International A Level FURTHER MATHEMATICS With Mechanics
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OXFORD INTERNATIONAL
AQA EXAMINATIONS
International A Level
FURTHER
MATHEMATICS
with Mechanics
AS and
A Level
2
Brian Gaulter
Mark Gaulter
Brian Jefferson
John Rayneau
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3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom
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Contents
AS Pure 6.3 Improper integrals 63
Summary 65
1 Loci, Graphs and Algebra Review exercises 66
1.1 Loci 2 Practice examination questions 66
1.2 Rational functions
1.3 Conic sections
3
11
7 Matrices and Transformations
7.1 Introduction to matrices 68
Summary 16
7.2 Transformations 72
Review exercises 17
7.3 Common transformations 76
Practice examination questions 17
7.4 Invariant points and lines 78
2 Complex Numbers Summary 80
2.1 What is a complex number? 20 Review exercises 81
2.2 Calculating with complex numbers 22 Practice examination questions 82
2.3
2.4
Argand diagram
Loci in the complex plane
25
28
8 Linear graphs
8.1 Relationship between data 84
Summary 31
8.2 When the power of x is unknown, or when
Review exercises 32
x is in the exponent 87
Practice examination questions 33
Summary 90
3 Roots and Coecients of a Review exercises 91
Quadratic Equation Practice examination questions 92
3.1 Roots of a quadratic equation
3.2 Finding an equation with roots that are
34
9 Numerical Methods
9.1 Solutions of polynomial equations 94
a function of existing roots 36
9.2 Step-by-step solution of dierential
Summary 39
equations 99
Review exercises 39
Summary 101
Practice examination questions 40
Review exercises 102
4 Series Practice examination questions 102
4.1 Summation formulae 42
4.2 Method of dierences 45 AS Statistics
Summary
Review exercises
46
47
10 Bayes’ Theorem
10.1 Tree diagrams 104
Practice examination questions 47
10.2 Bayes’ eorem 109
5 Trigonometry Summary 112
5.1 General solutions of Review exercises 112
trigonometric equations 49 Practice examination questions 113
5.2 Solving equations involving more 11 Discrete Uniform and Geometric
complicated terms
Summary
53
55
Distributions
11.1 Discrete uniform distribution 116
Review exercises 56
11.2 Geometric distribution 121
Practice examination questions 56
Summary 125
6 Calculus Review exercises 126
6.1 Gradient of a tangent to a curve 58 Practice examination questions 127
6.2 Rates of change 60
iii
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12 Probability Generating Functions A2 Pure
12.1 Probability generating functions and their
properties 131
17 Roots and Polynomials
12.2 Some standard distributions 135
17.1 Roots of higher-order equations 198
12.3 Sums of independent random 17.2 Complex roots of a polynomial
variables 139 equation 201
Summary 144 Summary 204
Review exercises 205
Review exercises 144
Practice examination questions 145 Practice examination questions 206
13 Linear Combinations of Discrete 18 Proof by Induction and Finite
Random Variables Series
13.1 Linear combinations of discrete 18.1 Proof by induction 208
random variables 148
18.2 Finite series 215
13.2 Independent discrete random Summary 217
Review exercises 217
variables 153
Practice examination questions 217
Summary 155
Review exercises 155 19 Series and Limits
Practice examination questions 156 19.1 Convergence 220
19.2 Maclaurin’s theorem 221
AS Mechanics 19.3 Finding the limits of a series 227
14 Constant Velocity in Two 19.4 Improper integrals
Summary
228
230
Dimensions
14.1 Vectors in component form 158 Review exercises 231
14.2 Position, displacement, distance, velocity Practice examination questions 231
and speed 159 20 De Moivre’s Theorem
14.3 Resultant velocity 162 20.1 De Moivre’s theorem 234
14.4 Relative velocity, closest approach 20.2 Further applications of de Moivre’s
and interception 165 theorem to complex numbers 239
Summary 170 20.3 Trigonometric identities 245
Review exercises 171 Summary 252
Practice examination questions 171 Review exercises 253
15 Dimensional Analysis Practice examination questions 253
15.1 Dimensions and dimensional 21 Polar Coordinates
consistency 174 21.1 Position of a point 256
15.2 Finding a formula 177 21.2 Sketching curves given in polar
Summary 179 coordinates 259
Review exercises 180 21.3 Area of a sector of a curve 262
Practice examination questions 181 Summary 266
16 Collision in One Dimension Review exercises 267
16.1 Impulse and momentum 182 Practice examination questions 267
16.2 e principle of conservation of linear 22 The Calculus of Inverse
momentum 186 Trigonometric Functions
16.3 Elastic impact 188 22.1 Inverse trigonometric functions 270
16.4 Multiple collisions 193 22.2 Dierentiation and integration of inverse
Summary 195 trigonometric functions 273
Review exercises 196 Summary 279
Practice examination questions 196 Review exercises 280
Practice examination questions 281
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23 Arc Length and Area of Surface Summary 367
of Revolution Review exercises 368
23.1 Arc length 282 Practice examination questions 368
23.2 Area of a surface of revolution 285
Summary 286 A2 Mechanics
Review exercises
Practice examination questions
287
287
29 Vertical Circular Motion
29.1 Circular motion with non-uniform speed 370
24 Hyperbolic Functions 29.2 Leaving the circular path 375
24.1 Hyperbolic functions 288 Summary 378
24.2 Dierentiation of hyperbolic functions 292 Review exercises 378
24.3 Inverse hyperbolic functions 294 Practice examination questions 379
Summary
Review exercises
303
304
30 Collisions in Two Dimensions
30.1 Impulse and momentum in
Practice examination questions 305
two dimensions 382
25 Dierential Equations of First 30.2 Elastic impact 385
and Second Order Summary 389
25.1 First-order linear equations 306 Review exercises 389
25.2 Second-order dierential equations 308 Practice examination questions 390
25.3 Using a complementary function and 31 Projectiles Launched onto
particular integral to solve a rst
order equation 318
Inclined Planes
31.1 Inclined plane 393
Summary 318
31.2 Other problems 396
Review exercises 319
Summary 400
Practice examination questions 319
Review exercises 401
26 Vectors and Three-Dimensional Practice examination questions 401
Coordinate Geometry 32 Elastic Strings and Springs
26.1 Vectors 320
32.1 Elastic strings and springs 404
26.2 Vector product 324
32.2 Work and energy 408
26.3 Applications of vectors to Summary 414
coordinate geometry 329
Review exercises 414
26.4 Equation of a line 329
Practice examination questions 415
26.5 Equation of a plane 329
26.6 Scalar triple product and its applications 338 33 Application of Dierential
Summary 342 Equations
Review exercises 344 33.1 Variable forces 418
Practice examination questions 344 Summary 424
27 Solutions of Linear Equations Review exercises
Practice examination questions
424
425
27.1 Simultaneous linear equations 346
27.2 Using determinants to nd the number of 34 Simple Harmonic Motion
solutions of three simultaneous equations 349 34.1 Oscillation 426
Summary 351 34.2 Solving the SHM equation of motion 429
Review exercises 352 34.3 Simple pendulum 433
Practice examination questions 352 Summary 435
28 Matrix Algebra Review exercises
Practice examination questions
435
436
28.1 Inverse matrices 354
28.2 Transformations 356 Answers 438
28.3 Invariant points and lines 361 Index 473
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1 Loci, Graphs and Algebra
Introduction Objectives
Polynomial functions always form a continuous curve with no breaks. By the end of this chapter,
However, when you divide one polynomial by another, the graph of the you should know how to:
new function can have breaks in it and is said to be discontinuous. An ▶ Sketch graphs of
example of such graphs is a conic section, which is the curve formed when rational functions.
a plane intersects a right circular cone. Some of the curves you meet the ▶ Find equations of
most in the real world are examples of conic sections, such as the ellipse asymptotes to graphs.
that describes Earth’s orbit around the Sun and the parabola that models ▶ Solve inequalities
the path of a football. involving rational
functions.
▶ Describe and sketch
Recap various conic sections.
You will need to remember how to . . . ▶ Find the points of
▶ Solve construction problems involving loci. intersection between
▶ Solve equations, including quadratics. conic sections and
▶ Sketch basic graphs such as y = x2 coordinate axes and
▶ Find the distance between two points in Cartesian coordinates. various straight lines.
▶ Solve simple inequalities such as 4x + 7 > 3(x 4) and x2 7x + 10 ≥ 0. ▶ Find the Cartesian
▶ Transform graphs using stretches, reections and translations. equation of simple
loci that are described
verbally.
1.1 Loci
In the context of graphs, a locus (plural loci) is a set of points that follow a given
rule. erefore, a locus can be represented by an equation.
For example, a locus is given as the points that are a distance of four units from
the point (2, 3). is locus forms a circle with centre (2, 3). You know from
previous studies that the equation of a circle is given in the form
(x a)2 + (y b)2 = r2, where r is the radius of the circle with centre (a, b).
erefore, the locus described above can be given as the Cartesian equation
( x − 2)2 + ( y − 3) 2 = 16 .
To nd the Cartesian equation of a given locus, consider a general point on the
curve (x, y) and use what you know about loci to help you formulate an
appropriate equation.
Example 1
noitseuQ
Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of points that are equidistant from the
point ( 1, 4) and the line x = 2
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( x , y ) is a general point that obeys the rule. Note
Distance of (x, y) from line x = 2 is x 2
The two distances are equal.
Distance from ( x , y ) to ( 1,4) is
rewsnA
( x + 1)2 + ( y − 4) 2 Note
( x + 1)2 + ( y − 4) 2 = ( x − 2) 2 You will discover later in this
x2 + 2x + 1 + y2 − 8y + 16 = x2 4x + 4
chapter that this is a conic
Equation of the locus is ( y − 4)2 = −6 x + 3 equation of a parabola.
Exercise 1
1 Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of points which are equidistant
from the point (3, 2) and the line y = 5.
2 Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of points which are a distance of
four units from the point (2, 3).
3 Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of points which are equidistant
from the point ( 5, 3) and the line x = 2.
4 Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of points which are a distance of
4 2 units from the point (4, 4).
1.2 Rational functions
During your A-level Mathematics studies you will have learned how to sketch
curves. In this chapter, you will learn how to sketch curves for functions that are
more complicated than trigonometric or polynomial ones.
e graph of a rational function will always have a horizontal asymptote
provided that the degree of x in the denominator is the same as or larger than
the degree of x in the numerator. In this chapter, you will only deal with cases
where there is a horizontal asymptote.
Sketching rational functions with a linear
denominator
ax + b
In order to sketch rational functions equations of the form y = , you need
cx + d
to start by nding the asymptotes.
You should remember that in the context of sketching a curve, an asymptote is
Tip
a line that becomes a tangent to the curve as x or y tends to innity.
(Vertical asymptotes are the lines where the graph is undened.) The asymptote occurs where
4x 8 the graph is undened, so to
For example, take the curve of y =
x+3 nd the vertical asymptote
In order for y → ±∞, the denominator of this function must tend to zero. you need to equate the
at is, as x + 3 → 0, x → −3. Hence, x = − 3 is an asymptote. denominator of the rational
function to zero.
To nd the asymptote as x → ± ∞, you express the function as
8
4
x
y= Tip
3
1+
x Divide the top and bottom
As x → ±∞ 3 → 0 and 8x → 0 . by x
x
4
erefore, y → = 4 .
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Hence, y = 4 is also an asymptote.
Tip
Notice that as x → ±∞, the largest terms in the numerator and the denominator
are 4x and x respectively, and so y ≈ 4x x 4.÷ = When the degrees of the
numerator and denominator
x = −3 is a vertical asymptote, as it is parallel to the y-axis. are the same, you can nd
y = 4 is a horizontal asymptote, as it is parallel to the x-axis. the horizontal asymptote
To be able to sketch y = 4 x 8 , you also need to nd where it crosses the x- and by dividing the leading
x+3
y-axes. coefcient of the numerator
=
When x 0: y = −
8
3
=
When y 0: 4x 8 0 = ⇒ =
x 2 by the leading coefcient of
the denominator.
In summary, you proceed as follows:
1. Draw the asymptotes using dashed lines. y
2. Mark the points where the curve crosses the axes; as the numerator and the 4
denominator of the function each contain only a linear term in x, the
curve cannot cross either asymptote.
3. Considering the curve for x >−
3, you can see that y tends to as x −∞
approaches 3 from values of x greater than 3. Hence, the curve
tends to+∞ as x approaches 3 from values of x less than 3. 3 0 2
x
4x 8
4. You can now complete the curve of y =
x+3 8
3
ax + b
To sketch the curve of a rational function in the form y = cx + d :
1. Find the vertical asymptote by equating the y
denominator to zero; nd the horizontal asymptote
by dividing the numerator and denominator by x,
b
a+ x
that is, expressing the function as y = d
and then
c+ x 4
considering what happens when x tends to innity.
= =
2. Substitute x 0 and y 0 into the function to nd
where the curve crosses the axes. 0 x
3 2
3. If necessary, consider the curve for the x-values, to 8
see what happens to the y-values as x tends to ±∞ 3
Example 2
noitseuQ
y
2x 6
Sketch the graph of =
x 5
Note
2
Horizontal asymptote:
First, nd the asymptotes.
as x → ±∞ →
,y 2
,y 2
1
= 6
5
rewsnA
Vertical asymptote: 0 x
3 5
Note
→ ±∞ → =
as y , x 5 0, x 5
Next, nd where the curve
When x = 0: y =
6 6
= crosses the axes.
5 5
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When y = 0: 2x 6 = 0 ⇒ x = 3
Note
Note that the asymptotes here are parallel to the coordinate axes.
Now copy and complete
Exercise 2 the sketch of by
In questions 1, 2 and 3, state the equations of the asymptotes for the curve. also considering what will
happen to the y values as the
x 1 5
1 y= 2 y= x values change.
2x + 6 x+2
2x + 7
3 y=
x 3
2x + 3
4 Show that y = 2 is an asymptote for the curve y =
x+4
8 4x
5 Show that y = −4 is an asymptote for the curve y =
x+3
6x 3 3x 6
6 Sketch y = 7 Sketch y =
x +4 x 1
2x + 8
8 Sketch y = , stating the equations of the asymptotes of the curve.
3x 5
Sketching rational functions with a quadratic
denominator
When sketching rational functions with equations of the form y = ax + bx + c ,
dx + ex + f
where both the numerator and the denominator are quadratics, you proceed as
before by nding the asymptotes, where the graphs cross the axes, and consider
the shape of the curve. However, with these functions, the shape of the curve
requires consideration of stationary points and the number of asymptotes
depends on the number of roots of the quadratic denominator.
▶ Two dierent roots will result in two vertical asymptotes.
▶ One repeated real root will result in one vertical asymptote.
▶ No roots indicates that there are no vertical asymptotes.
Regardless of the number of asymptotes, there may be values of y that are not
realised by any value of x. erefore, you need to nd the range of the rational
function in order to determine the set of possible values of y and in turn nd the
maximum and minimum points (the stationary points) of the curve.
Example 3
noitseuQ
3x 4
Find the range of possible values of y when y =
x + 3x − 4
2
Note
Cross-multiplying,
To nd the range of values ofy, Note
yx 2
+ 3yx 4y = 3x 4 you need to nd the values for For x to be real, we know that
rewsnA
⇒ yx2 + (3y 3)x + 4 4y = 0 which y = has real b 2 4ac ≥ 0.
erefore, solutions for x
(3y 3)2 4y(4 4y) ≥ 0
(continued)
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⇒ + ≤
(continued)
(y 1)(9y 9 16y) 0
⇒ (y l)(25y 9) 0 ≤
rewsnA
9
≤ y ≤1
25
9
e range of possible values of y is ≤ y ≤1
25
To nd the coordinates of the maximum and minimum points, substitute the
minimum and maximum values from the range of y into the original equations.
3x 4
=
e solution of 1 x + 3 x − 4 is x = 0, and so one turning point is (0, 1). e other
turning point is 3 25
8 9
To discover which is a maximum and which is a minimum, you need to
understand the shape of the curve, which means that you need to consider its
asymptotes.
Curves with two vertical asymptotes
Some functions will have more than one vertical asymptote, for example the
curve y = ( x − 3)(2 x − 5)
( x + 1)( x + 2)
When the denominator is a quadratic expression that can be factorised:
Tip
▶ ere are always two vertical asymptotes if there are two distinct
factors, and The two vertical asymptotes
▶ e curve will normally cross the horizontal asymptote. could coincide, as in
Example 5.
Hence, in addition to nding the asymptotes and the points where the curve
crosses the axes, you need to establish where the curve crosses the horizontal
asymptote.
( x − 3)(2 x − 5)
Hence, there are four stages to sketching the curve with equation y = :
( x + 1)( x + 2)
( x − 3)(2 x − 5)
1. To nd the horizontal asymptote of y = ( x + 1)( x + 2)
, express the equation as
y =
(
1 − x3 2 − x5 )( )
(
1 + 1x 1 + x2 )( )
As x → ± ∞ 1x → 0 and y → 2. erefore, the horizontal asymptote is y = 2.
2. To nd the vertical asymptotes, equate the denominator to zero, which
+ + =
gives (x l)(x 2) 0. Hence, the vertical asymptotes are x = −1 and x = −2.
3. To nd where the curve cuts the axes, you have:
When x 0: y = = 15
When y 0: x 3 and x =
5
2
= =
2
4. To nd where the curve crosses the horizontal asymptote, y 2, you have =
( x − 3)(2 x − 5)
2=
( x + 1)( x + 2)
+ + =
2(x2 3x 2) 2x2 11x 15 +
⇒ = x
11
17
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5. To sketch the curve, you need to insert all four points, as well as the three y
asymptotes.
It is important to note that:
15
▶ e curve can cross an axis or an asymptote only at the points found. 2
▶ If one branch of the curve goes to + ∞, the next branch must return
2
from − ∞. e exception to this is when the two vertical asymptotes coincide 5
2
as the result of a squared factor in the denominator. See Example 5. x
2 1 11 3
Example 4
17
noitseuQ
( x + 1)( x − 4)
Sketch y =
( x − 2)( x − 5)
Note
Horizontal asymptote: y = 1 Equate the denominator to
zero.
Vertical asymptotes: x = 2 and x = 5
4
Curve crosses axes at x = 0, y = − , and at y = 0, x = −1 and 4. Note
10
rewsnA
Curve crosses horizontal asymptote when y = 1,
Express the equation as
( x + 1)( x − 4) y
1=
( x − 2)( x − 5)
x2 7x + 10 = x2 3x 4 1
7 0 or divide the leading
⇒ x= 1 4 2 7 4 5 x
2 10 2 coefcient of the numerator
Example 5 by the leading coefcient of
the denominator, as both are
noitseuQ
of the same degree.
( x − 1)(3 x + 2)
Sketch the curve y =
( x + 1)2
Horizontal asymptote: y = 3.
Note
Vertical asymptotes: x = −1 (twice). Note
Find x = 0 and y = 0.
Curve crosses the axes at x = 0, y = −2, and at
2 Equate the denominator to
y = 0, x = 1 and . zero.
3 Note
Curve crosses the horizontal asymptote
Use methods as before.
when y = 3,
y
3x 2 − x − 2
3= 2 Note
rewsnA
x + 2x + 1
3(x2 + 2x + 1) = 3x2 x 2 Since x = −1 is a repeat
5 asymptote, and the curve
⇒ x=− 3
7 tends to +∞ as x approaches
the value of −1 from the right
(that is, x tends to −1 from
2 above), it also tends to +∞ as
3
1 0 1 x x approaches the value of −1
from the left (that is, from
below).
2
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Curves with no vertical asymptotes
Not all curves with equations of the form y = ax + bx + c have vertical asymptotes. If
px + qx + r
the roots of px2 + qx + r = 0 are not real, the curve will not have a vertical asymptote.
Example 6
2 x 2 + 5x + 3
Given that y =
4 x 2 + 5x + 3
noitseuQ
a sketch the curve
b nd the range of possible values for y
c nd the maximum and minimum points.
1
a Horizontal asymptote: as x → ∞ y →
2 Note
−5 ± −23
Vertical asymptote: 4x2 + 5x + 3 = 0, which gives x = Express the function as
8
e roots are not real. erefore, the curve does not have a vertical to nd the
asymptote. Note horizontal asymptote, or
e curve cuts the axes when y = 0,
Equate the denominator to divide the leading coefcient
2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0
zero. of the numerator by that of
(2x + 3)(x + 1) = 0 the denominator.
3
⇒ x = −1 and
2
and when x = 0, y = 1.
1
e curve crosses the horizontal asymptote y = when
1 2 x 2 + 5x + 3 2 y
= 2 1
2 4 x + 5x + 3
3
4x2 + 5x + 3 = 4x2 + 10x + 6 ⇒ x = −
5 1
2 x 2 + 5x + 3 2
b Cross-multiplying y = 2 : 3 3 0 x
4 x + 5x + 3 2
1
5
rewsnA
4yx2 + 5yx + 3y = 2x2 + 5x + 3
⇒ (4y 2)x2 + (5y 5)x + 3y 3 = 0
Note
From the quadratic formula, b2 4ac ≥ 0
for the roots of x to be real. erefore, To nd the coordinates of
the maximum and minimum
(5y 5)2 4(4y 2)(3y 3) ≥ 0
points, substitute these
⇒ 23y2 22y 1 ≤ 0
values of y into the original
⇒ (23y + l)(y 1) ≤ 0 equations.
1
⇒ − ≤ y ≤1
23
1 Note
e range of possible values of y is − ≤ y ≤1
23
1 To nd the range of values of
c Hence, the maximum value of y is 1, and the minimum value is .
23 y, you need to nd the values
2 x 2 + 5x + 3
If 1 = , then 4x 2 + 5x + 3 = 2x 2 + 5x + 3. for which has
4 x 2 + 5x + 3
erefore 2x2 = 0, and x = 0, so the maximum is (0,1). real roots for x
1 2 x 2 + 5x + 3
If = 2 , then (4x2 + 5x + 3) = 23 (2x2 + 5x + 3).
23 4 x + 5 x + 3
(continued)
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FP1 1.1 1
(continued)
erefore 4x2 5x 3 = 46x2 + 115x + 69
0 = 50x2 + 120x + 72
rewsnA
0 = 25x2 + 60x + 36 = (5x + 6)2
6 6 1
en x = , and so the minimum point is − −
5 5 23
Solving inequalities involving rational functions
Sketching the graph of a rational function can help you to solve an inequality
involving that function.
When solving an inequality involving rational functions, you can add, subtract,
multiply and divide positive numbers as if there were an equals symbol. However, to
multiply or divide by a negative number, you must change the sign of the inequality.
For example, 3 > 2 but 3 < −2 and 2x > 4 ⇒ x < −2.
Hence, an inequality such as ax + b > 2 cannot be solved simply by multiplying
cx + d
both sides of the inequality by cx + d, since you do not know whether cx + d is
positive, giving ax + b > 2(cx + d), or negative, giving ax + b < 2(cx + d).
+b
To solve inequalities such as ax
cx + d > k , you can use either of these two
methods:
1. Algebraic method: multiply both sides of the inequality by (cx + d)2,
which must be non-negative.
+b ax + b
2. Graphical method: sketch y = ax
cx + d , then solve cx + d
= k and then, by
comparing the two results, write the solution to the inequality.
Either method can be used to solve any problem, unless you are asked
specically to use a particular method.
Example 7
noitseuQ
5x9
Solve the inequality > 2 using an algebraic method.
x+3
Multiplying by (x + 3)2
Note
5x9
(x + 3)2 > 2(x + 3)2 (x + 3) is a factor, so factorise
x+3
⇒ (5x 9)(x + 3) > 2(x + 3)2 the term to simplify the
rewsnA
⇒ (5x 9)(x + 3) 2(x + 3)2 > 0 inequality.
(x + 3)[5x 9 2(x + 3)] > 0
Note
⇒ (x + 3)(3x 15) > 0
Consider the signs of x + 3
⇒ (x + 3)(x 5) > 0
and of x 5 to deduce when
⇒ x > 5 or x < −3 their product is positive.
Example 8
noitseuQ
( x + 1)( x + 4)
Solve the inequality < 2 using a graphical method.
( x − 1)( x − 2)
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( x + 1)( x + 4) Note Note
Given the curve of y =
( x − 1)( x − 2)
the horizontal asymptote is y = 1, and Use either of the methods Equate the denominator to
seen earlier in the chapter. zero.
the vertical asymptotes are x = 1 and x = 2.
e curve crosses the axes when y = 0, x = −1 and 4, and when x = 0, y = 2.
Note
e curve crosses the horizontal asymptote
when y = 1, when y = 2, Use x = 0 and y = 0.
( x + 1)( x + 4) ( x + 1)( x + 4)
=1 =2
( x − 1)( x − 2) ( x − 1)( x − 2)
⇒ x2 + 5x + 4 = x2 3x + 2 ⇒ x2 + 5x + 4 = 2(x2 3x + 2)
⇒ 8x = −2 ⇒ 0 = x2 11x
1 ⇒ x = 0 and 11
x =−
4
erefore, we have
( x + 1)( x + 4)
<2
Note
rewsnA
( x − 1)( x − 2)
Use the graph.
when x > 11, 1 < x < 2, x < 0.
y
y
2
4 1 1 0 1 x
4
4 1 1 2 11 x
55
Exercise 3
In questions 1, 2, 3 and 4 write the equations of the asymptotes for the graph of
each function.
x +1 5
1 y= 2 y=
( x + 4)( x − 1) ( x − 3)( x + 2)
3 y = ( x + 8)( x − 2) 4 y = (2 x − 3)(4 x + 5)
( x 3)2 ( x − 1)( x + 7)
Sketch the graph of each of these functions.
( x − 3)( x − 1) (2 x − 1)( x + 4)
5 y =
( x + 2)( x − 2)
6 y =
( x − 1)( x − 2)
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( x + 4)( x − 5) ( x + 1)(2 x + 5)
7 y =
( x − 2)( x − 3)
8 y=
( x + 2)( x − 5)
9 Find the range of values of
4x2 − x − 3 x2 + x − 1
a y= 2 b y= 2
2x − x − 3 x +x−3
10 State the maximum and minimum points of the curves in question 10
In questions 11 to 13, solve each of the inequalities for x
x +3 x +5
11 a <2 b >1
x +2 x 3
( x − 1)( x − 2) ( x + 2)( x − 5)
12 a >1 b >1
( x + 1)( x + 2) ( x − 3)( x − 2)
( x − 1)( x − 4)
c >2
( x + 1)( x − 5)
x2 + x − 3 2x2 + x − 5
13 a 2 >1 b <1
x +x−2 2x2 + x − 3
1.3 Conic sections
If you take a solid, right circular cone and cut a plane section through it in any
direction, you obtain a curve that is a member of the class of curves known as
conics or conic sections
e shape of the curve obtained in this way is determined by the direction in
which you make the cut. In other words, it is dependent on the inclination, θ, of
the plane section to the axis.
α α α α α
θ θ
θ
Parabola Ellipse H
With the cone standing on a horizontal plane, if you cut:
▶ In a direction parallel to the slant height of the cone, whereby θ = α,
you obtain a parabola
π
▶ In a direction for which α < θ <
, you obtain an ellipse
2
▶ In a direction, not through the vertex, for which θ < α, you obtain a
hyperbola
π
▶ Horizontally through the cone that is, θ = you obtain a circle.
2
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In this chapter, you will see how to sketch each of these types of curve (except
the circle), and how to apply transformations. e transformations of more
complicated functions follow the same rules linear transformations do.
If y = f(x), then
▶ y = f(x) + a results in a positive translation in the y-direction
▶ y = f(x) a results in a negative translation in the y-direction
▶ y = f(x + a) results in a negative translation in the x-direction
▶ y = f(x a) results in a positive translation in the x-direction
▶ y = af(x) results in a stretch parallel to the y-axis, with scale factor a y
1
▶ y = f(ax) is a stretch parallel to the x-axis, with scale factor 2
a
▶ y = −f(x) is a reection in the y-axis
▶ y = f( x) is a reection in the x-axis. 1
Parabola
1.5 1.0 0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 x
e standard equation of a conic parabola is y2 = 4ax.
1
e graph shows y 2 = 4 x .
Increasing the value of a causes the parabola to stretch in the x-direction. 2
Note that parabolas do not have asymptotes.
Example 9
noitseuQ
Sketch ( y − 3)2 = 4 x
Note
Start with the graph ,
y
then translate +3 units in the
5
y-direction.
4
rewsnA
3 (0, 3)
1.5 1.0 0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 x
y
(0, 3)
Ellipse
x2 y2
e standard equation of a conic ellipse is 2
+ =1
a b2
(−2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
Ellipses do not have asymptotes.
x2 y2
e graph is of + = 1.
4 9
(0, −3 )
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Example 10 Note
Start by sketching the ellipse
noitseuQ
Sketch the ellipse 16 x − 64 x + 64 + 9 y = 144
2 2 . Since this ellipse
is centered at (0, 0), the
easiest way to sketch it is to
16( x − 2)2 + 9 y 2 = 144
nd the x and y intercepts,
(x 2)2 y2 and to draw the ellipse
+ =1
9 16 through those points. The
y intercepts with the axes are
y
(0, 4) at and .
4 4
rewsnA
2
Note
Then translate the sketch
x x by+2 units in the x direction
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 1 0 1 3 4 5
( 3, 0) (3, 0) ( 1, 0) (5, 0) to get the nal sketch.
2
4 4
(0, 4)
You might need to nd the points of intersection of an ellipse with the
coordinate axes or other straight lines.
Example 11
y2
e number of intersection points of the ellipse x 2 + 16 = 16 with the straight Note
noitseuQ
line y + 3 x = k varies according to the value of k. Calculate the value(s) of k that
Depending on the value ofk,
causes the line to be tangent to the ellipse.
this quadratic could have
Substituting for y zero, one or two solutions.
(k 3 x )2 Zero solutions would indicate
x2 + = 16
16 that the line and the ellipse
16 x 2 + k 2 − 6 kx + 9 x 2 = 256 do not intersect; two distinct
25 x 2 − 6 kx + k 2 − 256 = 0 solutions would indicate
that the line and the ellipse
A quadratic equation has equal roots
rewsnA
Note intersect twice. You need to
when b 2 4 ac = 0.
nd the value(s) of k that
is means You can use your knowledge causes the line and the
(6 k ) − 4(25)(k − 256) = 0
2 2 of the number of solutions ellipse to intersect exactly
25 600 64 k 2 = 0 to a quadratic to nd that once, so that the line is
the line intersects the ellipse tangent to the ellipse.
400 k2 = 0
at two distinct points when
erefore the values of k that cause the line to
be a tangent of the ellipse are ± 20
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Hyperbola
x2 y2
e standard equation of a hyperbola is − =1
a2 b2
As x and y become large, you have
x2
a2
→
y2
b2
⇒ y→±
bx
a y=− b
a
x
y
y= b
a
x
erefore, the asymptotes of a hyperbola
b
are y = ± x
a x
0
Example 12
noitseuQ
y2 x2
Sketch − =1
9 25
x2 y2
e equation −
= 1 is in standard form. Note
9 25
Its intercepts with the x-axis are ( ± 3, 0). Start by sketching
5
Its asymptotes are y = ± x
3
Its intercepts with the y-axis are ( 5, 0). ±
y
y= 5
3
x Note
5
By reecting in the line
, this transforms into
the required graph.
0 x
5 5 Note
It is also possible to sketch
rewsnA
the graph using rst
5 principles, by nding the
y = + 53 x intercepts and asymptotes of
the original equation.
y
5 0 5 x
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Example 13
a Describe the geometrical transformation by which the hyperbola
noitseuQ
x 2 − 9 y 2 = 1 can be obtained from the hyperbola x 2 − y 2 = 1.
b Explain the geometrical transformation by which the hyperbola
x 2 − y 2 − 6y + 8 = 0 can be obtained from the hyperbola x 2 − y 2 = 1. Note
a x 2 − 9 y 2 = 1 can be rewritten as x 2(3 y )2 = 1 which means that this is Convert the hyperbola’s
obtained by a stretch parallel to the y-axis, scale factor 1 equation into the standard
rewsnA
3
b x2 ( y + 3)2 − 9 + 8 = 0 form using
( = + 6y + 9
x2 ( y + 3)2 = 1
us the geometrical transformation is a translation
of 3 units in the positive y-direction. y y
Rectangular hyperbola
xy = c 2
e standard equation of a conic y = ±x
rectangular hyperbola is xy = c 2 . x
0
0 x
A rectangular hyperbola is a hyperbola with
asymptotes y = ± x that has been rotated by 45°
Example 14
noitseuQ
Sketch ( x + 2) y = 4
Note
y y
First, sketch x
6 6
4 4
2 2
rewsnA
6 4 2 0 2 4 6 x 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 x
2 2
Note
4 4
Then translate by −2 units in
6 6
the x-direction.
Exercise 4
1 Sketch the parabola y 2 = 16x
2 Sketch the parabola ( y 5)2 = 4(x − 2).
3 State the asymptotes of the curve xy = 25 and sketch the curve.
4 State the asymptotes of the curve (x 3)(y + 2) = 12 and sketch the curve.
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In questions 5 to 7, sketch the curve and clearly mark the points where the
curve crosses the coordinate axes.
x2 y2
5 + =1
36 25
(x 4)2 ( y 3) 2
6 + =1
25 16
( x 2)2 ( y + 6)2
7 =1
25 16
8 A straight line through (1, 0) with gradient m intersects the hyperbola
x2 y2
9 25
= 1 at point P. Show that the x-coordinate of point P satises the
equation (25 9m 2 )x 2 + 18m 2 x − (9m 2 + 225) = 0.
9 Write the asymptotes of ( x − 5 )( y + 3 ) = 6, and sketch the curve.
x2 y2
10 An ellipse has the equation + =1
4 25
a Sketch the ellipse.
b Given that the line y = x + k intersects the ellipse at two distinct points,
show that − 29 < k < 29
a
c e ellipse is translated by the vector to form another ellipse
b
whose equation is
25 x 2 + 4 y 2 + 50 x − 24 y = c
Find the values of a, b and c
Summary
▶ A locus is a set of points that obey a certain rule, and a locus can be
expressed graphically, verbally or in the form of an equation.
▶ Asymptotes show the ‘end behaviour’ of a graph as x or .
▶ To sketch the graphs of rational, parabola, ellipse and hyperbola equations
you might need to nd the:
• Asymptotes (if applicable; parabolas and ellipses do not have
asymptotes)
• Intercepts with the axes, if any
• Coordinates of any maxima or minima (if applicable).
▶ You can solve a rational inequality by:
• Using algebra to multiply both sides of the inequality by (cx + d)2
• Sketching , then solving and comparing the two
results to nd the solution.
▶ Conic sections are a family of curves with standard equations, and include the:
• Parabola, y2 = 4ax
• Ellipse,
• Hyperbola,
• Rectangular hyperbola, .
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▶ e transformations of more complicated curves follow the same rules
linear transformations do.
If y = f(x), then
• y = f(x) + a results in a positive translation in the y-direction
• y = f(x) a results in a negative translation in the y-direction
• y = f(x + a) results in a negative translation in the x-direction
• y = f(x a) results in a positive translation in the x-direction
• y = af(x) results in a stretch parallel to the y-axis, with scale factor a
1
• y = f(ax) is a stretch parallel to the x-axis, with scale factor
a
• y = −f(x) is a reection in the y-axis
• y = f( x) is a reection in the x-axis.
Review exercises
1 Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of points which are equidistant
from the point (5, 1) and the y-axis.
2 Sketch the graph of .
3 Sketch the graph of .
4 Solve .
5 Solve .
6 Sketch .
7 e curve + = 1 is translated by k units in the positive y-direction.
a Show that the equation of the curve after this translation is
+ = 1.
b Show that if the line x + y = 3 intersects the translated curve, the
y-coordinate of the points of intersection satises the equation
(54 + 2k) y + + 72 = 0.
Practice examination questions
1 a i Write down the equations of the two asymptotes of the curve
. (2 marks)
ii Sketch the curve , showing the coordinates of any points of
intersection with the coordinate axes. (2 marks)
iii On the same axes, again showing the coordinates of any
points of intersection with the coordinate axes, sketch the
line . (1 mark)
b i Solve the equation . (3 marks)
ii Find the solution of the inequality . (2 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2010
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2 A parabola P has equation .
a i Sketch the parabola P. (2 marks)
ii On your sketch, draw two tangents to P which pass through
the point . (2 marks)
b i Show that, if the line intersects P, then the
x-coordinates of the points of intersection must satisfy
. (3 marks)
ii Show that, if this equation has equal roots, then . (3 marks)
iii Hence nd the coordinates of the points at which the tangents
to P from the point touch the parabola P. (3 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2010
y
3 e diagram shows the hyperbola
and its asymptotes.
e constants a and b are positive integers.
e point A on the hyperbola has coordinates
e equations of the asymptotes are and . (2, 0)
a Show that and . (4 marks) x
b e point P has coordinates . A straight line passes through P and
has gradient m. Show that, if this line intersects the hyperbola, the
x-coordinates of the points of intersection satisfy the equation
(4 marks)
c Show that this equation has equal roots if . (3 marks)
d ere are two tangents to the hyperbola which pass through P.
Find the coordinates of the points at which these tangents
touch the hyperbola.
(No credit will be given for solutions based on dierentiation.) (5 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2010
4 A curve has equation
a Find the equations of the three asymptotes to the curve. (3 marks)
b i Show that if the line intersects the curve, then
(1 mark)
ii Given that the equation has real
roots, show that . (3 marks)
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FP1 1.1 1
iii Hence show that the curve has only one stationary point
and nd its coordinates. (No credit will be given for solutions based
on dierentiation.) (4 marks)
c Sketch the curve and its asymptotes. (3 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2013
5 An ellipse is shown on the right.
e ellipse intersects the x-axis at the points A and B. e equation
of the ellipse is y
a Find the coordinates of A and B. (2 marks)
b e line is a tangent to the ellipse, with point of contact P
P
O B x
i Show that the x-coordinate of P satises the equation A
(3 marks)
ii Hence nd the exact value of m. (4 marks)
iii Find the coordinates of P. (4 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2013
6 e curve C has equation .
e line L has equation
a Write down the equations of the asymptotes of C. (3 marks)
b e line L intercepts C at two points. Find the x-coordinates of these two
points. (2 marks)
c Sketch C and L on the same axes.
(You are given that the curve C has no stationary points). (3 marks)
d Solve the inequality . (3 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2012
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2 Complex Numbers
Introduction Objectives
You have always been told that nding the square root of a negative By the end of this chapter,
number is not possible since the square of any real number is always you should know how to:
positive. Whilst it is the case that there is no real number that is , there ▶ Find complex roots of
is an imaginary number with this value: i. A complex number is a number quadratic equations.
consisting of an imaginary part and a real part. You can use the idea that ▶ Find the sum,
i= to perform calculations in the real world. For example, in dierence, product
mechanics you can use the theory of complex numbers to explain the and quotient of two
motion of springs that have resistance. complex numbers.
▶ Compare real and
imaginary parts of
two given complex
Recap numbers.
You will need to remember . . . ▶ Write a complex
▶ How to solve a quadratic equation using the quadratic formula. number either in
▶ How to simplify expressions containing surds, such as . the Cartesian form,
x + iy, or in polar
▶ at the displacement of a point with position vector a to a point with coordinate form,
position vector b is given by the vector b a that is, in terms of
its modulus and
argument.
2.1 What is a complex number? ▶ Represent a complex
number by a point on
A complex number consists of an imaginary part and a real part, for example an Argand diagram,
3 + 5i and draw simple loci
in the complex plane.
A complex number is a number of the form a + ib, where a and b are
real numbers and i2 = −1.
If a = 0, the number is said to be wholly imaginary. If b = 0, the number is real.
If a complex number is 0, both a and b are 0.
In all your previous mathematics work, you have assumed that it is not possible
to have a square root of a negative number. erefore, when you considered the
solution of quadratic equations in the form ax 2 + bx + c = 0, you noted that the
equation has no real roots when b 2 4ac is less than zero.
However, if you consider the imaginary number i, such an equation actually has
two complex roots
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Example 1
noitseuQ
Find the complex roots of the quadratic equation x2 + 2x + 3 = 0.
x=
−2 ± 4 − 12 Note Note
2
Simplify using i as one Use the quadratic formula.
−2 ± −8
of the factors.
2
Note
−2 ± 8 −1
rewsnA
2 Simplify .
−2 ± 2 2 −1
=
2
= −1 ± 2 −1 Note
− 1 ± 2i
Denote the value of as i
or 1 + 2i and 1 2i
Of course, i does not actually exist, but you can perform calculations using the
Tip
simple rule that i 2 = −1.
So, to nd the complex roots (in the form a + ib) of quadratic equations where j is very occasionally used in
there are no real roots (b2 4ac is strictly less than zero), you factorise the place of i
negative root by 1 and then denote 1 as i
It is common to use x + iy to represent an unknown complex number, and in
turn, z is used to represent x + iy. So, when the unknown in an equation is a
complex number, you denote it by z. In a similar way, you can use w to
represent a second unknown complex number, where w = u + iv
The complex conjugate
e complex number x iy is called the of x + iy, and is
complex conjugate
denoted by z∗ or z For example, 2 3i is the complex conjugate of 2 + 3i, and
the complex conjugate of 8 9i is 8 + 9i
If z = x + iy is a root of a quadratic equation which has real coecients,
then z∗ = x iy is also a root of the equation, where z∗ is the conjugate ofz.
You saw this in Example 1, where the solutions of the quadratic x2 + 2x + 3 = 0
were found to be 1 + 2i and 1 − 2i
Example 2
noitseuQ
Solve z2 4z + 40 = 0.
Note
4 ± 12i
z = 4 ± 16 − 160 =
rewsnA
Use the quadratic formula.
2 2
Roots are 2 ± 6i
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Exercise 1
1 Simplify each of these.
a i
3
b i
4
c i
6
2 Express each of these complex numbers in the form a + ib.
a 3 + 2 −1 b 6 − 3 −1
c −4 + −9 d −100 − −64
3 Write the complex conjugate of z when z is
a 3 + 4i b 2 6i c 4 3i
4 Find the solution of each of these equations.
a x
2
+ 4x + 7 = 0 b x
2
+ 2x + 6 = 0
5 Solve each of these equations.
a z
2
+ 2z + 4 = 0 b z
2
3z + 6 = 0 c 2z2 + z + 1 = 0
2.2 Calculating with complex numbers
When you work with complex numbers you can use the same algebraic
methods that you would use with ‘ordinary’ numbers. So, you cannot combine
the real number part of a complex number with the i-term. For example, 2 + 3i
cannot be simplied.
For two complex numbers to be equal, both the real parts must be equal and the
imaginary parts must be equal. is is a necessary condition for the equality of
two complex numbers.
Hence, if a + ib = c + id, then a = c and b = d. For example, if 2 + 3i = x + iy, then
x = 2 and y = 3.
Addition and subtraction
When adding two complex numbers, add the real terms and separately add the
i-terms. For example,
(3 + 7i) + (4 6i) = (3 + 4) + (7i 6i)
=7+i
Generally, for complex numbers:
▶ (x + iy) + (u + iv) = (x + u) + i(y + v) for addition
▶ (x + iy) (u + iv) = (x u) + i(y v) for subtraction.
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Example 3
noitseuQ
Subtract 8 4i from 7 + 2i
rewsnA
7 + 2i (8 4i) = 7 8 + (2i + 4i)
= −1 + 6i
Sometimes you will need to compare the real and imaginary parts of complex
numbers in order to nd the required solution.
