and the behaviour of the particle is described by de-Broglie waves associated with
them or by wave function (x, 1). In order to describe the motion of the particle in space and time, we
must Know PC, 1) at all times. To know (x, £) for future time we must develope a differential equation
tocontrol the space-time behaviour of the wave function #(r, 1). Schrodinger theory of quantum mechanics
provides a procedure to treat the behaviour of the microscopic particle.
3.6-TIME DEPENDANT SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION
For a free particle
The wave function (a, 1) for a particle moving freely along +-direction having total energy E and
momentum p is given by
18 Wave associated with a particle having momentum p and
VOD = Ae A(Erpx) (1)
Differentiating Eq. (1) w.r.t. x, we get
ap -2 Aen tilt)(Et~ps)
ax
Differentiating Eq. (2) w.r.t. x} we get
fy = (zy Act! M(Epx)
Ox’ h
Using Eq. (1), we get
ee ry
ax” nv
ry = eee (3)
a pry =P =
Differentiating Eq. (1) w.r.t. t, we get
ay -(2) enti \(B-px)
Using Eq. (1), we get
or
a
re ny “ee C)
For a particle having speed v << c ( vel. of light), the total energy E of the particle is given by
2
Bes a (pis the momentum of the particle) _
m 74 MODERN'S QUANTUM PHYSICS (B.Sc. II, PANJAB & PUN Ag
Multiplying both sides of above equation by wave function, p, we get
2
By = 2
oy Be ay
Putting Eqs. (3) and (4) in (5), we get
2 92,
a he oy
int oy
a > 2m ax®
2 32
ap Ayn,
or Gon 0 om ax?
A Pplxt) _ shap(xt)
2m ax? ot 3 ;
This is Schrodinger wave equation for a free particle in one dimension.
For a particle subjected to a force _ ;
ifthe particle is acted upon by a force, then the total energy E of the particle is the sum of its ky
energy p?/2m and its potential energy V, where V in general a function of position x and time 1
or
2
ie. B= +Vvau,0
2m
Multiplying both sides of above equation by wave function p, we get
2
Ey = sa TVD
Using Eqs (3) and (4), we get
oy __W ey
nse = ae +V(x,0p
nove) __# Py Cty
or inte Im ae TVD UCD
2 2
or FY
2m ax?
This is Schrodinger wave equation for a particle subjected to a force in one dimension.
In three dimensions, Eq. (7) becomes
+V GD YG D= inetd
VEDFEVE DYED = ineen
i a Peer
or ~TV VEN + VE DYE N= i
ERE
or simply, we can write
a a
-Lvytvy = int
amet y = inc,
Where p depends on position vector 7 and time tie, y = Y(t) F MECHANICS
quantum 75
Schrodinger equation cannot be derived from other ba
¢ principles of physics, it is a basic principle
jn itself. :
_ indie Schrodinger equation (8) can bh
a7 : © used for non-relativistic problems, and a more elaborate
formulation is needed When particle spe ihe F
ds near that of light are evolved.
_ 37, TIME INDEPENDENT SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION
a poe oy ental energy Of a particle does not depend on time explicitly; the forces
that act : a » Vary with position of the partic! ly. Then Schrodinger equation may be
simplified by removing all references of time 2 PCIe only. Ther ae :
Time dependent Schrodinger equation in one dimension is given by
Ppan
RE TVG) = non (1)
One dimensional wave function (x, #) of a particle moving along +x direction is given by
iv
WD = Ae li/n)(Br-px) = Aellp/a)x (bin):
or VO) =o) (Ens, 2)
where P(x) = Ael(o/h)x -B)
Differentiating Eq. (2) w.r.t. x, we get
apent) (i
Cte (iEA)e we 4)
Differentiating Eq. (4) wart, x, we get
2. 2.
a ve) = e GEM) PHC) 5)
ax’ ax*
Differentiating Eq. (2) w.r.t. t, we get
ayp(x,t)
at
Using Eqs. (2), (5) and (6) in Eq. (1), we get
EZ pce zn) (6)
al Boyer
(rem). zee EV p(y GEM =
rc
WP Pye)
om Ge TYME@ = E(x)
Ix"
2 9
o =~ 2% sy—Ep =0 OD)
2m ax’
This is one dimensional time independent Schrodinger equation.
In three dimensions, Eq. (7) can be written as
# Poo)
2m ar?
+(V-E)¢(r) = 76 1YSICS (B.S¢. II, PANJAB & PUN,
3 QUANTUM PH By
MODERN'S O! ni
=
2,
o | Pb am
—+
a2 tar E-Ve =0
In three dimensions, the above equation is generally written as ,
24 2 }
or Vor FE-Ve =0
For convenience, replacing ¢ by y, we get
Vp tE-wy
Where is independent of r.
Equation (8) is called Schrodinger steady state equatior
38. OPERATOR mA
An operator is a mathematical rule or instruction which can change a given function into anoy,
function. All mathematical operations in algebra and calculus like adding, subtracting, multiply.
differentiating w.r.t. a variable or integration etc, can be considered as operators.
If A is an operator generally represented as A and acts on a given function f(x) and changes jx,
another function g(x), then we have
Af@) = 8) GS
na P
e.g. If operator A = Gy and acts on the given function f (x) = x4, then
x
Axt = 264)