Example 4
noitseuQ
Find x and y if x + 2i + 2(3 5iy) = 8 13i
x +6=8 Note
⇒ x =2
Equate the real terms.
rewsnA
2 10y = −13
⇒ 15 = 10y
1 Note
⇒ y=1
2 Equate imaginary terms.
Multiplication
For multiplication of complex numbers, apply the general algebraic method for
multiplication.
Example 5
noitseuQ
Simplify (2 + 3i)(4 5i) = 2(4 5i) + 3i(4 5i).
Note
(2 + 3i)(4 5i) = 2(4 5i) + 3i(4 5i)
Expand.
= 8 10i + 12i 15i 2
rewsnA
Since i 2 = −1, Note
8 10i + 12i 15 × 1 = 8 10i + 12i + 15 Simplify.
= 23 + 2i
Generally, for the multiplication of complex numbers,
Tip
(a + ib)(c + id) = ac bd + i(ad + bc) since i2 = −1.
It can be simpler to multiply
out the numbers every
time than to memorise this
formula.
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Division
To be able to divide by a complex number, you have to change it to a real
number. Take, for example, the fraction 2 + 3i
4 + 5i
Recall from your A-level Mathematics course that you can simplify an
expression such as 1 by multiplying the numerator and the denominator by
1+ 3
1 − 3. Similarly, to simplify an expression such as 2 + 3i you multiply its
4 + 5i
numerator and its denominator by 4 5i, which is the complex conjugate of
the denominator. us,
2 + 3i (2 + 3i )(4 − 5i )
=
4 + 5i (4 + 5i )(4 − 5i )
8 + 12i − 10i − 15i 2
4 2 (5i )2
23 + 2i Note
16 + 25
(5i )2 = −( 25) = 25
23 2
= + i
41 41
To divide by a complex number, write the calculation as a fraction, and
multiply the top and bottom of the fraction by the complex
conjugate of the divisor.
Example 6
noitseuQ
3+i
Simplify
7 3i Note
(3i )2 = −( 9) = +9
3+i (3 + i )(7 + 3i )
=
7 3i (7 − 3i )(7 + 3i )
Note
21 + 7i + 9i + 3i 2
= Multiply the numerator and
7 2 (3i )2
denominator of the fraction
rewsnA
21 + 16i − 3
= by the complex conjugate of
49 + 9
7 – 3i, which is 7 + 3i
18 16i
= +
58 58
9 8 1
= + i or (9 + 8i )
29 29 29
Equations involving complex conjugates
Equations involving complex conjugates can be solved by writing z = a + bi ,
and equating real and imaginary parts.
Example 7
noitseuQ
Solve 2 z + z ∗ = 1 − i
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If z = a + ib, Note
then 2 a + 2bi + a − bi = 1 − i
rewsnA
Write z in the general form
Equating real and imaginary parts: 3a = 1,b = −1 and substitute in z and z ∗ in
1
erefore z = − i the equation given.
3
Exercise 2
1 Simplify each of these.
a (8 + 4i) + (2 6i) b ( 7 + 3i) + (8 4i) c 2 4i + 3( 1 + 2i)
2 Evaluate each of these expressions.
a (3 + i)(2 + 3i) b (4 2i)(5 + 3i) c i(2 3i)(i + 4)
3 Express each of these fractions in the form a + ib, where a, b ∈
2 + 3i 4 + 3i
a b
4 i 5+i
4 Solve each of these equations in x and y
a x + iy = 4 2i b x + iy + 3 2i = 4( 2 + 5i)
7 +i
c x + iy =
2 i
1
5 If z = 2 + 3i, nd the value of z +
z
6 Find z when
a 2 z + z ∗ = 9 + 6i b 3 z − 5 z ∗ = 7 + 2i
c 7 z − 3 z ∗ = 4 + 6i d 3 z − 6 z ∗ = 4 + 8i
2.3 Argand diagram Imaginary
axis
e Argand diagram is a graphical representation of complex
numbers. It is a way to represent complex numbers on a graph that
looks like a real, two-dimensional graph.
In the Argand diagram, the complex number a + ib is b (a, b)
represented by the point (a, b).
Real numbers are represented on the x-axis and imaginary numbers,
on the y-axis. erefore, the general complex number (x + iy) is 0 a Real
represented by the point (x y) axis
In an Argand diagram, the position of the complex conjugate z∗
can always be obtained by reecting the point representing z
in the real axis.
Example 8
noitseuQ
Represent the complex number 2 + 3i on an Argand diagram. Show its complex
conjugate.
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2 + 3i is represented by the point P(2, 3).
Im
Note
3 P (2, 3) 2 + 3i is represented by the
point P (2, 3).
2
1
Note
rewsnA
The complex conjugate is
2 – 3i, which is represented
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 Re
by the point P ′(2, –3).
1 4a
3 P (2, 3)
Polar form of complex numbers
Im e form of the complex number you have
seen so far, z = x + iy, is known as the
P (x, y )
Cartesian form. is can be easily plotted
on an Argand diagram to nd its modulus
and argument.
θ
O e position of point P(x, y) on the Argand
Re
diagram can be given in terms of OP, the
distance of P from the origin (the
modulus), and θ, the angle in the anticlockwise sense that OP makes with the
positive real axis (the argument).
e length of the line OP is the modulus of z and is denoted by r = |z|; it is always
taken to be positive.
e angle θ (normally in radians) is the argument of z, denoted by arg z. e
principal value of θ is taken to be between π and π
Connection between the Cartesian form and the
polar form Im
From the diagram,
r = |z | = x
2
+ y2 P (x, y )
r
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ y
So, θ
0 x Re
z ≡ x + iy = r cos θ + ir sin θ
So, the Cartesian form can now be written using the polar form
as z = r (cos θ + i sin θ).
y
Also, θ can be found using tan θ =
x
Take care when either x or y is negative. (See part b in Example 9.)
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Example 9
noitseuQ
Find the modulus and argument of each of these complex numbers.
Note
a 2 + 2 3i b 1 i
Sketch a diagram to help.
a Im
3 2 2 + (2 3) 2 = 4 Note
π
2 2 3 tan 1
3= Remember that the angle is
3
measured anticlockwise from
1
the positive real axis.
θ
rewsnA
0 1 Re
2
b Im
e modulus of 1 i is 12 + 12 = 2
Note
π If the angle in Example 9 is
e angle ϕ is . erefore, the argument
1 0 4
measured anticlockwise from
ϕ Re is −π + π = − 3π
4 4 the positive real axis, its value
is , but this is not between
1
π and π. Thus, you take the
clockwise angle, which is
. The minus sign denotes
that the angle is measured in
Example 10 the clockwise sense.
noitseuQ
π
Express the complex number z given by modulus 4 and argument 3
in the form
a + ib, where a and b are real numbers.
π
Using x = r cos θ, x = 4 cos = 2.
3
rewsnA
π
Using y = r sin θ, y = 4 sin = 2 3.
3
Hence z = 2 + 2i 3 .
Exercise 3
1 Represent each of these on an Argand diagram.
a 2 + 2i b 3 + 3i c −2 + 2 3i
d 1−i e 4i f 5 + 12i
g 4 h 6 + 13i
2 Find the modulus and the argument of each of the complex numbers in
question 1
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3 Given that = 3 + 4 z i
a calculate
i z
2
ii z
3
b nd
i | z| ii |z2| iii |z3|
c evaluate
i arg z ii arg z2 iii arg z3
4 Express the complex number in its + z a ib form when
a | | = 2 and arg =
z
π z
3
b |z| = 4 and arg z =
π
4
7 + 2i
5 Given that z = , nd the modulus and argument of z
3 + 4i
2.4 Loci in the complex plane
You know from your previous work on vector geometry that the vector a b
connects the point with position vector b to the point with position vector a.
Im Similarly, in the complex plane, z z1
P joins the point z1 to the point z
From the diagram, OC = z
1
and OP = z
z erefore,
C
CP = CO + OP =− 1+ = −
z z z z
1
Using this fact, you can identify a number
z1
of loci that you need to learn and
O Re recognise.
|z z 1| =r
|z z1| is the modulus or length of z z , that is, the length of the line
1 r
joining z1 to a variable point z.
z1
erefore, |z z1| = r is the locus of a point z, moving so that the length of
the line joining a xed point z1 to z is always r. Hence, the locus of z is a
0
circle, with centre z1 and radius r.
|z | =r
In the special case in which z1 = 0, the centre of the circle becomes the
origin, and its radius is r
Example 11
noitseuQ
State and sketch the locus of |z 2 3i| = 3.
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FP1 1.3 2
e locus is |z (2 + 3i )| = 3, which is a circle of centre (2, 3) and radius 3.
Note
Im
Convert |z 2 3i| to
|z (2 + 3i )| since the form
rewsnA
above is always written as
3 (2, 3) |z z1|. When sketching this
locus, show clearly that the
circle touches the x-axis and
0 2 Re cuts the y-axis twice.
arg (z z 1) =θ
Im e point z satises the equation of this
locus when the line joining z1 to z has
argument θ
θ
z1 So, the locus is the half-line , starting at
z1, inclined at θ to the real axis. (It is
called a half-line because you only want
the part of the line that starts at z1.)
0 Re
Example 12
noitseuQ
π
State and sketch the locus of arg ( z − 2) =
3
is locus is the half-line starting at (2, 0), inclined at an angle of to the
π
3
real axis.
Im
rewsnA
π
3
0 Re Im
(2, 0)
z1
|z z 1| = |z z 2|
e line joining z to z1 is equal in length to the line joining z to z2 erefore, z2
the locus of z is the of the line joining z1 to z2
perpendicular bisector
0 Re
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Example 13
noitseuQ
State the locus of |z 3 + i| = |z 2i|.
|z (3 ) = |z 2i|
i |
Im
(0, 2)
rewsnA
0 Re
(3, 1)
e locus is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining 3 i to +2i
Example 14
On the same diagram, show the locus of z when
noitseuQ
π
a |z 4| = 4 b arg z =
4
c Find the point that satises both loci.
a, b
Note
π
Usually, it is possible to nd
arg z = 4
a common point on two
separate loci by using simple
geometry and common
rewsnA
n
sense. In this example, the
4
point (4, 4) can readily be
0 4 z − 4| = 4 seen to be on both loci. To
calculate a common point
may involve complicated
algebra.
c e point that satises both loci is (4, 4) or (4 + 4i).
Example 15
noitseuQ
π π
Find the locus of < arg( − 2) <
z
4 3
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FP1 1.3 2
Note
Draw the two separate loci
rewsnA
= arg(z 2) and = arg (z 2),
π then make sure that you select the
π 4
3 correct sector.
0 2
Exercise 4
1 Sketch the locus of z when
a |z| = 5 b |z| = 3
c |z 2| = 3 d |z 2i| = 4
2 Sketch the locus of z when
π 3π
a arg z = b arg z = −
3 4
π
c arg( z + 2) =
2
3 Sketch the locus of z when
a |z 6| = |z + 3| b |z i | = |z 2i|
5π
c |z + 2i| = |z 2| d |z| = 2 and arg z =
6
7π
e |z| = 6 and arg z =
6
Summary
▶ For quadratic equations where there are no real roots (b 2 − 4ac strictly less
than zero), you nd the complex roots in the form x + iy.
▶ If z = x + iy is a root of a quadratic equation that has real coecients, then
z = x + iy is also a root of the equation, where z is the conjugate of z.
∗ ∗
▶ Generally, for complex numbers in Cartesian form:
• (x + iy) + (u + iv) = (x + u) + i(y + v) for addition
• (x + iy) − (u + iv) = (x − u) + i(y − v) for subtraction
• (a + ib)(c + id) = ac − bd + i(ad + bc) for multiplication
• to divide by a complex number, write the division as a fraction, and
multiply the top and bottom of the fraction by the complex conjugate
of the divisor.
▶ Comparing the real and imaginary parts of two given complex numbers
can help you to solve problems, including equations that involve complex
conjugates.
▶ In an Argand diagram, real numbers are represented on the x-axis and
imaginary numbers, on the y-axis, such that the complex number a + ib is
represented by the point (a, b).
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▶ e Cartesian form of a complex number, z = x + iy, can be easily plotted on
an Argand diagram to nd its modulus and argument. e modulus is |z|
and the argument is θ, the angle in the anticlockwise sense from the
positive real axis. When the modulus and argument are given, the complex
number is said to be in polar form.
▶ e Cartesian form of a complex number can also be written in terms
of the polar form (that is, in terms of its modulus and argument)
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ). e angle θ can be found using tan .
▶ Generally, for complex numbers in polar form, to nd the:
• Product of two complex numbers, multiply their moduli and add their
arguments
• Quotient of two complex numbers, divide their moduli and subtract
their arguments.
▶ Some loci in the complex plane that you need to recognise are:
• | z| = r
• |z z1| = r
• arg(z z1) = θ
• |z z1| = |z z2|
Review exercises
1 Simplify each of these.
a (8 + 3i) (7 + 2i) b (4 2i)(5 + 3i) c i(2 3i)(i + 4)
2 Express each of these fractions in the form a + ib, where a, b ∈
a b
3 If z = 3 + i, nd the value of z +
4 Find the solution of each of these equations.
a 2x2 + 6x + 9 = 0 b x2 5x + 25 = 0
5 Find z when
a |z + 2 + 2i| = b
c 2|z i| = 3
6 Sketch the locus of z when
a b
c
7 Sketch the locus of z when
a b |z| = 1 and arg z
c |z| = 4 and arg z
8 Given that , nd the modulus and argument of z.
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Practice examination questions
1 Find the complex number z such that .
Give your answer in the form , where a and b are real. (6 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2014
2 a Solve the equation , giving your answers in the form
, where p and q are integers. (3 marks)
b It is given that .
i Express z in the form , where a and b are integers. (3 marks)
ii Find integers m and n such that (3 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2013
3 It is given that , where x and y are real numbers.
a Find, in terms of x and y, the real and imaginary parts of
. (3 marks)
b Hence nd the complex number z such that
. (3 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2012
4 It is given that , where x and y are real.
a Find, in terms of x and y, the real and imaginary parts of
. (3 marks)
b Given that nd the two possible
values of z. (4 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2011
5 Two loci, L1 and L2, in an Argand diagram are given by
e point P represents the complex number .
a Verify that the point P is a point of intersection of and . (2 marks)
b Sketch and on one Argand diagram. (6 marks)
c e point Q is also a point of intersection of and . Find the complex
number that is represented by Q. (2 marks)
AQA MFP2 January 2013
6 a Draw on an Argand diagram:
i the locus of points for which (3 marks)
ii the locus of points for which (3 marks)
b Indicate on your diagram the points satisfying both
and . (1 mark)
AQA MFP2 June 2012
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3 Roots and Coecients of a
Quadratic Equation
Introduction Objectives
Quadratic equations are used to model events in the real world. For By the end of this chapter,
example, if you assume that the number of items sold decreases linearly you should know:
with the price of each item, then the total revenue is a quadratic function. ▶ How to use the
e height of a tennis ball thrown into the air can be modelled using a relationship between
quadratic function of time. Indeed, quadratic equations are an important the roots and the
part of mathematics. coecients of a
quadratic equation.
▶ How to create
an equation that
Recap has roots related
You will need to remember . . . to the roots of a
▶ How to solve quadratic equations using the formula or by factorisation. given equation;
▶ How to expand expressions such as and using for example, if an
algebraic identities. equation has roots
▶ Algebraic identities such as: α and β, you should
• Cube of a binomial (a ± b)3 = a3 ± b3 ± 3a2b + 3ab2 be able to nd an
• Square of a binomial (a ± b)2 = a2 ± 2ab + b2 equation with roots
α2 and β 2
• Dierence of squares (a b)(a + b) = a2 b2
• Sum of cubes (a + b)(a2 ab + b2) = a3 + b3
3.1 Roots of a quadratic equation
You know that the roots of a polynomial equation in x are the values of x that
make that polynomial equation equal to zero.
If α and β are the roots of a quadratic equation f(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0, then it
follows that the equation must be of the form f(x) = k(x α)(x β) for some
constant k.
Equating these two forms of a quadratic equation makes it possible to establish
a relationship between the roots of a quadratic and the coecients of that
quadratic.
k(x α)(x β) ≡ ax2 + bx + c
⇒ k(x2 [α + β]x + αβ) ≡ ax2 + bx + c
Equating the coecients of x2 gives k = a
Equating the coecients of x gives k(α + β) = b
Equating the constants gives kαβ = c
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P1 3
erefore,
b c
α +β =− and αβ =
a a
b
Given a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , the sum of the roots is
a
and the product of the roots is ac
From this, it follows that you can also write the quadratic equation as
x2 (sum of roots)x + (product of roots) = 0.
e relationship between the roots and the coecients of a quadratic can be
used to help you nd the sum and product of the roots if given the equation, or
to nd the equation if given the sum and product of the roots.
Example 1
For the equation 3x2 7x + 11 = 0, nd
noitseuQ
a the sum of the roots
b the product of the roots.
b 7 7
a Since α + β = − , the sum of the roots is α + β = − =+
rewsnA
a 3 3
c 11
b Since αβ = , the product of the roots is αβ =
a 3
Example 2
noitseuQ
1 5
Find a quadratic equation whose roots have a sum of and a product of
2 2
−
1 5
− =0 Note
rewsnA
2
2 2
Use x 2 (sum of roots)x +
or 2x 2 x 5 = 0 (product of roots) = 0.
Example 3
e equation x 2 + 9 x + 5 = 0has roots α and β
noitseuQ
a Write the value of α + β and the value of .
b Show that 2(α + β ) = −18
b 9 c 5
α +β =− = = −9; αβ =
rewsnA
a = =5
a 1 a 1
b 2(α + β ) = 2 × − 9 = −18
For some questions, you will rst need to rearrange the equation into the
standard form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
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Example 4
noitseuQ
7
For the equation x + 5= x , show that the sum and the product of the roots are
5 and 7 respectively.
+5=
7 Note
x
First write the equation in the
x 2 + 5x − 7 = 0
rewsnA
standard form by multiplying
b 5 by x and rearranging.
Sum of roots = α + β = − = − = − 5
a 1
c 7
Product of roots = αβ = = = − 7
a 1
Exercise 1
1 Find the sum and the product of the roots of each of these equations.
a x2 + 3x 7 = 0 b x2 11x + 5 = 0
c x2 + 5x 4 = 0 d 3x2 + 11x + 2 = 0
2 Write a quadratic equation whose roots have the sum and the product
given below.
a Sum 7; product 15 b sum 3; product 5
c sum 2; product 4 d sum 5; product 11.
3 Write the sum and the product of the roots of each of these equations.
5
a x+2= b 2x2 = 7 4x
x
4
c x 7= d 8 = −3x2 + 2x 7
x
4 Show that the sum and product of the equation x2 + 4x = 7 are 4 and 7
respectively.
3.2 Finding an equation with roots that are
a function of existing roots
If an equation has roots α and β, you can use the sum and product of the
roots to nd equations with roots that are functions of α and β. First you need
to express the new sum and product of the roots in terms of α + β and αβ by
manipulating algebraic identities. en you substitute in the values of α + β and
αβ to nd the new sum and product, and hence the new equation.
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P1 3
Example 5 Note
Substitute the values of
noitseuQ
e equation 4x2 + 7x 5 = 0 has roots α and β. α + β and αβ in the right-
Find the equation whose roots are α2 and β 2 hand side.
Because 4x2 7x 5 = 0, α
7
and αβ = −
5
+β =− Note
4 4
First nd the values of the
Sum of the new roots: α + β = (α + β) 2αβ
2 2 2
2
Note sum and product of the roots
α + β = − − 2 × −
7 5 89
2 2
= Because (α + β)2 = α2 +
of the given equation.
rewsnA
4 4 16
2αβ + β2
Product of the new roots: α2β 2 = (αβ)2
2
Note
5 25
(αβ ) = − =
2
4 16 Substitute in the value for αβ
89 25
erefore, the new equation is x − x+ 2
=
16 16
or 16x 2 89x + 25 = 0.
Example 6
noitseuQ
e equation 3x2 + 8x 4 = 0 has roots α and β.
Find a quadratic equation with integer
coecients whose roots are α3 and β 3
8 4 Note
+ =− and αβ =
3 3
Sum of new roots is Use the identity (α + β)3 =
α3 + β3 + 3α2β + 3αβ 2
α3 + β 3 = (α + β)3 3α2β 3αβ 2
= (α + β)3 3 αβ(α + β)
3 Note
8 4 8 800
= 3 ×− ×− =
3 3 3 27 Factorise so the expression is
rewsnA
4
3
64 in terms of α + β and αβ.
Product of the new roots is α3β 3 = (αβ)3 = = − 27
3
erefore, the new equation is
800 64
=0
x2 27
x 27
800 64
2
+ − =0
27 27
Alternatively, you could give 27x 2 + 800x 64 = 0.
Example 7
The equation 3x2 + 8x 4 = 0 has roots α and β. Find the equation whose roots
noitseuQ
1 1
are and
α β
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3x2 + 8x 4 = 0 has roots α and β
3
Substituting y = 1 , we nd that
y
+ 8y 4 = 0
x
rewsnA
1 1
has roots and
α β
1 1
erefore 3 + 8y 4y2 = 0 has roots and
α β
Simplifying, 4y2 8x 3 = 0 has the required roots.
Alternatively, 4x2 8x 3 = 0.
Example 8
noitseuQ
e equation 3x2 + 8x 4 = 0 has roots α and β. Find the quadratic equation
2 2
with integer coecients whose roots are α + β and β + α
8
+ = − and αβ = 4
3 3
2 2 2 2
Sum of the new roots: α + +β+ =( + )+ +
β α α β
β +α
= ( + )+ 2
αβ
rewsnA
8
=
8
+2× 3 = 4
3 4 3
3
2 2 1
β + = αβ + 4 + 4 = −
1
Product of the new roots: α +
β α αβ 3
4 1
erefore, the new equation is x 2 x = 0.
3 3
Alternatively, 3x 2 4x 1 = 0.
Exercise 2
1 e equation 4 x 2 + 7 x − 5 = 0 has roots α and β. Find an equation whose
roots are α2 and β 2
2 e equation 5 x 2 + 7 x − 12 = 0 has roots α and β.
a Write the value of α + β and the value of αβ.
169
b Show that α 2 + β 2 =
25
3 e equation 3 x 2 + 5 x − 6 = 0 has roots α and β. Find an equation whose
1
roots are 1 and β
α
4 If α and β are the roots of the equation x 2 − 5 x + 3 = 0, nd the values of
a + b α2 + β2 c α3 + β3
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P1 3
5 e quadratic equation x 2 − 4 x + 9 = 0 has roots α and β
a Write the value of α + β and the value of αβ
1 1
b Find a quadratic equation which has roots + α 2 and + β2
α2 β2
6 e quadratic equation 4 x 2 − 9 x + 8 = 0 has roots α and β
a Write the value of α + β and the value of αβ
b Find a quadratic equation, with integer coecients, which has roots
α + β 2 and β + β 2
Summary
▶ For a quadratic equation of the form with two roots
α and β the relationship between the roots and the coecients of the
equation is as follows:
• e sum of the roots is
• e product of the roots is
▶ e relationship between the roots and the coecients can be used to
nd the sum and product of the roots if given the equation, or to nd the
equation if given the sum and product of the roots.
▶ If an equation has roots α and β, you can use the sum and product of
the roots to nd equations with roots that are functions of α and β by
expressing the new sum and product of the roots in terms of α + β and αβ
and substituting in their values.
Review exercises
1 Write the sum and the product of the roots of each of these equations.
a x+3= b 3x2 = 12 2x
2 e equation has roots α and β
a Write the value of α + β and the value of αβ
b Show that .
3 e equation 3x 2 + 12x 7 = 0 has roots α and β. Find a quadratic equation
whose roots are α + and β +
4 e quadratic equation has roots α and β
a Write the value of α + β and the value of αβ
b Show that =
c Find a quadratic equation with integer coecients which has roots
+ and .
Roots and Coecients of a Quadratic Equation 39
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Practice examination questions
1 e equation has roots α and β
a Write down the value of α + β and the value of αβ. (2 marks)
b Hence show that . (3 marks)
c Find a quadratic equation, with integer coecients, whose roots are
and . (6 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2013
2 e quadratic equation has roots α and β
a Write down the value of α + β and the value of αβ. (2 marks)
b Show that . (3 marks)
c Find a quadratic equation, with integer coecients,
which has roots and . (5 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2012
3 e quadratic equation has roots α and β
a Write down the value of α + β and the value of αβ. (2 marks)
b Show that . (2 marks)
c Find a quadratic equation, with integer coecients,
which has roots and . (5 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2012
4 e equation has roots α and β
a Write down the value of α + β and the value of αβ. (2 marks)
b Show that . (2 marks)
c Find an equation, with integer coecients, which has
roots and . (5 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2011
Tip
5 e quadratic equation has roots α and β For part c, you will need to
a Write down the value of α + β and the value of αβ. (2 marks) draw on your knowledge
of complex numbers and
b Find a quadratic equation, with integer coecients,
complex conjugates; see
which has roots and . (4 marks)
Chapter 2 Complex Numbers
c Hence nd the values of and . (1 mark) for a reminder if you need to.
AQA MFP1 January 2011
40 Roots and Coecients of a Quadratic Equation
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4 Series
Introduction Objectives
It is likely that you will recognise series from your earliest school days, By the end of this chapter,
particularly triangular numbers: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15. . . . e nth triangular number you should know how to:
is the sum . In this chapter, you will generalise the ▶ Use formulae to
concept of summing series, for example to nd the sum of the rst n determine the sum
squares or cubes. Summing squares is a useful tool when nding lines of of the squares and
best t. cubes of the natural
numbers.
▶ Sum mixed sums such
Recap as .
You will need to remember how to . . . ▶ Add nite sums
▶ Read and use sigma notation, for example . using the method of
dierences.
▶ Use simple formulae for summation notation, such as:
▶ Add various innite
• , where c is any number series using
the method of
• . dierences.
▶ Determine the impact of limits, for example, as , you should be
able to say what happens to .
4.1 Summation formulae
You know from your A-level Mathematics studies that a series is the sum of the
terms in a sequence. You will have used formulae to help you nd the sum of
arithmetic and geometric progressions.
ere will be times, however, when you need to nd the sum of a series that is
not as familiar to you. In these cases, you will need to use a dierent set of
summation formulae.
Important summation formulae Formulae booklet
∑
n
1
r = n(n + 1) The rst three are given in
r 1
2
the Formulae and Statistical
∑
n
1
r
2
= n(n + 1)(2 n + 1) Tables booklet.
r 1
6
∑
n
r
3
= 1 n 2 (n + 1)2
r 1
4
2
∑ ∑
n n
r
3
= r
r 1 r 1
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A useful summation formula that you should already know is
∑
n
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + . . . + 1 = n (total of n terms of 1).
r 1
You can use these formulae to nd the sums of many series. Split the given term
into parts (by breaking up the summation across the sum or dierence) and
factor out any constants before applying the relevant summation formula. When
the upper limit is given as n, you will nd the sum as a polynomial expression.
Example 1
noitseuQ
∑
n
Find the sum of (4r 2 + 1)
r 1
Note
Split the term into its parts using
∑ ∑ +∑
n n n
(4r 2 + 1) = 4 r
2
1 Note
r =1 r 1 r =1
erefore = n (since you are
∑
n
(4r 2 + 1) = 4 × 1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) + n summing n copies of 1)
r 1
6
= 2 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) + n
rewsnA
3
1 Note
= [2n(n + 1)(2n + 1) + 3n ]
3 Use the summation formula
∑
n
1
⇒ (4r 2 + 1) = n[2(n + 1)(2n + 1) + 3]
r 1
3
erefore,
n
(4r 2 + 1) = 1 n(4n2 + 6n + 5)
r 1
3
Example 2
noitseuQ
∑
n
Find the sum of (2r 3 + 3r 2 + 1)
r 1
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
n n n n
(2r 3 + 3r 2 + 1) = 2r 3 + 3r 2 + 1
r =1 r =1 r =1 r =1
∑ ∑ +∑
n n n
2 r
3
3 r
2
1 Note
r =1 r =1 r =1
Split the term into its parts
erefore
rewsnA
n
and factor out the constants.
(2r 3 + 3r 2 + 1) = 2 × 1 n
2
(n + 1)2 + 3 × 1 n (n + 1)(2n + 1) + n
r 1
4 6
Note
= n [n(n + 1)2 + (n + 1)(2n + 1) + 2]
2 Simplify.
Factorising,
∑
n
(2r 3 + 3r 2 + 1) = n (n3 + 4n2 + 4n + 3)
r 1
2
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Example 3
noitseuQ
∑
2n
Find the value of (4r 3 3)
r =n +1
∑ ∑ ∑ −
2n 2n n
(4n 3 − 3) = (4r 3 − 3) − (4r 3 3)
r =n +1 r 1 r 1 Note
∑ = ∑ − ∑ − ∑ − ∑
2n 2n 2n n n
(4r 3 − 3) 4 r
3
3 1 4 r
3
3 1 Split the given term into its
r = n +1 1 1 1 1 parts.
= 4 × 1 (2n)2 (2n + 1)2 − 3 × 2n − 4 × 1 n2 (n + 1)2 − 3n
4
rewsnA
4
Note
= 4n2(2n +1)2 6n n2(n + 1)2 + 3n
Each term must be split into
= 4n2(4n2 + 4n + 1) n2(n2 + 2n + 1) 3n
the sum from 1 to 2n ; then
= n2(15n2 + 14n + 3) 3n
subtract the sum from 1 to n
erefore,
∑
2n
(4r 3 3) = 15n4 + 14n3 + 3n2 3n
r =n +1
When you are given the value of the end term, you will need to nd the value of
the sum rather than a polynomial expression.
Example 4
noitseuQ
∑
8
Find (r 2 + 2)
r 1
Note
∑ ∑ ∑
8 8 8
(r 2 + 2) = r
2
+ 2
r 1 1 1 Split the given term.
∑= ∑=
n n
Since 1 n, 2 2n ,
r =1 r =1 Note
n
+ 2) = 1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) + 2n
rewsnA
(r 2 Use
r 1
6
Since n = 8,
8
(r 2 + 2) = 1 × 8 × 9 × 17 + 16 = 220
r 1
6
∑
8
erefore (r 2 + 2) = 220.
r 1
Exercise 1
∑ ∑
n n
1 Find (2r 2 + 2r ) 2 Find (2r 3 + r )
r 1 r 1
∑ ∑
n 15
3 Find (r + 1)(r − 2) 4 Find (3r − 1)(2r + 3)
r 1 r 1
44 Series
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4.2 Method of dierences
For some series, it is possible to use the method of dierences to nd the sum
of a nite series because most of the terms cancel out. You will usually be given
a relationship, which you may be asked to prove, and then each term of the
series you are trying to sum is split into two terms which will cancel out.
1
In Example 5 you will see how to use a given identity r ≡ 2 [r (r + 1) (r l)r] to
∑
n
nd the sum r
r 1
ere is no expectation that you will ‘guess’ the initial identity. Rather, insert
r = 1 into the given identity, then insert r = 2 into the given identity, then insert
r= 3 and so on until you can see clearly which pairs of terms cancel with each other.
en you have to ensure that you notice which terms at the end of the series do
not cancel with the earlier terms.
Example 5
noitseuQ
1
∑
n
Use the identity r ≡ [r(r + 1) (r l)r] to nd the sum r
2 r 1
Making the given substitution, we obtain
1
∑
n n
r = [r (r + 1) − (r − 1)r ]
1
r 1
2 r
1 1 1
= (1 × 2 0 × 1) + (2 × 3 1 × 2) + (3 × 4 2 × 3) + . . .
2 2 2
1 1
+ [(n 1)n (n 2)(n 1)] + [n(n + 1) (n 1)n]
2 2
rewsnA
1 1 1 1 1 1
= (1 × 2) (0 × 1) + (2 × 3) (1 × 2) + (3 × 4) (2 × 3) + . . .
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
+ (n 1)n − (n 2)(n 1) + n(n + 1) (n 1)n
Note
2 2 2 2
erefore
We notice that almost all the
1 terms cancel one another out.
n
r = [ −0 × 1 + n(n + 1)]
1
r
2
= 1 n(n + 1
2
Finding the sum of innite series using dierences
∞
An innite series is a sum such as
=1
∑
r
1
r r
1
+ 1 , which looks like the sum of
innitely many terms. Of course, you are not expected to add innitely many
terms. Instead, you are expected to nd the limit as n → ∞ of the partial sums
∑
n
1 1
, provided that this limit exists.
r r +1
=1
If the limit of partial sums exists, then we can say that the series converges and
can give the value of the sum of the innite series. If it does not, we say that the
series does not converge
∑ ∑ f( ), provided this limit exists.
∞ n
By denition, f (r ) = lim r
n →∞
r 1 r 1
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Example 6
noitseuQ
∑
∞
1 1 exists. If it does, give its value.
+ 1
Determine whether the sum
r 1
r r
n
1 1 = 1− 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ... + 1 − 1
r r + 1 2 2 3 3 4 n n + 1 Note
r 1
= 1− 1
rewsnA
As before, do not simplify
n +1
each term so that you can tell
erefore, the innite series converges and
which terms will cancel.
∑ ∑
∞
1 = lim
1
n
1
− = lim 1 − 1 = 1
1
r
→∞
r +1 n r
→∞ n + 1
r +1 n
r 1 r 1
Exercise 2
1 Show that r (r + 1)(r + 2) − (r − 1)r (r + 1) = 3r (r + 1)
∑
n
Hence nd the sum of the series r (r + 1)
r 1
2 Show that
r (r + 1)(r + 2)(r + 3) − (r − 1)r (r + 1)(r + 2) = 4r (r + 1)(r + 2)
∑
n
Hence nd the sum of the series r (r + 1)(r + 2).
r 1
3 If S = x + 2 x 3 + 3 x 5 + ... + nx 2 n 1
nd S x 2 S . Use this result to nd the
∑
n
sum rx 2 r 1
r 1
4 Find the value of A for which (2r + 1)2 − (2r − 1)2 = Ar
∑
n
Hence nd r
r 1
∑
∞
2 2
+ 2
5 Find
r 1
r r
Summary
▶ You can nd the sum of unfamiliar series using a set of summation formulae:
▶ Split the given term into parts (by breaking up the summation across the
sum or dierence) and factor out any constants before applying the
relevant summation formula.
▶ ese formulae can be adjusted to change the start and end points of the
values of r
46 Series
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▶ You can also nd the sum of a series using the method of dierences.
▶ In some cases, it is possible to extend summations to innite sums, because
the partial sums converge.
Review exercises
1 Find .
2 Find .
3 Show that , and hence nd
Practice examination questions
1 Use the formulae for and to nd the value of
(4 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2014
2 a Use the formulae for and to show that
where k is a constant. (5 marks)
b Hence evaluate (2 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2012
3 a Show that can be expressed in the form
where k is a rational number and a, b and c are
integers. (4 marks)
b Show that there is exactly one positive integer n for which
(5 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2010
4 a Given that , show that
(3 marks)
b Use the method of dierences to show that
(4 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2013
5 a Given that , show that (3 marks)
b Use the method of dierences to show that
(5 marks)
AQA MFP2 January 2009
6 a Given that , show that
(3 marks)
b Use the method of dierences to nd the value of
(4 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2007
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5 Trigonometry
Introduction Objectives
Trigonometric functions such as sin x are periodic. e equation By the end of this chapter,
has one solution in a calculator, but as sin is periodic it actually must have you should know how to:
innitely many solutions. In this chapter, you will learn how to nd all the ▶ Find general solutions
solutions of standard trigonometric equations. ese methods can be to trigonometric
applied to many situations in which an oscillation occurs. equations such as
, where a
is a given number
between 1 and 1.
Recap ▶ Find the general
You will need to remember how to . . .
solution of similar
▶ Understand angles given in radians or degrees. equations that are
▶ Use your calculator to solve equations such as given in terms of
cosine or tangent.
▶ e general solution of cos θ = x is given by:
• θ = 360n° ± cos 1 x for any integer n, if θ and cos 1 x are measured in F
degrees
• θ = 2nπ ± cos 1 x for any integer n, if θ and cos 1 x are measured in radians 30°
▶ e general solution of sin θ = x is given by:
• θ = 360n° + sin 1 x and θ = 360n° + 180°− sin 1 x for any integer n, if θ 2
√3
and sin 1 x are measured in degrees
• θ = 2nπ + sin 1 x and θ = 2nπ + π sin 1 x for any integer n, if θ and
sin 1 x are measured in radians 60°
D E
▶ e general solution of tan θ = x is given by: 1 P
• θ = 180n° + tan 1 x for any integer n, if θ and tan 1 x are measured in degrees C
• θ = nπ + tan 1 x for any integer n, if θ and tan 1 x are measured in radians.
In general calculators are used to nd the values of the trigonometric ratios;
however in some cases you should be able to recall certain ratios. √2 1
ese values are given in the table.
Angle (°) Radians Sin θ Cos θ Tan θ
0 0 0 1 0 45°
1
π 1 3 1
30
6 2 2 3
π 1 1
45 1
4 2 2
π 3 1
60 3
3 2 2
π
90 1 0 not dened
2
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5.1 General solutions of trigonometric
equations
You already know that it is possible to solve the equation cos θ = 12 in a number
of ways, including using a calculator to nd the solution 60° and then using the
graphs of y = cos θ and y = 12 to obtain the other solutions.
When you are asked to nd solutions, it is normally within a given range. When
there are several solutions to nd, this method can be very time-consuming
and as a result tends to lead to errors.
Trigonometric functions are periodic (cosine and sine repeat every 360° and
tangent repeats every 180°). Since there is at least one solution of cos θ = 12 ,
there will in fact be innitely many solutions of that equation.
A way to nd more than one solution of trigonometric equations, or indeed to
nd an innite number, is to use the general solution for that trigonometric
equation. e general solution of a given trigonometric equation is one that
applies to all the values of θ that satisfy the equation.
General solutions for cosine curves
When cos θ = 12 , you can use the graph of y = cos θ to see that the solutions for θ are
…, 300°, 60°, 60°, 300°, 420°, 660°, 780°, 1020°, 1140°, …
which can be written as
…, 360° + 60°, 60°, 60°, 360° − 60°, 360° + 60°, 720° − 60°, 720° + 60°, 1080°
60°, 1080° + 60°, …
Notice that for each of the solutions, θ = 360n° ± 60° for any integer n.
y (θ)
y = cos θ
1
0 θ
360° 315° 270° 225° 180° 135° 90° 45° 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°
To summarise,
e general solution of cos θ = cos α is given by
▶ θ = 360n° ± α for any integer n, where θ and α are measured in degrees
▶ θ = 2nπ ± α for any integer n, where θ and α are measured in radians.
You can use the general solution to solve any equation involving cos θ = cos α.
You start by removing the cos α term by nding one solution using your
calculator, then substituting this value into the general solution in order to nd
all the other solutions.
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Example 1
noitseuQ
1
Find the values of θ from 0° to 720° for which cos θ =
2
1
Note
α = cos
1
2
= 45°
Use your calculator to nd the
Note
θ = 360n° ± 45° rst solution (45°). Use different integer values
rewsnA
Substitute α = 45° into the of n until you have found all
When n = 0, θ = 45°
general solution, the solutions in the required
When n = 1, θ = 315° or 405°
θ = 360n° ± α range.
When n = 2, θ = 675°
ere are four solutions: θ = 45°, 315°, 405° and 675°
Example 2
noitseuQ
Find the values of θ in radians from 0 to 4π for which cos θ = 0.
π
α = cos 1 0 = Note
2
π Use your calculator to nd the
θ = 2πn° ±
2 rst solution (α).
π Substitute α = into the
When n = 0, θ =
rewsnA
2 general solution.
3π 5π
When n = 1, θ = or
2 2
7π
When n = 2, θ =
2
π 3π 5π 7π
ere are four solutions: θ = and
2 2 2 2
Example 3
noitseuQ
3
Find the values of θ from 0° to 360° for which cos 5θ =
2
Note
3
α = cos 1 = 30° In this case, the general
2 solution is an equation in 5θ
So, with α = 30°,
rewsnA
5θ = 360n° ± 30° Note
⇒ θ = 72n° ± 6° You can always check these
erefore, values on a graphing calculator,
When n = 0, θ = 6° When n = 3, θ = 210° or 222° after having selected the
correct range or view window.
(continued)
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(continued)
When n = 1, θ = 66° or 78° When n = 4, θ = 282° or 294°
rewsnA
When n = 2, θ = 138° or 150° When n = 5, θ = 354°
ere are 10 solutions: θ = 6°, 66°, 78°, 138°, 150°, 210°, 222°, 282°, 294°
and 354°
General solutions for sine curves
When sin θ = 12 , you will nd from the graph of y = sin θ that the solutions
for θare
. . ., 330°, 210°, 30°, 150°, 390°, 510°, 750°, . . .,
which can be written as
. . ., 360° + 30°, 180° − 30°, 30°, 180° − 30°, 360° + 30°, 540° − 30°, 720° + 30°, . . .
y (θ)
y = sin θ
1
0 θ
360° 315° 270° 225° 180° 135° 90° 45° 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°
To summarise,
e general solution of sin θ = sin α is given by
▶ θ = 180n° + ( 1)n α for any integer n, where θ and α are measured in
degrees
▶ θ = nπ + ( 1)n α for any integer n, where θ and α are measured in radians.
You can apply this general solution in the same way you did for cos θ = cos α
Example 4
noitseuQ
3
Find the values of θ between 0° and 720° for which sin θ =
2
α = sin 1
3
= 60°
Note
2 Find the rst solution.
θ = 180 ° + ( 1) 60°
n
n
erefore, Note
rewsnA
When n = 0, θ = 60° Use the general solution,
When n = 1, θ = 180° − 60° = 120° θ = 180n° + ( 1) α n
When n = 2, θ = 360° + 60° = 420°
Note
When n = 3, θ = 540° − 60° = 480°
When n = 4, θ = 720° + 60° = 780° θ = 780° is out of the
required range.
erefore, there are four solutions: θ = 60°, 120°, 420° and 480°.
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Example 5
noitseuQ
1
Find the values of θ between 0° and 360° for which sin 3θ =
2
1 Note Note
α = sin 1
= 45°
2
The general solution is an Divide both sides by 3 to
With α = 45°
equation in 3θ make a general solution in
3θ = 180n° + ( 1)n45°
terms of θ
θ = 60n° + ( 1)n15°
rewsnA
⇒
erefore,
When n = 0, θ = 15° When n = 3, θ = 165°
When n = 1, θ = 45° When n = 4, θ = 255°
When n = 2, θ = 135° When n = 5, θ = 285°
ere are six solutions: θ = 15°, 45°, 135°, 165°, 255° and 285°
General solutions for tangent curves
When tan θ = 1, you can nd from the graph of y = tan θ that the solutions for θare
. . ., 135°, 45°, 225°, 405°, . . .
You can see that θ = 180n° + 45° for any integer n.
y (θ)
4
y = tan θ
2
360° 315° 270° 225° 180° 135° 90° 45° 0 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°
θ
2
e general solution of tan θ = tan α is given by
▶ θ = 180n° + α for any integer n, where θ and α are measured in degrees
▶ θ = nπ + α for any integer n, where θ and α are measured in radians.
e general solution can be used as before.
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Example 6
noitseuQ
Find the values between 0 and 2π for which tan 4x = 3
π
tan 1 ( 3) =
3
e general solution has the form θ = nπ + α, which in this case gives
π
rewsnA
4x = πn
3
π π
⇒ θ= n
4 12
π 5π 2π 11π 7π 17π 5π 23π
erefore, the solutions are and
6 12 3 12 6 12 3 12
Exercise 1
For Questions 1 to 4
a nd the general solution in i radians ii degrees
b nd the solutions, in degrees, that lie within the interval 0° to 360°
1
1 sin θ =
2
1
2 cos θ = −
2
1
3 sin 2θ =
2
4 tan 3θ = 1
3
5 Find the general solution in radians of the equation tanθ =
3
5.2 Solving equations involving more
complicated terms
Example 7
noitseuQ
π
Find the general solution for x, in radians, of sin 3 x + = 1.
3
Note
π Substitute the value of α into
α = sin 1 (1) =
2 the general solution and create
General solution of sin x an equation in .
x = nπ + ( 1)nα
rewsnA
π π
3x + = nπ + ( 1)n Note
3 2
π π You could then use this
Hence 3x = nπ + ( 1)n
3 2 general solution for different
π π π values of n to nd a range of
x =n + ( 1)n
3 9 6 solutions as before.
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Trigonometric powers such as sin2 x and
trigonometric identities
Given an equation involving sin 2 x you should rst try to nd the value of the
underlying trigonometrical function. So, in the case of sin 2 x you would rst
nd the value of sin x. It might be necessary to use trigonometrical identities
such as sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1
Example 8
noitseuQ
Find the general solution for θ, in radians, of 4cos2 2θ + 5sin2θ = 5
4cos2 2θ + 5sin2θ = 5 Note
erefore 4(1 − sin 2 2θ ) + 5sin2θ = 5
Factorise to get the equation
4 4sin2 2θ + 5 sin 2θ = 5
in terms of sin 2θ
4sin 2 2θ − 5sin2θ + 1 = 0
(sin 2θ 1)(4sin 2θ 1) = 0 Note
1
sin 2θ = 1 or
rewsnA
4 Use the identity
π 1 1
sin 1 = and sin = 0.253 . . .
1
2 4
General solution with equation in terms of 2θ: 2θ = nπ + ( 1)n
π Note
2
or 2θ = nπ + ( 1)n 0.253 Equate each factor to zero.
nπ π
erefore, general solution with equation in terms of θ: θ = 2
+ ( 1)n 4
nπ
or θ = 2
+ ( 1) 0.126
n
Exercise 2
π
1 Find the general solution, in radians, of sin 2 x + =1
4
1
2 Find the general solution, in degrees, of cos(x + 30°) = −
2
π 1
3 a Find the general solution, in radians, of cos 3 x
=
3 2
b Use your general solution to nd the solutions in the range 0 ≤ x ≤ 4π
4 Find the general solution in degrees of cos2 θ + sin θ + 1 = 0.
5 Find the general solution of each equation in i radians ii degrees.
π 2 x = 1
a tan b cos (3x 1) = − 0.2
3
1
c sin 2 4θ = d sin2 3θ + cos 3θ + 1 = 0
2
e cos 2θ = cosθ 1
π π
6 Find the general solution of sin 2 x + = cos 2 x +
3 3
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Summary
▶ Trigonometric functions are periodic, meaning that there are innitely
many solutions to many trigonometric equations; a general solution is one
that applies to all the values of θ that satisfy the equation.
▶ e general solution of cos θ = cos α is given by:
• θ = 360n° ± α for any integer n, where θ and α are measured in degrees
• θ = 2nπ ± α for any integer n, where θ and α are measured in radians.
So, if is a solution of , then the other solutions are of the form
or .
▶ e general solution of sin θ = sin α is given by:
• θ = 180n° + ( 1)nα for any integer n, where θ and α are measured in
degrees
• θ = nπ + ( 1)nα for any integer n, where θ and α are measured in
radians.
So, if is a solution of , then the other solutions are of the form
, 2nπ + θ or 2nπ ± θ
▶ e general solution of tan θ = tan α is given by:
• θ = 180n° + α for any integer n, where θ and α are measured in degrees
• θ = nπ + α for any integer n where θ and α are measured in radians.
So, if is a solution of , then the other solutions are of the form
or .
▶ To nd a general solution for a given trigonometric equation, rst you nd
one solution, and then you substitute this value into the appropriate
general solution to nd the rest of the solutions within the required range.
▶ When the trigonometric equations are more complicated, rst express the
equation in terms of sin θ, cos θ or tanθ, as appropriate, then use the
corresponding general solution and manipulate as required to get an
equation in terms of θ.
▶ e general solution of cos θ = x is given by:
• θ = 360n° ± cos−1 x for any integer n, if θ and cos−1 x are measured in degrees
• θ = 2nπ ± cos−1 x for any integer n, if θ and cos−1 x are measured in radians.
▶ e general solution of sin θ = x is given by:
• θ = 360n° + sin−1 x and θ = 360n° + 180° − sin−1 x for any integer n, if θ
and sin−1 x are measured in degrees
• θ = 2nπ + sin−1 x and θ = 2nπ + π − sin−1 x for any integer n, if θ and sin−1 x
are measured in radians.
▶ e general solution of tan θ = x is given by:
• θ = 180n° + tan−1 x for any integer n, if θ and tan−1 x are measured in degrees
• θ = nπ + tan−1 x for any integer n, if θ and tan−1 x are measured in radians.
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Review exercises
1 Find the general solution, in degrees, for the equation sin(3x + 20) = sin 50
2 Find the general solution of the equation giving your
answer in terms of π
3 Find the general solution of the equation giving your
answer in terms of π
4 Find, in radians, the general solution of the equation
giving your answer in terms of π
5 Find the general solution of the equation giving your answer
in terms of π
Practice examination questions
1 a Find the general solution of the equation giving your
answer in terms of π. (6 marks)
b Use your general solution to nd the exact value of the greatest solution
of this equation which is less than 6π. (2 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2013
2 Find the general solution of the equation . (4 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2010
3 a Find the general solution of the equation giving your
answer for x in terms of π. (5 marks)
b Use your general solution to nd the sum of all the solutions of the
equation that lie in the interval .
Give your answer in the form kπ, stating the exact value of k. (4 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2014
4 Find the general solution of the equation giving your
answer in terms of π. (6 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2011
5 Find the general solution of each of the following equations:
a (4 marks)
b (3 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2012
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6 Calculus
Introduction Objectives
Calculus can help to explain rates of change such as speed. If you are By the end of this chapter,
driving at 140km/h, you will not realistically be driving 140km each you should know how to:
hour. e reading taken is not your average speed over an hour, nor ▶ Calculate the gradient
over a minute, and not even over one second. Instead, calculus helps to of a tangent to a curve
explain that your instantaneous speed is the limit of smaller and smaller at a point, using rst
measurements of your average speed. principles.
▶ Use a small change
in x to estimate
the corresponding
Recap change in y
You will need to remember how to . . . ▶ Connect rates of
▶ Find the derivative of a function, f(x), and understand that this is the change in order to
gradient of the tangent to the graph of y = f(x) at a point, and interpret nd a desired rate of
it as a rate of change. change.
▶ Dierentiate polynomials. ▶ Solve some integrals
▶ Dierentiate functions in the form x , and related sums and
n
with innite domains.
dierences, where n is a rational number.
▶ Understand the gradient of a tangent as a limit.
▶ Apply dierentiation to gradients, tangents and normal lines, maxima,
minima and stationary points, and increasing and decreasing
functions.
▶ Use the notation of, and calculations of, limits.
▶ Integrate polynomials and x , where n is a rational number not equal
n
to 1, and related sums and dierences.
▶ Evaluate denite integrals and interpret them as the area under a
curve.
6.1 Gradient of a tangent to a curve y
You should know from previous studies that the derivative of a function at a
point P is the gradient (or slope) of the tangent of the graph at that point.
If P is a point on the curve y = f(x ), where f(x) is a simple polynomial, then it is Q
possible to estimate the gradient of the tangent of the curve at point P using
rst principles. Choose a point on the curve, Q, near to point P. e gradient of δy
the line segment PQ is an approximation of the gradient of the tangent to the P
curve at P δx = h
To measure the gradient of the segment PQ, you divide the change in the
y-coordinate by the change in the x-coordinate. In dierentiation from rst 0 x
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principles in previous studies, you used δy to denote the small change in the
y-coordinate, and δx to denote the small change in the x-coordinate, so the
gradient of PQ = δ y
δx
e dierence in x-coordinate from P to Q is often represented by h. In the
limit, as h approaches 0, in other words, as Q slides closer and closer to P, the
gradient of PQ approaches the gradient of the tangent at P
If P is a point on the curve y = f(x), where f(x) is a simple polynomial, and
Q is a point on the curve near to P, the gradient of the curve at P is gradient
δy
PQ = lim
h→0 h
, where h is the dierence in the x-coordinates from P to Q
It is possible to use this fact to dierentiate without using the standard formula
d
(x n ) = nx n 1
dx
Example 1 concerns a specic point on a curve, and Example 2 shows how the
method can be used for a general point on a curve.
Example 1
A curve C has equation y = x 3 .
noitseuQ
a Find the equation of the gradient of the line PQ, where P is the point (2, 8),
and Q is the point on C with x-coordinate 2 + h.
b Hence, nd the gradient of the tangent to the curve C at the point P
a Q is the point (2 + h , (2 + h )3 ) Note
e gradient of PQ is h represents a small increase
in the x-coordinate of P,
rewsnA
δ y (2 + h )3 − 8 (8 + 12h + 6h 2 + h 3 ) − 8 12h + 6h 2 + h 3
= = = = 12 + 6h + h 2 where P is the point (2, 8).
δx h h h
b As Q approaches P, h approaches 0, and so the gradient of the tangent at P is
δy
lim δx = lim(12 + 6h + h 2 ) = 12
h →0 h →0
Example 2
noitseuQ
Find the gradient of y = x 2 − 3 x at the point ( x0 y0 ) using dierentiation from
rst principles.
Let P be the point ( x0 , x02 3 x0 ) and Q be the point ( x0 + h ,( x0 + h )2 − 3( x0 + h ))
e gradient of PQ is
δ y ( x0 + h )2 − 3( x0 + h ) − ( x 02 − 3 x0 )
=
δx h
rewsnA
( x02 + 2 x0h + h 2 − 3 x0 − 3h ) − ( x 02 − 3 x0 )
=
h
2 x0 h + h − 3h
2
= = 2 x0 + h − 3
h
dy δy
= lim = lim(2 x + h − 3) = 2 x0 − 3
dx h → 0 δ x h→0 0
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Exercise 1
1 A curve C has equation y = x2 − 4x + 7
e points A and B on the curve have x-coordinates 2 and 2 + h,
respectively.
a In terms of h, nd the gradient of the line AB
b Hence nd the gradient of the curve at A.
2 A curve C has the equation f ( x ) = 2 x 3 + 3 x 2 − 2 x − 4 .
Express f ( x + h ) − f ( x ) in terms of h, and hence nd the gradient of the
curve at the point x = 3.
3 A curve has equation y = x2 + 3
a Find the gradient of the line passing through the point (4, 19) and the
point on the curve for which x = 4 + h . Give your answer in terms of h
b Show how your answer can be used to nd the gradient of the curve at
the point (4, 19). State the value of this gradient.
4 A curve has equation y = x 3 − 27 x
e point P on the curve has coordinates (3, 54). e point Q on the
curve has x-coordinate 3 + h
a Show that the gradient of the line PQ is (h 2 + 9h )
b Explain how the result of part a can be used to show that P is a
stationary point on the curve.
6.2 Rates of change
You know from previous studies that the gradient of a line, or the derivative of a
function, is a rate of change. For example, dy is the rate of change of y with
dx
respect to x.
How a small change in one variable aects another y
You can use the value of dy to estimate the change in y that occurs after a small
dx
change in x. To do this, you are assuming that the tangent line approximates
thetrue value of y
If δ x represents a small change in x, and δ y represents the Q
dy δy
corresponding change in y, then ≈
dx δx δy
P
It follows, for example, that if you know the value of δ x , you can estimate the δx = h
dy
value of δ y using δ y ≈ δ x
dx
0 x
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Example 3
noitseuQ
1
Find an approximate value of (100 002) 5
1 Note
Let y = x 5
4 You know that ,
dy x 5
= so you will look at the value of
dx 5
δ y dy near x = 100 000.
≈
δ x dx
rewsnA
dy
erefore, δ y ≈ δx
dx
4 Note
x 5
δy ≈ δx
5 Now use that x = 100 000
and δ x = 2.
1 1
erefore δ y ≈ × × 2 = 0.00004.
5 10 000
1 Note
Hence (100 002) 5 ≈ 10.00004.
Add to the value of y that
You can also use small changes in x to estimate possible errors in y caused by corresponds to x
small errors in the value of x. (You will see this in question 8 of Exercise 2.)
Rates of change of connected variables
Connecting rates of change is a method of calculating a rate of change by
connecting it to two known rates of change using the chain rule.
For instance, if you ll a cylindrical glass of water from a tap, then the rate at
which the height of the water changes depends on how narrow the glass is. You
can use calculus to calculate the rate of change of the height of the water (height
per minute), provided you know the volume of water released by the tap each
minute (the rate of water released) and the radius of the cylindrical glass. You
use the relationship between the volume of the cylinder and its height to create
a third rate of change, which you can do because you know the radius of the
glass. Using each connected rate of change and the chain rule allows you to nd
the rate of change of the height of the water in the glass.
dy dy dt
If y is a function of x, then you know from the chain rule that dx = dt
× dx
e variables y and x relate to the problem you are trying to solve.
Connecting rates of change allows you to solve many problems that involve
rates of change:
▶ First, identify the connected variables that are changing.
▶ Identify the relationship between the variables that are changing, and use
this to create a third rate of change.
▶ Substitute these into the chain rule to nd the desired rate of change.
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Example 4
A perfectly spherical weather balloon is inated at a rate of 0.1m3 per minute.
noitseuQ
How fast is the radius growing when the balloon has radius
a 0.2 m b 1m
Let V = volume of balloon in cubic metres, after t minutes. Note
Let r = radius of balloon in metres.
First you should identify the
Note connected variables that are
changing.
Identify the relationship between the changing variables. Here, the changing variables
are the volume and radius of the spherical balloon, so use the relationship between
the volume and the radius of a sphere, that is, the formula for calculating the volume
of a sphere given its radius.
V = 4 πr3
3
Note
Your aim is to use the chain rule in the form . You want to nd
(rate of change of radius per minute), and you know (the rate of change of
the volume per minute), so you need to use the relationship between the volume
of the balloon and its radius to nd (rate of change of volume given the change
in radius).
rewsnA
dV
Dierentiate the equation for volume of a sphere: = 4π r 2
dr
dV
= 0.1 (given)
dt
Note
dV dV dr
= ×
dt dr dt Substitute in the rates you
dr
have. Now you have an
0.1 = 4π r 2 [1]
dt
equation that can be used for
a r = 0.2 the given values of r
dr
0.1 = 4π (0.04)
dt
dr 5
=
dt 8π Note
5
erefore, the radius is increasing at m per minute.
8π Since the volume of a sphere
b r=1 is proportional to the cube of
dr
0.1 = 4π its radius, for a given increase
dt
dr
in volume you would expect
1
=
dt 40π
the radius of a sphere to
1 increase more slowly when the
e radius is increasing at m per minute.
40π radius of the sphere is larger.
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ese ideas can be applied to more complicated examples involving
trigonometry. Provided that there is an underlying relationship between two
variables, you may be able to exploit it.
Exercise 2 3
1 By considering the derivative of the graph y = x 2 when x = 4, estimate the
3
value of 4.012
2 By considering the derivative of the graph y = x when x = 9, estimate the
value of 8 94
dq dr
3 If q = (2r + 3)3 nd when r = 1 given that = 3.
dt 1
dt
4 Find an approximate value of (81.1) 4
5 e area of a circle is increasing at 3 cm2/s. How quickly is the radius
increasing when its radius is 8 cm?
6 e volume of a spherical balloon is increasing at a rate of 2 cm 3/s. Find the
rate at which the surface area of the spherical balloon is increasing when
the radius is 2 cm.
7 Each side of a square is increasing at a rate of 0.4 cm/s. Find the rate at
which the area of the square is increasing when each side is of length 3 cm.
8 e radius of a sphere is measured to be 3 cm and hence its volume is
calculated as 36π cm 3. e measurement of the radius is correct to the
nearest 0.1cm. Find the maximum error in the calculated volume.
6.3 Improper integrals
You already know that integration
a
can be used to nd the area under a curve
using the general expression f ( x ) dx , where a and b are the real number
b
boundaries of the interval, and f (x) is known as the integrand. In this case,
both the function, f (x), and the interval have nite boundaries. However, there
are cases where either the function or the interval do not have nite boundaries.
In these cases, you have an improper integral.
An improper integral is one that has either
▶ A limit of integration of ± ∞, or
▶ An integrand (function) that is innite at either of its limits of
integration, or between these limits.
It is often possible to evaluate improper integrals, though sometimes you will
discover that the integral cannot be found.
When the limit of integration is ±∞
In this example of an improper integral, the integrand, f (x), has no nite
boundaries since there is a limit of integration of ±∞, where ∞ represents innity.
However, you can treat it as if there is an upper/lower boundary by replacing
±∞ with n, for example. is allows you to nd the limit of the integral as
n → ±∞. When this limit is nite, the integral can be found. When this limit is
not nite, the integral cannot be found.
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Example 5 y
4
noitseuQ
1
y=
∞
1 3 x
Determine ∫ dx 2
1
x2
1
∞ n
1 1 0 4 x
∫ x2 dx = lim ∫ 2 dx Note 1 2 3
n →∞
x
The upper limit is ∞, so replace
1 1
1
n
1 Note
rewsnA
= lim
−
= lim
− + 1
it with n and nd the limit of
n→∞
x
1 n→ ∞ n
the integral as n → ∞. This shows that the area
1 1
As n → ∞ → 0, which gives lim − + 1 = 1 under the curve
∞
n n→∞ n
1 is nite even though the
2
dx = 1
1
x boundary is innitely long.
Example 6
noitseuQ
y
∞
1
Determine ∫ x dx 4 4
1
y=
1 3 x
2
1
∞
1 n 1 Note
∫x
4
dx lim ∫ x 4
dx
4 x
= 0
The upper limit is ∞, so
n→ ∞ 1 2 3
1 1
3 n replace it with n
= lim
4x 4
rewsnA
n→∞ 1
3
= lim ( −4n 4 + 4 )
n→∞
3
Note
is is not nite since lim 4n 4 = ∞ .
n→∞
This shows that the area
erefore, the integral does not exist. under is not nite
although the curve looks very
similar to , which does
When the integrand is innite have a nite area.
In this example of an improper integral, the integrand is innite at one of its
limits of integration, or between these limits, because there is a value for which
the function becomes innite.
If you replace one of the limits of integration with p, for example, then you can
nd the limit of the integral as p tends to the value of the limit it has replaced.
You can see from Example 8 that the area under a curve can be nite
(bounded), even if one of its boundaries is innite.
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Example 7
noitseuQ
1
1
Determine ∫ dx
0
x
1
1
1
1 Note
∫ dx = lim ∫ dx
0
x p 0 →
p
x This is an improper integral
1 1 since the integrand, , is
lim lim(2 − 2 p )
rewsnA
= =
p→0 2x 2
p→ 0
innite when x = 0. So, you
p
Since lim 2 p = 0, lim(2 − 2 p ) = 2 need to replace the lower
p →0 p →0
limit with p
1
1
erefore, ∫ dx = 2.
0
x
Exercise 3
Find the value, where it exists, of each of these.
1 1
1 1
1
∫ 1 dx 2
∫ 3 dx
0 x3 0 x2
∞ ∞
1 1
3
∫ 1 dx 4
∫ 4 dx
0 x 2 0 x3
Summary
▶ If P is a point on the curve , where f ( x ) is a simple polynomial, and
Q is a point on the curve near P, the gradient of the curve at P is
gradient PQ = , where h is the dierence in x-coordinate from P to Q.
You can use this to nd the gradient of the tangent to a point on a curve
using rst principles.
▶ If represents a small change in x, and represents the corresponding
change in y, then .
▶ If y is an integrand of x, then you know that . You can use this to
connect rates of change in order to nd a desired rate of change.
▶ An improper integral is one that has either
• A limit of integration of ±∞, or
• An integrand (function) that is innite at one of its limits of integration,
or between these limits.
▶ When the limit of integration is ±∞, you can nd the limit of the integral as
n → ±∞ by replacing ∞ with n; when this limit is nite, the integral can be
found. When this limit is not nite, the integral cannot be found.
▶ It is possible to solve some integrals with innite domains; indeed, you can
sometimes nd the total area bounded by a curve, even though the length
of that curve is innite.
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Review exercises
1 Curve C has equation .
e points A and B on the curve have x-coordinates 3 and 3 + h respectively.
a In terms of h, nd the gradient of the line AB
b Hence nd the gradient of the curve at A.
2 e curve C has the equation . Express in terms
of h, and hence nd the gradient of the curve at the point x = 3.
3 A sphere is being inated at a rate of 4cm3/s. At the instant when the sphere
has radius 3cm, nd the rate of increase of the surface area of the sphere.
4 Sand is poured on the ground at a rate of 20cm3/s. It forms a circular
cone. e volume of the cone is π when its height is r cm. Find the rate
at which the height of the cone is increasing when its height is 8 cm.
5 Either calculate the integral given, or state why it does not exist.
Practice examination questions
1 A curve C has equation .
a Find the gradient of the line passing through the point and the
point on C with x-coordinate . Give your answer in its simplest
form. (3 marks)
b Show how the answer to part a can be used to nd the gradient of the
curve C at the point . State the value of this gradient. (2 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2014
2 a Expand . (1 mark)
b A curve has equation .
i Find the gradient of the line passing through the point (5, 100) and
the point on the curve for which . Give your answer in the
form where p, q and r are integers. (4 marks)
ii Show how the answer to part b i can be used to nd the gradient of
the curve at the point (5, 100). State the value of this gradient.
(2 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2011
3 A curve has equation .
e point A on the curve has coordinates .
e point B on the curve has x-coordinate 2 + h
a Show that the gradient of the line AB is . (4 marks)
b Explain how the result of part a can be used to show that A is a
stationary point on the curve. (2 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2010
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4 Show that the improper integral has a nite value and
nd that value. (4 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2013
5 Show that only one of the following improper integrals has a nite value,
and nd that value:
a b . (5 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2012
6 a Explain why is an improper integral. (1 mark)
b For each of the following improper integrals, nd the value of the
integral or explain briey why it does not have a value:
i (3 marks)
ii . (3 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2010
7 An oil slick is formed on a lake by an underwater leak of a light grade of
rened oil. e oil is leaking at the rate of 2000cm3 per minute. Assume
that the oil forms a circular slick on top of the water. e height of the slick
is 3 × 10−6m.
a Write down an equation that expresses the volume of the slick V,
measured in cubic metres, in terms of the radius r of the slick, measured
in metres. (1 mark)
b Find the rate at which the radius of the slick is increasing when
its radius is 1m. (5 marks)
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7 Matrices and Transformations
Introduction Objectives
Matrices store mathematical information in a concise form. For example, By the end of this chapter,
they can store the coordinates of the vertices of a shape, and any linear you should know how to:
transformation in two or three dimensions can be presented using a matrix. ▶ Use the matrix algebra
In this chapter, the focus is on 2 × 2 matrices but the ideas presented could of 2 × 2 matrices and
be used for many dierent applications, such as programming a video game some 3 × 3 matrices.
to calculate the reection of an object in water. ▶ Use matrices to
represent linear
transformations of
two dimensions (R2).
Recap ▶ Decide how the
You will need to remember how to . . . determinant of a 2 × 2
▶ Work with vectors in two dimensions, including the dierent notation, matrix impacts the
algebraic operations, position vectors and scalar products. scale factor of a
▶ Know that i is the unit vector and j is the unit vector . transformation.
▶ Explain the dierence
▶ Recognise and carry out transformations such as rotations, reections,
between lines of
stretches and shears.
invariant points and
invariant lines.
▶ Recognise a variety
of matrices that
7.1 Introduction to matrices
represent linear
A matrix stores mathematical information in a concise way. e information is transformations,
written down in a rectangular array of rows and columns of terms, called including specically
elements or entries, each of which has its own precise position in the array. shears parallel to the
4 x- or y-axis.
For example, 8 is a matrix, but its meaning depends on the context.
7
is matrix could represent a vector, meaning 4i + 8j + 7k. In football, it could
represent the number of goals scored by three dierent clubs. In a shop, it could
represent the number of packets of three dierent items bought.
The order of a matrix
e order of a matrix describes its size and shape. For example, the matrix
6 2 7
4 3 5
has order 2 × 3, since its elements are arranged in two rows and three
columns.
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When stating the order of a matrix, you must always give the number of rows
rst, followed by the number of columns.
4
8 is a column matrix and has order 3 × 1, since its elements are arranged
7
in three rows and only one column.
e matrix (4 8 7) has order 1 × 3 and is a row matrix
When the number of rows and the number of columns are equal, the matrix is
called a square matrix
Note that (4, 8, 7) with the numbers separated by commas is a point; (4 8 7) with
no commas is a matrix.
Addition and subtraction of matrices
Only when two matrices are of the same order can you add them or subtract
them.
To add two matrices of the same order, you proceed as follows, element by
element:
a b c p q r a+p b+q c +r
d e f + s t u = d + s e + t f + u
g h i v w x g + v h + w i + x
You subtract two matrices of the same order in a similar way.
a c d
You cannot evaluate + because the matrices are not of the same order
b e f
Multiplication of matrices by a scalar
To multiply a matrix by, for example, k, you multiply every element of the matrix
by k. Hence, you have
a b c ka kb kc
kd e f = kd ke kf
g h i kg kh ki
Example 1
noitseuQ
4 7 1 3 2 4
Find 3 + 2 when
A B A = and B =
8 1 5 −1 − 3 2
4 7 1 3 2 4
3 A + 2B = 3 +2
Note
4 1 5 −1 − 3 2
rewsnA
12 21 3 6 4 8 You simply multiply every
3 A + 2B = +
element of each of the
24 3 15 −2 − 6 4
matrices by the relevant
18 25 5
scalar.
3 A + 2B =
22 3 19
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Multiplying matrices
Not all pairs of matrices can be multiplied together. To allow multiplication, the
orders of the two matrices concerned must conform to this rule:
e number of columns in the rst matrix must be the same as the number of
rows in the second matrix.
For example, if the rst matrix has order 3 × 3, the second must have order 3 × n,
as in the case of A and B below, which you will multiply together:
2 3 1 1 2 0
A = 0 − 2 3 B = 1 − 2 1
0 2 3 0 2 1
To multiply A by B, you start by taking the rst row of matrix A, (2 3 1), and the
1
rst column of matrix B 1
0
You then multiply the rst element of the row by the rst element of the
column, the second element of the row by the second element of the column,
and the third element of the row by the last element of the column. You then
add up these three products.
is gives the element in the top left-hand corner of the matrix AB, which is
2 × 1 + 3 × 1 + 1 × 0 = 5.
So, you have
5 ? ?
AB = ? ? ?
? ? ?
Next, you take the second row of matrix A, (0 2 3 ), and the rst column of
1
matrix B, 0
0
Again, you multiply each element of the row by the corresponding element of
the column and add up the products.
is gives the second element of the rst column of matrix AB, which is
0 × 1 2 × 1 + 3 × 0 = −2.
So, now you have
5 ? ?
AB = −2 ? ?
? ? ?
You repeat the procedure on the second and third columns of matrix B,
eventually obtaining
5 0 4
AB = −2 10 1
2 2 5
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It is important to note that the product of two matrices depends on
which one comes rst:
AB ≠ BA
erefore, you must ensure that you write the matrices in the correct
sequence.
As you would expect from scalar multiplication, A2 means A × A and An is
dened in a similar way for any natural number n. An can exist only if A is a
square matrix.
Determinant of a matrix
Only a square matrix has a determinant. In this chapter you look only at
determinants of 2 × 2 matrices.
a b a b
e 2 × 2 determinant of matrix is written as and is calculated
c d
as ad bc c d
For example,
3 4
= 3 × 8 − 4 × 7 = 24 − 28 = −4
7 8
Determinant of the product of two matrices
e determinant of the product AB is the same as the product of the
determinant of A and that of B:
det (AB) = det A × det B
Exercise 1
1 e matrices A and B are given by
4 2 1 1
A= B=
1 5 4 3
e matrix M = A + 3B. Find M
2 Evaluate PQ and QP, where
6 4 1 2
P= and Q=
2 3 2 3
What do you conclude from your results, and why has it happened?
3 e matrices A and B are dened by
0 k 1 0
A= B=
1 1 0 1
a Calculate B2 − A2, and nd the value(s) of k for which det(B2 − A2) = 0.
b Calculate (B + A) (B A).
1 2
4 Given that X = 3 0
, nd X2. Show that X3 − 7X = nI for some integer n, and
state the value of n.
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5 e matrices A and B are given by
0 3 3 0
A= B=
3 0 0 3
a Calculate the matrix AB
b Find A2
c Show that (AB)2 ≠ A2B2
7.2 Transformations
Using matrices to represent a linear transformation
A linear translation T is a transformation that can be represented by a
corresponding matrix M. Each linear transformation in two dimensions can be
fully explained by describing to where the points (1, 0) and (0, 1) are transformed.
For example, T(r, s) = rT(1, 0) + sT(0, 1).
To nd the image of (x y) under the transformation use the equation
x x
M = 1 to obtain the image (x1, y1).
y y1
In two dimensions, you would represent T by the matrix
Tip
a b
M Recall that i is the unit vector
c d
and j is the unit vector .
Hence, to nd, under T, the image of the point with position vector i, you calculate
a b 1 a
=
c d 0 c
So, under T, the image of the point (1, 0) is (a, c), which you can see is the rst
column of M
To nd which type of transformation is represented by a matrix, you nd the images
of the vectors (1, 0) and (0, 1). Common linear transformations are rotations about
the origin, reections in lines through the origin, stretches and shears.
e meaning of the determinant in a linear transformation
Given a linear transformation T, consider to where the (a + b, c + d )
unit square is mapped. B
(b, a )
e area of the new parallelogram OA′B′C′ is given by C
1 B C
the value of |det(M)|.
(a, c )
In fact, you can convince yourself of this by starting with A A
0 O
the area of the large rectangle and subtracting the area 1
of three triangles to calculate the area of the shaded
triangle OA′C′
1 1 1 1 1
Area OA′C′ = ad − 2 ac − 2 bd − 2 (a − b)(d − c ) = ad − 2 ad − 2 bc C′ (a, d )
= 12 ad − 12 bc
A′
erefore the area of OA′B′C′ = ad bc = det(M).
O
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Example 2
M represents the unit square under the transformation T. e images of the unit
square under T are:
→ (2, 1)
noitseuQ
(1, 0)
(0, 1) → (7, 2)
Write the equation of M and nd the area of the image of the unit square
underT
M = 27 12
rewsnA
det(M) = 4 − 7 = −3
e area of the image of the unit square is | 3| = 3.
Combining two transformations
If M represents transformation S, and N represents transformation T, then the
transformations can be combined in two ways. Note
If you perform transformation T rst, and then transformation S, then the The order is important,
image of (x, y) under the new transformation would be given by MN x
≠
because in general
y
NM MN
If you perform transformation S and then transformation T, the image would
for matrices.
The rst transformation
be given by NM xy is the one closest to the
You can now better understand the equation det( MN = M× N
) det( ) det( ). is
vector , which can seem
makes sense because you would expect the unit square to become a parallelogram counterintuitive, because
| N|
of area det( ) after the rst transformation, and then since the second the rst transformation
| M|
transformation multiplies the size of each parallelogram by det( ) , the combined appears second !
| M || N |= | MN |
eect is to multiply the original unit square in size by det( ) det( ) det( )
Example 3
1 1
T is the transformation represented by the matrix M = .
2 3
S is the linear transformation that maps (1, 0) to (0, 3) and (0, 1) to (2, 4).
noitseuQ
a Write the matrix N representing the transformation S
b Calculate the matrix that represents the combined transformation obtained
by performing transformation S and then transformation T.
c Calculate the area of the shape obtained by performing transformation S
and then T on the unit square.
a N = 03 2
4 Note
rewsnA
c
b MN = 21 31 03 24 = 93 6 In part , you also
8
| || |.
could have calculated
c |det(MN)| = |24 54| = 30 det( M ) det( N )
e area of the shape is 30.
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e identity transformation and the identity matrix
e identity transformation does not move any points. erefore its matrix is
I . I is known as the identity matrix
1
0
0
1
As you would expect, since the identity does not move any points, it is always
true that I x
y
=
x
y
I
. e determinant of is 1, which is what you would expect
because it does not aect the unit square.
Given any 2 × 2 matrix , M IM M
= , which again is expected because does not I
change the transformation that was represented by M
Inverse transformations and inverse matrices
e inverse transformation
of T reverses what T has done. So, for example, if T
moves the point (3, 7) to (5, 2), then the inverse will transform the point (5, 2)
back to (3, 7).
M
Now if the matrix that represents the transformation T has det ( ) = 0, then it M
attens the unit square onto a line because the area of the image of the unit
M
square is zero. In this case, is calledsingular and T cannot have an inverse,
because no transformation could reverse the eect of T
On the other hand, if det(M) ≠ 0 then T does have an inverse, and the inverse of
T is represented by the matrix M . Since performing T and then its inverse
1
leaves everything unchanged, you know that M M = I. You can also show that
1
MM = I 1
Note
From this equation, you can deduce that det(M) det(M ) = det(I) = 1. 1
erefore, det(M) =
1 This can also be seen
det(M ) 1 geometrically, for if the
You can nd the inverse of the 2 × 2 matrix M
a b transformation represented
by writing = by M increases the size of the
c d
M eg hf , and thinking of e f g and h as the variables to be found.
1
=
unit square by a factor of k,
then M 1 must divide the size
Since MM = I, you know that
1
a b e f 1 0 of the unit square by k
c d g h 0 1 =
is gives the four simultaneous equations:
ae + bg = 1
af + bh = 0
ce + dg = 0
cf + dh = 1
ce
You will nd e only; the other terms are similar. From the third equation, g = .
bce d
Using this value of g in the rst equation, ae − =1
d
bc
erefore e a =1
d
(ad bc )
Obtaining a common denominator inside the brackets, e =1
d d d
Cross-multiplying, e =
ad bc
=
det( ) M
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It is possible to repeat this for each of the variables f g and h to obtain:
Note
1 d b You should satisfy yourself
M1=
det(M) c
a
that the determinant of M 1 is
One way to remember this is that you swap a and d, make the other terms indeed .
negative, and divide by the determinant.
Example 4
noitseuQ
2 5
Find the inverse of M, where M =
3 4
det M = 2 × 4 3 × 5 = −7 Note Note
4 5
rewsnA
1 4 5 Swap a and d over, make b You can check this is
7 7
Hence M 1 = =
7 3 2 3 2 and c negative, divide by the accurate by multiplying it by
determinant. M to see if you get I
7 7
Zero matrices
When all the elements of a matrix are zeros, it is known as a zero matrix, and is
denoted by 0
A zero matrix may have any order and therefore is not unique. For example,
0 0 0
0= 0=
0 0 0
In general, if the zero matrix is of the right order to multiply M or N, then
0M = 0 and N0 = 0
When you multiply together two non-zero matrices, you can get a zero matrix
as the result. For example,
5 2 2 4 0 0
=
10 4 −5 − 10 0 0
e geometrical interpretation here is that the rst transformation squashes
two-dimensional space into a line, and the second one turns that line into a
single point (the origin).
Transpose matrices
Note
e leading diagonal of
consists of the entries a and d. e transpose of a
a b
c d
Some students prefer to think
matrix is obtained by reecting its entries in the leading diagonal. So for that the rows of A become
example, if A =
a b
then the transpose A T =
a c the columns.
c d b d
By examining the way that matrices multiply, it is possible to show that for any
n × n matrix, (AB) = B A
T T T
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7.3 Common transformations
Rotations
Let T be an anticlockwise rotation of two-dimensional space.
(0, 1)
e rotation, centred at the origin, is through angle θ
(−sin θ, cos θ )
en the vector 0 , which is i, transforms to the vector
1
cos θ 0 (cos θ , sin θ)
sin θ
and the vector 1 which is j,
1
sin θ 1
transforms to the vector cos θ
θ
cos θ sin θ
e matrix for T is then given by M =
θ
sin θ cos θ 0 (1, 0)
So, to nd the matrix representing this transformation, you nd the images of
(1, 0) and (0, 1), which become the two columns of the matrix.
For example, an anticlockwise rotation of 45° about the origin is represented by
the matrix
1 1
2 2
M =
1 1
2 2
Note that in any rotation, MT will represent the same rotation as M, but in the
opposite direction. is is because if M = sin θ
cos θ sin θ
cos θ
, then
MT = cos θ
sin θ
sin θ
cos θ
= M1
Finally, as you would expect, a rotation about the origin does not change the
size of the unit square. Whatever the value of θ, you can calculate
det(M) = cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1.
Enlargements
An enlargement of scale factor k is represented by the matrix
k 0
M=
0 k
Reection in lines through the origin
In general, if a line is inclined at θ to the x-axis, then the reection in that line is
represented by the transformation
cos2θ sin2θ
M=
sin2θ cos2θ
Note that for any value of θ, you can calculate
det(M) = −cos2 2θ sin2 2θ = − (cos2 2θ + sin2 2θ) = −1. So the unit square’s image
has area 1. e negative sign shows that a reection does reverse the unit square
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in the sense that an anticlockwise trip around the original unit square would
become a clockwise trip after the reection.
As you saw earlier, rotations are dierent here, and looking carefully at both will
help you to understand the dierent signs.
Example 5
noitseuQ
Find the matrix M representing a reection in the line y = x Note
It is more sensible to work
e images of the vertices of the unit cube are out the matrix from the
image of the unit square,
(1, 0) → (0, 1)
than to try to remember
rewsnA
(0, 1) → (1, 0)
the typical matrix of each
Hence, you have transformation.
M = 10 1
0 y
Shears
e shears you will see most often will leave all the points on either the x-axis or
the y-axis invariant. e other axis will be moved. You can imagine a shear as
pushing a pile of books.
If the x-axis is invariant, then shears will be of the form
1
M = 10 k
1
If the y-axis is invariant, then shears will be of the form 0 x
1 k k+1
M = 1
k
0
1
y
4
Example 6
3
M representing a shear in which (0, 1) is invariant and (1, 0)
noitseuQ
Find the matrix
moves to (1, 3). 2
The images of the vertices of the unit cube are 1
(1, 0) → (1, 3)
rewsnA
(0, 1) → (0, 1) 0 1
x
erefore
Note
1 0
M =
3 1
If M is a shear in which (0, 1)
is invariant, then MT is a shear
in which (1, 0) is invariant.
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Exercise 2
1 e matrix M is dened by M = 20 0
2
. Find M and M
2 4
2 Find the inverse of each of these.
a 3 k
4 5
b 3 2
l 5
3 Write the 2 × 2 matrix corresponding to each of these transformations.
a A clockwise rotation about the origin through 60°
b A stretch parallel to the x-axis of scale factor 5.
c An enlargement of scale factor 3.
d Find the matrix corresponding to the combined transformation of a
clockwise rotation about the origin through 60°, followed by a stretch
parallel to the x-axis of scale factor 5.
4 e matrixA is dened by A = −42 −42
a Show that A = pI, where p is a constant to be determined and I is the
2
identity matrix.
b A
Show that the matrix corresponds to a combination of an enlargement
and a reection. State the scale factor of the enlargement.
5 e matrixA is dened by A = 2 3 2
2 2 3
a Show that A = pI, where p is a constant to be determined and I is the
2
identity matrix.
b A
Show that the matrix corresponds to a combination of an enlargement
and a reection. State the scale factor of the enlargement and state the
equation of the line of reection in the form y = px
7.4 Invariant points and lines
An invariant pointof the linear transformation T is a point which is unchanged
by that transformation. at is, T(x) = x. e origin will always be invariant, but
some linear transformations have more invariant points.
For example, every point on the line y = x is invariant after reection in the line
y = x. You call this line a line of invariant points
In addition, every point on the line y = −x reects onto a point on the line y = −x.
erefore you call y = −x an invariant line
. However, the individual points on
y = −x transform to other points. For example, the point ( 1, 1) reects to the Note
point (1, 1). erefore ( 1, 1) remains on the same invariant line, but it is not (0, 0) is an exception, and will
an invariant point, and so y = −x is not a line of invariant points. always be an invariant point
Invariant lines do not need to pass through the origin. For example, the line under a linear transformation.
y = −x + 1 is invariant if you reect it in the line y = x.
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Similarly, given a shear in which the x-axis is xed, the line y = 0 is a line of y Image line
invariant points, but the line y = 3 transforms to itself under the shear and so is
Object line
an invariant line, but not a line of invariant points.
It is possible for the origin to be the only point that is invariant, and for there to
be no invariant lines. Consider the anticlockwise rotation by 90° about the 0 x
origin. Every line is rotated, and so there are no invariant lines. Also, there is
only one invariant point, namely (0, 0).
Any rotation (except by the angle 0° or 180°) in two-dimensional space has no
invariant lines. For example, you can see from the gure that the image line can
never lie along the object line, unless θ = 0° or 180°
Example 7
Find the invariant points, the invariant lines and the lines of invariant points
under the transformation represented by the matrix
noitseuQ
11 3
4 2
7 1
4 2
e invariant points are the points ( x, y) which satisfy
Note
11 3
x x This gives the simultaneous
4 2
= equations:
7 1 y y
4 2
11 3
x − y=x
4 2
7 1
x − y=y
4 2
7
Both of these equations can be solved, and in each case the solution is y = 6 x .
7
erefore there is one line of invariant points, y = 6 x and each point on this line
rewsnA
is invariant.
Any other invariant line would be of the form y = mx + c. Use x1 for the x-coordinate
of the image of x on the line. Any point on an invariant line must satisfy:
11 3
4 2 x x1 Note
=
7 1 mx + c mx1 + c
This equation must be true
4 2
for all values of x, and in
erefore particular for x = 0.
11 3
x − (mx + c ) = x1
4 2
7 1 1
x − mx − c = mx1 + c
4 2 2
(continued)
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(continued)
Substitute the value given in the rst equation for x1 into the second equation.
7 1 1 11 3
x − mx − c = mx − m(mx + c ) + c
4 2 2 4 2
7 1 11 3 3 3
x − mx = mx − m 2 x − mc + c
4 2 4 2 2 2
7 x − 2mx = 11mx − 6m 2 x − 6mc + 6c
rewsnA
(7 − 13m + 6m 2 ) x = 6c (1 − m)
If c = 0 then 7 13m + 6 m2 = 0. Factoring, (7 6m)(1 m) = 0. erefore m = 1,
7 7
m = are solutions. e line y = x is an invariant line, and the line y = x has
6 6
already been found as a line of invariant points.
On the other hand, if c ≠ 0 and the equation is true for x = 0, then m = 1. e
value of c does not change the value of 6c(1 m), and therefore the lines
y = x + c are invariant for every value of c
Summary
▶ e order of a matrix describes its size and shape ‘as number of rows ×
number of columns’.
▶ You can only add and subtract matrices of the same order, and you do so
element by element.
▶ To multiply a matrix, M, by a scalar, k, you multiply every element of the
matrix by k to obtain kM
▶ To multiply together two matrices, the number of columns in the rst
matrix must be the same as the number of rows in the second matrix;
when these conditions are met, the matrices are compatible
▶ Generally, if P has order p × t and Q has order t × q, then PQ has order p × q
▶ Matrix multiplication is not commutative, AB ≠ BA, so you must ensure the
order of the matrices is correct when multiplying. Multiplication of
matrices is associative, A(BC) = (AB)C
▶ e determinant, det M, of a 2 × 2 matrix, M, is ad bc
▶ e determinant of the product AB is the same as the product of the
determinant of A and the determinant of B: det (AB) = det A × det B
▶ For all matrices of appropriate orders, IM = MI = M, where I is an identity
matrix, where all elements in the leading diagonal are 1 and all other
elements are zeros.
▶ A zero matrix is one in which all elements are zero: 0M = 0 = M0
▶ e inverse, A 1, of a 2 × 2 matrix, A given by is
A 1
.
A matrix A only has an inverse if it is a square matrix and det A ≠ 0.
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▶ e transpose matrix, AT, of the matrix A has its elements reected along
the leading diagonal: if then . For any compatible
n × n matrix, (AB)T = BTAT
▶ Each linear transformation in R2 is associated with a 2 × 2 matrix M, you
need to know the typical matrices that represent various rotations,
reections, enlargements, stretches and shears, or be able to consider what
impact the transformation would have on the unit square.
▶ If matrix M represents the transformation T and det(M) ≠ 0 then T has an
inverse, and the inverse of T is represented by the matrix M 1. Since performing
T and then its inverse leaves everything unchanged, we know that M 1M = I.
▶ If M represents a transformation, T, and N represents a transformation S,
then the matrix NM represents the eect of performing the transformation
T and then performing transformation S.
▶ e determinant of a matrix, M, is the area scale factor of the transformation,
where M is the matrix corresponding to the transformation.
▶ Invariant points are unchanged by a transformation, T(x) = x
▶ Invariant lines are lines that map onto themselves and are therefore
unaected by a transformation. e line y = mx + c is invariant if points on it
map onto points on the same line, but not necessarily onto the same points.
erefore, the general point, (t, mt), on the line y = mx should map onto
another point, (T, mT), on the line if it is an invariant line.
▶ You can nd invariant points and lines given the corresponding matrix of
transformation by forming and solving simultaneous equations.
Review exercise
1 Find the inverse of the following matrix
2 e matrix M is dened by M = . Find M2 and M4
3 Write down the 2 × 2 matrix corresponding to each of the following
transformations:
a A rotation about the origin through 120 degrees, anticlockwise.
b A stretch parallel to the x-axis of scale factor 6.
c An enlargement of scale factor 4.
d Find the matrix that corresponds to each of the transformations in
parts a–c if applied in the order: a, b then c
4 e matrix A is dened by P = Matrix P represents an enlargement
a Find the images Ai and Bi of the points (1, 0) and (0, 1)
b Show that the area of the image of the unit square conrms that the
scale factor of enlargement of the transformation is detP.
5 Find
a the invariant points and
b the invariant lines of the transformation whose matrix is .
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Practice examination questions
1 e matrices A and B are dened by
a Find, in terms of p, the matrices:
i A − B; (1 mark)
ii AB. (2 marks)
b Show that there is a value of p for which A B + AB = kI,
where k is an integer and I is the 2 × 2 identity matrix, and
state the corresponding value of k. (4 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2013
2 a Write down the 2 × 2 matrix corresponding to each of the following
transformations:
i a reection in the line y = −x. (1 mark)
ii a stretch parallel to the y-axis of scale factor 7. (1 mark)
b Hence nd the matrix corresponding to the combined transformation of
a reection in the line y = −x followed by a stretch parallel to the y-axis of
scale factor 7. (2 marks)
c e matrix A is dened by
i Show that A2 = kI , where k is a constant and I is the 2 × 2
identity matrix. (1 mark)
ii Show that the matrix A corresponds to a combination of an
enlargement and a reection. State the scale factor of the
enlargement and state the equation of the line of reection in the
form y = (tanθ)x
AQA MFP1 June 2014
3 e matrices A and B are given by
a Calculate the matrix AB. (2 marks)
b Show that A2 is of the form kI, where k is an integer
and I is the 2 × 2 identity matrix. (2 marks)
c Show that (AB) ≠ A B .
2 2 2
(3 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2008
4 e where k is a constant.
a Find in terms of k:
i A + B; (1 mark)
ii A2. (2 marks)
b Show that (A + B) = A + B .
2 2 2
(4 marks)
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FPP 1.1 7
c It is now given that k = 1.
i Describe the geometrical transformation represented by
the matrix A2. (2 marks)
ii e matrix A represents a combination of an enlargement
and a reection. Find the scale factor of the enlargement and
the equation of the mirror line of the reection. (3 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2009
5 a Using surd forms where appropriate, nd the matrix which represents:
i a rotation about the origin through 30° anticlockwise; (2 marks)
ii a reection in the line . (2 marks)
b e matrix A, where represents a combination of an
enlargement and a reection. Find the scale factor of the enlargement
and the equation of the mirror line of the reection. (2 marks)
c e transformation represented by A is followed by the transformation
represented by B where
Find the matrix of the combined transformation and give a full
geometrical description of this combined transformation. (5 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2009
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8 Linear Graphs
Introduction Objectives
It is common in real life to want to nd a relationship between two By the end of this chapter,
variables. For example, if you knew the cost of a house that you were you should know how to:
considering buying, you might want to compare the cost of the house to the ▶ Reduce relationships
size of the house in square metres, or to the number of bedrooms. In some such as ,
instances, the relationship you nd will be linear, where a straight line in y2 = ax3 + b, y = axn
the form y = mx + c provides a good model. In other cases, the relationship and to a
might be still linear but could be more complicated and require you to linear law.
develop more challenging models. is chapter focusses on modelling more ▶ Draw linear graphs
complicated relationships between variables. and use them to
estimate the values of
unknowns.
Recap
You will need to remember how to . . .
▶ Calculate using logarithms, including being able to solve equations of
the form ax = b
▶ Use the laws of logarithms, including:
• log a x + log a y = log a (xy)
• log a x log a y = log a
• k log a x = log a (xk).
▶ Draw straight lines that best t the given data.
8.1 Relationship between data
Scientists will often take two measurements and try to nd a correlation, or
relationship, between them. For example, a scientist might measure the length
of a hundred dierent sh, x, and the diameter of the right eye, y, of each sh, to
see if the two are related in some way. ey will start with an expected
relationship between the two variables.
e expectation of the relationship between two variables x and y determines
how you tackle each problem.
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When powers of x and y are known
When the expected relationship between two variables is modelled by an equation
in the form y2 = ax3 + b, where the exponents of the variables x and y are known but
the coecient of x3 and the constant are not known, you need to estimate the
values of a and b in order to suggest the equation that models the relationship.
You can estimate the values of a and b by reducing the relationship between x
and y to a linear law. at is, you plot the straight line of y2 against x3 using given
values for x and y. e gradient of the straight line gives you an estimate for a
and the intercept on the y-axis gives you an estimate for b.
When a relationship is modelled by an equation of the form f(y) = ag(x) + b
where f(y) and g(x) are known but a and b are not,
▶ Plot the straight line of f(y) against g(x).
▶ Gradient = a, intercept (on the vertical axis) = b
1 1
When the relationship is modelled by an equation of the form + = k it is
1 x y
important to remember that x is also a power of x, and therefore can be treated
in the same way. e same is true for x
Example 1
In an experiment, the values of x and y are measured and recorded. e
expected relationship between the two values is of the form y 2 = ax 3 + b
noitseuQ
Draw a suitable straight line graph, and estimate the values of a and b. Hence,
suggest a model for the relationship between x and y
x 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
y 1.05 3.22 5.39 7.70 10.25
Plot a graph of y 2 against x 3. Using the table, you will get these points:
(1, 1.1025); (3.375, 10.3684); (8, 29.0521); (15.625, 59.29); (27, 105.0625).
y2
120
(27, 105.0625)
100
80
rewsnA
60
(15.625, 59.29)
40
(8, 29.0521)
20
0
0
(1, 1.1025)
5 10 15 20 25 30 x3
From the graph:
Note
Gradient = 4, y2-intercept = −3 Gradient estimates a,
intercept estimates b
is suggests the model y 2 = 4 x 3 − 3
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Example 2
You are told that the data in the table can be modelled by the relationship
1
+ bt = c . Estimate the values of b and c and hence suggest a model for the
noitseuQ
s
relationship between s and t
t 0.5 1 1.5 2
s 0.32 0.51 0.27 0.22
1
s Note
6
You are told the relationship
between the variables s and
4
t. Rearrange the equation to
( 3, 3.13)
2 show the powers of s and t
that should be related by a
straight line, in other words,
0 1
6 t rearrange to get it in the form
2 f(s ) = ag(t ) + b
rewsnA
(2, 1.96)
(3.67, 3.70)
4
Note
(4.5, 4.55)
6 Plot the graph of against
; using the data in the table
1 b
=− +c you will get coordinates:
s t
( 3, 3.13); (2, 1.96);
1 1
= −b + c (3.67, 3.70); (4.5, 4.55).
s t Draw a straight line and
From the graph: gradient = −5 and intercept = 7. estimate the gradient of the
1 5 line and the intercept with
So, the relationship between s and t appears to be + = 7.
s t the vertical axis.
Sometimes you have to be inventive in deciding which functions should be
plotted. For instance, when the expected relationship between x and y is in the
b
form y 2 = ax 3 + 2 , the equation appears to have three terms that are variables.
x
To obtain an equation of the type f(y) = ag(x) + b, it is necessary to amend the
equation so that it will contain only two terms that are variables. In this
example, you will notice that if the equation is multiplied by x 2, the expected
equation connecting x and y is x 2 y 2 = ax 5 + b , which has only two variables.
Hence, you would plot x2y2 against x 5
Exercise 1
1 In an experiment, the heights of a number of trees, h m, and their ages in
years, x, are recorded.
e expected relationship between the two values is of the form h = ax 2 + b
a Draw a suitable straight line graph, and estimate the values of a and b
b Hence, suggest a model for the relationship between h and x
x 2 3 4 5
h 2.4 2.9 3.6 4.5
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FPP 1.2 8
2 e variables x and y are related by an equation of the form y 2 = ax 2 + b
where a and b are constants. e approximate values of x and y, shown in
the table, have been found.
x 1 2 3 4
y 2.6 3.6 4.8 6.1
a Estimate the values of a and b
b Find the value of x when y = 5.
3 e variables x and y are known to be related by an equation of the form
y 2 = ax 4 + bx where a and b are constants.
y2
a e variables X and Y are dened by X = x 3 and Y = . Show that
x
Y = aX + b
b e approximate values of x and y have been measured.
x 2.1 3.2 4.1 5.0
y 7.9 17.9 29.3 43.4
Estimate the values of a and b and hence suggest an equation to model
the relationship between X and Y
4 e variables x and y are known to be related by an equation of the form
b
y 2 = ax 3 + where a and b are constants.
x
a Given that X and Y are dened by X = x 4 and Y = y 2 x , show that
Y = aX + b
b e approximate values of x and y have been measured.
x 2.2 3.1 4.0 6.0
y 4.8 8.1 11.8 21.8
Estimate the values of a and b and hence suggest an equation to model
the relationship between X and Y
8.2 When the power of x is unknown, or
when x is in the exponent
When the expected relationship is of the form y = bx n, where n is unknown, you
will need to manipulate the equation more than you did in the previous
examples. e only way to turn equations of this form into a linear relationship
is to take logarithms of both sides, which will make n more manageable.
Similarly, if you are given an equation of the form y = ab x , where x is the
exponent, you can also use logarithms so that you can rewrite the equation
without having x as an exponent.
When the relationship is modelled by an equation of the
form y = bxn, where n is unknown:
▶ Take the logarithms of both sides of the equation.
▶ Simplify the right-hand side using the law of logarithms to give
log y = log b + n log x.
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▶ Plot the straight line graph of log y against log x
▶ From the formula above, the gradient = n
▶ From the formula above, the y-intercept is log b
For relationships modelled by an equation of the form
y = ab , where x is the exponent:
x
▶ Take the logarithms of both sides of the equation.
▶ Simplify the right-hand side using the law of logarithms to give
log y = log a + x log b
▶ Plot the straight line graph of log y against x
▶ e gradient is log b, so can be used to nd b
▶ e y-intercept is log a, so can be used to calculate a
Example 3
You are told that the values in the table are related by the formula y = bx n
x 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
noitseuQ
y 5.98 7.90 9.90 12.16 14.51 16.98
Estimate b and n and hence suggest an equation to model the relationship
between x and y
Plot the graph of logy against log x; using the table, you will get the points
Note
(0, 0.7767); (0.07918, 0.8976); (0.1461, 0.9956); (0.2041, 1.0849); (0.25527,
1.16167); (0.30103, 1.2299). Use the law of logarithms
to make the right-hand side
log y = log (bx n )
more manageable. First take
log y = log b + n log x
logarithms of both sides of
From the graph: the given equation.
Gradient = 1.5 and y-intercept = 0.78
log y Note
2 Use loga(xy ) = logax + loga y
(0.1461, 0.9956)
rewsnA
(0.07918, 0.8976) (0.2041, 1.0849) and loga(x k ) = k logax
1.5
(0, 0.7767)
(0.30103, 1.2299)
1 Note
(0.25527, 1.16167) This gives a linear relationship
0.5
between log y and log x
0
log x
0 0.5 1 Note
is suggests that n = 1.5. In the linear relationship, n is
log b = 0.78, so b = 100.78 ≅ 6 the gradient. In the linear
relationship, log b is the
erefore, a suggested model for the relationship between x and y is y = 6 x 1.5 .
intercept on the y-axis.
Substitute the values of b and
n into the original equation.
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FPP 1.2 8
Example 4
You are told that x and y are related by the formula y = kb x . e measured
values of x and y are given.
noitseuQ
x 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5
y 54.1 83.2 126.0 191.1 286.9
Estimate the values of k and b and hence suggest an equation to model the
relationship between x and y
log y = log (kb x )
log y = log k + x log b
log y
2.5
(2.5, 2.46)
(1.9, 2.10)
(2.2, 2.28)
2
(1.3, 1.73)
(1.6, 1.92)
Note
1.5 Take logarithms of both sides
of the equation given, and
rewsnA
1
use the rules of logarithms
to make the right-hand side
0.5
more manageable.
0
x
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Note
From the graph:
In the linear relationship, log b
Gradient = 0.60 and y-intercept = 0.95
is the gradient and log k is
erefore log b = 0.60 the y-intercept. Substitute the
b = 10 0.60
≅4 values of k and b back into
Similarly, k = 10 0.95
≅ 9. the original equation.
e relationship between x and y can be modelled approximately by y = 9 × 4 x
Although you have used base 10 logarithms in the above work, there is no
reason why you cannot take logarithms in any base of both sides, provided of
course that you use the same logarithm for both sides of the equation!
Exercise 2
1 You are told that these values are related by the formula y = bx n
x 1 2 3 4 5
y 2 8 18 32 50
Estimate b and n and hence suggest an equation to model the relationship
between x and y
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2 You are told that x and y are related by the formula y = kb x . e measured
values of x and y are given.
x 1 2 3 4 5
y 5.4 9.7 17.5 31.5 56.7
Estimate the values of k and b and hence suggest an equation to model the
relationship between x and y
3 e variables x and y are known to be related by an equation of the form
y = ab x where a and b are constants.
a Given that Y = log10 y , show that x and Y must satisfy an equation of the
form y = mx + c
b ese measurements of x and y have been found.
x 1 2 3 4.3
y 14 28 63 74
Estimate the values of a and b and hence suggest an equation to model
the relationship between x and y
4 e variables x and y are known to be related by an equation of the form
y = ax n where a and n are constants.
a Given that Y = log10 y and X = log10 x , show that X and Y must satisfy an
equation of the form Y = mx + c
b ese values of x and y have been measured.
x 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
y 17 78 215 460
Estimate the values of a and n and hence suggest an equation to model
the relationship between x and y.
Summary
▶ If there are data values for two variables x and y, and an expected
relationship between the two variables, you can nd an equation to model
the relationship by rst reducing the expected relationship to a linear law,
using substitutions and logarithms.
▶ To reduce an equation to a linear law, you need to ensure it contains only
two terms that are variables.
▶ When a relationship is modelled by an equation in the form
f(y) = ag(x) + b where f(y) and g(x) are known but a and b are not,
• Plot the straight line of f(y) against g(x)
• Gradient = a, intercept (on the y-axis) = b.
Substituting the values of a and b into the original equation will give you a
model of the relationship between x and y.
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▶ When the relationship is modelled by an equation of the form ,
where n is unknown:
• Take the logarithms of both sides of the equation.
• Simplify the right-hand side using the law of logarithms to give
log y = log b + n log x
• Plot the straight line graph of log y against log x
• From the formula above, the gradient equals n
• From the formula above, the y-intercept is log b
▶ For relationships modelled by an equation of the form , where x is
the exponent:
• Take the logarithms of both sides of the equation.
• Simplify the right-hand side using the law of logarithms to give
log y = log a + x log b
• Plot the straight line graph of log y against x
• e gradient is log b, so can be used to nd b
• e y-intercept is log a, so can be used to calculate a
▶ You will need to use measurements that you are given to estimate the
explicit equation of a given linear law, or to estimate the value of one
variable, given the other.
Review exercises
1 An advertising company records the monthly sales of a washing machine
(y), x months after the start of an advertising campaign.
e expected relationship between the two values is of the form
a Draw a suitable straight line graph, and estimate the values of
a and b
x 1 2 3 4
y 136 440 940 1650
b Suggest a suitable equation to model the relationship between the
monthly sales of the washing machine and the time, x months, after the
start of the advertising campaign.
2 e variables x and y are related by an equation of the form ,
where a and b are constants.
e approximate values of x and y have been found.
x 1 2 3 4
y 3.1 15.4 41.6 85.0
Estimate the values of a and b and hence suggest an equation to model the
relationship between x and y. Draw a suitable straight line graph.
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3 e variables y and x are related by an equation of the form , where
a and n are constants.
Let and .
Show that there is a linear relationship between X and Y
e approximate values of x and y have been found.
x 1 2 3 4
y 2 32 162 512
Estimate the values of a and n
4 e variables x and y are known to be related by an equation of the form
, where a and b are constants.
a Given that , show that x and Y must satisfy an equation of the
form .
b ese approximate values of x and y have been found.
x 1 2 3 4
y 4.4 4.8 5.3 5.8
Estimate the values of a and b
Practice examination questions
1 e variables x and y are related by an equation of the form
where a and b are constants.
e following approximate values of x and y have been found.
x 2 4 6 8
y 6.0 10.5 18.0 28.2
a Complete the table below, showing values of X, where X = x2. (1 mark)
x 2 4 6 8
X
y 6.0 10.5 18.0 28.2
b On the diagram below, draw a linear graph relating X and y. (2 marks)
c Use your graph to nd estimates, to two signicant gures, for:
i the value of x when y = 15; (2 marks)
ii the values of a and b. (3 marks)
y
30
20
10
0 x
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
AQA MFP1 June 2010
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2 e variables y and x are related by an equation of the form where a y
and n are constants. 6
Let and . 5
a Show that there is a linear relationship between X and Y. (3 marks) 4
3
b e graph of Y against X is shown in the diagram.
2
Find the value of n and the value of a. (4 marks)
1
AQA MFP1 January 2013
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3 e variables x and y are known to be related by an equation of the form
where a and b are constants.
a Given that , show that x and y must satisfy an equation of the
form . (3 marks)
y
b e diagram shows the linear graph which has equation Y = mx + c
3
Use this graph to calculate:
i an approximate value of y when x = 2.3, giving your answer to one 2
decimal place;
ii an approximate value of x when y = 80, giving your answer to one 1
decimal place.
(You are not required to nd the values of m and c.) (4 marks) 0 x
1 2 3
AQA MFP1 June 2009
4 e variables x and y are related by an equation of the form
where a and b are constants.
a e variables X and Y are dened by . Show
that . (2 marks)
b e following approximate values of x and y have been found:
x 1 2 3 4
y 0.40 1.43 2.40 3.35
i Complete the table below, showing values of X and Y. (2 marks)
ii Draw a linear graph relating X and Y. (2 marks)
iii Estimate the values of a and b. (3 marks)
x 1 2 3 4
y 0.40 1.43 2.40 3.35
x 3
y 1.20
AQA MFP1 June 2008
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9 Numerical Methods
Introduction Objectives
You already know how to nd the exact solution of any quadratic equation. By the end of this chapter,
ere are also complicated methods to nd the solutions of any cubic or you should know how to:
quartic equations. However, it is possible to prove that there is no general ▶ Determine if roots of
formula to solve polynomial equations of degree 5 or higher. Many f(x) exist in the
equations that model situations in mechanics involve trigonometric interval a < x < b, by
functions or dierential equations, and are correspondingly even harder to considering the signs
solve. In this chapter, you will start to understand how computers can be of f(a) and f(b),
programmed to solve these more complex equations to a given accuracy. provided the function
f(x) is continuous.
▶ Find roots using
interval bisection,
Recap linear interpolation
You will need to remember . . . and the Newton–
▶ How to nd the solution of any quadratic equation with real Raphson method.
coecients, including those with complex roots. ▶ Use Euler’s step-by-
▶ at if then (x a) is a factor of . step method to solve
▶ at the maximum number of possible roots of an nth-degree dierential equations
polynomial is n of the form
▶ How to nd the solutions of polynomial equations, and that
occasionally you need to estimate the solutions to equations.
You learned about the complex
roots of quadratic equations in
9.1 Solutions of polynomial equations Chapter 2 Complex Numbers.
Most equations cannot be solved using algebraic procedures that give exact
solutions, which means you have to turn to numerical methods to solve them.
While several distinct numerical methods are available to use, they all have one
property in common: if you repeatedly apply any of the methods to a problem,
you will normally be able to obtain the solution to any desired degree of
accuracy.
Initially, you need to determine an interval in which the root lies. Hence,
generally:
For a curve with equation y = f(x) that is continuous between two
points where x = α and x = β, if f(α) and f(β) are of opposite signs then
a solution of f(x) = 0 exists for at least one value of x in the interval
α<x<β
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So, it follows that so long as y = f(x) is continuous and changes sign f(x )
within an interval, then f(x) = 0 must have a root in that interval.
However, if y = f(x) is not continuous, nothing can be proved. If
y = f(x) is not continuous, it might be that f(l) and f( 1) are of f(x ) = x + 1
x
opposite signs and f(x) ≠ 0 for any value between 1 and 1, as shown
in the diagram.
Example 1 1
0
1
x
noitseuQ
Show that there is a root of f(x) = x3 + 5x 9 = 0 in the interval 1 < x < 2.
f(l) = 1 + 5 9 = −3
f(2) = 8 + 10 9 = 9
rewsnA
A solution to f(x) = 0 exists in the interval 1 < x < 2 since y = f(x) is continuous for
this interval and the signs of f(1) and f(2) are opposite, informing us that the
x-axis has been crossed and therefore there is a value of x for which f(x) = 0.
Note
If you were asked to nd the value of the root more accurately, you would
repeat the method in Example 1, nding f(1.1), f(1.2), f(1.3), and so on. You You know that y = f(x) is
would nd that the value of f(x) changes sign between 1.3 and 1.4 indicating continuous in the interval
that the root lies between these two values of x; you would then repeat to nd 1 < x < 2 because all
f(1.31), f(1.32), and so on. You would repeat this process to nd a smaller and polynomial functions are
smaller interval in which the root lies until you nd the interval in which you continuous. So, if the values of
can state the root to the required degree of accuracy. f(1) and f(2) are of opposite
signs, then a solution of
e method of nding a more accurate root by using repeatedly smaller values
f(x) = 0 must lie in the
of x is time-consuming. e procedures that are normally used to solve
interval, as per the key point
polynomial equations are interval bisection linear interpolation and the
above.
Newton–Raphson method
Interval bisection
As the name suggests, you use this method when you know that a root exists
within a given interval.
If you know that there is a root of f(x) = 0 between x = α and x = β, you try
(α + β )
x= and repeat as required. e sign of f(x) determines which side
2
(α + β )
of 2
the root lies on, that is, between x = α and the bisecting value,
or between x = β and the bisecting value.
e method is repeated until you obtain the root to the degree of accuracy
required.
Example 2
noitseuQ
e solution of f(x ) = x 3 + 5 x − 9 = 0 is within the interval 1 < x < 2.
Find, by interval bisection, this solution, correct to two signicant gures.
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f(1) = −3; f(2) = 9; set x = 1.5
Note Note
f(1.5) = 1.875
Bisect the given interval using There is a change in sign
erefore, the root lies between x = 1 and x = 1.5.
from f(1) to f(1.5).
f(1.25) = −0.796 875
f(1.25) and f(1.5) are of opposite signs: Note
root between x = 1.25 and 1.5
Note
f(1.375) = 0.474 609 375 Continue to bisect the interval
rewsnA
in which you know the root
f(1.25) and f(1.375) of opposite signs:
lies, until you obtain the
root between x = 1.3125 and 1.375
required accuracy. Note
f(1.3125) = −0.176 513 67
f(1.3125) and f(1.375) of opposite signs:
root between x = 1.3125 and 1.375 Note
f(1.343 75) = 0.145 111
The actual value of the Note
f(1.343 75) and f(1.3125) of opposite signs: solution is 1.329 744 122 to
root between x = 1.3125 and 1.343 75 Only now are you able to
10 signicant gures.
state that the solution of
erefore, f(x) = 0 when x = 1.3 (2sf ).
f(x) = 0 is x = 1.3 to two
Interval bisection is a very long and generally slow method. erefore, it is
signicant gures since both
worth considering other methods.
α and β approximate to the
same value at this degree of
Linear interpolation
accuracy.
If given the same question as in Example 2, a more ecient method of
progressing from f(l) = −3 and f(2) = 9 is to deduce that the root of
f(x) ≡ x3 + 5x − 9 = 0 is likely to be much nearer to 1 than to 2, since f(x )
|f(2)| > |f(1)|.
9
is intuitive approach is formalised in , where
linear interpolation
the two points (1, 3) and (2, 9) are joined by a straight line and the
x-value of the x-intercept of this line is calculated. 9
Using similar triangles, with the root at x = 1 + p1, you have
p1 1 p1 1 1 p1
= ⇒ p1 =
0 1 p1 x
3 9 4 2
erefore, a better approximation of the root of f(x) = 0 is 1.25, 3
(1 + p1), which gives f(1.25) = −0.796 875.
3
Hence, the root is between 1.25 and 2.
To nd the root to two decimal places:
f(x )
Using similar triangles again, you have
p2 0.75 p2
= 9
0.796 875 9
⇒ 9.796 875p2 = 0.75 × 0.796 875
p2 9
⇒ p2 = 0.061 004 784
1.25
erefore, the second approximation of the root of
f(x) = 0 is 1.311 004 784, (1.25 + p2), which gives 0 1 0.75 p2 2
x
1
f(l. 311 004 784) = −0.191 708 181 0.796 875
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Hence, the root is between 1.311 004 784 and 2. f(x )
Repeating the procedure again, you obtain
p3 0.688 995 216 p 3 9
=
0.191 708 181 9 1.311 004 784
⇒ 9.191 708 181p = 0.688 995 216 × 0.191 708 181
3
p3
⇒ p = 0.014 370 127 0 0.688 995 216 p3 x
2
3
erefore, the third approximation of the root is 1.325 374 912,
0.191 708 181
which gives
f(1.325 374 912) = −0.044 947 145 f(x )
Hence, the root is between 1.325 374 912 and 2.
Repeating the procedure yet again, you obtain 9
p4 0.674 625 088 p 4 1.325 374 912
=
0.044 947145 9 p4
⇒ 9.044 947 145p = 0.674 625 088 × 0.044 947 145
4
0 0.674 625 088 − p4 2
x
⇒ p = 0.003 352 421 099
4
0.044 947 145
erefore, the fourth approximation of the root is 1.328 727 333.
Both the fourth and third approximations are 1.33 correct to two decimal
places. To check that this is the correct answer to two decimal places,
you nd f(1.335):
=
f(1.335) 0.054 27 which has the opposite sign to f(1.326).
Hence, the root is 1.33 correct to two decimal places. Notice that it is 1.3 (2sf ),
which corresponds to the answer found in Example 2.
Although linear interpolation is much quicker than interval bisection, it still
does not take into account the shape of the graph of f(x) between the starting
points.
e procedure that does do this is the Newton–Raphson method
Newton–Raphson method
If α is an approximate value for the root of f(x) = 0, then α
f (α )
is generally a
better approximation than α
f (α )
Consider the graph of y = f(x). Draw the tangent at P,
y
y = f(x )
where x = α, and let the tangent meet the x-axis at T
You see that the x-value at T is closer than α is to the
x-value at N, where the graph cuts the axis. P (α, f(α ))
Using triangle PTQ, you have
Gradient of tangent =
PQ
QT
⇒ f ′(α ) =
f (α )
QT
⇒ QT =
f (α )
f ′(α ) Q
0 N T α x
f (α )
e x-value of the point T is α − QT = α − which is
a better approximation of the root of f(x) 0. = f (α )
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However, when the root of f(x) = 0 is not close to α, the method might fail. For
example, in Figure A, the next x-value found is at T, which is further from the
root than α is. In Figure B, f′(α) = 0, which is unhelpful.
y
y
0 α T
0 α x
Figure A
f(α n )
In its iterative form, the Newton–Raphson method gives α n + 1 = α n −
f ′(α n )
Example 3
noitseuQ
Use the Newton Raphson method to nd a root of f(x) = x3 + 5x 9 = 0 to three
signicant gures. Start with an initial value of x = 1.
Let α be the required root. Note
f(x) = x3 + 5x 9, so f′(x) = 3x2 +5 Note
Differentiate f(x).
f(α1) = 1 + 5 9 = −3
α3 and α4 are now so close
f′(α1) = 3 + 5 = 8 Note together that you can say
f (α n ) that the root is 1.33 to three
Using Newton Raphson, α n + 1 = αn − Substitute in α1 = 1.
f ′(α n ) signicant gures.
rewsnA
f (α 1 ) 3
= − = 1 + = 1.375
2 1
f ′(α 1 ) 8
Note
Hence,
The root is actually 1.329 744
f (1.375) 0.474 609 375
= 1.375 − = 1.375 − = 1.330 5271 to seven signicant gures.
3
f ′(1.375) 10.671 875
Or, were you to repeat the
f (1.330 5271) 0.008 070 770 27
α 4 = 1.330 5271 − = 1.330 5271 − = 1.329 744 36 procedure a few more times,
f ′(1.530 5271) 10.310 907 you would nd that the root is
So, the root of f(x) ≡ x3 + 5x 9 is x = 1.33 (3sf ).
1.329 744 122, correct to 10
Exercise 1 signicant gures.
1 Show that a root of the equation x3 = 7 5x lies in the interval 1 < x < 2.
Use linear interpolation to nd this root correct to two decimal places.
2 Show that a root of the equation xe3x = 12 lies in the interval 0 < x < 1.
Use linear interpolation to nd this root correct to two decimal places.
3 A root of the equation x3 4x = 5 lies in the interval 2 < x < 3.
Use interval bisection to nd this root correct to two decimal places.
4 Show that a root of the equation 3x3 2x = 0 lies in the interval 0 < x < 1.
Use interval bisection to nd this root correct to two decimal places.
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5 Using the Newton–Raphson method, nd the real root of x
3
+3x 7=0
correct to two decimal places.
6 Using the Newton–Raphson method, nd the real solution to the square
1
root of x + x 5 = 8 correct to two decimal places.
9.2 Step-by-step solution of dierential
equations
A dierential equation is one that relates an expression, f(x), to its derivatives. y
Most rst-order dierential equations cannot be solved exactly; they need a
step-by-step approach that provides an approximation of the solution.
ese approaches depend on drawing lines parallel to the y-axis a distance of h
apart: h is called the step length
One such method is a single-step approximation known as Euler’s method. y2
y1
is is the idea that when two points of a curve are very close together then the y0
gradient of the curve between these points can be approximated by the gradient
of the tangent at one of the points. 0 h h
x
With reference to the gure, P(x0, y0) is a point on the curve y = f(x) and Q(x1 y1)
y
is another point on the curve close to P, where x1 x0 = h and h is small. You see
Q
that the gradient of the chord PQ is approximately the same as the gradient of
the tangent at P. Hence, you have that the gradient of PQ is which gives
y y
1 0
h
P
the gradient of the tangent at P d ≈
y y
y 1 0
dx 0 h
y1
y0
If d ≈ then it follows that ≈ + h d , which means that if you
y y
y 1 0 y
y y
xd 0 h
1 0 d 0 x
know the value of h, an initial value of (x, y) and the dierential equation, you
can calculate y1 0 x
h
To use Euler’s method you need:
▶ An initial point (x0, y0)
▶ e step length, h
▶ e dierential equation that relates y to x
If you were given the above information and asked to nd f(3) for example, you
d
(
would use the initial point to nd the point ( x + h ), y + h , where h is the
y
dx )
step length. You then use this new point in the same way to nd the next point
and so on, until you reach a point with an x-coordinate of 3. is will then give
you the corresponding value of y that is the solution. In this way, Euler’s method
eectively joins together small line segments such that they approximate the
curve of the actual function and allow you to nd an approximate solution for a
given value of the function. e smaller the value of the step length, the more
accurate the solution obtained.
In function notation Euler’s method is yn + 1 ≈ yn + hf(xn, yn) and
xn + 1 = xn + h, where the values of x0, y0 and h are known.
You can use Euler’s step-by-step method to solve dierential equations of the
d
form d = f ( x , y )
y
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Example 4
noitseuQ
dy
Use a step length of 0.2 and Euler’s method to estimate y(0.6) for dx
= x+y
given that y = 3 when x = 0.
dy
x0 = 0, y0 = 3, = x + y and h = 0.2
dx
Start at (0, 3). en x1 = x0 + h = 0.2.
dy dy
When x = 0, = 0 + 3 and so y1 = y0 + h = 3 + 0.2 3 = 3.346 410 162.
dx dx
Taking the next step, x2 = x1 + h = 0.4.
rewsnA
dy
≈ 0.2 + 3.346 410 162 = 1.883191 483
dx
erefore y2 = y1 + 1.883 191 483 h = 3.723 048 458
dy
Finally, at x2, we know that ≈ 0.4 + 3.723 048 458 = 2.030 529108
dx
So y3 = y2 + 2.030 529 108 h = 4.129 154 280…
Example 5
noitseuQ
dy
Use a step length of 0.1 and Euler’s method to nd y(0.3) for = x + y given
dx
that y = 2 when x = 0.
Using
dy ≈ y1 y 0 y ≈ y + h dy
dx 0 h 1 0
dx 0
erefore,
y at new value when x = 0.1 = y at original Note Note
dy Continue to x = 0.3,
value of x + h × at original value of x. Now repeat this procedure
dx
y (0.3) ≈ y (0.2) + h with the values obtained for
rewsnA
erefore
⇒ y (0.3) ≈ 2.291 133 + 0.1 y and when x = 0.1 now
y (0.1) ≈ 2 + 0.1 0 + 2
being treated as the original
⇒ y(0.1) ≈ 2.141 42
⇒ y (0.3) ≈ 2.448 96 or values, and the new value for
y(0.2) ≈ y(0.1) + h
dy 2.4490 (to 4dp) y being found for x = 0.2.
dx x 0.1
⇒ y(0.2) ≈ 2.141 42 + 0.1 0.1 + 2.141 42
⇒ y(0.2) ≈ 2.291 133
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Exercise 2
In questions 1 4 use Euler’sformula, y r + 1 ≅ y r + hf ( x r , y r ).
1 Find an approximation for y(1.1) to four decimal places, when h = 0.1,
dy
dx
= 3 x 3 + 2y and y(1) = 1.
2 dy
Given that h = 0.2, dx = x 2 + 3 y 3 and y(1) = 1, nd an approximation
for y(1.2) to four decimal places.
3 dy
Given that h = 0.1, dx = e 3 x + e y and y(1) = 1, nd an approximation
for y(1.2) to three decimal places.
4 Find an approximation for y(1.4) to three decimal places, when h = 0.2,
dy
dx
= 3 cos x + yand y(1) = 1.
Summary
▶ For a function, f(x), that is continuous between two points α and β, if f(α)
and f(β) are of opposite signs then a solution of f(x) = 0 exists for at least one
value of x in the interval α < x < β
▶ You can nd the roots of equations to any number of decimal places by
carefully using interval bisection, linear interpolation or the Newton–
Raphson method.
▶ You can use Euler’s step-by-step method to solve dierential equations of
the form .
▶ ese are methods that are normally used to solve polynomial equations to
any degree of accuracy.
• Interval bisection: if you know that there is a root of f(x) = 0 between
x = α and x = β, you try and repeat as required. e sign of
f(x) determines which side of the root lies on, that is, between
x = α and the bisecting value, or between x = β and the bisecting value.
e method is repeated until you obtain the root to the degree of
accuracy required.
• Linear interpolation is much quicker than interval bisection. In this
method, the two points representing the limits of the interval are joined
by a straight line and the x-value of the x-intercept of this line is
calculated. Using similar triangles, approximations closer and closer to
the root are obtained.
• Newton–Raphson method: this method takes into account the
shape of the graph of f(x) between the values of α and β. It is based
on the idea that if α is an approximate value for the root of f(x) = 0,
then is generally a better approximation than α. In its
iterative form, the Newton–Raphson method gives .
Again, α1 is used to get a more accurate approximation of the root,
α2, which is in turn used to get an even more accurate
approximation, α3, and so on.
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▶ You can use Euler’s step-by-step method to solve dierential equations of
the form . You use a starting value, the step length and the
dierential equation to nd the required value of y by repeatedly applying
the same process to previously obtained values of x and y. In function
notation, Euler’s method is yn + 1 ≈ yn + hf(xn, yn) and xn + 1 = xn + h, where the
values of x0, y0 and h are known.
Review exercises
1 e function y(x) satises the dierential equation where
+ and y(2) = 3.
Use the Euler formula with h = 0.1 to obtain an
approximation to y(2.1), giving your answer to four decimal places.
2 e function y(x) satises the dierential equation = x(2 y2) and
y(1) = 3.
Use the Euler formula with h = 0.2 to obtain an
approximation of y(1.6), giving your answer to four decimal places.
3 e cubic equation has a root in the interval 0 < x < 1. Use
the Newton–Raphson method with starting value x0 = 0.5 to nd this root,
giving your answer correct to six decimal places.
Practice examination questions
1 e function y (x) satises the dierential equation where
and y(3) = 2.
Use the Euler formula with h = 0.1, to obtain
an approximation to y(3.1), giving your answer to four
decimal places. (3 marks)
AQA MFP3 June 2009
2 e equation has exactly one real root, α
Taking x1 = 10 as the rst approximation to α, use the Newton–Raphson
method to nd a second approximation, x2, to α. Give your answer to four
signicant gures. (3 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2013
3 e equation has one real root. Taking
x1 = 50 as a rst approximation to this root, use the Newton–Raphson
method to nd a second approximation, x2, to the root. (3 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2011
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4 a Show that the equation has a root between
1.6 and 1.8. (3 marks)
b Use interval bisection twice, starting with the interval in part (a), to give
this root to one decimal place. (4 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2007
5 A curve passes through the point (0,1) and satises the dierential equation
Starting at the point (0,1), use a step-by-step method with a step length of
0.2 to estimate the value of y at x = 0.4. Give your answer to ve decimal
places. (5 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2009
6 e equation has one real root, α
a Show that α lies in the interval 0.1 < x < 0.2. (2 marks)
b Starting from the interval 0.1 < x < 0.2, use interval bisection twice to
obtain an interval of width 0.025 within which α must lie. (3 marks)
c Taking x1 = 0.2 as a rst approximation to α, use the Newton–Raphson
method to nd a second approximation, x2, to α. Give your answer to
four decimal places. (4 marks)
AQA MFP1 June 2012
7 A curve satises the dierential equation .
Starting at the point (1, 4) on the curve, use a step-by-step method with a
step length of 0.01 to estimate the value of y at x = 1.02. Give your answer to
six signicant gures. (5 marks)
AQA MFP1 January 2008
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10 Bayes’ Theorem
Introduction Objectives
In your study of AS-level Mathematics, you learned about the basics of By the end of this chapter,
probability theory including conditional probability. In this chapter, these you should know how to:
ideas will be developed to include a discussion of probability tree diagrams ▶ Solve problems
and the very important Bayes’ eorem, which can be applied in many relating to
areas of science including population genetics. independent and
dependent events
using probability tree
diagrams.
Recap ▶ Identify and solve
You will need to remember . . . problems relating
to dependent
▶ e denitions of the union of two sets, A ∪ B (either A or B or both),
events where Bayes’
and the intersection of two sets, A ∩ B (both A and B)
eorem can be
▶ If , A and B are mutually exclusive; if , where S is
applied.
the sample space, A and B are exhaustive
▶ Kolmogorov’s three axioms of probability; for an experiment, E, with
associated events A and B dened on a sample space S
1.
2. for A ⊆ S
3.
▶ For an experiment, E, with associated events A and B dened on a
sample space S, the probability of both A and B occurring when E is
performed once is given by
10.1 Tree diagrams
You have met probability tree diagrams in your study of GCSE Mathematics and
will now consider them again in a more rigorous way.
Tree diagrams for independent events
Tree diagrams are often used in probability questions when random
experiments can be considered as processes consisting of multiple stages.
Suppose that a fair coin is ipped three times and you wish to show all possible
outcomes. e three-stage nature of this problem suggests a tree diagram
approach.
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At the rst ip, the possible outcomes are heads (H) or tails (T). For each of
these, the next ip can either be H or T, giving HH, HT, TH or TT. e result of
the third ip follows similarly and the whole process can be shown
diagrammatically, with probabilities for each stage, as shown in the gure.
First toss Second toss ird toss Outcomes Probability
1 3 1
1 H HHH ( 2) 8
2
H
1
2 1
2 T HHT 1
( 2)
3 1
H 8
1 3 1
1
1 H HTH ( 2) 8
1 2
2
2
T 1 1 3 1
2
T HTT ( 2) 8
1 H THH 1 3 1
2 ( 2) 8
1 1
2 2 H
1 1 1
2 T THT ( 2)
3
8
T 1 1
1 H TTH ( 2)
3
2 8
1
2
T
1
1 1
2 T TTT (2)
3
8
A branch is represented by a single line segment; it is shown here in red. A set
Tip
of branches is called a path and indicates a possible outcome of the whole
experiment; it is shown here in blue and demonstrates the possible path of The probabilities of each
THH, in that order. outcome are shown.
For three independent events, A, B and C, the probability of all three occurring
is given by the equation
P ( A ∩ B ∩ C ) = P ( A) × P (B) × P (C )
erefore, the probabilities of each of the nal outcomes (HHH, HHT, …) are all
= 1 . ese are shown at the ends of the paths.
1
2 8
Suppose now that you want to use your tree diagram to calculate the probability
of a total of two heads being obtained. In general, for mutually exclusive events
D and E, P (D ∪ E ) = P (D) + P ( E ) Tip
According to the tree diagram, exactly two heads can occur in three mutually Axiom 3 of Kolmogorov’s
exclusive ways: HHT, HTH or THH. erefore, three axioms.
1 1 1 3
P (2heads) = P (HHTorHTHorTHH) = + + =
8 8 8 8
Tip
For independent events represented on a tree diagram, to nd the
probability of: Remember: multiply the
probabilities along the paths,
▶ A given nal outcome you multiply the probabilities along the but add between them.
relevant path
▶ Any one of a set of nal outcomes, you add the relevant nal
probabilities.
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Tree diagrams for dependent events
A more interesting set of problems occurs when the events in the stages are not
independent of each other. Although the theory is signicantly dierent, the
process of solving the problems is similar. Consider this example.
In a large drugs trial, patients are divided into two groups: group A who receive
Tip
the drug and a control group, B, who receive a placebo instead. Success for any
given patient is dened as ve-year survival. e two groups are of the same A placebo looks like the
size and analysis of the results shows that, for group A, the success rate is 71%. drug being tested but has no
Group B achieved a success rate of 49%. pharmaceutical effect.
Suppose a person is chosen at random from all of the patients in the trial, and
you wanted to nd the probability of these outcomes:
▶ e person receives the drug and survives ve years
▶ e person does not receive the drug and survives ve years
▶ e person survives ve years (regardless of whether they did or did not
take the drug).
is problem consists of two stages: assigning a person to one of two groups, Survival
Patient
status
followed by survival or non-survival during the ve years. erefore, you can
use a tree diagram. S A and S
First, you must dene the events: A is a patient assigned to group A; S is the
A
ve-year survival for a patient. A′ and S′ represent the complementary events.
A tree diagram for this situation is as follows. S A and S
e diagram shows four possible outcomes for any given patient, represented
by the four paths. For example, A and S is ‘the chosen patient is assigned to
group A and survives ve years’. S A and S
It is important to recognise that, in each path, the second of each pair of branches
is dependent or conditional on the rst of the pair. For example, in the top path A
with outcome A and S, the rst branch represents the (unconditional) event ‘the S A and S
patient is assigned to group A’, and the second branch represents the conditional
event ‘the patient survives given that the patient is assigned to group A’. Tip
e two survival rates 71% and 49% are therefore conditional probabilities. You have met this notation
ey are in your AS-level Mathematics
P(S | A) = 0.71 and P(S | A )′ = 0.49 studies. P (S | A ) is read
Since the only two possibilities for the next stage, given that A occurs, are ‘the probability that S occurs
S and S ′, you can also write that P (S ′ | A ′) = 1 − 0.71 = 0.29 from Axiom 1, the given that A occurred’ or
total probability theorem. ‘the probability that S occurs
under the hypothesis that A
Similarly, P (S ′ | A ′) = 1 − 0.49 = 0.51
1
occurred’.
Since the two groups are of the same size, P ( A) = P ( A ′) = . ese probabilities
2
can be added to the above diagram.
You know from your study of A-level probability theory that, if A and B are two
events dened on sample space S, then P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A) × P ( B | A)
Using this result for the top outcome in the diagram (group A and survival),
P ( A S ) P (A) P (S | A)
∩ = × = 0.5 × 0.71 = 0.355
is approach gives each of the nal probabilities in the diagram.
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You are now able to nd the required probabilities: A and S : 0.5 × 0.71 = 0.355
0.71
▶ e probability that the patient receives the drug and survives A
ve years is given by P ( A ∩ S ) = 0.5 × 0.71 = 0.355
▶ e probability that the patient does not receive the drug and 0.5 0.29 A and S : 0.5 × 0.29 = 0.145
survives ve years is P ( A ′ ∩ S ) = 0.5 × 0.49 = 0.245
▶ e probability of ve-year survival can come about in one
of two mutually exclusive ways: either ‘group A and ve-year A and S : 0.5 × 0.49 = 0.245
0.49
survival’ or ‘group B and ve-year survival’. is suggests 0.5
P (S ) = 0.355 + 0.245 = 0.6 A
For dependent events, to nd the probability of: 0.51 A and S : 0.5 × 0.51 = 0.255
▶ A given nal outcome you multiply the probabilities along the
relevant path
▶ Any one of a set of nal outcomes, you add the relevant nal
probabilities.
Note that this was also the case for sets of independent events. e important
dierence is, when you are creating the tree, to consider what probabilities should
go along the branches and if they are conditional on the previous branch or not.
Sometimes the use of tree diagrams is not as obvious as in the above case. For
example, the problem may not have a clearly dened set of stages. It is also
possible in some cases for the tree diagram to contain paths of dierent lengths.
Example 1
A lift has a brake with a probability of failing of 0.001. If the brake fails, an
emergency brake is activated. e probability of the emergency brake failing is
noitseuQ
0.0004. On one-half of all occasions when you travel to the ground oor, you take the
Note
stairs; on the other occasions you take the lift. e stairs have a 99% safety record.
By drawing a fully labelled tree diagram, nd the probability that on a randomly Identify the different paths.
chosen journey to the ground oor, you arrive safely. Give your answer to 4 dp. The ‘stairs’ path has two
branches, and the ‘lift’ path
safe 0.5 × 0.99 = 0.495
has two or three branches.
0.99
The probability of each
stairs path is found as before by
multiplication.
0.5 0.01 not safe
BRAKE
rewsnA
safe 0.5 × 0.999 = 0.4995
0.5 0.999
EMERGENCY BRAKE
safe 0.5 × 0.001 × 0.9996 = 0.0004998
lift
0.9996
Note
0.001
not safe Add the relevant nal
0.0004 probabilities.
not safe
Probability of arriving safely: 0.495 + 0.4995 + 0.000 4998 = 0.9950 (4dp).
Bayes’ Theorem 107
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Exercise 1
1 ere are two colours of counter, red (R) and black (B). Draw a tree diagram
to show the possible outcomes if two counters are selected at random, with
replacement. Tip
2 You choose a card, A or B. If you choose card A, you then ip a fair coin. If A normal pack of playing
you choose card B, you then ip a coin that has a head on both sides. Draw cards contains 52 cards.
a tree diagram for this experiment showing all possible outcomes. There are four suits: hearts
3 You have two fair dice. One dice is four-sided and numbered 1–4, and one (red), diamonds (red), spades
dice is six-sided numbered 1–6. You choose a dice at random and roll it. (black) and clubs (black).
Each suit has 13 cards:
a Draw a tree diagram to represent the possible outcomes and their
an ace, nine number cards
probabilities.
(numbered 2–10) and three
b Calculate the probability that you obtain a 3. picture cards: jack, queen
4 Two cards are chosen with replacement from a normal pack of cards. P is and king.
the event ‘a picture card was chosen’.
a Draw a tree diagram to show the possible outcomes.
b What is the probability that one card is a picture card and the other is not?
5 ree fair coins are ipped and the outcomes noted. Draw a tree diagram to
illustrate this and nd the probability of obtaining exactly two heads.
6 A box contains eight red beads and six blue beads. Two beads are chosen
at random without replacement and their colours noted. By drawing a fully
labelled tree diagram, nd the probability that the beads are of dierent
colours.
7 A survey into school travel arrangements is carried out at school in a
busy city.
35% of all students walk to school. Students who do not walk to school
travel by bus, car or bicycle in these proportions: 45%, 35% and 20%
respectively. e proportion of late arrivals for each type of travel is as
follows: walk (7%), bus (12%), car (9%) and bicycle (4%).
a Draw a fully labelled tree diagram to show this information.
b A student is chosen at random from the whole school. What is the
probability that the student
i travels by bus and is not late
ii is late
iii travels by motorised transport and is late.
Give your answers to 3 dp.
8 A test for a genetic disorder gives either a positive (disease present) or
negative (no disease present) result. It correctly identies 95% of cases
where the disease is present. e percentage of ‘false positives’ (cases
where no disease is present but the test result is positive) is 4%. All test
results are either positive or negative.
By drawing a tree diagram, nd the percentage of all cases where there
is a positive result if the prevalence of the disease among people being
tested is 21%.
108 Bayes’ Theorem
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FS1 1.1 10
10.2 Bayes’ Theorem
e situations involving dependent events discussed so far have contained
more than one ‘stage’ and you were nding probabilities of events in a later
‘stage’ that were conditional on events occurring in the previous stage.
Bayes’ eorem provides a way to calculate the probability of an event
occurring in a particular way, given that it has occurred in the rst place.
Note that the use of ‘given’ here implies conditional probability.
For example, say you rolled a dice and scored an even number. Given that you
rolled an even number, you could calculate the probability that the outcome ‘even
number’ was specically achieved by rolling a 2 (as opposed to rolling a 4or a 6).
Recall that the probability of an event A occurring given that event B occurred is
given by the formula
P ( B ∩ A)
P ( A | B) =
P (B)
Bayes’ eorem generalises this result by allowing B to occur through a set of
Tip
possible outcomes, A j , j = 1,2, …, n. As shown in the diagram, the events
Aj are mutually exclusive and exhaustive. Remember that ‘exhaustive’
means that at least one of the
So, the probability of any one of these events occurring, conditional on B, is
events has to occur.
P (B ∩ A j ) P ( A j ) × P (B | A j )
P ( A j | B) = =
P (B) P (B)
However, from the diagram of the sample space, you have
n n
( )= ∑ P (B ∩ A ) =∑ P ( A ) × P (B | A )
i =1
i
i =1
i i
A1 B
Together, these two equations give Bayes’ eorem.
If a sample space consists of a set of n mutually exclusive and
exhaustive events, j , = 1,2, …, n , and event B is dened A2
on this sample space, then Bayes’ eorem states that An
P ( A ) × P (B | A j )
P( A j | B) = n j
∑
P ( Ai ) × P (B | Ai )
i 1
Example 2 Note
A, B, C and D are events associated with a random experiment and A ∪ B ∪ C = S. Use Axioms 1 and 3 and
A, B and C are mutually exclusive and are exhaustive events. e probabilities of rearrange.
noitseuQ
A and B are 0.4 and 0.3 respectively.
P ( D | A) = 0.2, P ( D | B ) = 0.1 and P ( D | C ) = 0.4. Find Note
a P (C ) b P (B | D) Use Bayes’ Theorem.
a A∪ B ∪C = S and A ∩ B ∩ C = ∅
P (S ) = 1; P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A) + P ( B ) since A∩B =∅ Note
= 1 − ( P ( A) + P ( B)) = 1 − (0.4 + 0.3) = 0.3
P (C ) Substitute in the values of
, and
rewsnA
P (B) × P (D | B)
b P (B | D) = which are given in
P ( A) × P ( D | A) + P ( B ) × P ( D | B ) + P (C ) × P ( D | C )
the question.
0.3 × 0.1 3
= = = 0.11 (2dp)
0.4 × 0.2 + 0.3 × 0.1 + 0.3 × 0.4 23
It is also possible to apply Bayes’ eorem to real-life problems. Bayes’ Theorem 109
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Example 3
In a simple model, 1 males are colour-blind, and 1 females are colour-
100 10 000
blind.
noitseuQ
If a person chosen at random from the population is colour-blind, nd the
probability that this person is male. Assume equal numbers of males and
females in the population.
C denotes that the person is colour-blind; M, that the person is male. Note
P (M ) P (C | M ) Note
P (M | C ) = It is very important for
P (M ) P (C | M ) + P (M ′) P (C | M ′)
you to recognise that the
rewsnA
1 Dene the events.
1
P (C | M ) = 100 and P (C | M ′) = probabilities given in the
10 000
Note question are not absolute but
1 1
× 100 100 conditional on gender. For
P (C | M ) = 1 1
2
1 1
= The mutually exclusive
example, is the probability
× + × 101 and exhaustive events that
2 100 2 10 000
of a person being colour-blind
constitute the sample space
given that they are male
are M and M ′, so Bayes’
Theorem can be used.
Example 4 Note
Two bags contain coloured balls. Bag 1 contains six black, two red and four Identify what values were
white balls. Bag 2 contains three black, one red and two white balls. A ball is given in the question.
noitseuQ
chosen at random from Bag 1 and then placed in Bag 2. A ball is then chosen at
random from Bag 2. Find the probability that Note
a the rst ball is white and the second is red
Substitute the known values
b the rst ball is white given that the second is red. into Bayes’ Theorem.
Wi , R i , Bi = the ith ball is white, red, black, respectively; i = 1, 2
4 1 1
a P (W1 ) = = ; P (R 2 | W1 ) = Note Note
12 3 7
Dene the events. If a white ball is chosen from
P (W1 ∩ R 2 ) = P (W1 ) × P (R 2 | W1)
Bag 1 and placed in Bag 2,
1 1 1
= × = there are now seven balls in
3 7 21
rewsnA
Bag 2, one of which is red.
P (W1 ) P (R 2 | W1 )
b (W1 | R 2 ) =
P (B ) P (R 2 | B
1 1
) + P (R 1 ) P (R 2 | R 1 ) + P (W1) P (R 2 | W1) Note
1 1
× The mutually exclusive
3 7
= 1 and exhaustive events that
2
× 17 + × + 13 ×
1
6
2
7
1
7 constitute the sample space
2 are ; use Bayes’
=
7 Theorem.
110 Bayes’ Theorem
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FS1 1.1 10
Exercise 2
1 2
1 Given that P ( P ) = P (Q), P (T |Q) = , P (T | P ) = 3 and P and Q are mutually
4
exclusive, exhaustive events, use Bayes’ eorem to nd P (Q | T ).
2 e sample space for an experiment is made up of two mutually exclusive
events, A and B. An event R is a subset of the same sample space. If
P ( A) = 0.3, P (R | A) = 0.2 and P (R | B ) = 0.6, nd
a P (B) b P ( A | R)
3 Two mutually exclusive and exhaustive events, B1 and B2, are dened on a
sample space. An event A is also dened on the sample space. Given that
P (B1 ) = 0.4 and the conditional probabilities of A given B1 and A given B2
are respectively 0.3 and 0.5, nd
a P (B2 ) b P ( B1 | A) c P (B2 | A) d P ( A)
4 A bag contains the seeds of three dierent varieties of ower, P, Q and R, in
proportions 1 : 2 : 7. e germination rates for these varieties are 84%, 55%
and 20%, respectively. One seed chosen at random is planted. Given that it
germinates, what is the probability that it was of variety P?
5 You have three coins: two of them are fair and one has a head on both sides.
You choose one of them at random and ip it.
a Find the probability that a head is obtained.
b Given that a head occurred, nd the probability that a fair coin was
tossed.
6 In a random experiment, an event, S, can come about in one of three
exhaustive and mutually exclusive ways, P, Q and R. Given that the
probabilities of P, Q and R are 0.1, 0.4 and 0.5 respectively and that
P(S | P) = 0.3, P(S | Q) = 0.4 and P(S | R) = 0.5, show that
25P(Q | S) = 16P ( R | S )
7 You choose a card from a set of nine cards numbered 1–9. If the card shows
a number
▶ Less than 3, you ip a fair coin
▶ Between 3 and 6 (inclusive), you ip a coin for which the probability of
a head is 2
3
▶ Greater than 6, you ip a coin for which the probability of a head is 1
3
a Find the probability that the coin shows a tail.
b If it shows a head, calculate the probability that the coin most likely
to produce a head was tossed.
8 A test is developed for a disease. When the disease is present, the
probability of the test detecting it is 0.80. e probability of a false-positive
result, where the test wrongly suggests the presence of the disease, is 0.15.
e disease is present in 38% of those tested.
a Given that a patient is tested positive, what is the probability that that
patient does not have the disease?
b What is the probability that the test gives the wrong result?
Bayes’ Theorem 111
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9 ree technicians, E, F and G, each assemble identical electrical
components. e probabilities of each technician producing a defective
component are 0.18, 0.15 and 0.03, respectively. e technicians produce
these components at the same rate.
Two components are taken at random from the day’s output and neither Note
is found to be defective. Find the probability that both components were This is an example of a Polya
produced by technician G. urn model: the probability of
10 An urn contains four white and six black balls. A ball is drawn at random getting a ball on the second
and its colour noted. e ball, and another ball of the same colour, are put draw that is the same colour
back into the jar. A second ball is then drawn and its colour noted. as the rst ball is increased
Given that the second ball was black, what is the probability that the rst rather than staying constant
ball was white? or decreasing.
Summary
▶ You can use a tree diagram to represent the possible outcomes of
experiments that have more than one stage, and where the events are
independent or dependent. When the stages are:
• Independent, the probabilities along a branch are not aected by the
outcome of the preceding branch
• Dependent, the probabilities along a given branch will be conditional
on the outcome of the preceding branch.
▶ For any tree diagram, to nd the probability of:
• A given nal outcome, multiply the probabilities along the
relevant path
• Any one of a set of nal outcomes, add the relevant nal probabilities.
▶ If a sample space consists of a set of n mutually exclusive and exhaustive
events, , and event A is dened on this sample space, then
Bayes’ eorem states that .
Review exercises
1 A fair coin is ipped twice.
a Draw a tree diagram to show the possible outcomes of this experiment.
b Use your tree diagram to calculate the probability that the results of the
two ips are dierent.
2 An experiment can result in one of two possible outcomes, E1 and E 2 ,
with equal probability. e experiment is performed three times. If the
outcomes of the three experiments are independent of each other, nd, by
drawing a probability tree diagram, the probability that the outcome of the
second experiment is dierent from those of the rst and third.
112 Bayes’ Theorem
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FS1 1.1 10
3 Two urns contain red and green counters. Urn 1 contains eight red and four
green; urn 2 contains six red and three green. A counter is chosen at random
from urn 1 and its colour noted, and then it is placed in urn 2. A counter is
then chosen at random from urn 2. By drawing a tree diagram, nd
a e probability that both counters are green
b e probability that the rst counter is red and the second, green
c e probability that the counters are of dierent colours.
4 In a random experiment, an event, D, can come about in one of three
exhaustive and mutually exclusive ways, A, B and C. Given that the
probabilities of A, B and C are 0.3, 0.3 and 0.4 and that P(D | A) = 0.3,
P(D | B) = 0.4 and P(D | C) = 0.5, nd the probability P(C | D).
5 Two mutually exclusive and exhaustive events, B and C, are dened on a
sample space. Event A is also dened on the sample space. Given that
P(B) = 0.4, P(A | B) = 0.6 and P(A | C) = 0.5, nd
a P(C) b P(B | A) c P(C | A) d P(A)
Practice examination questions
1 On a rail route between two stations, A and B, 90% of trains leave A on time
and 10% of trains leave A late. Of those trains that leave A on time, 15%
arrive at B early, 75% arrive on time and 10% arrive late. Of those trains that
leave A late, 35% arrive at B on time and 65% arrive late.
a Represent this information by a fully-labelled tree diagram. (3 marks)
b Hence, or otherwise, calculate the probability that a train:
i arrives at B early or on time;
ii left A on time, given that it arrived at B on time;
iii left A late, given that it was not late in arriving at B. (7 marks)
c Two trains arrive late at B. Assuming that their journey times are
independent, calculate the probability that exactly one train left A
on time. (4 marks)
AQA MS03 June 2013
2 In a large drug trial, a certain disease is treated with either one of two drugs,
D1 or D2, or a placebo, P, with equal numbers in each group. e cure rates
for these treatments are 0.81, 0.52 and 0.58, respectively.
a Find the probability that a patient chosen at random
is cured. (3 marks)
Another patient is chosen at random.
b Given that this patient is cured, what is the probability that she received
the placebo? (4 marks)
Bayes’ Theorem 113
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3 It is proposed to introduce, for all males at age 60, screening tests, A and
B, for a certain disease. Test B is administered only when the result of Test
A is inconclusive. It is known that 10% of 60-year-old men suer from the
disease. For those 60-year-old men suering from the disease:
▶ Test A is known to give a positive result, indicating a presence of the
disease, in 90% of cases, a negative result in 2% of cases and a
requirement for the administration of Test B in 8% of cases;
▶ Test B is known to give a positive result in 98% of cases and a negative
result in 2% of cases.
For those 60-year-old men not suering from the disease:
▶ Test A is known to give a positive result in 1% of cases, a negative result
in 80% of cases and a requirement for the administration of Test B in
19% of cases;
▶ Test B is known to give a positive result in 1% of cases and a negative
result in 99% of cases.
a Draw a tree diagram to represent the above information. (4 marks)
b i Hence, or otherwise, determine the probability that:
A a 60-year-old man, suering from the disease, tests negative;
B a 60-year-old man, not suering from the disease, tests
positive. (2 marks)
ii A random sample of ten thousand 60-year-old men is given the
screening tests. Calculate, to the nearest 10, the number who you
would expect to be given an incorrect diagnosis. (2 marks)
c Determine the probability that:
i a 60-year-old man suers from the disease given that the tests
provide a positive result;
ii a 60-year-old man does not suer from the disease given that the
tests provide a negative result. (5 marks)
AQA MS03 June 2010
4 An investigation was carried out into the type of vehicle being driven when
its driver was caught speeding. e investigation was restricted to drivers
who were caught speeding when driving vehicles with at least four wheels.
An analysis of the results showed that 65% were driving cars (C), 20% were
driving vans (V) and 15% were driving lorries (L).
Of those driving cars, 30% were caught by xed speed cameras (F), 55%
were caught by mobile speed cameras (M) and 15% were caught by average
speed cameras (A).
Of those driving vans, 35% were caught by xed speed cameras (F), 45%
were caught by mobile speed cameras (M) and 20% were caught by average
speed cameras (A).
114 Bayes’ Theorem
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Of those driving lorries, 10% were caught by xed speed cameras (F), 65%
were caught by mobile speed cameras (M) and 25% were caught by average
speed cameras (A).
a Represent this information by a tree diagram on which are shown labels
and percentages or probabilities. (3 marks)
b Hence, or otherwise, calculate the probability that a driver, selected at
random from those caught speeding:
i was driving either a car or a lorry and was caught by a mobile speed
camera;
ii was driving a lorry, given that the driver was caught by an average
speed camera;
iii was not caught by a xed speed camera, given that the driver was not
driving a car. (8 marks)
c ree drivers were selected at random from those caught speeding by
xed speed cameras
Calculate the probability that they were driving three dierent types of
vehicle. (4 marks)
AQA MS03 June 2014
5 A manufacturer produces three models of washing machine: basic,
standard and deluxe. An analysis of warranty records shows that 25% of
faults are on basic machines, 60% are on standard machines and 15% are
on deluxe machines.
For basic machines, 30% of faults reported during the warranty period are
electrical, 50% are mechanical and 20% are water-related.
For standard machines, 40% of faults reported during the warranty period
are electrical, 45% are mechanical and 15% are water-related.
For deluxe machines, 55% of faults reported during the warranty period are
electrical, 35% are mechanical and 10% are water-related.
a Draw a tree diagram to represent the above information. (3 marks)
b Hence, or otherwise, determine the probability that a fault reported
during the warranty period:
i is electrical (2 marks)
ii is on a deluxe machine, given that it is electrical. (2 marks)
c A random sample of 10 electrical faults reported during the warranty
period is selected. Calculate the probability that exactly 4 of them are on
deluxe machines. (3 marks)
AQA Teacher Support Materials MS03 2008
Bayes’ Theorem 115
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Discrete Uniform and
11 Geometric Distributions
Introduction Objectives
Probability distributions are mathematical descriptions, or models, of By the end of this chapter,
random phenomena. e most important distributions model commonly you should know how to:
occurring, real-life situations, for example the height of a randomly ▶ Recognise situations
chosen person from a particular population or the number of random that can be modelled
events in a given period of time. In this chapter, you will be introduced to by a discrete uniform
two discrete probability distributions, the discrete uniform and geometric distribution or a
distributions. geometric distribution.
▶ Calculate probabilities,
means and variances
for these distributions.
Recap
▶ Solve problems related
You will need to remember . . .
to these distributions.
▶ e formulae for the mean and variance of a random variable:
▶ e summation of innite geometric series, rst term a, common
ratio r: .
▶ e binomial expansion of expressions of the form for positive
integers n:
▶ e denition of a Bernoulli trial: any random experiment that can
be considered as having only two outcomes, often labelled ‘success’
and ‘failure’; Bernoulli trials are often considered in sets of n that are
all identical and independent in the context of a binomial random
variable.
▶ Basic rules of probability; for an experiment E, with associated events
A and B dened on a sample space S
1.
2. for A ⊆ S
3. .
11.1 Discrete uniform distribution
In any experiment modelled by a discrete uniform distribution, the random
variable can take one of a nite number of discrete values, each with the same
probability. ese values are often, but not always, consecutive integers 1 to n
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FS1 1.2 11
Probability model and probability distribution
Consider the classic random experiment, E, where a fair dice is rolled once.
Since the dice is fair, each of the six outcomes, integers 1–6, have an equal
1
probability of occurring of 6
If X is a random variable for the score obtained when the dice is rolled once,
then its probability distribution is given by P ( X = x ) = 1 ; x = 1, 2, …, 6
6
is is a special case of a discrete uniform distribution; in general, the x-values
do not have to be consecutive integers.
If a random variable, U, has a uniform distribution taking values
ui , i = 1, 2, …, m , it follows that P (U = ui ) = k where k is some constant.
However, you know from Axiom 1 (the total probability theorem) that P (S ) = 1.
1
erefore, mk = 1 and so k =
m
A discrete uniform random variable, U, taking values ui , i = 1, 2, …, m ,
has probability distribution given by P (U = ui ) = 1 ; i = 1,2, …, m ; u i ∈
m
You can use this rule to calculate the probabilities of certain outcomes. If the
random variable X takes m dierent values each with equal probability, then the
probability of any one of them occurring when the experiment is performed is 1
m
Example 1
Two fair tetrahedral dice, each numbered 1–4, are rolled once. e random
noitseuQ
variables T1 and T2 are the scores on the two dice. Find the probability of obtaining
a a total of 5 b a product of 4.
Note
1 Note It is probably best to think of
P (T1 = i ) = P (T2 = i ) = ; i = 1,2, 3, 4
4 The variables T1 and T2 each the two rolls occurring one
a Outcomes for a total of 5: follow a uniform distribution. after the other. Then, outcome
(1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 1) 1 and 4 is different from
1 1
rewsnA
e probability of a total of 5 is 4 × = Note outcome 4 and 1.
16 4
b Outcomes for a product of 4: Because of the independence
(1, 4), (2, 2), (4, 1) of the outcomes on the
Note
erefore, the probability of a product two dice, the probability of Axiom 3,
3
of 4 is 16 each of these outcomes is
Mean and variance
e mean and variance of a discrete
uniform distribution, U, can be derived
using the formulae you learned in your A-level Mathematics course:
µ = E[ X ] = ∑xP( X = x ), σ = ∑x P( X = x ) − µ
2 2 2
x
a
x
a Tip
xi 1
µU = E[U ] = ∑x P (U = x ) = ∑
i
i i
i =1
=
a a ∑x
i =1
i
P(U = xi ) =
a a
xi2
− (µ U ) = ∑x − ( µ )
1
∑x P(U = x ) − µ = ∑
2 2
σ U2 = 2 2 2
i
i i U
i =1
a a i =1
i U
Discrete Uniform and Geometric Distributions 117
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A discrete uniform random variable, U, with probability distribution Tip
P (U = ui ) = a1 i = 1,2, …, a , has a mean and variance given
a a a 2 You will be asked to prove
by µU = a
1
∑
i 1
2 1
i =1
∑
ui and σ U = a u i − a1
2
∑ ui .
i =1
these results in question 1
of the practice examination
For the special case where ui is a set of consecutive integers 1 − n (for example, questions at the end of the
the score on a fair dice, n = 6), these results can be proved. chapter.
A discrete uniform random variable, U, with probability distribution
P (U = i ) = n1 , i = 1,2, …, n , has a mean and variance given by Formulae booklet
i = n +1
n Equations [1] and [2] are
µU = ∑
i n 21
[1] given in the Formulae and
Statistical Tables booklet.
n
i −µ = n 1 2 2
σ U2 = ∑
i n 1
U
12
2
[2]
Unless you are specically
asked to prove them, you can
You should learn the proofs for the mean and variance of a discrete uniform quote them without proof.
distribution as it is possible for them to be requested in the examination.
Example 2
noitseuQ
An ordinary dice is rolled once. Calculate the mean and variance of the number
that is scored.
If X is the face number scored,
1
then P ( X = x ) = ; x = 1, 2, …, 6 Note
6 Note
rewsnA
6 +1 7 Use equation
µX = = As proof has not been
2 2
requested, you can simply
6 1 35
2
quote the equations.
X = =
2
12 12
Note
Example 3
e random variable, X, takes values 2, 4,
noitseuQ
Use equation . Note
6, …, 20 with equal probabilities.
Expressing the distribution
Find the mean and variance of X
in this form means that the
summation can be over
X has probability distribution given by Note consecutive integers even
P ( X = 2c ) = 101 ; c = 1,2, …,10
though X takes only even
10
Use
µX = ∑ 102c values.
rewsnA
c 1
10
1
= ∑
5c 1
c Note Note
Use
1 10 × 11 Use .
= × = 11
5 2
(continued)
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(continued)
∑ ∑
10 10
(2c )2
2
= − 112 = 2 c2 − 112
rewsnA
X
c =1
10 5 c =1
= 2 × 1 × 10 × 11 × 21 − 112 = 154 − 121 = 33
5 6
Even if the values of the random variable are not given explicitly, its mean and
variance can still be found.
Example 4
A random variable X has the probability function
1 ; x = 1, 2, 3, …, 2n
P ( X = x ) = 2n
noitseuQ
0; otherwise
where n is a positive integer.
a Determine, in terms of n, an expression for E[X].
4n 2 1
b Prove that Var [ X ] =
12
1 ; x = 1, 2, 3, …, 2n
a P( X = x ) = 2n
0; otherwise
[ X ] = ∑x 21n = 21n ∑x
2n 2n
x =1 x =1
2n(2n + 1)
1
= 2n + 1
2n 2 2
rewsnA
b Var[X] = E[X 2] − (E[X])2
∑ − 2n + 1
2n 2
1 2
= x
x 1
2n 2
1 1
× 2n(2n + 1)(4n + 1) − 4n + 4n + 1
2
Note
2n 6 4
(4n + 2)(4n + 1) − 3(4n 2 + 4n + 1)
12
4n 2 1
12
Exercise 1
1 A fair tetrahedral dice numbered 1–4 is rolled once. Calculate the mean and
variance of the number that is scored.
2 e random variable Y takes odd values 1–9 inclusive with equal
probabilities. Find the mean and variance of X
3 X is a random variable for the score on a fair, 10-sided dice.
State the distributions of these random variables and nd their means and
variances.
a 2X b X −1
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4 A random number generator is programmed to produce numbers from 1to
400 with equal probabilities. X and Y are random variables for the rst and last
digits of the number generated. e number generator is then reprogrammed
to produce numbers from 1 to 415 and S is a variable for the nal digit.
a Which of these variables, if any, is discrete uniform?
b For any uniform variable, give the value of its parameter p.
5 A random experiment involves rolling a fair, tetrahedral dice with sides
numbered 1–4, followed by a card being chosen from a pack of eight cards
numbered 1–8. By considering two uniformly distributed random variables,
nd the probability of obtaining a total score that is a prime number.
6 Two fair, eight-sided dice are each numbered 1, 3, 5, …, 15. Find the
probability that, when both dice are rolled, the total score is less than 9.
7 A digital clock shows the time in hours and minutes but not seconds. Hint
You look at the clock at some randomly chosen time of day. What is the
probability that the clock shows a time between 02:10 hours and 04:40 hours? Be careful: the time for
which the clock shows those
8 A number is chosen at random from the set of all prime numbers between
minutes may not be exactly
30 and 50 inclusive. What is the probability that its value is greater than 40?
what you at rst think.
9 A fair 10-sided dice with faces numbered 1–10 is thrown once. From
rst principles (that is, from the probability distribution and the general
denitions of mean and variance), prove that the mean and variance of the
11 33
score obtained are 2 and 4
10 A random number generator shows numbers from 1 to 20 with equal
probabilities.
a Find the expected value obtained when one number is generated.
e generator then malfunctions by failing to produce sixes, with the other
numbers being produced with equal probability.
b Find the new expected value.
11 A fairground game consists of throwing darts at a set of cards pinned to
a board. e cards are numbered 0–50 and the player wins, in fairground
tokens, the number on the card on which the dart lands. For a player whose
dart lands on the set of cards at random, what is the expected number of
tokens won per game? (A fair game is one where, in the long run, the player
can expect to win or lose nothing.)
12 A random variable X has the probability function
1 ; x = 1, 2, 3, …, 4n
P ( X = x ) = 4n
0; otherwise
where n is a positive integer.
a Determine, in terms of n, an expression for E[X].
b Prove that
16n 2 1
Var [ X ] =
12
c If n = 8, calculate the exact value of
P (E[ X ] − Var[ X ] < X < E[ X ] + Var[ X ] )
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11.2 Geometric distribution
e geometric distribution is used when a set of independent and identical
random experiments is performed and the random variable of interest, X, is the
number of experiments up to and including a particular outcome. For example,
X could be the number of rolls of a dice up to and including the rst 6.
Probability model and probability distribution
To see the real-life signicance of this distribution, consider this situation.
As a market researcher, you have been asked to interview adults who say that
they are the main earner in their household. You stand at the entrance to a
shopping mall and approach adults until you nd one who says that they are
the main earner.
It is possible to consider this situation mathematically by modelling each
Tip
approach to a shopper as a Bernoulli trial where p is the probability of success
(that is, nding a main earner). Bernoulli trials are dened in
the Recap section if you need
Denote the number of approaches up to and including the main earner by the
a reminder.
random variable X. Once this person has been identied and questioned and
you have the rst value of X, counting starts from 1 again to get the next value.
e distribution of X is P ( X = x ) = (1 − p) x 1 p , x = 1, 2, 3, …, because exactly x
approaches requires x − 1 failures followed by one success and it is assumed
that there is independence between outcomes of these approaches.
e random variable X is said to follow a geometric distribution
A random variable X follows a geometric distribution if it denotes Tip
the number of independent and identical Bernoulli trials up to and
The distribution is called
including the rst success. Its probability distribution is given by
geometric because the
P ( X = x ) = (1 − p)x 1 p , x = 1, 2, 3, … successive probabilities, p,
where p is a constant and is the probability of success in any given trial. (1 − p)p, (1 − p)2p..., form
a geometric sequence, rst
is probability distribution applies when the random variable X is the number term p, common ratio (1 − p).
of trials up to and including the rst success.
Occasionally, the variable is the number of trials up to but not including the
success. Using identical principles, the probability distribution becomes
P (Y = y ) = (1 − p) y p , y = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, where in this case the variable values
start from 0 rather than 1.
Example 5
A random variable, X, has a geometric probability distribution with p = 0.7.
noitseuQ
Find
a P ( X = 2) b P ( X = 4) c P ( X < 3) d P ( X ≥ 3)
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P ( X = x ) = (1 − p) x 1 p Note Note
a P ( X = 2) = 0.3 × 0.7 = 0.21 State the probability Use Axiom 3,
rewsnA
b P ( X = 4) = 0.33 × 0.7 = 0.0189 distribution.
c P ( X < 3) = P ( X = 1) + P ( X = 2) Remember, X cannot equal 0.
0.7 0.3 × 0.7 = 0.91 Note
d P ( X ≥ 3) = 1 − P ( X < 3) = 1 − 0.91 = 0.09 For X to equal 2, there must be Note
one failure and one success.
Axioms 1, and 3.
Example 6
A fair dice is rolled until a 1 is scored. If X is a random variable for the number of Note
noitseuQ
rolls required, nd the probability that
a X=4 b X≥3 As the dice is fair, p =
P ( X = x ) = (1 − p) x 1 p , x = 1, 2, 3, …
rewsnA
3
1 1 125
a P ( X = 4) = 1 − =
6 6 1296
1 5 1 25
b P ( X ≥ 3) = 1 − P ( X ≤ 2) = 1 − + × =
6 6 6 36
Mean and variance
e mean and variance of a geometric distribution can be derived using the
general formulae you learned in your AS-level Mathematics course and which
are given in the Recap section at the start of this chapter,
∞
µ = E[ X ] = ∑xP( X = x ) = p∑x (1 − p)
∀x x =1
x 1
p(1 2 q + 3q 2 + …) where q = 1 − p
p(1 q) 2 Tip
[3]
Set p = 1 − q The proof of this result is
1 beyond the AS specication
= and will therefore have to be
p
2
= Var [ X ] = E [ X 2 ] − 2 memorized.
∞
Now, E [ X 2 ] = p ∑x q
x 1
2 x 1
(1 q)(1 + 4 q + 9q 2 + …)
Tip
= (1 + 4 q + 9q + …) − (q + 4 q 2 + 9q 3 + …)
2
When reproducing this proof
= 1 + 3q + 5q + 7 q + … 2 3 in an exam, you might have
is is not as easy to sum as it looks but it can be summed using this method: to remember this line.
Adding and subtracting the series 1 + q + q 2 + q 3 + …
E[ X 2 ] = (2 + 4 q + 6 q 2 + …) − (1 + q + q 2 + …)
= 2(1 + 2 q + 3q 2 + …) − (1 + q + q 2 + …)
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e rst of these series has been summed using a binomial expansion earlier in
the proof. e second is an innite geometric series, rst term 1, common ratio
q, and can be summed using the formula given in the Recap section of this
chapter.
2 1
E[ X 2 ] =
(1 q)2 1 q
2 1
p 2
p
Now, Var [ X ] = E [ X 2 ] − µ 2
2
2 1 1 1 p
erefore, Var [ X ] = − −
=
p2 p p p2
A geometric random variable, X, with probability distribution
P ( X = x ) = (1 − p )x 1 p , x = 1, 2, 3, …, has a mean and variance
1 1 p
given by µ = E [ X ] = p and σ 2 = Var [ X ] = 2
p
You should learn these proofs for the mean and variance of a geometric
distribution as it is possible for them to be requested in the examination. If the
proofs are not requested, you can use the formulae without proof.
Example 7
R is a random variable for the number of Bernoulli trials up to and including the
noitseuQ
rst success. Given that P ( R = 3) = 0.128
a prove that P ( R = 1) = 0.2 Note
b nd the mean and variance of R
Note It would be helpful to solve
a Let the probability of success in any this equation for p but that
Use is difcult. An alternative is
given trial be p
required.
P ( R = r ) = (1 − p)r 1p
P ( R = 3) = (1 − p)2 p = 0.128 (given)
Note Note
Make r = 1, then
rewsnA
It is therefore necessary to This is known to be true from
P ( R = 1) = p
prove that p = 0.2. the information given.
If p = 0.2, then (1 − p)2p = 0.128
erefore, p = P ( R = 1) = 0.2 Note Note
1
b µ = =5
0.2 Use . Use .
0.8
σ 2
= = 20
0.2 2
When modelling real situations, one of the skills required is to be able to choose
the correct probability model out of all of the ones you have met. Make sure that
you understand why, in a question, a particular model is the correct one. In the
next worked question, for example, be careful as only part is geometric.
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Example 8
As part of their archery practice, Robin and William are playing a game
consisting of a number of rounds. For each round of the game, they each shoot
one arrow at the gold inner circle of a target. e probability that Robin hits the
gold with any one arrow is 1 , independently of all previous shots. is
15
probability for William is 6 . In each round, Robin shoots rst. If they both hit
the gold, then the game ends with a draw. If one of them hits the gold and the
other misses, the one who hits the gold wins. If they both miss the gold, then the
game continues to the next round.
noitseuQ
Find the probability that
a the game is drawn after no more than three rounds have been completed
b the game is drawn
c Robin wins the game.
e rules are now changed so that the only way the game can nish is by either
Robin or William winning a round. Otherwise the game continues to another
round.
d Find the probability that the game lasts exactly three rounds.
Let X be the number of rounds up to and including the rst GR GW with only
Note
GR′ GW′ occurring before it. Let p be the probability of a draw in any given round.
1 1 1 Remember, the game
p = P (GRGW ) = × = Note
5 6 30 continues after each
4 5 2 Use the obvious notation. round and ends with a draw
P (GR′ GW′ ) = × =
5 6 3 after a round as long
a P ( X ≤ 3) = P ( X = 1) + P ( X = 2) + P ( X = 3) Note as or does not
1 2 1 2
2
1 19 occur. X is not a geometric
= + × + × = The game is drawn at the
30 3 30
3 30 270 random variable because the
rst and therefore
b P (gamedrawn) = P ( X ≥ 1) if X = 1 or X = 2 or ... probabilities are not of the
2 form (1 p)p n 1
1 2 1 2 1
= + × + × +…
30 3 30 3 30
Note
rewsnA
1
30 1
= =
2 An innite geometric series.
1 3
10
1
c In any given round, Robin wins when GR GW′ occurs, probability .
6
1 2 1 2
2
1 Note
P (Robinwinsthegame) = + × + × + … Note
6 3 6 3 6 Sum of an innite geometric
1 series.
6 1
=
2
1 3
2
d (agameiswon) = (GRGW′ orG R′ GW ) Note
Note
1 5 4 1 3
= × +
5 6 5
×
6
=
10 With the new rules, the Y is geometric, .
probability of any round being
Let Y denote the number of games until a win. won is still but the game
2
7 3
P (Y = 3) = = 0.147 continues until this happens.
10 10
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Exercise 2
1 A fair coin is ipped until a head is scored. If X is a random variable for the
number of ips required, nd the probability that a X = 4 b X ≥ 4
2 A random variable, G, has probability distribution given by
P (G = g ) = (1 − p) g 1 p , g = 1, 2, 3, …
If p = 0.9, nd a P (G = 2) b P (G = 6) c P (G < 3) d P (G ≥ 2)
3 A random variable, X, has probability distribution given by
P ( X = x ) = (1 − p) x 1 p , x = 1, 2, 3, …
Find the mean and variance of X if p = 0.5.
4 An ordinary dice is rolled until a prime number appears. Find the mean
and variance of the number of rolls required.
5 A random variable, Y, has probability distribution given by
P (Y = y ) = (1 − p) y 1 p , y = 1, 2, 3, …
Given that the mean of Y is 8, nd the variance of Y
6 Prove that the cumulative probability distribution, P(X ≤ x), for a geometric
random variable X, parameter p, is given by P(X ≤ x) = 1 − qx, where
q=1−p
7 Y is a random variable for the number of Bernoulli trials up to, but not
including, the rst success.
a Write the probability distribution of Y and nd its expected value.
b Check your answer to the expected value of Y by using the relationship
Y = X − 1 where X is the number of trials up to and including the rst
success.
8 An ordinary dice is repeatedly rolled. What is the probability that a 6 occurs
for the second time on the fourth throw?
9 Prove that the probability distribution
P ( X = x ) = (1 − p) x 1 p , x = 1, 2, 3, …
gives probabilities for P(S) = 1 where S is the sample space.
Summary
▶ A discrete uniform random variable, U, taking values , has
• A probability distribution given by
• Mean and variance given by
and
is distribution is used when the random variable of interest takes one of a
nite number of values each with an equal probability.
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▶ For the special case of a discrete uniform random variable, U, with
probability distribution given by the mean and
variance are given by
and
▶ A random variable X follows a geometric distribution if its probability
distribution is given by
where p is a constant and is the probability of success in any given trial.
is distribution is used when you can identify a number of independent
Bernoulli trials and the random variable is the number of trials up to and
including the rst success.
▶ e mean and variance of a random variable with a geometric distribution
are given by
and
Review exercises
1 Two fair, six-sided dice are each numbered with integers 1–6. Find the
probability that, when both dice are rolled, the total score is less than six.
2 Pairs of random digits are chosen so that all values from 00 to 99 are
equally likely. Using the general denitions of mean and variance, nd
the probability that, when a pair of digits is chosen at random, the number
obtained is more than one standard deviation away from its mean value.
3 R is a random variable for the number of Bernoulli trials up to and
including the rst success. Given that , nd two possible
values of .
4 Recall the scenario earlier in the chapter, where you are a market
researcher interviewing adults who say that they are the main earner
in their household. Using the same scenario, this time you nd that, on
average, you have to question ve people until you meet one person who
ts the description of ‘main earner’ (the fth person).
Find the probability that
a any given person in the shopping mall ts this description
b that you have to approach at least three people in order to nd someone
to question.
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Practice examination questions
1 Using the results for the mean and variance of a discrete uniform
distribution:
and ,
prove that, for the special case where ui = i; i = 1, 2, . . ., n
(2 marks)
and
(3 marks)
2 e random variable x has a geometric distribution with parameter p
a Prove, from rst principles, that . (4 marks)
b Hence, given that , deduce that . (1 mark)
c Given that , calculate P(X > Var(X)). (3 marks)
AQA MS04 June 2014
3 a For a geometric random variable, X, with probability distribution
prove that the mean is given by (3 marks)
b In a school fair rae, tickets are drawn in front of a group of parents.
e tickets have been on sale for some weeks and only 12% of the tickets
are with the parents present. e rules state that you have to be present
to win a prize.
i What is the probability that, of the rst 5 tickets drawn,
exactly one prize is won? (2 marks)
ii What is the probability that the rst prize is won on the 5 th
draw? (2 marks)
4 a e random variable X has a geometric distribution with parameter p.
i Prove from rst principles that . (3 marks)
ii Hence, given that , prove that . (2 marks)
b e independent random variables X1 and X2 have geometric
distributions with parameters p1 and p2 respectively.
It is given that
i Show that . (5 marks)
ii Hence nd the least value of N such that P(X1 > N) < 10 . −5
(4 marks)
AQA MS04 June 2010
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5 Andy plays a game with Bea by throwing an unbiased six-sided die until
a 5 is obtained. When a 5 is obtained, Bea pays Andy £10.
Find, to the nearest penny, the amount that Bea should charge
Andy per throw so that, in the long run, Bea makes a prot
of £1 per game. (4 marks)
AQA MS04 June 2011
6 a e random variable X has a geometric distribution with parameter p
i Prove that (3 marks)
ii Given that . (2 marks)
b An unbiased tetrahedral die has faces marked 1 to 4. When it is thrown
on a table, the score is the number on the face that is in contact with the
table.
i Calculate the probability that it takes more than two throws to obtain
a score of 4. (2 marks)
ii e number of throws, Y, that it takes for two dierent scores to
occur at least once is given by Y = 1 + X, where X has a geometric
distribution with parameter .
Determine values for E(Y) and Var(Y). (3 marks)
AQA MS04 June 2012
7 e random variable X has a geometric distribution with parameter p. It is
given that Var(X) is four times E(X).
a Show that the non-zero value of p is 0.20. (3 marks)
b Hence nd:
i P(X > 7 X > 4); (3 marks)
ii the least integer n such that P(X > n) < 0.0001. (4 marks)
AQA MS04 June 2013
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Probability Generating
12 Functions
Introduction Objectives
Functions suggest a dependency or mapping of one variable onto another. By the end of this chapter,
A probability generating function, however, is a function that is used you should know how to:
slightly dierently. Instead of dening a mapping, the probability ▶ Find probability
generating function is used to generate probabilities of the various values generating functions
of the corresponding random variable in a mathematically convenient way. for well-known
It provides a neat way of summarising the whole probability distribution. It discrete probability
can also be used to calculate the mean and variance of the corresponding distributions.
probability distribution. ▶ Use probability
generating functions
to calculate
probabilities and the
Recap mean and variance
You will need to remember . . . of the corresponding
▶ e binomial expansion random variables.
(a + bx)n = an + nan 1
bx + ▶ Find probability
generating functions
▶ e formula for the sum of squares of integers 1 to n for sums of
independent random
variables.
▶ e formula for the sum to innity of a geometric series
Formulae booklet
▶ e distribution function of a binomial random variable, X, and The expectation of functions
parameters n and p of random variables is
where .
where g(X ) is a function of
▶ Rules of probability; for an experiment, E, with associated events the random variable X
A and B dened on a sample space S
1.
2. for A ⊆ S
3. .
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12.1 Probability generating functions and
their properties
For a random variable taking integer values and with a given probability
distribution, it is possible to dene a probability generating function.
Consider a random variable X with probability distribution
P ( X = xi ) = pi ; i = 1, 2, …, n
e probability generating function, G X (t ) , of X is dened as G X (t ) = E[t X ].
Tip
Now, the expectation of a function of a random variable is given by
Axiom 3 gives GX (1) = 1
E [ g( X ) ] = ∑
∀x
g( x ) P ( X = x ) because this is the sum of the
probabilities of all possible
erefore, substituting t X for g(x) and pi for P(X = x) gives
n outcomes of an experiment.
GX (t) = E[t X] = ∑p ti 1
i
x
e probability generating function, GX (t), of a random variable X,
n
dened by the equation G X (t ) = E [ t X ] = ∑
i
pi t x , is a function of t where
1
the coecient of t x is the probability that X takes the value xi
In general, P(X = x) is the coecient of tx in GX(t). For example, the coecient of
x² in a probability generating function is P ( X = 2)
Example 1
noitseuQ
An ordinary fair dice is rolled once and the random variable X denotes the score
obtained. Write the probability generating function, G X (t ) , of X
n
Note
G X (t ) = E [t X ] = ∑pt x
rewsnA
i
i 1 The probability of each value
t2 t t6
G X (t ) = + + … + 1– 6, is .
6 6 6
Example 2
Note
A random variable Y has probability distribution given by
noitseuQ
p; y =1 When a probability
( = y) = distribution is given in this
1 − p ; y = 0
form, it means
Find its probability generating function. Note
and .
n GY (t ) is the probability
G X (t ) = ∑p t x generating function of Y
rewsnA
i
i 1 and so, by denition of
GY (t ) = t (1 − p) + t 1p
0
a probability generating
1 p + pt function, this is equivalent to
the statements
and .
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Mean and variance using probability generating
functions
Probability generating functions provide an ecient way to calculate the mean
and variance of random variables.
Suppose GX(t) is the probability generating function of a random variable X with
mean μ and variance σ 2. GX(t) can be dierentiated with respect to t in order to
nd general formulae for calculating the mean and variance of X
is can be dierentiated with respect to t as follows.
∑
n
G X′ (t ) = d G X (t ) = d pi t x
dt dt i 1 Tip
∑p x t
n
= i i
x 1
[1] Since .
i 1
Also
∑ px x −
n
d
G X′′(t ) = G ′ (t ) = i i( i 1)t x 2
[2]
dt X i 1
Setting t = 1 in equations [1] and [2] gives Tip
∑p x = µ
n
G X′ (1) = i i [3] Note that t can be taken as
i 1 any value but setting it equal
= ∑p x x −
n
to 1 in the expressions for
G X′′ (1) i i( i 1)
i 1
and gives,
∑ px px
n respectively, the mean and an
( i i
2
i i) expression that can be used
i 1
to calculate the variance.
∑p x ∑p x
n n
2
i i i i
i =1 i =1
= ∑p x − µ + µ − µ
n
2 2 2
i i Tip
i 1
σ 2
µ 2
µ
erefore,
2
= G X′′(1) + − µ 2 [4]
If GX(t) is the probability generating function of a random variable
X, and μ and σ 2 are the mean and variance of X, respectively, then
µ = G X′ (1) and σ 2 = G X′′(1) + µ − µ 2
Example 3
0.3; x = 1
A random variable X has probability distribution P ( X = x ) = 0.4; x = 2
noitseuQ
0.3; x = 3
Write its probability generating function, GX(t), and hence nd the mean
and variance of X
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G X (t ) = 0.3t + 0.4t 2 + 0.3t 3 Note Note
erefore, GX (t ) is the probability Setting t = 1 gives
G X′ (t ) = 0.3 + 0.8t + 0.9t 2 generating function of X expressions that can be solved
rewsnA
G X′′(t ) = 0.8 + 1.8t for the variance.
erefore, Note
µ = G X′ (1) = 2 Recall setting t = 1 gives the
2
= G X′′(1) + − µ 2 = 2.6 + 2 − 4 = 0.6 value of the mean.
If you are not given the probability distribution fully, for example it may be
given in terms of some unknown constant, you may have to do some
preliminary calculations. In the next example, remember that GX(1) = 1 because
this is the sum of the probabilities of all possible outcomes of an experiment.
Example 4
A random variable X has probability distribution
( = x ) = k ( x + 1)2 ; x = 2,3,4
noitseuQ
a Using the total probability axiom, nd the value of k and hence the
generating function, GX(t), of X
b Use GX(t) to nd the mean and variance of X
a P(X = x) = k(x + 1)2
9k + 16k + 25k = 1 Note
k= 1 Set x equal to 2, 3 and 4 in
50
9 2 16 3 25 4 the probability distribution,
b G X (t ) = t + t + t
50 50 50 sum these probabilities and,
9 24 2 using Axiom 1, equate to 1.
rewsnA
G X′ (t ) = t + t + 2t 3
25 25
9 48 Note
G X′′ (t ) = + t + 6t 2
25 25
erefore, Differentiate GX(t ) twice to
83 nd GX′ (t ) and GX″ (t ).
µ = G X′ (1) =
50
2
207 83 83
2
= G X′′ (1) + − µ2 = + − = 7.18 (2dp)
25 50 50
Sometimes you might be given the probability generating function and be
asked to nd the probability distribution from it.
Exercise 1
1 A random variable R has probability distribution
0.4; r = 1
P (R = r ) = 0.4; r = 2
0.2; r = 3
Write its probability generating function.
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2 A random variable X has probability distribution
P ( X = x ) = kx 2; x = 1, 2, 3
Find the value of k and the generating function of X
3 A pack of 10 cards contains ve ones, three twos and two fours. A card
is chosen at random and X denotes the value of that card. What is the
probability generating function for X?
4 A random variable S has probability distribution
P (S = s ) = ks 2; s = 1, 2, 3, 4
a Find the value of k.
b Use your value of k to nd the generating function of S
c Hence calculate the mean and variance of S
5 A random variable R has probability distribution
1
P (R = r ) = r ; r = 1, 2, 3, 4
k
Write the generating function of R in terms of k and hence, by nding the
value of k, calculate the mean and variance of R
6 In a game of chance, Rosemary ips a biased coin three times and receives
£5 if she gets more than one head. Otherwise she receives nothing. If the
probability of getting a head is 0.4 nd the probability generating function
of X, the amount of money, in £5, she receives on a randomly chosen game.
Hence nd the mean of X.
7 e random variable R has the distribution
r+a
P (R = r ) = ; r = 1, 2, 3
12
a Find the value of a
b Find the probability generating function of R, GR(t )
c By dierentiating GR(t ), nd the mean and variance of R
8 A random variable R has probability generating function
GR (t ) = K (2t + 3t 2 + 5t 4 )
a Find the value of K
b Use your value of K to nd the probability distribution of R
c Hence nd the mean of R
9 A random variable, Y, has probability generating function given by
Tip
GY (t ) = a1 (t + 3t 2 + bt 3 )
Use the results
where a and b are constants.
34 and
a Given that E [Y ] = , nd a and b
13
b Using your answer in part a, nd the variance of Y.
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12.2 Some standard distributions
In this section you will learn how to apply the theory of probability generating
functions to random variables that follow one of the distributions introduced in
Chapter 11.
Discrete uniform distribution e type of random
experiment that this
A discrete uniform random variable, U, has probability distribution given by
P (U = ui ) = a1 ; i = 1,2, …,a distribution models was
discussed in Chapter 11
From this function, it is possible to write the probability generating function of U Discrete Uniform and
n
and, using G X′ (1) = ∑ pi xi = µ and σ 2
= G X′′(1) + µ − µ , its mean and variance.
2 Geometric Distributions
i 1
A discrete uniform random variable, U, with probability distribution given
Tip
by P (U = ui ) = a , i = 1,2, …, a , has a probability generating function
1
These results can also
tu + tu t ua a
t ui
∑
1 2
U( )= +…+ = be obtained directly from
a a a i 1 a a
u
and mean and variance given by µU = ∑
i a
i
and
the denitions of mean
and variance of a random
u2 a u
a 2 1
σU = ∑ i − ∑ i
2 variable. You will be asked to
i =1 a i =1 a prove this result in Exercise 2,
For the special case where the ui are consecutive integers 1 n, the results below Question 4
can be proved.
A discrete uniform random variable, U, with probability distribution
given by P (U = i ) = a , i = 1,2, …, a , has a probability generating
1
1 ta
function GU (t ) = at and mean and variance given
1 t
a2 1
by µ = a + 1 and σ 2 = 12
2
You will meet the proof of this result in Exercise 2, question 5.
Example 5 Note
This is the distribution of X, a
noitseuQ
A fair four-sided dice numbered 2, 1, 1, 2 is rolled once. Using probability
random variable for the score
generating functions, nd the mean and variance of the score obtained.
obtained on a random roll.
P ( X = x ) = 1 ; x = −2,−1,1,2 Note Note
4
( )=
t −
+
2
t− + t + t 1 1 2
Differentiate GX (t ) twice. GX(t ) is the probability
X 4 4 4 4 generating function of X
erefore,
Note
rewsnA
Note
GU′ (t ) = 1 (−2t −3 − t −2 + 1 + 2t ) Substitute t = 1 into GU′ (t )
4
1 −4 and GU″(t ) to nd the mean Use and
GU′′(t ) = (6t + 4t −3 + 2) and variance.
4
erefore, GU′ (1) = 0 and GU′′(1) = 3
erefore, µ = GU′ (1) = 0 and σ 2 = GU′′(1) − µ 2 + µ = 3
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Geometric distribution e type of random
experiment which this
A geometric random variable, X, parameter p, has a probability distribution
distribution models was
P ( X = x ) = q x 1 p , x = 1,2, …, where q = 1 − p.
discussed in Chapter 11
is gives a probability generating function
∞ Discrete Uniform and
G X (t ) = E[t X ] = ∑
x 1
q x 1 pt x Geometric Distributions
∞
tp ∑(qt )
x 1
x 1
Tip
= tp(1 + qt + (qt )2 + …)
is is a geometric series, rst term tp, common ratio qt. Use the general statement
Hence, summing to innity, of the sum to innity of an
innite series.
1
G X (t ) = tp where q = 1 − p
1 qt
A geometric random variable, X, parameter p, with probability
distribution P ( X = x ) = q x 1 p , x = 1,2, …,n , where q = 1 − p, has a Tip
probability generating function G X (t ) = tp 1 μ and σ 2 are the mean and
1 qt
variance of X
Example 6
A geometric random variable X with parameter p has probability
generating function given by
t
noitseuQ
G X (t ) =
3 2t
a Find p.
Note
b Find the probabilities that X = 1, 2 and 3.
Writing GX(t ) in this form
allows comparison with
t
a G X (t ) = the standard geometric
3 2t
probability generating
Note
1 1
G X (t ) = t 2 function .
3 1 t Compare the two probability
3
rewsnA
generating functions.
1
p=
3 Note
0 1
b P ( X = 1) = 2 1 = 1 ; P ( X = 2) = 2 1 = 2 Use the usual geometric
3 3 3 3 3 9 probability distribution
2
2 1 4
P ( X = 3) = =
function to
3 3 27 nd these probabilities.
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Bernoulli distribution
e probability distribution function of a Bernoulli random variable, B,
parameter p, is
p; b =1
P ( B = b) =
1 − p ; b = 0
Using the denition of a probability generating function, it can be shown that
A Bernoulli random variable, B, parameter p, has a probability
Tip
generating function G B (t ) = 1 − p + pt and mean and variance given
by µ B = p and σ B2 = p(1 − p ) You will be asked to prove
this result in Exercise 2,
e proof of this result follows the same method as that for the geometric
question 6
distribution.
Example 7
noitseuQ
Using probability generating functions, nd the parameter p and the variance
of a Bernoulli random variable with mean 0.4. Note
Probability generating
Let X be a Bernoulli random variable, parameter p. function of a Bernoulli random
G X (t ) = t 0 (1 − p) + t 1p = 1 − p + pt Note variable, parameter p
G X′ (t ) = p
rewsnA
Differentiate the probability
Note
G X′′ (t ) = 0 generating function twice.
erefore, µ = G X′ (1) = p ⇒ =
p 0.4 =
No need to set t 1 because
Note the derivatives are not
2
= G X′′ (1) + − µ = 0.24
2
functions of t
Since μ = 0.4.
Binomial distribution
A binomial random variable, X, parameters n and p, has a probability
distribution
P ( X = x ) = n p x qn x ; x = 0, 1,2, …,n
x
where q = 1 − p.
is gives a probability generating function
n
G X (t ) = E[t X ] = ∑ nx p q
x 0
t
x n x x
n
= ∑ nx (pt ) q
x 0
x n x
n
Expanding gives G X (t ) = qn + ( pt )qn 1 + … + ( pt )n which you should
1
recognise as the binomial expansion of (q + pt )n
erefore, G X (t ) = (q + pt )n
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A binomial random variable, X, parameters n and p,
with probability distribution
P ( X = x ) = n p x q n x ; x = 0, 1,2, …,n
x
has a probability generating function G B (t ) = (q + pt )n.
Example 8
Using its probability distribution function, prove that the probability generating
noitseuQ
function of a binomial random variable, X, with n = 3 and p = 3 , is given by
4
G X (t ) = 641 (1 + 3t )3
x 3 x
3 1
P ( X = x ) = ; x = 0, 1, 2, 3 Note
4 4
State the probability
n 3 3 x 1 3 x x
G X (t ) = E[t X] = ∑
x 0
x 4 4 t
distribution function.
rewsnA
n 3 3t x 1 3 x Note
= ∑
x
x 4 4
0
Note
The probability generating Write out a few terms. You
1 3t 1 2
3
3t
3
function of X
G X (t ) = + 3 + … + should recognise this as
4 1 4 4 4 the binomial expansion of
1 + 3t = 1 (1 + 3t )3
3
erefore, G X (t ) =
4 4 64
Exercise 2
1 For each of these probability generating functions, write the distribution of
the corresponding random variable.
t t 2 … t 10
a GP (t ) = + + +
10 10 10
b GQ (t ) = 0.4 + 0.6t
1
c GR (t ) = 0.3t
1 0.7t
d GS (t ) = ( 0.1 + 0.9t )
13
2 Write the probability generating functions for these distributions.
a Binomial (n = 7, p = 0.4)
b Geometric (p = 0.1)
c Bernoulli (p = 0.4)
3 A discrete uniform random variable, U, has a probability distribution given by.
1
P (U = ui ) = ; i = 1,2, …, a
a
Prove that its probability generating function is
a
t u1 t u2 … t ua t ui
GU (t ) =
a a
+ + +
a
= ∑
i 1
a
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4 A Bernoulli random variable, B, has probability distribution given by
p; b =1
P ( B = b) =
1 − p ; b = 0
Show that its probability generating function is
GB (t ) = 1 − p + pt
and use it to show that the mean and variance of B are given by
B = p and 2
B = p(1 − p)
5 A fair dice with six faces numbered 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 is rolled once. Using
probability generating functions, nd the mean and variance of the score
obtained.
6 Prove that the probability generating function for a binomial-distributed
random variable, parameters n and p, is (q + pt )n where q = 1 − p.
7 An urn contains 12 balls, four of which are red. One ball is taken at random
and its colour noted.
a Write the probability generating function for the number, 0 or 1, of red
balls drawn.
b Use this probability generating function to nd the mean and variance
for this random variable.
c Write the probability generating function for the number of balls which
are not red and nd the corresponding mean and variance.
d Explain the relationship between the variances in parts b and c.
8 A binomial random variable, R, has probability generating function given by
1
GR (t ) = 32
(1 + t )5
a Prove that
1 5
P (R = r ) = 5
r 2
b Using GR (t ) , nd E[R] and Var[R].
12.3 Sums of independent random
variables
Sums and mean values of random variables occur frequently in probability
questions, especially in the context of sampling theory. Probability generating
functions can often simplify solutions to these problems.
Two cases for the probability generating functions of sums of independent
random variables are considered in this section, those where the variables are
independent and those where they are also identical.
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Consider two independent random variables X1 and X2 and let XT be the sum of
these variables, that is, XT = X1 + X2
e probability generating function of XT is
G XT (t ) = E[t XT ] = E[t X1 + X2 ]
= E[t X1 × t X 2 ]
= E[t X1 ] × E[t X1 ]
because X1 and X2 are independent random variables.
But G X (t ) = E[t X ]
therefore GX (t ) = G X 1 (t ) × GX 2 (t )
T
For two independent random variables, X1 and X2, the probability
generating function for the sum of the variables is the product of their
generating functions; that is, G X T(t ) = G X 1(t ) × G X 2 (t ) where XT = X1 + X2
Note: this result for two independent random variables can be extended to any
number of variables as long as they are independent of each other.
Example 9
noitseuQ
A fair six-sided dice with faces numbered 1 6 and a fair 12-sided dice with faces
numbered 1 12 are both rolled once. Find the probability generating function
for the sum of the scores obtained.
Let X and Y be random variables for the scores on the 6- and 12-sided dice,
respectively. Note
t1 t 2 t 6 t (1 t 6 )
G X (t ) = + + … + =
6 6 6 6(1 t ) The generating functions of
t1 t 2 … t 12 t (1 t 12 ) Note X and Y
GY (t ) = ++ + =
rewsnA
12 12 12 12(1 t ) Use the result for the
If T is the total score on the two dice, then generating function of a sum
t (1 t 6 ) t (1 t 12 ) of random variables.
GT (t ) = G X (t ) × GY (t ) = ×
6(1 t ) 12(1 t )
t 2 (1 − t 6 )(1 − t 12 )
=
72(1 t )2
Example 10
You have two packs of cards, the rst a pack of 10 cards numbered 1 10
and the second with eight cards numbered 1 8. You sample with replacement
noitseuQ
from the rst pack until you get a six, then you repeat this with the second pack.
Find the probability generating function of T, the total number of cards drawn
including the two sixes.
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Let R and S be random variables for the number of draws required from each of
the two packs.
1 1
R Geometric p = , S Geometric p =
10 8
rewsnA
Note
1 1 1 1 1 1
GT (t ) = t 2
× = t2 × ×
10 8 1 9 7
t 1 t 10 9t 8 7t This is the probability
10 8
generating function of T
t2 because T = R + S
=
80 − 142t + 63t 2
Independent and identically distributed random
variables
With the further assumption that X1 and X2 are not only independent but also
identically distributed, if XT = X1 + X2 and Gx(t) is the generating function of both
X1 and X2, then
G X T (t ) = G X (t ) × G X (t ) = (G X (t )) 2
For two independent and identically distributed random variables,
X1 and X2, each with probability generating function Gx(t), the
probability generating function for the sum of the variables is the
product of their generating functions; that is
G X T (t ) = (G X (t )) 2 where XT = X1 + X2
As with the previous result, this can be extended to any number of independent
and identically distributed random variables.
Using the generating function for X T , its mean and variance can be found using
the results discussed above.
is result for independent and identically distributed random variables is
important because it helps to solve many problems in statistics. First, the X i
are independent and identically distributed random variables if
X i , i = 1,2, …,n , is an independent random sample from a large population
(see Example 13 below). Further, the connection between the Bernoulli
distribution and the binomial distribution is important; the sum of n
independent and identical Bernoulli variables is the total number of successes
in n Bernoulli trials, and therefore has a binomial distribution. (See Exercise 3,
questions 5 and 6 below.)
Example 11
A fair dice is rolled three times. Treating this as an independent random sample
of size three from a uniform distribution on the integers 1 6, show that the
noitseuQ
generating function of the sum of the scores is
1 t 3 (1 t 6 )3
×
216 (1 t )3
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Let Ui be a random variable for the score on the ith throw and X T be the total
Note
score on the three throws.
∑
GU (t ) = t = 1 (t + t 2 + … + t 6 )
i
6
The generating function of
the .
i 1 6 6
= t ×1 t
6
63 1 t Note
XT = U i∑
rewsnA
Apply the results for the
i 1
probability generating function
G XT (t ) = (GUi (t )) 3
of a uniform random variable
= t × 1 t
3
6 taking consecutive integers
6 1 t and the probability generating
= 1 × t (1 t )
3 6 3 function for the sum of
216 (1 t ) 3 independent and identically
distributed random variables.
Note
Example 12 is the probability
generating function of T X
A fair coin is ipped until heads shows for the third time. Using probability
noitseuQ
generating functions, nd the probability generating function of the number of
rolls required.
Note
Let Xi be the number of rolls since the last heads, or the beginning of the X
The i have a geometric
experiment, up to and including the i th heads. distribution, .
Xi ∼ Geometric 12
G X (t ) = t Note
rewsnA
2 t
∑
3 Geometric probability
e total number of rolls required is given by X T = Xi generating function, p =
i 1
G XT (t ) = ((G X i (t )) = t
3
3
2 t Note
erefore, µ X
T
= G ′X T (1) = 3 × 2 = 6 Apply the result for the
probability generating function
of independent and identically
distributed random variables.
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Exercise 3
1 Two independent observations are taken from a geometric distribution,
p = 0.8. Write the probability generating function for the sum of these
observations.
2 X and Y are two independent Poisson-distributed random variables with
means 3 and 4, respectively. Given that the probability generating function
of a Poisson random variable parameter μ is given by G(t) = e μ(1 − t), write
and simplify the probability generating function for the random variable
X + Y. Hence state the distribution of X + Y.
3 A fair six-sided dice with faces numbered 1 6 and a fair eight-sided dice
with faces numbered 1 8 are each thrown once. Find the probability
generating function for the sum of the scores obtained.
4 X and Y are two binomial random variables
X B(n ,0.25); Y B(n ,0.5)
Find the probability generating function of the variable X + Y. Use the
probability generating function to prove that the mean of X + Y is 0.75n.
5 1
, 2 , X 3 are three independent random variables, each following a
Bernoulli distribution with parameter 0.4. Find the probability generating
function for the variable T, dened by
T = X1 + X 2 + X 3
Hence nd the mean and variance of T
6 i
, = 1,2, …,n ,are independent and identically distributed random
variables, each following a Bernoulli distribution, parameter p. If
n
XT = ∑X
i 1
i
nd the mean and variance of X T and comment on the
distribution of X T . (is is a generalisation of the result in question 5,
above.)
7 Two six-sided dice and an eight-sided dice are thrown. If all three dice are
fair, prove that the probability generating function of X T , the total score, is
t 3 (1 − t 6 )2 (1 − t 8 )
given by G X (t ) =
T 288(1 t ) 3
8 Two bags contain counters. Bag A contains one red and three black
counters; bag B contains three red and three black ones. ree counters
are taken from each bag with replacement and their colour noted. Find the
probability generating function and the mean of the total number of red
counters drawn.
1 1
9 A random variable X takes values 1, 2 and 4 with probabilities 2 4 and 1 . Find
4
the generating function of X. If T is the total of the rst three independent
observations of X, use this generating function to nd E[T].
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Summary
▶ Probability generating functions give probabilities of the various values of
the corresponding random variable. ey can also be used to calculate the
expected value and variance of the random variable.
▶ e generating function, , of a discrete random variable, X, dened by
the equation , is a function of t where the coecient of tx is
the probability that X takes the value .
▶ If is the probability generating function of a random variable X and
μ and are the mean and variance of X , respectively, then and
▶ A geometric random variable, X , parameter p , has a probability generating
function and mean and variance given by and
▶ A Bernoulli random variable, B , parameter p , has a probability generating
function and mean and variance given by and
▶ A binomial random variable, X , parameters n and p
, has a probability
generating function and mean and variance given by
and .
▶ For a set of n independent random variables each with
generating function , if , then .
▶ For a set of n independent and identically distributed random variables
each with generating function , if , then
Review exercises
1 A random variable X has probability distribution
Write its probability generating function and hence nd the mean and
variance of X
2 A random variable, U , has a probability distribution given by
a State the distribution of U
b By nding the probability generating function of U , express its mean
and variance in terms of the .
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3 An ordinary dice is rolled once and the random variable X denotes the
score obtained. Using probability generating functions, nd the mean and
variance of X
4 A random variable R has probability generating function given by
a Write the probability distribution function of R
b Use the probability generating function to nd the mean and variance.
5 A biased dice with faces numbered 1 6 is rolled until a 3 appears for the
rst time. e probability of obtaining a 3 in any given throw is 0.2 and X is
a random variable for the number of rolls up to and including the rst 3.
a Give the distribution function of X.
b Use your answer to part a to nd the generating function for X and
hence nd E[X].
6 A random variable, X, has probability generating function given by
a State the distribution of X with the values of its parameters.
b Use to nd the mean and variance of X.
7 A fair four-sided dice is thrown three times. Show that the generating
function for the sum of the scores is
and nd the probability that the total score is less than 7.
Practice examination questions
1 a A Bernoulli random variable B has probability distribution given by
Find its probability generating function. (3 marks)
b A random variable S has probability generating function
Find the value of a and the probability distribution of S. (4 marks)
2 A random variable X has probability distribution
Write down its probability generating function and hence
nd the mean and variance of X. (7 marks)
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3 A random variable X has a probability distribution given by
By nding the probability generating function of X, calculate its
mean and variance. (7 marks)
4 A random variable, X, has a geometric distribution with . Find
the probability generating function of X and hence show that
and Var[X] = 6. (7 marks)
5 Prove from rst principles (that is, starting with the distribution function)
that the probability generating function of a binomial distribution, X,
with n = 4 and , is given by
(4 marks)
Prove also, using the probability generating function, that the mean and
variance of X are and , resp. (6 marks)
6 a A random variable X follows a Poisson distribution with parameter μ.
Show that its probability generating function is given by
G(t) = e μ(1 − t) (3 marks)
b If Xi , i = 1, 2, 3, is an independent random sample from a Poisson
distribution of mean μ, show that the probability generating function of
is . (3 marks)
c Hence state the distribution of XT . (1 mark)
7 X and Y are two geometric random variables:
Find the probability generating function of the variable X + Y. (3 marks)
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Linear Combinations of
13 Discrete Random Variables
Introduction Objectives
In your study of statistics in AS-level Mathematics, you met functions of By the end of this chapter,
single random variables such as aX + b. However, many real-life problems you should know how to:
deal with more than one variable that are combined to form a single ▶ Calculate the mean
variable. For example, the weight of a pack of beverage cans is the sum of and variance of linear
the weights of the drink, the can and the packaging. In this chapter, you will combinations of two
learn how to deal with functions of more than one random variable. random variables.
▶ Dene and calculate
the covariance and
the product-moment
Recap correlation coecient
You will need to remember . . . of two random
▶ e mean and variance of the random variable, X: μ = E[X] variables.
and σ 2 = ▶ Apply these results to
▶ AS-level expectation algebra of aX + b: linear combinations of
• E[aX + b] = aE[X] + b independent discrete
• Var[aX + b] = a2 Var[X] random variables.
Linear combinations of discrete random
variables
In this section you will meet linear combinations of more than one random
variable. No assumption will be made about the independence or otherwise of
X and Y; this case will be dealt with in the second part of this chapter.
Mean of aX ± bY
Suppose that X and Y are two discrete random variables. ey can be combined
into a single variable by the single variable T, where T = aX ± bY, where a and b
are both constants.
For two discrete random variables, X and Y, the mean of the linear
function aX ± bY is given by E[aX ± bY] = aE[X] ± bE[Y]. [1]
e proof of this deceptively simple result requires the use of joint distributions,
which are beyond the scope of this course. However, the example below shows
that it is plausible.
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Example 1
e table gives the bivariate probability distribution for the variables X and Y
Y 1 2 3
X P (X = x) Note
1 0.15 0.1 0.05 0.3 For example,
noitseuQ
2 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.7 P (X = 1 and Y = 1) = 0.15.
P (Y = y ) 0.35 0.2 0.45 1
a Write the probability distribution of the random variable T given by
T = 4X + 2Y.
b By nding the expected values of the three variables, show that
E[T] = 4E[X] + 2E[Y].
Note
For example, P (T = 10) =
a
t 6 8 10 12 14 P (X = 1, Y = 3 or X = 2, Y = 1)
P (T = t ) 0.15 0.1 0.25 0.1 0.4 = P (X = 1, Y = 3) + P (X = 2,
Y = 1) = 0.05 + 0.2 = 0.25.
b E[X] = 1 × 0.3 + 2 × 0.7 = 1.7
rewsnA
E[Y] = 1 × 0.35 + 2 × 0.2 + 3 × 0.45 = 2.1
4E[X] + 2E[Y] = 4 × 1.7 + 2 × 2.1 = 11
E[T] = 6 × 0.15 + 8 × 0.1 + 10 × 0.25 +12 × 0.1 + 14 × 0.4 = 11
erefore, E[T] = 4E[X] + 2E[Y].
A similar result also applies to more general combinations of X and Y, for
example f(X) and g(Y). Tip
For two discrete random variables, X and Y, the mean This result will be used to
of f(X) ± g(Y) is given by E[f(X)] ± g(Y)] = E[f(X)] ± E[g(Y)]. [2] calculate the variance of linear
combinations of variables.
The variance of aX ± bY and the covariance of X and Y
Consider again the linear function of two random variables, X and Y, given by
Tip
aX + bY , where a and b are constants. e variance of this function is
Use the familiar result
Var [ aX + bY ] = E[(aX + bY )2 ] − E 2 [ aX + bY ]
= a 2 E [ X 2 ] + b2 E [Y 2 ] + 2 abE [ XY ] − (a2 E 2 [ X ] + b2 E 2 [Y ] is a shorthand way
+ 2 ab E [ X ]E [Y ]) of writing the square of the
= a 2 ( E[ X 2 ] − E 2 [ X ]) + b2 ( E [Y 2 ] − E 2 [Y ]) expected value of X, (E [X ])2
+ 2 ab( E [ XY ] − E [ X ] E [Y ])
= a 2 Var[ X ] + b2 Var[Y ] + 2 ab( E [ XY ] − E [ X ] E [Y ]) Tip
Use equation [2], the
formulafor the mean of
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Dening the covariance of X and Y by the equation Cov( X , Y ) = E[ XY ] − E[ X ] E[Y ] Tip
gives Var[ aX + bY ] = a 2 Var[ X ] + b2 Var[Y ] + 2 ab Cov( X , Y ) .
Remember that the
A similar proof for aX bY gives
covariance is a statistical
Var[ aX − bY ] = a 2 Var[ X ] + b2 Var[Y ] − 2 ab Cov( X , Y )
measure of the degree of
Hence,
linear dependence between
For two discrete random variables, X and Y, the two variables.
the variance of the linear function aX ± bY is given by
Var [aX ± bY ] = a2 Var [X ] + b2 Var [Y ] ± 2ab Cov (X, Y ). Tip
Note that setting Y = X in the expression for Cov(X, Y) gives The formula for covariance is written
Cov(X, X) = E[X2] E2[X]. In other words, the covariance of Cov(X, Y ) = E((X μX )(Y μy )) = E(XY ) μX μy
X with itself is the variance of X, which explains the word in the Formulae and Statistical Tables booklet.
‘covariance’.
Formulae booklet
Example 2
Where
Two discrete random variables, X and Y, have means 12 and 9 and
noitseuQ
Cov(X, Y ) = E[XY ] E[X ] E[Y ]
variances 4 and 3, respectively. Find the mean and variance of the
linear combination 4X 3Y if the covariance of X and Y is 3.
Note
E[4X 3Y] = 4E[X] 3E[Y] Use [1]
= 4 × 12 3 × 9 = 21 E[aX ± bY ] = a E[X] ± b E[Y ]
rewsnA
Var[4 X − 3Y ] = 16 Var[ X ] + 9 Var[Y ] − 24 Cov( X , Y )
= 16 × 4 + 9 × 3 − 24 × 3 Note
= 19 Use
You can use these relationships to solve more
complicated problems.
Example 3
noitseuQ
Two random variables, X and Y, are related by the equation Y = 2X. Prove that
Cov(X, Y) = 2 Var(X).
Note
This is the denition of
Cov(X, Y) = E[XY] E[X]E[Y]
covariance.
Cov(X, 2X) = E[2X2] E[X]E[2X]
rewsnA
= 2E[X2] 2E2[X]
Note
= 2(E[X2] E2[X])
Set Y = 2X
= 2Var[X]
Product-moment correlation coecient
e covariance is useful for demonstrating the degree of statistical dependence
between two random variables. However, it has the signicant defect that its
value is dependent on the units in which the variables are measured. For
example, changing the units of measurement for two variables from centimetres
to millimetres does not change the degree of dependence between the variables
but will change the covariance.
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is dependence on scale is removed by dividing the covariance by the product
of the variables’ standard deviations, X Y . is then gives the well-known
product-moment correlation coecient, ρ
For two random variables, X and Y, the product-moment correlation
X ,Y )
coecient is given by ρ = Cov(
σ σ
where σX and σY are the standard
X Y
deviations of X and Y, respectively.
Example 4
Two variables, X and Y, have the expectations and variances below.
noitseuQ
E [ X ] = 1.7; Var [ X ] = 0.21; E [Y ] = 2.1; Var [Y ] = 0.79; E[ XY ] = 3.7
Find a Cov(X, Y ) b ρ XY c the mean and variance of X + Y
a Cov (X, Y ) = E [XY ] − E[X ] E[Y ]
= 3.7 1.7 × 2.1 = 0.13
Cov (X , Y )
b ρ XY =
σ Xσ Y
rewsnA
0.13
= = 0.32(2dp)
0.21 × 0.79
c E[X + Y ] = E[X ] + E[Y ] = 1.7 + 2.1 = 3.8
Var [ X + Y ] = Var [ X ] + Var [Y ] + 2Cov (X , Y )
= 0.21 + 0.79 + 2 × 0.13 = 1.26
Example 5
Two discrete random variables, X and Y, have the bivariate probability
distribution shown in the table.
Y
1 2 3 P (X = x )
X
1 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.5
noitseuQ
2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5
P (Y = y ) 0.4 0.2 0.4 1
a Show that E[XY] ≠ E[X]E[Y].
b Find the covariance between X and Y
c By nding the variances of X and Y, calculate the population correlation
coecient, ρ XY
a E[ X ] = 1 × 0.5 + 2 × 0.5 = 1.5
E[Y ] = 1 × 0.4 + 2 × 0.2 + 3 × 0.4 = 2
rewsnA
E[ XY ] = 1 × 0.3 + 2 × 0.2 + 3 × 0.1 + 4 × 0.1 + 6 × 0.3 = 3.2
E[X ]E[Y ] = 1.5 × 2 = 3
erefore, E[XY ] ≠ E[X ]E[Y ].
b Cov( X , Y ) = E[ XY ] − E[ X ] E[Y ] = 3.2 − 3 = 0.2
(continued)
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(continued)
c Var[ X ] = 12 × 0.5 + 22 × 0.5 − 1.52 = 0.25
Var[Y ] = 12 × 0.4 + 22 × 0.2 + 32 × 0.4 − 22 = 0.8
rewsnA
Cov( X , Y )
erefore, ρ XY =
σ Xσ Y
0.2
= = 0.45(2dp)
0.25 × 0.8
Exercise 1
1 Two discrete random variables, X and Y, have means 10 and 12 and
variances 3 and 4, respectively. Find the mean and variance of the linear
combination 5X 4Y if the covariance of X and Y is 2.
2 Given that E[ R ] = 4.1; Var[ R ] = 0.8;E[S ] = 14; Var[S ] = 2.1; Cov(R ,S ) = 1.1,
nd a E[ RS ] b ρ RS c the mean and variance of R + S
3 Prove the formula E[2X 3Y] = 2E[X] 3E[Y] for this bivariate distribution.
Y
1 2 3 P (X = x )
X
4 0.05 0.1 0.35 0.5
5 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.5
P (Y = y ) 0.35 0.2 0.45 1
4 Two variables, R and S, have a bivariate probability distribution as shown in
this table.
S
1 2 3 P (R = r)
R
2 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.3
4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3
5 0.25 0.1 0.05 0.4
P (S = s ) 0.4 0.3 0.3 1
a Find the covariance of R and S
b By nding the variances of R and S, calculate the population correlation
coecient, ρ RS .
5 By expanding the brackets in the expression ( X − µ X ) ( X − µ X ) and using the
Tip
result E[f ( X ) ± g(Y )] = E[f(X )] ± E[g(Y )] show that This proves the alternative
E[( X − µ X )(Y − µY )] = E[ XY ] E[ X ] E[Y ] form for the covariance given
in the Formulae and Statistical
6 X, Y and Z are three random variables with means and standard deviations
Tables booklet.
as follows:
µ X = 10, σ X = 2; µY = 12, σ Y = 3; µZ = 13, σ Z = 4
e values of the product-moment correlation coecient for the above
variables are ρYZ = −0.8 and ρXY = ρXZ = 0. Find the mean and variance of
a X+Z b Y+Z
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7 Two random variables, X and Y, have distributions
X N (8, 9); Y N (14,12)
e product-moment correlation coecient between X and Y is 0.7.
Find the mean and variance of T = 2X + 3Y and, assuming that T is normally
distributed, nd P(T > 65).
8 Given that E[X] = 7, Var[X] = 9 and Y = 2X 1, nd the covariance and the
correlation coecient of X and Y.
9 Given that E[X] = 5, Var[X] = 8 and Y = aX + b where a and b are constants,
nd the covariance and the correlation coecient of X and Y. Comment on
your result.
10 Ben either cycles or takes the bus to school. He is also quite often late. As
part of a project on transport, over many weeks he notes his method of
transport to school and whether or not he is late. is gives the probability
data in the table, where C is the number of times he cycles in a week and
L is the number of times he is late in that week.
L
1 2 3 P (C = c )
C
3 0.15 0.1 0.05 0.3
4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3
5 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.4
P (L = l ) 0.3 0.3 0.4 1
a Find the covariance of C and L.
b By nding the variances of C and L, calculate the population correlation
coecient, ρCL.
c On a day when he has an exam and it is particularly important that he is
not late, would you recommend that he cycles or that he takes the bus?
Give a reason for your answer.
13.2 Independent discrete random
variables
e discussion has so far been about two random variables with no
assumptions being made about their independence. However, sets of
independent random variables occur frequently in problems. ese include
cases where there can be no causal connection between the variables (for
example, the scores when two dice are rolled) and any case of independent
random sampling.
You will now consider the implications of adding the assumption of
independence to the theory of linear combinations of random variables.
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Mean, covariance and variance
e covariance between any two random variables,
X and Y, is given by Cov( X , Y ) = E[ XY ] − E[ X ]E[Y ]. Tip
e covariance, a measure of the dependence of
X and Y, equals zero if the variables are independent. This is the case because, in general,
erefore, for independent X and Y, E[XY] = E[X]E[Y] Var[aX + bY ] = a 2 Var[X ] + b 2 Var[Y ] + 2ab Cov(X Y)
and Var[aX + bY] = a2 Var[X] + b2 Var[Y].
Since the product-moment correlation coecient between
X and Y is given by ρ = Cov( X , Y ) , it follows that ρ is also zero.
σ Xσ Y
If X and Y are two independent random variables, then
▶ E[aX ± bY] = aE[X] ± bE[Y]
▶ Cov(X, Y) = 0
▶ E[XY] = E[X]E[Y]
▶ Var[aX ± bY] = a2 Var[X] + b2 Var[Y]
▶ e product-moment correlation coecient ρXY = 0.
Take care! Independent X and Y implies that E[XY] = E[X]E[Y] and ρ = 0. However,
if you know that E[XY] = E[X]E[Y] or that ρ = 0, you cannot assume that Xand Y
are necessarily independent. Question 5 in Exercise 2 illustrates these ideas.
Example 6
R and S are two random variables. Given that
noitseuQ
E[ R ] = 4.3; Var[R ] = 1.8;E[S ] = 16; Var[S ] = 1.2; Cov( R ,S ) = 0
nd a [ RS ] b ρ RS c the mean and variance of R + S
a E[RS] = E[R] × E[S] Note Note
= 4.3 × 16 = 68.8
and
rewsnA
and
b ρ RS = 0
c E[R + S] = E[R] + E[S] = 4.3 + 16 = 20.3
Note
Var[R + S] = Var[R] + Var[S] = 1.8 + 1.2 Note
This applies to any R and S
Since .
For problems involving the mean and
variance of normally distributed independent variables, it is necessary to
assume that a linear combination of the variables is also normally distributed.
Exercise 2
1 X and Y are two independent random variables. Given that
E[ X ] = 7.4; Var[ X ] = 9.8;E[Y ] = 21; Var[Y ] = 11
nd a XY ] b the mean and variance of i X + Y ii 2X 3Y
2 ere are two independent random variables: P has a mean of 32 and a
variance of 21, and Q has a mean of 20 and a variance of 9. Find the mean
and variance of
a P Q b 2P + 3Q c 5P 3Q + 4
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3 Xi , i = 1, 2, 3, is an independent random sample from a population with
mean 12 and variance 6. Write the mean and variance of these statistics.
∑X ∑X X1 + 2 X 2 + 3 X 3
3 3
1
a i b i c
i 1 3 i 1 6
4 X, Y and Z are three random variables with means 13, 15 and 12, and Tip
variances 1.2, 1.4 and 0.9, respectively. Find the mean and variance of the
Remember that a weighted
weighted mean, R, given by R = X + 2Y + 5 Z
8 mean is one where some
5 A random variable, X, has the distribution in the table. data points contribute more
to the nal average than other
x 2 1 0 1 2
points.
P (X = x ) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
a Show that the covariance and the correlation of X with X2 are both equal
to zero.
b Comment on the result that independence of two variables implies zero
covariance and zero correlation.
Summary
▶ For two discrete random variables X and Y, the mean and variance of the
linear function are as follows:
• Mean, E[aX ± bY] = aE[X] ± bE[Y]
• Variance,
where .
▶ For two random variables X and Y, the product-moment correlation
coecient is given by where σX and σY are the standard
deviations of X and Y, respectively.
▶ If X and Y are two independent random variables, then
• E[aX ± bY] = aE[X] ± bE[Y]
• Cov(X, Y) = 0
• E[XY] = E[X]E[Y]
• Var[aX ± bY] = a2 Var[X] + b2 Var[Y]
• e product-moment correlation coecient ρXY = 0.
Review exercises
1 X and Y are two discrete random variables with means 9.4 and 11.3 and
variances 0.8 and 1.1, respectively. Given that T = 5X 11Y, nd the mean
of T and covariance of X and Y if the variance of T is 11.
2 Given that
nd a b c the mean and variance of X + 2Y
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3 X, Y and Z are three random variables with means and standard deviations
e only pair of non-zero correlated variables among these is Y and Z
where .
Find the mean and variance of a 2X + Z b Y Z
Practice examination questions
1 In the manufacture of desk drawer fronts, a machine cuts sheets of
veneered chipboard into rectangular pieces of width W millimetres and
height H millimetres. e 4 edges of each of these pieces are then covered
with matching veneered tape.
e distributions of W and H are such that
E(W) = 350 Var(W) = 5 E(H) = 210 Var(H) = 4 ρWH = 0.75
Calculate the mean and the variance of the length of tape,
T = 2W + 2H, needed for the edges of a drawer front. (5 marks)
AQA MS03 June 2010
2 Alyssa lives in the countryside but works in a city centre. Her journey to
work each morning involves a car journey, a walk and wait, a train journey,
and a walk.
Her car journey time, U minutes, from home to the village car park has
a mean of 13 and a standard deviation of 3. Her time, V minutes, to walk
from the village carpark to the village railway station and wait for a train to
depart has a mean of 15 and a standard deviation of 6.
Her train journey time, W minutes, from the village railway station to the
city centre railway station has a mean of 24 and a standard deviation of 4.
Her time, X minutes, to walk from the city centre railway station to her
oce has a mean of 9 and a standard deviation of 2.
e values of the product moment correlation coecient for the above
4variables are ρUV = −0.6 and ρUW = ρUX = ρVW = ρVX = ρWX = 0.
Determine values for the mean and the variance of:
i M=U+V (4 marks)
ii D = W 2U (3 marks)
iii T = M + W + X given that ρMW = ρMX = 0 (2 marks)
AQA MS03 June 2012
3 e schedule for an organisation’s afternoon meeting is as follows.
Session A (Speaker 1) 2.00 pm to 3.15 pm
Session B (Discussion) 3.15 pm to 3.45 pm
Session C (Speaker 2) 3.45 pm to 5.00 pm
Records show that:
the duration, X, of Session A has mean 68 minutes and standard deviation
10minutes;
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the duration, Y, of Session B has mean 25minutes and standard deviation
5minutes;
the duration, Z, of Session Chas mean 73 minutes and standard deviation
15minutes; and that:
ρXZ = 0 ρXY = −0.8 ρYZ = 0
Determine the means and the variances of:
i L = X + Z; (2 marks)
ii M = X + Y. (3 marks)
AQA MS03 June 2013
4 e numbers of daily morning operations, X, and daily afternoon
operations, Y, in an operating theatre of a small private hospital can be
modelled by the following bivariate probability distribution.
Number of morning operations (X )
2 3 4 5 6 P (Y = y )
Number of 3 0.00 0.05 0.20 0.20 0.05 0.50
afternoon 4 0.00 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 0.30
operations (Y ) 5 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.20
P (X = x ) 0.05 0.25 0.40 0.25 0.05 1.00
a i State why E(X) = 4 and show that Var(X) = 0.9. (4 marks)
ii Given that E(Y) = 3.7, Var(Y) = 0.61 and E(XY) = 14.4
calculate values for Cov(X, Y) and ρXY . (4 marks)
b Calculate values for the mean and the variance of:
i T = X + Y;
ii D = X − Y. (4 marks)
AQA MS03 June 2014
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Constant Velocity in
14 Two Dimensions
Introduction Objectives
If the pilot of a helicopter sets a course to meet up with a ship at sea, the By the end of this chapter,
course will depend on the present position and velocity of the ship, and you should know how to:
must allow for the speed and direction of the wind. is chapter shows how ▶ Use vectors
to analyse situations like this, where an object can be aected by more than to represent
one velocity. displacement and
velocity in two
dimensions.
Recap ▶ Find the resultant of
You will need to remember . . . two velocities.
▶ e sine rule and cosine rule for a triangle ABC. ▶ Find the velocity of
▶ How to dierentiate y in terms of x. one object relative to
▶ How to solve a quadratic equation by completing the square. another.
▶ A vector, written for example as a or , has magnitude and direction. ▶ Use relative velocity
▶ e magnitude of a is written |a|. to nd an interception
▶ Vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction. or closest-approach
▶ ka is parallel to a, and |ka| = k|a|. q course.
B C
▶ In the diagram, ; is ▶ Find how near to each
the resultant of and . p other two moving
p+q
▶ Subtracting a vector is the same as objects will pass.
adding its negative: p q = −q + p A
Note
14.1 Vectors in component form You can also use column
vector notation: .
A vector with a magnitude of 1 is called a unit vector
Vectors i and j are unit vectors in the x- and y-directions.
y
e vector OP shown has an x-component of 3 and a y-component of 2. You P
2
can write it in component form in terms of i and j, or as a column vector:
3
OP = 3i + 2 j = 1
2 j
A
O x
Finding magnitude and direction 1 2 3
i
Suppose that the vector OP has magnitude r, direction θ and components x P
and y, as shown.
Given r and θ, you can resolve the vector into components: r y
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ
θ
O x
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FM1 1.1 14
Given x and y, you can nd the magnitude and direction:
y
r = x 2 + y 2 and tan θ =
x
It is a good idea to sketch a diagram when nding θ because, for example,
(3i 2j) and ( 3i + 2j) would give the same value of tan θ.
Example 1
Express these vectors in component form.
a P b
B O
noitseuQ
43°
6 j
j
15 i
i
50°
O A Q
a OA = 6cos 50° = 3.86 and AP = 6sin 50° = 4.60
3.86
OP = 3.86 i + 4.60 j or
4.60
rewsnA
b OB = 15 cos 43° = 11.0 and BQ = 15 sin 43° = 10.2
11.0
OQ = −11.0 i − 10.2 j or
10.2
Example 2
Find the magnitude and direction of these vectors.
noitseuQ
a p = 5i + 2j b q = −i 2j
Note
You should always make the
a
2
b 1 O
θ direction clear. You can mark
j the angle in a diagram, as in
i p
θ this case, or you can state
q i
O the rotation from the positive
rewsnA
2 x-direction (the answer to
part b would then be given as
p = 52 + 2 2 = 5.39 q = (−1)2 + (−2)2 = 2.24 116.6°). In some questions
you will need to give the
2
tan θ = giving θ = 21.8° tanθ = 2 giving θ = 63.4° direction as a bearing.
5
14.2 Position, displacement, distance,
velocity and speed
You should already know from earlier studies that the position of an object, its
displacement and its velocity as it moves are all vector quantities.
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Position, displacement and distance A
A point has a position vector relative to a given origin, O. e position vector of
a point A is the vector OA , also written as a or rA. Similarly, the position vector of
B
B is OB , b or rB, and so on. a
Displacement is a vector whose magnitude and direction correspond
to a
change of position. e displacement of point B from point A is AB = b − a b
e distance from A to B is the magnitude, |b a|, of the displacement. Distance
is a scalar.
O
Example 3
East and north are the x- and y-directions. An object moves from P, position
noitseuQ
vector (4i + 6j) km, to Q, position vector (14i + 8j) km, and then 8 km on a
bearing of 045° to R. Find the distance and bearing of R from P.
R
p = (4i + 6j) and q = (14i + 8j) Note j
PR = + Sketch a diagram.
i 8 km
PQ = − = 10 + 2 Note
045°
QR = 8 cos 45°i + 8 sin 45° j = 5.657 i + 5.657 j
Resolve into
P
PR = PQ + QR = 15.657 i + 7.657 j components.
rewsnA
Note
Distance PR = PR = 15.657 2 + 7.6572 = 17.4 km Note
You could solve this using
Use . the cosine and sine rules.
Let PR make angle θ with the x-direction.
However, if there were several
7.657 Note stages to the journey, that
= tan 1 = 26.1°
15.657 approach would be much
Use . harder.
e bearing is 90° − 26.1° = 063.9°
Velocity and speed
For a point moving in two dimensions with constant velocity, its velocity vector
is the displacement it undergoes in each unit of time, and its speed is the
magnitude of its velocity.
If a particle has constant velocity v and travels for a time t, it will undergo a
displacement of vt. If it starts at the point with position vector a, its position
vector at time t is given by r = a + vt
Example 4
A particle travels from point A, position vector (3i + 7j) m, with constant
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velocity (2i j) ms 1
Find a its speed b its position, B, after 3 s.
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a Speed = |2i j| = 2 2 + (−1)2 = 2.24 ms 1
Note
b Initial position a = 3i + 7j
rewsnA
Speed is the magnitude of velocity.
Displacement vt = (2i j) × 3 = 6i 3j
Final position r = a + vt = (3i + 7j) + (6i 3j) = 9i + 4j Note
B has position vector (9i + 4j) m.
Its position changes by (2i j)m
Some problems might involve situations with two or more moving objects. You every second.
can use what you know about calculating the position vector of each object
using their velocity, to determine if they will collide.
Example 5
Coastguard radar shows a ship, A, at (4i + 7j) km and another ship, B, at (7i + j)km.
noitseuQ
One hour later the ships are at (8i + 9j) km and (10i + 5j) km respectively. Show
that without a change of speed or course there will be a collision.
Velocity of A is vA = (8i + 9j) (4i + 7j) = (4i + 2j) km/h Note
Velocity of B is vB = (10i + 5j) (7i + j) = (3i + 4j) km/h Velocity is displacement in 1h.
At time t s the positions of A and B are
a = (4i + 7j) + t(4i + 2j) = (4t + 4)i + (2t + 7)j
rewsnA
and b = (7i + j) +t(3i + 4j) = (3t + 7)i + (4t + 1)j
ey collide if a = b.
(4t + 4)i + (2t + 7)j = (3t + 7)i + (4t + 1)j
Note
Equate components: 4t + 4 = 3t + 7 ⇒ t =3
The i and j components must both
2t + 7 = 4t + 1 ⇒ t =3
match for the same value of t
So the ships will collide after 3 h.
Exercise 1
1 Points A and B have position vectors a = 2i + j and b = 5i 6j respectively.
Find the distance AB
2 A particle starts from position vector (3i 2j) m. It moves with constant
velocity, and 3 s later its position vector is (12i + 10j) m. Find
a its velocity b its speed c its position 5 s after starting.
3 Vectors p and q have magnitudes p and q and make angles θ and ϕ,
respectively, with the x-direction. In each of these cases, nd
i vectors p and q in component form Tip
ii the magnitude and direction of p + q Remember negative angles
a p = 4, q = 5, θ = 25°, ϕ = 50° rotate clockwise from the
x-direction.
b p = 3, q = 6, θ = 110°, ϕ = −20°
4 Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of a displacement of 3.5 km
on a bearing of 050° and a displacement of 5.4 km on a bearing of 128°
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5 Yuri and Zak start walking at the same time from a point O in a eld.
Yurihas velocity (i + 2j) ms 1 and Zak has velocity (3i + j) ms 1
a Find Yuri’s speed.
b Find the angle between their paths.
c Find the vector YZ at time t s.
d Find the value of t when they are 90 m apart.
6 At a certain time, particle A is at (i + 4j) m and moving with constant
velocity (3i + 3j) ms 1. At the same time, particle B is at (5i + 2j) m and
moving with constant velocity (2i + 3.5j) ms 1.
a Find the vector AB at time t s.
b Show that the particles collide, and nd the position of the point of collision.
7 An aircraft leaves an aireld at 0900 h and ies on a bearing of 030° at an
average speed of 450 km/h. A second aircraft leaves the same aireld at
0930 h and ies on a bearing of 110° at an average speed of 400 km/h.
a Find their distance apart at 1100 h.
b Find the bearing of the second aircraft from the rst at that time.
14.3 Resultant velocity
An object can be aected by more than one velocity. For example, the actual
velocity of an aircraft is a combination of the velocity with which it is own and
the velocity of the wind. Its actual velocity is therefore the vector sum of the two
velocities, and is called its resultant velocity
An object aected by two velocities v1 and v2 moves
with a resultant velocity V given by V = v1 + v2
When solving problems involving resultant velocity, it can help to sketch a
diagram. ere are generally two key approaches: using trigonometry, or
expressing the velocities in component form and then adding.
Example 6
A swimmer, who can swim at 0.8 ms 1 in still water, wants to cross a river owing
at 0.5 ms 1
noitseuQ
a If she aims straight across the river, what will be her actual velocity?
b If she wants to travel straight across, Note River 0.5 ms 1
i in what direction should she aim θ
Sketch a velocity diagram.
ii what will be her actual speed?
a v= 0.82 + 0.52 = 0.943 ms 1
Note Swimmer
0.8 0.8 ms 1
rewsnA
tanθ = v
⇒ θ = 58° Remember, for velocity, you
0.5
need to state both speed and
She travels at 0.943 ms 1 at 58° to the
direction.
direction of ow of the river.
(continued)
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(continued)
b i cosφ =
0.5
0.8
⇒ ϕ= °
51.3 Note River 0.5 ms 1
She should aim upstream at 51.3 to ° ϕ
rewsnA
Sketch a diagram.
the bank.
ii u = 0.82 − 0.52 = 0.624 ms 1
Swimmer u
She travels straight across the river at 0.624 ms 1
0.8 ms 1
Example 7
A boat is being steered due north. It can travel at 10 ms 1 in still water but the
noitseuQ
°
current is making it travel at 18 ms 1 on a bearing of 060 . Find the speed and
direction of the current.
vC
East and north are the i- and j-directions.
Note
vB is the still-water velocity of the
Draw the vector diagram.
boat, vC is the velocity of the
vB
current and V is the resultant
velocity. Note 10 ms 1
V
60° 18 ms 1
v B = 10 j State the meaning of your notation. j
i
rewsnA
V = 18cos30°i + 18sin30° j = 9 3 i + 9 j Note
9 3 i + 9 j = 10 j + v C Note Write the given velocities in component form.
v C = 9 3i − j = +
V vB vC
e speed of the current is v C = (9 3)2 + (−1)2 = 15.6 ms 1 .
1
tan 1 = −3.7°
Note
9 3
Calculate the angle between
e current has bearing 93.7 ° vC and the i-direction.
Example 8
An aircraft has a still-air speed of 200 km/h. It needs to travel north-east.
noitseuQ
Awind of 40 km/h is blowing from the east. In what direction should the
pilotsteer? N
40 km/h
B A
Angle OBA = 135°
Note
sinθ sin135°
= Use the sine rule. V
rewsnA
40 200 200 km/h
sinθ =
40sin135°
200
= 0.1414 ⇒ θ = 8.13°
θ
45°
e pilot must steer on a bearing of 053.13 ° O
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Exercise 2
1 In each of these cases, nd the magnitude and direction of the resultant of
the given velocities.
a 20 ms 1 due east and 15 ms 1 on a bearing of 030°
b 45 km/h on a bearing of 125° and 30 km/h on a bearing of 320°
c 10 ms 1 due north, 12 ms 1 due west and 18 ms 1 on a bearing of 200°
2 Rain is falling at a speed of 24 ms 1. It is being blown by a wind so that it falls
at an angle of 64° to the horizontal ground. What is the speed of the wind?
3 A bird which can y at 30 km/h heads due north but is blown by a 15km/h
wind from the south-west. Find the bird’s resultant velocity.
4 A ship is being steered due east. A current ows from north to south
causing the ship to travel at 12 km/h on a bearing of 120°. Find
a the speed of the current b the still water speed of the ship.
5 A boat can travel at 5 ms in still water. It is crossing a river 200 m wide,
1
owing at 2 ms 1. Points A and B are on the banks, directly opposite each other.
a If the boat leaves A and steers towards B, at what speed will it travel and
how far downstream will it reach the other bank?
b If the boat needs to travel directly from A to B, in what direction should
it be steered and at what speed will it travel?
6 A canoeist paddles north at 5 ms 1, but is aected by a current of 3 ms 1
from the south-east and a wind of 6 ms 1 from a bearing of 290°. Find the
canoeist’s actual velocity.
7 An aircraft has a speed in still air of 400 km/h. A wind is blowing from the
south at 80 km/h.
a e pilot steers the aircraft due east. Find the actual speed and direction
of travel.
b e pilot wishes the plane to travel due east. Find the direction in which
the aircraft should be steered and the speed at which it will travel.
8 A boat P, capable of 6 ms 1 in still water, travels from a point A around a
course ABC, which is an equilateral triangle of side length 500 m. A uniform
current of 4 ms 1 ows in the direction AB. An identical boat Q starts from A
at the same time and travels the other way (ACB) around the course. Which
boat gets back to A rst, and by how much does the winner win?
9 A river is D m wide and ows at u ms 1. A man can swim at v ms 1 in still
water, where v > u. Find the ratio between the time it would take him to
swim directly across the river and back, and the time it would take him to
swim D m upstream and back.
10 Malik and Ibrahim intend to cross a river, owing at 3 ms−1, to a point Q
directly opposite their start point P. ey can both swim at 5 ms−1. Malik
swims from P so he travels directly to Q. Ibrahim runs upstream until he
can aim straight across the river and be carried by the current down to Q.
a How fast must Ibrahim run to arrive at Q at the same time as Malik?
b Show that by running at the same speed but only half as far before
entering the water, Ibrahim can arrive at Q before Malik.
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14.4 Relative velocity, closest approach
and interception
All velocities are measured relative to some frame of reference in which the
observer is stationary.
Imagine you are driving car A at 60 km/h when your friend in car B, travelling at
80 km/h, overtakes you and drives on ahead. It appears to you that your friend
is travelling forwards at 20 km/h. is is her velocity relative to you. It seems to
your friend that you are travelling backwards at 20 km/h. is is your velocity
relative to her. e 60 km/h and 80 km/h are your respective velocities relative
to an observer on the side of the road, that is, relative to the Earth.
You use AvB to mean ‘the velocity of A relative to B’.
Tip
So in this case, AvB = −20 km/h and BvA = 20 km/h.
Strictly, the velocity of A
You can see that the relative velocities are just the dierences of the two
relative to the Earth would be
velocities:
v but it is usual to just label
A E
v v vB = 60
A B= A 80 = −20 km/h this vA (the velocity of A).
BvA = vB vA = 80 60 = 20 km/h
e truth of this relationship, even if the velocities are not in the same direction,
can be shown as follows:
e velocities, vA and vB, of objects A and B is the rate at which their position
vectors, a and b, are changing,
v A = da andv B = db
dt dt
To an observer on B, object B appears to be stationary. e apparent velocity of
A is the rate at which the displacement BA is changing. is is AvB, the velocity
of A relative to B
d BA d(a b) da db
A vB = = = − = v A − vB
dt dt dt dt
is conrms that
If observers A and B have velocities vA and vB, the velocity AvB of A
relative to B is given by AvB = vA vB
Example 9
Anita is skating due east on a pond at 12 km/h. Bruno skates nearby at 10km/h
noitseuQ
on a bearing of 330°. How fast, and in what direction, does it seem to Anita that
Bruno is moving? j Note
v A = 12 i Sketch a diagram. East
i
v B = −5i + 5 3 j B vA
and north are the i- and j-
10 km/h directions.
rewsnA
v = (−5i + 5 3 j) − 12 i
B A vB
= −17 i + 5 3 j 120°
θ
B vA = (−17)2 + (5 3)2 = 19.1 km/h 12 km/h
vA (continued)
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(continued)
5 3 Note Note
tanθ = which gives θ = 27°
rewsnA
17
To Anita, Bruno appears to be moving at Calculate angle θ shown in Alternatively, you could use
19.1 km/h on a bearing of 297° the diagram. the cosine and sine rules to
solve the triangle.
Closest approach
You can use relative velocity to decide how close two moving objects will be as
they pass one another. Eectively, you imagine that one object is stationary and
plot the relative course of the other object.
Example 10
A ferry is travelling due south at 24 km/h. e captain spots a tanker, 8 km away
noitseuQ
on a bearing of 210°. e tanker signals that it is travelling due east at 16 km/h.
How far apart will they be on their closest approach? Assume that wind and
currents aect both vessels equally and so can be ignored.
Let F and T represent the ferry and the tanker.
N Note
F 210° Sketch a space diagram and
a velocity diagram to show
the initial position and the
Tv F vF = 24 km/h
8 km
velocity of the tanker relative
to the ferry.
T vT = 16 km/h
Space diagram Velocity diagram
vT = 16 km/h due east and vF = 24 km/h due south
T F
v = vT − vF
rewsnA
24
tanθ = = 1.5 ⇒ θ = 56.3°
16
To the captain the tanker appears to be travelling on a bearing of 33.7°
N S Note
F 210°
F Draw the tanker’s relative
course as the line TS on the
d space diagram. Its closest
8 km S approach is the distance, d,
8 km from F to the line TS. Sketch
a triangle and calculate d
3.7°
T 56.3°
Space diagram T Not to scale
d = 8 sin 3.7° = 0.516 km.
So the ships pass within 516 m of each other.
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Example 11
Model cars A and B have initial positions (5i + 8j) m and (2i 4j) m respectively.
noitseuQ
ey are moving with constant velocities (2i + j) ms 1 and (i + 2j) ms 1
respectively. Find when they are closest together, and the distance that then
separates them.
At time t r = (5i + 8j) + (2i + j)t = (5 + 2t)i + (8 + t)j
A
and r = (2i − 4j) + (i + 2j)t = ((2 + t)i + (2t − 4)j
B
BA = rA − rB = (3 + t )i + (12 − t ) j Note Note
2
BA = (3 + t ) + (12 − t ) = 2t − 18t + 153
2 2 2
Find the position of A relative Closest approach occurs
2 to B when this is a minimum. You
BA = 2(t − 4.5) + 112.5 2
rewsnA
can nd this by completing
is is a minimum when t = 4.5 s. the square.
Minimum BA = 112.5 = 10.6 m Find their distance apart.
Note
You could also nd the minimum by differentiation: for a
minimum. This gives t = 4.5 s. Substituting back gives BA = 10.6 m.
Interception
It is often necessary for an object, for example ship A, to set a course to meet
another object, ship B. is is known as an interception course. When on such
a course, it will appear to ship A that ship B is heading straight towards it. In
other words, the direction of the relative velocity v must be the same as the
B A
vector BA
Example 12
A patrol boat, P, which can travel at 50 km/h, spots a smuggler, S, 800 m away on N
a bearing of 060°, as shown. Radar shows that S is travelling at 30 km/h due west.
noitseuQ
a What course should P set to intercept
S
S in the shortest time?
b How long before they meet? Note 800 m
60°
For interception, it must
= 30 km/h due west P
appear to P that S is heading
a v
S Space diagram
|v | = 50 km/h
P straight for them. Sketch a vS = 30 km/h
e direction of v
S P
must be 240°. velocity diagram. 30°
v =v −v
rewsnA
Note
S P S P
30sin30° vP = 50 km/h
sinθ = = 0.3
50 Use the sine rule.
SvP = (magnitude v )
θ = 17.5° (or θ = 162.5°)
θ
Velocity diagram
(continued)
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(continued)
So P must set a course on a bearing of 060° − 017.5° = 042.5° to intercept S
Note
The second value of θ does not give a viable triangle. If both values were viable, there
would be two possible interception courses. If it is not possible to draw the velocity
triangle, then interception is impossible (see Example 13).
rewsnA
b |SvP| = v Note
50sin132.5°
v= = 73.7 km/h You need v to nd the time to
sin30°
interception. The third angle in
Initial distance was 800 m = 0.8 km.
0.8 the velocity triangle is 132.5°
Time to interception in seconds is × 3600 = 39.1 s
73.7
N
Example 13
A speedboat, S, is travelling at 16 km/h. A second boat, B, which can travel at
noitseuQ
10 km/h, is initially 500 m from S on a bearing of 120°, as shown. 120°
a If S is travelling east, nd the course B should set to intercept it. S
b If S is travelling south, show that B cannot intercept it.
0.5 km
a vS = 16 km/h Note
Space diagram B
|vB| = 10 km/h If B is to intercept S, SvB must be in the
SvB = vS − vB direction on the diagram. Note
Sketch the velocity diagram.
ere are two possible triangles, ABC1 and ABC2, vS
that t the facts. 16 km/h
A B
30°
θ 2 10 km/h
sinθ sin30°
= ⇒ θ = 53.1° or 126.9° S vB
16 10 C2 vB
10 km/h
B can set a course on a bearing of 353.1° or 066.9°
θ1
Velocity diagram
rewsnA
b e velocity vB = 10 km/h is not large enough to form C1
a triangle in this case, so no interception course
is possible.
Note
A
For any course between
60° SvB these, B could reach a
meeting point and then wait
for S to arrive.
vS
16 km/h
Note
Try to sketch the velocity
10 triangle.
B
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Setting a closest-approach course B
20 km/h
If interception is not possible, the best you can achieve is
to set a course to come as close as possible. N
Suppose, for example, that ship B is travelling due west at
20 km/h and that ship A is initially 10 km due south of B. 10 km
If ship A has a maximum speed of 16 km/h, it cannot vA
intercept ship B. θ
16 km/h 16 km/h AvB
e initial situation is shown in the space diagram.
You need to choose the value of θ so that A passes as A
vB 20 km/h
close as possible to B. Space diagram
Velocity diagram 1
To an observer on B, ship B appears to be stationary and ship A travelling with
velocity AvB = vA − vB. You need the direction of AvB to be as close as possible to N
the direction AB − that is, due north.
Velocity diagram 1 shows one possible situation.
As the direction of vA varies, the vertex of the velocity triangle could be
vA
anywhere on the dotted circle.
16 km/h α
If the direction of AvB is to be as close as possible to north, it will be tangential to AvB
α
the dotted circle. is is shown in Velocity diagram 2.
vB 20 km/h
So the closest-approach course happens when vA is perpendicular to AvB
Velocity diagram 2
16
From the diagram, cos α = = 0.8
20 Direction of B
α = 36.1° AvB
e course that ship A should set is 053.1° d
You can nd how close the ships will pass by drawing another space diagram,
as shown.
d 10 km
e closest approach is d, where = sin36.9°
10
d=6 36.9°
So ship A can come within 6 km of ship B
A
Exercise 3 Space diagram
1 Particle A has velocity (10i + 3j) ms 1 and particle B has velocity
(3i + 5j) ms 1. Find
a the velocity of A relative to B b the velocity of B relative to A.
2 Two roads leave a town, one heading due west, the other on a bearing of
240°. Car A travels on the rst road at 50 km/h, while car B takes the second
road at 30 km/h. Find the magnitude and direction of the velocity of car B
relative to car A
3 A horse rider feels that the wind is blowing at 12 km/h directly across her
path from left to right. If she is travelling from west to east at 16 km/h, what
is the velocity of the wind?
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4 At midday, ships P and Q are 12 km apart, with Q due west of P. P has
velocity ( 2i + 2j) km/h and Q has velocity (i + 3j) km/h. Find
a the minimum distance between the ships in the subsequent motion
b the time at which they are closest.
5 A boat, A, is 10 km south of a second boat, B. Boat A is travelling at 24 km/h
due east. Boat B has a maximum speed of 26 km/h. B needs to intercept A
in the shortest possible time.
a What course should B set?
b How long will it take before the boats meet?
6 A ferry, travelling at 35 km/h, is about to cross a sea lane perpendicularly. It
observes a tanker in the lane travelling at 20 km/h. e tanker is 5 km away
from the ferry in a direction making an angle of 35° with the direction of
the ferry. Will the two ships collide? If not, how far apart are the ships when
they are at their point of closest approach?
7 A motor cyclist is travelling at a steady speed of 60 km/h due south. e
wind appears to be blowing in a direction with bearing 040°. On her return
journey, at the same speed and with the same wind conditions, the wind
appears to be blowing in from a direction with bearing 150°. What is the
velocity of the wind?
8 Particles A and B start at points with position vectors (2i + j) m and
(3i + 4j) m respectively. ey have constant velocities ( i + 2j) ms 1 and
(pi + qj) ms 1 respectively.
a Show that, if the particles are to collide, p < 1, q < 2 and q = 3p + 5.
b Show that, if the particles have their closest approach to one another
sometime after the start, p + 3q < 5.
c If p = −2 and q = 2, nd the time taken for the particles to reach their
point of closest approach, and nd the distance that then separates
them.
9 Ship A is initially 8 km north-west of ship B. Ship B is travelling north at
12km/h. Ship A has a maximum speed of 6 km/h.
a What course should ship A set in order to pass as close as possible to
ship B?
b What will be the minimum distance between the ships?
Summary
For motion in two dimensions:
▶ e displacement from A to B is the vector .
▶ e distance AB is the magnitude, , of the displacement.
▶ Velocity is a vector. Constant velocity is displacement per unit time.
▶ Speed is the magnitude of velocity.
▶ For an object aected by two velocities, v1 and v2, the resultant velocity V is
given by V = v1 + v2.
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▶ If observers A and B have velocities vA and vB (relative to the Earth) the
velocity AvB of A relative to B is given by AvB = vA − vB
▶ To nd the closest approach (minimum distance) of object B to object A,
nd the relative velocity BvA and plot this relative path.
▶ To intercept B, A must set a course so that the relative velocity BvA is in the
direction (so B appears to be heading straight for A).
▶ If A cannot intercept B, it can set a closest-approach course by making vA
perpendicular to AvB
Review exercises
1 e road from P to Q makes a detour round a mountain. It rst goes 6 km
from P on a bearing of 080°, then 7 km on a bearing of 020° and nally 5 km
on a bearing of 295° to reach Q. ere is a plan to bore a tunnel through the
mountain from P to Q. It will be cost-eective if it reduces the journey by
more than 10 km. Decide if the road should be built.
2 In order to travel due north at 25km/h, a ship with a cruising speed of
20km/h has to steer a course of 320°. What is the speed of the current?
3 An aircraft capable of 300km/h in still air must y to an airport 500 km east.
A wind of 50km/h is blowing from the north-east.
a Show that the journey will take 1 hours.
b Find how long the return journey will take if the wind continues
unchanged.
4 A sheep, S, is running across a eld at 8ms 1 on a bearing of 110°.
eshepherd’s dog, D, is initially 200 m south-west of the sheep. e dog
can run at 12ms 1. Assuming that both animals run in a straight line, nd
a the direction in which the dog should run to intercept the sheep
b the time it will take to reach the sheep.
5 Aircraft P is initially 10km due north of aircraft Q. P is travelling east at
200km/h and Q is ying north-east at 300km/h. Find the shortest distance
between the two aircraft if they do not change their speed or direction.
6 Two boats, A and B, are initially 10 km apart, with A due west of B. B is
travelling due north at 15km/h. A has a maximum speed of 12km/h.
What course should A set to pass as close as possible to B?
Practice examination questions
1 An aeroplane is travelling due north at 180ms−1 relative to the air.
e air is moving north-west at 50ms−1.
a Find the magnitude of the resultant velocity of the aeroplane. (4 marks)
b Find the direction of the resultant velocity, giving your answer
as a three-gure bearing to the nearest degree. (4 marks)
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2 A shing boat is travelling between two ports, N
A and B, on the shore of a lake. e bearing of B
from A is 130°. e shing boat leaves A and travels
directly towards B with speed 2 ms 1. A patrol boat
130°
on the lake is travelling with speed 4 ms 1 on a
bearing of 040°. A
Fishing boat
a Find the velocity of the shing boat relative to
the patrol boat, giving your answer as a speed
together with a bearing. (5 marks) Patrol boat
b When the patrol boat is 1500 m due west of the
shing boat, it changes direction in order to B
intercept the shing boat in the shortest possible
time.
i Find the bearing on which the patrol boat should travel in order to
intercept the shing boat. (4 marks)
ii Given that the patrol boat intercepts the shing boat before it
reaches B, nd the time, in seconds, that it takes the patrol boat to
intercept the shing boat after changing direction. (4 marks)
iii State a modelling assumption necessary for answering this
question, other than the boats being particles. (1 mark)
AQA MM03 June 2009
3 Two boats, A and B, are moving on straight courses with constant speeds.
At noon, A and B have position vectors (i + 2j) km and ( i + j) km respectively
relative to a lighthouse. irty minutes later, the position vectors of A and B
are ( i + 3j) km and (2i − j) km respectively relative to the lighthouse.
m n
a Find the velocity of A relative to B in the form ( i + j) km/h,
where m and n are integers. (4 marks)
t
b e position vector of A relative to B at time hours after noon is r km.
t
Show that r = (2 − 10 )i + (1 + 6 )j.t (3 marks)
t
c Determine the value of when A and B are closest together. (5 marks)
d Find the shortest distance between A and B. (2 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2014
4 At noon, two ships, A and B, are a distance of 12 km apart, with B on a N N
bearing of 065° from A. e ship B travels due north at a constant speed
of 10 km/h. e ship A travels at a constant speed of 18 km/h.
a Find the direction in which A should travel in order to intercept B. B
Give your answer as a bearing. (4 marks)
65° 12 km
b In fact, the ship A actually travels on a bearing of 065°
i Find the distance between the ships when they are closest together.
A
(7 marks)
ii Find the time when the ships are closest together. (3 marks)
AQA MS03 June 2012
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5 e unit vectors i and j are directed due east and due north respectively.
Two runners, Albina and Brian, are running on level parkland with
constant velocities of (5i − j) ms 1 and (3i + 4j) ms 1 respectively.
− −
Initially, the position vectors of Albina and Brian are (−60i + 160j) m and
(40i − 90j) m respectively, relative to a xed origin in the parkland.
a Write down the velocity of Brian relative to Albina. (2 marks)
b Find the position vector of Brian relative to Albina t seconds after they
leave their initial positions. (3 marks)
c Hence determine whether Albina and Brian will collide if they continue
running with the same velocities. (3 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2008
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15 Dimensional Analysis
Introduction Objectives
When you write a formula in mechanics, it only makes sense if you are By the end of this chapter,
equating like with like. For example, you would not create a formula that you should know how to:
puts a length equal to a mass. Dimensional analysis can be used to help ▶ Find the dimensions
you avoid such problems. of physical quantities
in terms of mass,
length and time.
▶ Check a formula
Recap for dimensional
ere is no specic prior knowledge required for this chapter. consistency.
▶ Predict the form that
a formula will take.
15.1 Dimensions and dimensional
consistency
All quantities in mechanics are dened in terms of three basic measures: mass,
length and time .
Dimensions
e basic dimensionsmass (M), length (L) and time (T) are used to describe
physicalquantities. ey are independent
, which means, for example, that you
cannot dene mass in terms of length and time.
You use square brackets to refer to the dimensions of a quantity. For instance,
[force] means ‘the dimensions of force’.
So
▶ If h is the height of a cylinder [h] ≡ L
▶ If m is the mass of a block [m] ≡ M
Take note that dimensions are more fundamental than units. For example,
depth could be measured in kilometres, miles, inches or fathoms but it always
has dimension L.
Most quantities are compound , which means they are a combination of two or
more other quantities. For example, consider area. To nd an area you always
multiply two lengths. Familiar examples include: area of a rectangle = length ×
width and area of a circle = π × radius × radius. It follows that [area] ≡ L2.
Using this approach for other quantities, you get several general results.
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▶ Area is found by multiplying two lengths:
Note
[area] ≡ [length] × [length] ≡ L2
▶ Velocity is found by dividing distance by time: Units often reect the
[velocity] ≡ [distance] ÷ [time] ≡ LT 1 dimensions involved. For
▶ Acceleration is found by dividing (change of) velocity by time: example, the SI units
[acceleration] ≡ [velocity] ÷ [time] ≡ LT 2 for velocity (ms 1) and
▶ Force is found by multiplying mass by acceleration: acceleration (ms 2) indicate
[force] ≡ [mass] × [acceleration] ≡ MLT 2 the dimensions LT 1 and LT 2
▶ Work is found by multiplying force by distance: This is not always the case
[work] ≡ [force] × [distance] ≡ ML2T 2 though; for example, the SI
units of force and work are the
Some quantities are dimensionless. ese include constants such as π but also
newton (N) and the joule (J)
any quantity dened as the ratio of two quantities that have the same
respectively.
dimensions, since the dimensions eectively cancel out.
Examples of dimensionless quantities include:
▶ Angles; in radians an angle is found by dividing the arc length by the radius:
Tip
[angle] ≡ [arc length] ÷ [radius] ≡ L × L 1 ≡ L0. So an angle has no
dimensions. Expressing an angle in
▶ Coecient of friction (μ); this is dened as friction force ÷ normal reaction degrees is just a change of
force: [μ] ≡ [force] ÷ [force], which is therefore dimensionless. units, so its dimensionality
However, some constants do have dimensions as you will see in Example 1, does not change.
where you will nd the dimensions of the gravitational constant, G
Example 1
Newton’s law of gravitation states that the attractive force (F) between two
noitseuQ
Gm m
bodies of mass m1 and m2 a distance r apart is given by F = 1 2 , where G is the
r
gravitational constant. Find the dimensions of G
[ F ] ≡ MLT ; [ m ] ≡ [ m ] ≡ M and [ r ] ≡ L
2
1 2
Note
rewsnA
MLT ≡ 2 [G ]× M 2 State the known dimensions
2
L and substitute in the given
[ G ] ≡ M− L T −
1 3 2 formula.
Example 2
noitseuQ
Power can be dened as force × velocity. State possible units for power.
[power] = [force] × [velocity]
Note
rewsnA
= MLT 2 × LT 1
In fact, the SI unit for power
so [power] = ML2T 3
is the watt (W).
So, possible units for power are kgm2s 3
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Dimensional consistency
When you work through a problem or write a formula, each statement you
make must be dimensionally consistent. at is, the dimensions of both sides of
the equation must be the same. You can use this to check your working or to
conrm that formulae and statements are consistent.
For example, the formula area = πr2 is consistent, since πr2 has the correct
dimensions (L2). However, if b and c are lengths, then the expression 5b2c
cannot represent an area, because its dimensions (L3) are wrong. (Of course,
itcould represent a volume.)
Similarly, the expression (3d 2e + 2f ), where d, e and f are lengths, cannot
represent anything sensible, since the two parts have dierent dimensions. It is
equivalent to adding a volume to a length, which does not give a meaningful
result.
In any equation or formula relating to physical quantities, you cannot
equate or add terms which are not dimensionally the same. at is,
if a ≡ b + c then [a] ≡ [b] ≡ [c].
Example 3
Gina nds a formula for the range, R, of a projectile red at initial speed v
noitseuQ
up a slope inclined at θ to the horizontal. She obtains R = v (1 sinθ ) . Is this
g cosθ
dimensionally consistent?
[R] ≡ L Note
[v] ≡ LT 1 State the known
dimensions. Remember
[g] ≡ LT 2
g is an acceleration, and
rewsnA
sin θ and cos θ are both dimensionless trigonometric functions are
For Gina’s formula [Left-hand side] = L the ratio of two lengths.
v 2 (1 sinθ ) (LT 1 )2
[Right-hand side] = ≡ ≡L
g cosθ LT 2
So the formula is dimensionally consistent.
Exercise 1
1 If m1 and m2 are masses, x is a length, v is a velocity, F is a force and t is a
time, write the dimensions of
m1v
a mv2 b Fv c
2
m1 + m2
v t
d e Fx sin t
x
2 Write the dimensions of
a pressure (force per unit area)
b density (mass per unit volume)
c speed of rotation (revolutions per second)
d angle of elevation (degrees)
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3 Two forms of mechanical energy are kinetic energy, 1 2 , and mv
gravitational potential energy, mgh 2
. Do these two formulae have the same
dimensions?
4 Momentum is dened as mass × velocity. Impulse is dened as force ×
time. Are momentum and impulse dimensionally equivalent?
5 Show that the formula = s ut + 12 at 2 is dimensionally consistent.
6 If a system is working at a constant rate, its power is the work done
per unit time.
a Find the dimensions of power.
b Show that the formula
power = force × velocity
is dimensionally consistent.
7 m r
For a body of mass to move in a circle of radius with angular speed ω,
F
there must be a force, , acting towards the centre of the circle. is given by F
F mr
the formula ≡ ω 2. What are the dimensions of ω ?
8 Check these formulae for dimensional consistency.
a e time taken for a particle to slide from rest down a smooth slope of
l
length and inclination α is
2l
t = g sin α
b e highest point on a wall reachable by a projectile with initial speed u
red from a distance a from the base of the wall is h = u g a
4 2 2
2 gu
c Two particles of mass 1
m m
and 2 are connected by an elastic string
l
of length and modulus λ. One particle is set in motion with speed . u
1
emaximum extension, x, reached by the string is x = m m lu
2 1 2
(m + m )λ 1 2
(thedimensions of λ are those of a force).
9 A
A metal plate of area slides across a second plate. e plates are a
y
distance apart and are separated by a layer of liquid. A force is needed F
u
to keep the plate moving at a constant speed . e dynamic viscosity of
the liquid, μ, is dened by µ = Fy . Find the dimensions of μ and hence state
Au
possible units for dynamic viscosity.
15.2 Finding a formula Tip
If you can decide which quantities should appear in a formula, you can use The result will include an
dimensional consistency to decide on a possible form for the expression. You arbitrary, dimensionless
can do this when the expression involves up to three quantities. constant. To have the
complete formula you would
If you assume that A is related to b, c and d by a formula A ≡ Kbαc βd γ,
need to nd the value of
where K is a dimensionless constant, you can use dimensional
this constant, perhaps by
consistency to nd the values of α, β and γ, and so nd a possible
experimental means.
formula for A
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Example 4
It is thought that the speed, c, of sound in a gas depends only on the density, ρ, and
noitseuQ
the pressure, p, of the gas. at is, c ≡ K ρ p , where K is a dimensionless constant.
Find the values of α and β required for the formula to be dimensionally
consistent.
[c] ≡ LT 1
[ mass ] ≡ ML
[ ρ ] ≡ [ volume 3
] Note
[ p ] ≡ [[force ] ≡ ML T −1 −2 State the known dimensions.
area ] Note
[c ] ≡ [K ]×[ρ ] ×[p] α β
Substitute into the proposed
⇒ LT −1 −3 α
≡ (ML ) × (ML T ) −1 −2 β formula.
⇒ LT 1
≡ M(α + β )L( −3α − β ) T 2β
0=α+β [1]
Note
rewsnA
Note
1 = −3α β [2] With two unknowns it may not
For dimensional consistency, be possible to satisfy all three
1 = −2β [3]
the powers of M, L and T equations. This would tell you
1 must be the same on both
From [3] β= [4] that your assumptions about
2 sides. the nature of the formula were
1
From [1] and [4] α = − incorrect. Although you can
2
satisfy all three equations
1 1
Check these values in [2]: −3α − β = −3 × − − =1 here, it does not guarantee
2 2
that your assumptions were
Equation [2] is satised.
1 1 p
correct, though it is good
e required formula is c ≡ Kρ 2
p2 or c ≡ K evidence for it.
ρ
Example 5
A body falling through the air experiences a force, F, due to air resistance.
noitseuQ
Assuming that F depends on the mass, m, of the body, its velocity, v, and its
cross-sectional area, A, nd a dimensionally consistent formula for F
Assume that F ≡ Kmα v β Aγ
[F] ≡ MLT 2
[m] ≡ M
Note
[v] ≡ LT 1
State the known dimensions.
[A] ≡ L2
rewsnA
Note
[ F ] ≡ [ K ] × [m ]α × [v ]β × [ A ]γ
⇒ MLT −2 ≡ Mα × (LT −1 )β × (L2 )γ Substitute into the proposed
formula.
⇒ MLT −2 ≡ Mα L( β + 2γ ) T − β
1=α [1] Note
1 = β + 2γ [2] Equate the powers of each
2 = −β [3] dimension.
(continued)
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(continued)
1
Solving gives α = 1, β = 2, γ = − Note
2
rewsnA
1 Kmv 2 Remember this is only a
e required formula is F ≡ Kmv 2 A 2
or F ≡ possible formula. It ignores
A
factors such as air density,
If there were four factors, you could not use the method in Example 5 because
which may be involved. Also,
you could not nd four variables, α, β, γ and δ, from only three equations.
the true formula could have
Exercise 2 a different form, involving
for example terms like e A
1 In the formula A ≡ Kb c , K is a dimensionless constant, [A] = ML2T 2,
So, this method checks the
[b] = ML 1T and [c] = MLT 1. Find the values of α and β, and hence state the
validity of a proposed formula
formula.
but not truth of it.
2 In the formula A ≡ Kbα c β d γ , K is a dimensionless constant, [A] = LT 2,
[b] = MT 1, [c] = ML 1 and [d] = L2T. Find the values of α, β and γ, and hence
state the formula.
3 A simple pendulum consists of a particle of mass m suspended on a light
string of length l. e time of oscillation, T, is believed to be given by the
formula T ≡ Kmα l β g γ . Use dimensional analysis to nd the values of α, β
and γ, and hence write a possible formula.
4 e velocity, v, of waves on an ocean is believed to be related to the water
density, ρ, the wavelength, λ, of the waves, and g. Use dimensional analysis
to nd a possible formula for v
5 A skateboarder is skating on a ramp in the form of half a cylinder. Assuming
that the force between the skateboard and the surface of the ramp depends
on the mass m kg of the skateboarder, his velocity v ms 1 and the radius r m
of the cylinder, nd a possible formula for that force.
6 Liquid ows through a pipe because there is a pressure dierence between
the ends of the pipe. e rate of ow, V m3s 1, depends upon this pressure
dierence, p Nm 2, the viscosity of the liquid, η kgm 1s 1, the length of the
pipe, l m, and the radius of the pipe, r m.
a Explain why it would be impossible using dimensional analysis to nd a Tip
formula for V of the form V ≡ K η α r β pγ l δ
The unit of viscosity,
b It is decided that the important thing is the pressure gradient p/l. Use kgm 1s 1, tells you what its
dimensional analysis to obtain a possible formula relating the rate
dimensions are.
of ow, V, to the viscosity of the liquid, the radius of the pipe and the
pressure gradient.
Summary
▶ All quantities in mechanics are dened in terms of three dimensions: mass
M, length L and time T.
▶ Square brackets denote dimension, for example height, h, has dimension
[h] ≡ L.
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▶ Most quantities are compound, that is, a combination of two or more other
quantities. For example,
• [area] ≡ [length] × [length] ≡ L2
• [velocity] ≡ [distance] ÷ [time] ≡ LT 1
• [acceleration] ≡ [velocity] ÷ [time] ≡ LT 2
• [force] ≡ [mass] × [acceleration] ≡ MLT 2
• [work] ≡ [force] × [distance] ≡ ML2T 2
▶ Constants are usually dimensionless but some, such as the modulus of
elasticity and the gravitational constant, G, do have dimensions.
▶ Some quantities, for example angle and the coecient of friction, are
dimensionless. Dimensionless quantities are often created when the
quantity is dened as the ratio of two quantities that have the same
dimensions, since the dimensions eectively cancel out.
▶ Formulae must be dimensionally consistent, that is if a ≡ b + c then
[a] ≡ [b] ≡ [c]. is gives a check on the validity (but not the truth) of a
proposed formula.
▶ If you assume that A is related to b, c and d by a formula A ≡ Kbαc βd γ, where
K is a dimensionless constant, you can use dimensional consistency to nd
the values of α, β and γ, and so nd a possible formula for A
Review exercises
1 e time, T, taken for a satellite to complete a circular orbit of radius r
around the Earth (radius R) is given by
a Identify each dimension in the formula.
b Hence state if this formula is dimensionally consistent.
2 A particle is placed at a distance r from the centre of a rough horizontal
disc. e coecient of friction between the disc and the particle is μ. e
disc rotates at n revolutions per second. e maximum value of n for the
particle to remain in place is given by
Show that this formula is dimensionally consistent.
3 A particle is projected vertically into the air. Assuming that the greatest
height, h, reached by the particle depends only on its initial velocity, v, and
gravity, g, use dimensional analysis to predict the formula for h in terms of
v, g and a dimensionless constant k
4 A rocket red vertically upwards will escape from the Earth’s gravitational
eld if its velocity reaches a value V, the escape velocity. It is believed that
V depends on the mass, m, of the rocket, the acceleration due to gravity, g,
and the radius, r, of the Earth. Use dimensional analysis to nd the form
which the formula for V should take.
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5 e frequency, f vibrations per second, with which a guitar string vibrates
is thought to depend on the length, l, of the string, the density, ρ, of the
steel and the tension, T, applied to it. Assuming this to be the case, nd a
possible formula for f in terms of l, ρ, T and a dimensionless constant k
Practice examination questions
1 e time, t, for a single vibration of a piece of taut string is believed to
depend on the length of the taut string, l, the tension in the string, F, the
mass per unit length of the string, q, and a dimensionless constant, k, such
that , where α, β and γ are constants.
By using dimensional analysis, nd the values of α, β and γ . (5 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2011
2 A tank containing a liquid has a small hole in the bottom through which the
liquid escapes. e speed, u ms 1, at which the liquid escapes is given by
u = CVρg, where V m is the volume of the liquid in the tank, ρ kgm is the
3 3
density of the liquid, g is the acceleration due to gravity and C is a constant.
By using dimensional analysis, nd the dimensions of C. (5 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2010
3 e magnitude of the gravitational force, F, between two planets of masses
m
1
and m2 with centres at a distance x apart is given by , where G
is a constant.
a By using dimensional analysis, nd the dimensions of G. (3 marks)
b e lifetime, t, of a planet is thought to depend on its mass, m, its initial
radius, R, the constant G and a dimensionless constant, k, so that
, where α, β and γ are constants.
Find the values of α, β and γ. (5 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2007
4 A ball of mass m is travelling vertically downwards with speed u when it
hits a horizontal oor. e ball bounces vertically upwards to a height h.
It is thought that h depends on m, u, the acceleration due to gravity g, and
a dimensionless constant k, such that , where α, β and γ are
constants.
By using dimensional analysis, nd the values of α, β and γ. (5 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2009
5 e time T taken for a simple pendulum to make a single small oscillation
is thought to depend only on its length l, its mass m and the acceleration
due to gravity g. By using dimensional analysis:
a Show that T does not depend on m (3 marks)
b Express T in terms of l, g and k, where k is a dimensionless constant.
(4 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2006
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16 Collisions in One Dimension
Introduction Objectives
From planning a shot in snooker, to investigating a road crash, there is a By the end of this chapter,
need to understand what happens when objects collide. is chapter looks you should know how to:
at the mathematics behind head-on collisions, that is, collisions in one ▶ Dene impulse and
dimension. momentum, and
understand the
relationship between
Recap them.
ere is no specic prior learning required for this chapter. ▶ Find the impulse of a
variable force.
▶ Use the principle
16.1 Impulse and momentum of conservation of
momentum.
If you apply a force to an object, the eect of the force depends on the ▶ Use Newton’s
magnitude of the force and the length of time for which you apply it. Together, coecient of
these form the impulse of the force. e result of the impulse will be a change restitution to nd the
in the object’s velocity but the size of the change will also depend on its mass. result of collisions
Together, mass and velocity form the momentum of the object. between elastic
Suppose a constant force, F N, acts for a time t s in the direction of motion of a particles.
particle of mass m kg. e particle accelerates at a constant a ms 2. Its velocity
changes from u ms 1 to v ms 1:
v u
From v = u + at a = [1]
t
From Newton’s second law F = ma [2]
m v ( u )
Combining [1] and [2] F =
t
Ft = mv − mu [3]
e equation Ft = mv − mu denes two quantities:
▶ e left-hand side, Ft, denes the impulse of the force.
e impulse of a constant force, F, applied for a time, t, is Ft:
impulse = force × time.
e SI unit of impulse is the newton second (Ns). Impulse is a vector
quantity because force is a vector.
▶ e right-hand side shows the change in the momentum.
Momentum is the quantity ‘mass × velocity’. Its units must be the same as
the impulse.
For a particle of mass m moving with velocity v, momentum = mv
e SI unit of momentum is the newton second (Ns). Momentum is a
vector quantity because velocity is a vector.
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In summary,
Tip
Impulse = change of momentum It is strictly called ‘linear
Ft = mv mu momentum’ to distinguish it
from angular momentum, but
Example 1 just ‘momentum’ is usual.
A spacecraft of mass 120 kg is travelling in a straight line at 4 ms 1. Its rocket is
red for 5 s, exerting a force of 150 N. Find the new velocity, v, of the spacecraft
noitseuQ
if the force was directed
a in the direction of motion b in the opposite direction.
(Assume that the loss of mass when ring the rocket is negligible.)
a Impulse = 150 × 5 = 750 Ns
Note
Initial momentum = 120 × 4 = 480 Ns
Impulse = force × time
Final momentum = 120v
Note
rewsnA
750 = 120 v − 480
Momentum = mass × velocity Note
v = 10.25 ms 1
Impulse = change of momentum
b −750 = 120v − 480
v = −2.25 ms 1
Note
e spacecraft travels at 2.25 ms 1 in the opposite direction.
The situation in b is the
Impulse of a variable force same as in a except that the
impulse is −750 Ns.
In the case above, the force is constant. Imagine that there is a variable force, F,
acting on a particle of mass m in its direction of motion. If F is a function of
time, you can use calculus to nd the impulse it exerts.
dv
e acceleration at any instant is
dt
dv
From Newton’s second law, m =F
dt
If the velocity changes from u to v as t changes from 0 to t
v t
∫
m dv = F dt
u
∫0
t
⇒ ∫ F dt
0
mv mu
So, ∫
0
d gives the change of momentum and is therefore the impulse of the force.
If a variable force, F, acts for a time, t, the impulse of the
t
force is given by impulse = ∫
0
F dt
Example 2
A particle of mass 3 kg is acted on by a force F = 3t 2 for a period of 3 s.
noitseuQ
e particle is initially travelling at 2 ms 1 in the same direction as the force. Find
a the impulse of the force b the nal velocity, v, of the particle.
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a e impulse, J, is given by 3 3 Note
∫ 3t dt 27 Ns
2
J = = [t ]0 =
0
rewsnA
b Initial momentum = 3 × 2 = 6 Ns Impulse =
Final momentum = 3v
3v − 6 = 27
Note
v = 11 ms 1
e concept of impulse is most useful when the period of time is very short. For Change of momentum =
example, if you hit a ball with a racquet, you cannot easily measure either the impulse
force (which is probably not constant) or the time for which the force acted.
However, you can calculate the change of momentum and then use this to
calculate the impulse. e average force in this situation is the constant force
that would produce the same eect. If you do in fact know the time involved,
you can then nd the average force since impulse = average force × time.
Example 3
A ball of mass 0.15 kg is travelling at 40 ms 1. It strikes some netting and comes
noitseuQ
to rest in 0.5 s. Find
a the impulse the ball receives
b the average force exerted by the netting on the ball.
a
Note
Sketch a diagram.
1 J Ns
40 ms
0.15 kg
In the diagram, take left to right as the positive direction, so the net exerts an
Note
rewsnA
impulse J Ns on the ball.
Initial momentum = 0.15 × 40 = 6 Ns State any assumptions you
have made.
Final momentum = 0 Ns
J =0 6
Note
J = 6 Ns
Impulse = change of
e netting exerts an impulse of magnitude 6 Ns from right to left in the
momentum
diagram.
b Let the average force be F.
6 = F × 0.5
Note
F = 12 N
Impulse = average force ×
e netting exerts an average force of 12 N from right to left in the diagram.
time
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Exercise 1
1 In each of the cases illustrated, state the momentum of particles A and B
a positive direction
A B
1
4 ms 6 ms 1
3 kg 5 kg
b
A B
1 1
2 ms 3 ms
4 kg 7 kg
c A B
1 1
4 ms 5 ms
2 kg 6 kg
2 A particle A, of mass m, receives an impulse I from a force F applied for a
time t
a Find I if F = 12 N and t = 7 s.
b Find I if m = 2 kg and the velocity of A changes from 3 ms 1 to 8 ms 1
c Find I if m = 5 kg and the velocity of A changes from 4 ms 1 to 3 ms 1
d Find the average value of F if I = 24 Ns and t = 4 s.
3 An object of mass 4 kg is at rest. It receives an impulse of magnitude 28 Ns.
With what speed will it start to move?
4 An object of mass 7 kg is travelling in a straight line at a speed of 4 ms 1. It
is acted on by a constant force in the direction of the line, which makes its
speed increase to 10 ms 1
a Find the impulse exerted on the object.
b Find the force involved if the process took 0.35 s.
5 A particle, of mass 8 kg, travelling with velocity 2 ms 1, is acted upon for a
period of 4 s by a forward force F = (3t2 + 1) N. Find
a the impulse of the force
b the nal velocity of the particle.
6 A tennis player strikes a ball so that its path is exactly reversed. e ball
approaches the racket at 35 ms−1 and leaves at 45 ms−1. e mass of the ball
is 90 g. Find the magnitude of the impulse exerted on the ball.
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7 An engine of mass 20 tonnes is travelling at 54 km/h. Its brakes are applied
for 3 s, after which it is travelling at 45 km/h. Find the change in momentum
of the engine and hence the average braking force applied.
8 A particle of mass 3 kg travelling at 8 ms 1 strikes a wall at right angles and
receives an impulse of magnitude 39 Ns. With what speed does it rebound
from the wall?
9 A particle of mass 2 kg is travelling at 8 ms 1. A variable braking force is
applied, so that after t s the magnitude of the force is 2t N. Find the length of
time before the particle is brought to rest.
16.2 The principle of conservation of linear
momentum
Tip
Forces that are internal to a system do not change the total momentum of the
system. Suppose a system comprises particles A and B, which are separately The force might be due to
free to move, and which have momentum MA and MB respectively. a collision, or magnetic or
e total momentum of the system = (MA + MB) Ns. gravitational forces; such
forces are internal to the
If particle A now exerts a force F N on particle B for a time t s, B receives an
system.
impulse J = Ft Ns.
By Newton’s third law, B exerts a force −F N on A, also for time t s. So, A receives
an impulse −J Ns.
Impulse = change of momentum, so:
e new momentum of A = (MA − J) Ns
e new momentum of B = (MB + J) Ns
e total momentum of the system = (MA − J) + (MB + J) = (MA + MB) Ns
e total momentum has not been changed.
Even if they are not constant, the two forces are equal and opposite at all times,
so the changes in momentum are also equal and opposite.
is leads to the principle of conservation of linear momentum
e principle of conservation of linear momentum states that the total
momentum of a system in a particular direction remains constant
unless an external force is applied in that direction.
So, for example, if two particles have masses m1 and m2, initial velocities u1 and
u
2
, and nal velocities v1 and v2, then m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Example 4
A particle of mass 4 kg, travelling at 6 ms 1, collides with a second particle of
noitseuQ
mass 3 kg, travelling in the opposite direction at 2 ms 1. After the collision, the
rst particle continues in the same direction at 1 ms 1. Find the velocity, v, of
the second particle after the collision.
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Before collision
1 1
6 ms 2 ms
4 kg 3 kg
After collision
1
1 ms v
rewsnA
Take left to right to be the positive direction.
Note
Total momentum before collision = 4 × 6 + 3 × ( 2) = 18 Ns Sketch a diagram and state
your assumptions.
Total momentum after collision = 4 × 1 + 3v = (3v + 4) Ns
3v + 4 = 18
Note
2
v = 4 ms 1
There are no external forces,
3
so momentum is conserved.
Bodies that coalesce
To coalesce means to merge or stick together. Sometimes objects coalesce
when they collide. For example, when railway carriages collide they can
become coupled together. Similarly, if two comets collide they can become a
single body. When this happens, the two objects behave as one object with a
mass equal to the combined mass of each object.
Example 5
A railway carriage of mass 4 tonnes travelling along a straight horizontal track at
noitseuQ
4 ms 1 meets another carriage, of mass 2 tonnes, travelling in the opposite
direction at 5 ms 1. ey collide and become coupled together. Find their
velocity after the collision.
Before collision
1 1
4 tonnes 4 ms 5 ms 2 tonnes
Note
After collision
As they are coupled, they
rewsnA
behave as one object with a
4 tonnes 2 tonnes v
mass of 6 tonnes.
Take left to right to be the positive direction. Let the combined velocity after Note
collision be v. Sketch a diagram and state
Momentum before = 4000 × 4 + 2000 × ( 5) = 6000 Ns Note your assumptions.
Momentum after = 6000 v Ns
There are no external forces
6000 v = 6000 ⇒ v = 1 ms 1 in the direction of motion, so
momentum is conserved.
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Exercise 2
1 Particles A and B have masses 4 kg and 5 kg. ey collide with velocities uA
and uB, and after the collision they have velocities vA and vB.
a If uA = 8 ms 1, uB = 3 ms 1 and vA = 3 ms 1, nd vB
b If uA = 4 ms 1, uB = −3 ms 1 and vA = −2 ms 1, nd vB
c If uA = 0 ms 1, vA = −5 ms 1 and vB = −2 ms 1, nd uB
2 Particle A has mass 2 kg and speed 6 ms 1. Particle B has mass 3 kg and
speed 5 ms 1. ey travel towards each other and collide.
a If B is brought to rest by the collision, nd what happens to A
b Explain why it is not possible for A to be brought to rest by the collision.
3 Two particles, A and B, have masses of 2 kg and 3 kg respectively. ey
are travelling at speeds of 5 ms 1 and 2 ms 1 respectively. ey collide and
coalesce (merge together). Find their common speed after the collision if,
before they collided, they were travelling
a in the same direction
b in opposite directions.
4 A particle A, of mass 10 kg, moving at 5 ms 1, collides with a particle B, of
mass m kg, travelling in the opposite direction at 2 ms 1. After the collision,
A travels in the same direction as before but with its speed reduced to
3 ms 1
a If m = 3, nd the velocity of B after the collision.
b Show that the value of m cannot be greater than 4.
5 A bullet of mass 40 g is red horizontally with velocity 600 ms 1 into a block
of wood, of mass 6 kg, resting on a smooth horizontal surface. e bullet
becomes embedded in the block. Find the resulting common speed of the
bullet and the block.
6 Ali balances a box on top of a wall and throws a snowball of mass 0.3 kg
at it. e snowball strikes the box at a speed of 10 ms 1 and sticks to it. e
common speed of the box and the snowball after the impact is 4 ms 1. Find
the mass of the box.
7 A railway truck of mass 5 tonnes is travelling at 6 ms−1. It catches up with a
second truck, mass 3 tonnes, travelling in the same direction at 2 ms−1. e
trucks become coupled together. Find the common speed with which they
then travel.
16.3 Elastic impact
e speed with which objects separate after impact depends on the speed at
which they come together and their ‘bounciness’. eir bounciness depends on
the materials from which they are made. is leads to Newton’s experimental
law of restitution.
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Newton’s experimental law of restitution
Newton’s experimental law of restitution establishes the constancy of the
ratio between approach and separation speeds. Note
ere are two types of collision you need to consider: As with any result based
1. A moving object collides with a xed object, such as a wall, and rebounds. on experimental evidence,
2. Two objects, each free to move, collide and rebound. Newton’s law of restitution is
is chapter focuses on direct, or one-dimensional, collisions. So in the rst not totally accurate, but the
case above, the object hits the wall at right angles, and in the second case, the approximation is very good.
objects collide ‘head-on’ along their line of centres.
e approach speed is the rate at which the gap between the objects decreases Tip
before impact. e separation speed is the rate at which the gap between the Note that you might see
objects increases after impact.
an alternative statement of
By conducting experiments, Newton found that separation speed is always less Newton’s law of restitution for
than or equal to approach speed and that for any given pair of objects the ratio two objects moving along the
between these speeds is a constant, e, called the coecient of restitution same straight line as follows:
if the initial velocities are u1
Newton’s experimental law of restitution:
separation speed and u2, and the velocities after
= e (a constant) collision are v1 and v2, then
approach speed
v1 − v2 = −e (u1 − u2).
If e = 0 the impact is said to be inelastic. Separation speed is zero, so no
rebounding occurs.
If e = 1 the impact is said to be perfectly elastic. Separation speed equals
approach speed. In such a collision there would be no loss of energy.
In practice some energy is always lost, so perfect elasticity does not occur.
In the ‘real world’ 0 ≤ e < 1.
One of the objects is xed
In the case of a moving object hitting a xed object, there is an external force
holding the xed object in place, so the momentum of the system will change.
Example 6
A particle sliding at 8 ms 1 on a smooth horizontal surface strikes a vertical wall
noitseuQ
at right angles and rebounds in the opposite direction. e coecient of
restitution between the particle and the wall is 0.6. Find the speed, v, at which
the particle rebounds.
Approach speed = 8 ms 1
Separation speed = v
rewsnA
e = 0.6
v
= 0.6 Note
8
v = 4.8 By Newton’s law of restitution:
e particle rebounds at 4.8 ms 1
=e
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Both objects can move
In the case of two objects that are both free to move, there are two unknown
quantities, namely the two nal velocities. erefore, you need two equations to
solve the problem.
No external forces act on the system, so the rst equation comes from
conservation of momentum. e second equation comes from Newton’s law of
restitution. You then have a pair of simultaneous equations to solve.
Example 7
An object of mass 3 kg, moving at 6 ms 1, collides directly with a stationary
noitseuQ
object, mass 5 kg. e coecient of restitution between the objects is 0.4. Find
their velocities after impact.
Before
1
6 ms
3 kg 5 kg
After
u v
3 kg 5 kg
Let the nal velocities be u and v, as shown.
Note
Momentum before impact = 3 × 6 = 18 Ns
rewsnA
Sketch a diagram and state
Momentum after impact = 3u + 5v
your assumptions.
3u + 5v = 18 [1]
Note
e = 0.4
Momentum is conserved
Approach speed = 6 ms 1
since the objects are both
Separation speed = v − u free to move and there are no
v u external forces.
= 0.4
6 Note
v − u = 2.4 [2]
Use Newton’s law of
3u + 5v = 18 [1]
restitution.
v − u = 2.4 [2]
[1] + 3 × [2] gives
Note
8v = 25.2 ⇒ v = 3.15
To nd u and v, solve these
Substituting v into [2] gives u = 0.75.
simultaneous equations.
e nal velocities are u = 0.75 ms 1, v = 3.15 ms 1
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Example 8
m
Two spheres, each of mass , collide head-on with speeds 5 ms 1 and 3ms 1
noitseuQ
respectively. e coecient of restitution between the spheres is 0.5. Find their
velocities immediately after impact.
Before Note
1 1
5 ms 3 ms Always dene the unknown
m m
u v
velocities and in the same
direction. Separation speed is
After
v u
then always ( − ). If either
u v sphere is in fact moving the
m m other way, the velocity you
calculate will be negative.
u
Let the nal velocities be and , as shown. v
5m 3m = mu + mv Note
rewsnA
u+v=2 [1]
Use conservation of
Approach speed = 8 ms 1
momentum.
Separation speed = − v u
e = 0.5
v u = 0.5 Note
8
v u − =4 [2] Use Newton’s law of
restitution.
From [1] and [2] u = −1 ms , v = 3 ms
1 1
Note
After the collision the spheres move Solve the simultaneous
in opposite directions with speeds 1 ms 1
equations [1] and [2].
and 3 ms 1
Exercise 3
1 u
A particle travelling at speed ms 1 collides with a wall and rebounds in the
v
opposite direction with speed ms 1. e coecient of restitution between
e
the particle and the wall is . Find
a e, given that u = 8 and v = 6
b v, given that u = 12 and e = 0.6.
2 A ball of mass m falls from rest from a height of 10 m onto a horizontal
surface and rebounds. e coecient of restitution between the ball and
the surface is 0.5. Find the height to which it rebounds.
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3 Particles A and B collide directly. In each case, the diagram shows the
velocities before and after impact. Calculate the value of e, the coecient of
restitution.
a Before After
6 ms 1
8 ms 1 At rest At rest
A B A B
b Before After
1 1 1 1
10 ms 4 ms 3 ms 6 ms
A B A B
c Before After
1 1 1 1
5 ms 4 ms 2 ms 3 ms
A B A B
4 e table shows the mass and initial velocity of two particles, A and B, and
the coecient of restitution. In each case calculate the velocities of the
particles after the collision.
A B
Mass Initial velocity Mass Initial velocity e
(kg) (ms 1) (kg) (ms 1)
a 4 8 3 0 0.6
b 2 6 3 2 0.4
c 5 4 2 2 0.8
d 2 5 5 4 0.2
5 A toy car A, moving at 3 ms 1, overtakes and collides with a second toy car,
B, moving at 1 ms 1. B has twice the mass of A. e coecient of restitution
is 0.5. Find the velocity of each car immediately after the collision.
6 A particle P of mass 3 kg, travelling at 10 ms 1, overtakes and collides with a
second particle, Q, of mass 5 kg, travelling at 2 ms 1. After the collision, P is
moving in the same direction with its speed reduced to 4 ms 1. Calculate
a the new speed of Q
b the coecient of restitution.
7 Spheres A and B, of masses 5 kg and 3 kg respectively, are travelling towards
each other along the same straight line. eir speeds are 3 ms 1 and 2 ms 1
respectively. Sphere A is brought to rest by the collision. Calculate the
coecient of restitution between the spheres.
8 A particle of mass 6 kg, travelling at 8 ms−1, is brought to rest in a collision
with a second particle of mass 4 kg. If e = 0.3, calculate the initial and nal
velocities of the second particle.
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9 Two balls, A and B, of masses m and 2m respectively, are travelling towards
each other along the same straight line, each with a speed of u. e
coecient of restitution is 0.5. Calculate their velocities after they collide.
10 Two perfectly elastic particles of equal mass are travelling in opposite
directions along the same straight line.
a Show that when they collide they exchange velocities.
b Would the same be true if they were initially travelling in the same
direction?
16.4 Multiple collisions
Some situations involve more than two objects. For example, there may be three
objects in a line, or two objects lined up facing a wall. In these cases, it then
follows that there might be more than one collision. You need to deal with each
successive collision individually. Velocities resulting from each collision will
provide initial velocities for subsequent collisions. You need to use clear
notation and explain carefully which collision you are dealing with at each stage
in your solution.
Example 9
Particles A, B and C lie at rest in that order along a straight line. eir masses are
3 kg, 2 kg and 4 kg respectively. Particle A is projected towards B with speed
noitseuQ
8ms 1. e coecient of restitution in each impact is 0.6.
a Show that there will be a third collision.
b Find the velocities of the particles after the third collision. Will there will be
further collisions?
Let u, v and w be the velocities of A, B and C, with subscripts to show which Note
collision they resulted from.
Make your intentions and
a First impact, A and B: notation clear.
Before rst impact
8 ms 1 0 ms 1
3 kg 2 kg
A B
rewsnA
After rst impact
u1 v1
A B Note
24 = 3u1 + 2v1 [1] By conservation of momentum.
v1 u1
= 0.6
8 Note
v1 − u1 = 4.8 [2]
From [1] and [2] u1 = 2.88 ms 1, v1 = 7.68 ms 1 By Newton’s law of restitution.
(continued)
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(continued)
Second impact, B and C:
Before second impact
7.68 ms 1 0 ms 1
2 kg 4 kg
B C
After second impact
v2 w2
Note
B C
By conservation of momentum.
2v2 + 4w2 = 15.36 [3]
w2 v2 = 4.608 [4]
Note
From [3] and [4] v2 = −0.512 ms 1, w2 = 4.096 ms 1
By Newton’s law of restitution.
A has velocity 2.88 ms 1 and B has velocity 0.512 ms 1. ey are travelling
rewsnA
towards each other, so there will be at least one more collision.
b ird impact, A and B:
Before third impact
1 1
2.88 ms 0.512 ms
3 kg 2 kg
A B
After third impact
u3 v3
Note
A B
By conservation of momentum.
3u3 + 2v3 = 7.616 [5]
v3 u3 = 3.392 [6]
Note
From [5] and [6] u3 = 0.1664 ms 1, v3 = 3.5584 ms 1
By Newton’s law of restitution.
As w2 = 4.096 ms 1, B will not catch up with C, so there are no more
collisions.
Exercise 4
1 Particles A, B and C, each of mass m, lie at rest in a straight line on a smooth
horizontal surface, with B between A and C. Particle A is projected directly
at B at 10 ms 1. e coecient of restitution is 0.5 in all the collisions. Show
that there are three collisions, and nd the nal velocities of the particles.
2 Spheres A, B and C have masses of 3 kg, 2 kg and 1 kg respectively. ey are
moving, in that order, along a straight line with speeds of 3 ms 1, 2 ms 1 and
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1 ms 1 respectively. A collides with B. is collision is perfectly elastic. B
then collides with C, with coecient of restitution e. Show that there are no
4
more collisions if e <
11
3 A particle A, of mass 4 kg, is moving at 6 ms 1 on a smooth horizontal
surface when it hits a second particle, B, of mass 6 kg, which is at rest.
e coecient of restitution between the particles is 0.2. B then collides
directly with a wall and rebounds. e coecient of restitution between
B and the wall is e. If B is again at rest after its second collision with A,
nd the value of e
4 Particle A has mass 4 kg and lies at rest on a smooth horizontal surface near
a vertical wall. Particle B has mass 2 kg and lies at rest between A and the
wall. e line AB is perpendicular to the wall. e coecient of restitution
between A and B is 0.4 and between B and the wall is 0.6. Find the nal
velocities of the particles if
a B is projected towards the wall at 8 ms 1
b A is projected towards B at 8 ms 1
Summary
▶ e impulse of a constant force F applied for a time t is dened as Ft
Impulse = force × time
▶ For a particle of mass m moving with velocity v, momentum = mv
▶ Impulse = change of momentum, so Ft = mv − mu
▶ e SI unit of both impulse and momentum is the newton second (Ns).
▶ If a variable force, F, acts for a time, t, the impulse of the force equals .
▶ e principle of conservation of linear momentum states that the total
momentum of a system in a particular direction remains constant unless an
external force is applied in that direction.
▶ Bodies can coalesce (stick together) when they collide; when this happens
the two bodies behave as one body with a mass equal to the combined
mass of each body.
Newton’s experimental law of restitution establishes the constancy of the
ratio between approach and separation speeds:
• Newton’s experimental law of restitution: ,
where e is the coecient of restitution.
• If e = 0, the collision is inelastic and no rebounding occurs. If e = 1, the
collision is perfectly elastic and there is no loss of energy.
▶ When there are more than two bodies, it is possible for there to be more
than one collision. You deal with each successive collision individually.
Velocities resulting from each collision will provide initial velocities for
subsequent collisions.
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Review exercises
1 A particle of mass 6 kg is travelling at 5 ms 1. A constant force of 3 N is
applied to it for 4 s in its direction of motion. Find
a the initial momentum of the particle
b the impulse of the force
c the nal velocity of the particle
d the nal velocity of the particle if the force had been applied in the
opposite direction.
2 A particle of mass 5 kg, travelling with velocity 3 ms 1, is acted upon for a
period of 6 s by a forward force F = t(8 − t) N, where t s is the time for which
the force has acted. Find
a the impulse of the force
b the nal velocity of the particle.
3 A railway carriage, A, of mass 2 tonnes, is travelling at 2 ms 1. A second
carriage, B, of mass 3 tonnes, is travelling in the opposite direction at 1 ms 1.
e carriages collide and become coupled together. Find their velocity after
the collision.
4 Particle A, of mass m, moving at 7 ms 1, collides with particle B, of mass
km, moving at 1 ms 1 in the same direction. After the collision the speed of
B is twice the speed of A. e coecient of restitution is 0.75. Find the two
possible values of k
5 Particle A, mass 4 kg, rests on a smooth horizontal surface near a vertical
wall. Particle B, mass 1 kg, is at rest on the surface directly between particle
A and the wall. Particle A is set moving towards particle B at 6 ms 1. If the
coecients of restitution between the particles and between particle B and
the wall are both 0.5, nd the velocities of the particles after they collide for
the second time.
Practice examination questions
1 Two particles, A and B, are travelling towards each other along a straight
horizontal line. Particle A has velocity 2 ms 1 and mass m kg. Particle B has
velocity 2 ms 1 and mass 3 kg.
A m kg B 3 kg
2 ms−1 2 ms−1
e particles collide.
a If the particles move in opposite directions after the collision, each with
speed 0.5 ms−1, nd the value of m. (3 marks)
b If the particles coalesce during the collision, forming a single
particle which moves with speed 0.5 ms−1, nd the two possible
values of m. (5 marks)
AQA MMB1 June 2008
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2 A ball of mass 0.2 kg is hit directly by a bat. Just before the impact, the ball
is travelling horizontally with speed 18 ms 1. Just after the impact, the ball is
travelling horizontally with speed 32 ms 1 in the opposite direction.
a Find the magnitude of the impulse exerted on the ball. (2 marks)
b At time t seconds after the ball rst comes into contact with the bat,
the force exerted by the bat on the ball is newtons, where
k is a constant and . e bat stays in contact with the ball for
0.09 seconds. Find the value of k. (4 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2011
3 ree smooth spheres A, B and C of equal radii and masses m, m and 2m
respectively lie at rest on a smooth horizontal table. e centres of the
spheres lie in a straight line with B between A and C. e coecient of
restitution between any two spheres is e. e sphere A is projected directly
towards B with speed u and collides with B.
a Find, in terms of u and e, the speed of B immediately after the impact
between A and B. (5 marks)
b e sphere B subsequently collides with C. e speed of
C immediately after this collision is . Find the value of e. (7 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2006
4 A smooth sphere A, of mass m, is moving with speed 4u in a straight line on a 4u 2u
smooth horizontal table. A smooth sphere B, of mass 3m, has the same radius
as A and is moving on the table with speed 2u in the same direction as A. m 3m
e sphere A collides directly with sphere B. e coecient of restitution
between A and B is e. A B
a Find, in terms of u and e, the speeds of A and B immediately after the
collision. (6 marks)
b Show that the speed of B after the collision cannot be greater
than 3u. (2 marks)
c Given that , nd, in terms of m and u, the magnitude of the impulse
exerted on B in the collision. (3 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2013
5 An ice-hockey player has mass 60 kg. He slides in a straight line at a
constant speed of 5 ms 1 on the horizontal smooth surface of an ice rink
towards the vertical perimeter wall of the rink, as shown in the diagram.
e player collides directly with the wall, and remains in contact with the Player 5 ms 1
wall for 0.5 seconds.
At time t seconds after coming into contact with the wall, the force exerted
by the wall on the player is newtons, where . Wall
a Find the magnitude of the impulse exerted by the wall on
the player. (4 marks)
b e player rebounds from the wall. Find the player’s speed immediately
after the collision. (3 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2012
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17 Roots and Polynomials
Introduction Objectives
Understanding and taking advantage of the relationship between the roots By the end of this chapter,
of a polynomial and its coecients is useful in a variety of mathematical you should know how to:
topics and is used widely throughout the study of pure mathematics, ▶ Identify the sum and
including Complex Numbers. product of real roots
of cubic functions.
▶ Identify the sum and
product of real roots
Recap
of polynomials of
You will need to remember . . .
degree n
▶ How to write a complex number in Cartestian form. See Chapter 2 ▶ Find real and complex
▶ How to nd the complex roots of quadratics. Complex roots of polynomials
▶ How to nd the sum, dierence, product and Numbers. of a higher degree.
quotient of two complex numbers. ▶ Identify the sum and
▶ at if ax2 + bx + c = 0, then the two roots product of real and
α and β have sums and products: complex roots of
Roots and Coecients of
polynomials of a
a Quadratic Function.
higher degree.
▶ How to nd equations with roots that are a function of existing roots.
▶ at if f (x) is continuous on an interval a ≤ x ≤ b, See Chapter 9
and changes sign between x = a and x = b, Numerical
then there is a root of f (x) between a and b. Methods.
17.1 Roots of higher-order equations
You saw in Chapter 3 Roots and Coecients of a Quadratic Function, that you
can nd the equation of a quadratic function given the roots α and β using the
sum and product of the roots.
b c
e sum of the roots is and the product of the roots is
a a
You can use the roots and coecients of a higher-order function in a
similar way.
Roots of cubic equations
If α, β and γ are the roots of a cubic equation, ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0, then the
equation is in the form a(x α)(x β)(x γ) = 0.
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = a(x α)(x β)(x γ)
= a[x3 (α + β + γ)x2 + (αβ + βγ + γα)x αβγ ]= 0
b
▶ Equating coecients of x2 gives: α + β + γ = −
a
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FP2 2.1 17
c
▶ Equating coecients of x gives: αβ + βγ + γα =
a
d
▶ Equating the constants gives: αβγ =−
a
b
Given a cubic equation, ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0, the sum of the roots is ,
a
the sum of all the possible products of the roots taken two at a time is
c
a
d
and the product of the roots is
a
erefore, if you know the roots of a cubic, you can use them to nd the
equation of the cubic. Similarly, if you have the equation of a cubic, you can use
it to nd the values of the roots.
Example 1
noitseuQ
Find the cubic equation in x which has roots 4, 3 and 2.
Note Note
α + β + γ = 4 + 3 + ( 2) = 5 ⇒ b = −5
αβ + βγ + γα = 4 × 3 + 3 × 2 + ( 2 × 4) = −2 Using . Using .
rewsnA
⇒ c = −2
αβγ = 4 × 3 × 2 = −24 ⇒ d = 24
Note
e equation in x is x3 5x2 2x + 24 = 0
Using .
Example 2
noitseuQ
e cubic equation x3 + 3x2 7x + 2 = 0 has roots α, β, γ.
Find the value of α 2 + β 2 + γ 2
Note
b c
α + β + γ = − = −3 αβ + βγ + γα = = −7 From expanding (α + β + γ )2
a a
d You learned how to nd an
αβγ = − = −2
rewsnA
a Note equation with roots that are a
function of existing roots in
α + β + γ = (α + β + γ)
2 2 2 2
2(αβ + βγ + γα) Substitute in the values of Chapter 3 Roots and
α + β + γ = ( 3)
2 2 2 2
2 × − 7 = 23 (α + β + γ ) and Coecients of a Quadratic
α + β + γ = 23
2 2 2 (αβ + βγ + γα). Function.
In example 2, you were able to calculate α2 + β 2 + γ 2 by expressing it in terms
of the known values (α + β + γ) and (αβ + βγ + γα) by expanding (α + β + γ)2.
In doing so, you made use of a very important result:
∑α ∑α ∑ αβ , where ∑α is the sum of the roots taken one at a
2
2
= −2
time and ∑ αβ is the sum of the products of all possible pairs of roots.
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Roots of a polynomial equation of degree n
You know that a polynomial of degree n has n roots.
From the properties of the roots of quadratic and cubic equations, it follows that
in a polynomial equation of degree n axn + bxn 1 + cxn 2 + . . . = 0, then you have
▶ the sum of the roots (taken one at a time): ∑α = − ba
▶ the sum of the products of all possible pairs of roots: ∑αβ = ac
▶ the sum of the products of all possible combinations of roots taken three at
a time: ∑αβγ = − da
▶ the sum of the products of all possible combinations of roots taken four at a
time … and so on
▶ nally, the product of the n roots: αβγ ... = ( −1)n
Last term Note
a
Since the last term is the
Example 3 product of α, β, γ, δ,...
e roots of f(x) = 4x5 + 6x4 3x3 + 7x2 11x 3 = 0 are α, β, γ, δ and ε
noitseuQ
a Find the sum of the ve roots.
b i Show that x = 1 is a root of the equation.
5
ii Hence show that the sum of the roots other than 1 is
2
Note Note
a −b =−6 =−3 Using sum of roots = Substitute 1 into the
a 4 2
polynomial.
b i When x = 1,
f(l) = 4 + 6 3 + 7 11 3 = 0
Using the factor theorem, x = 1 is one root of the equation. Note
rewsnA
ii + +γ +δ + ε = − 3 From part a
2
If ε = 1, then
α + β +γ +δ +1 = − 3 Note
2
⇒ α + β +γ +δ =−5 Any of the roots could be
2 made to equal 1.
Exercise 1
1 Write down the sum of the roots of each of these equations.
a x3 + 3x 7 = 0 b x3 11x2 + 5 = 0
c x3 + 5x 4 = 0 d 3x3 + 7x2 + 2 = 0
2 Write down the product of the roots of each of these equations.
7
a 3x3 + 7x2 + 2 = 0 b x2 + 2 = c 2x3 = 7 4x
x
3 For the equation, f(x) = 8x5 + 7x4 5x3 2x2 + 8x + 2 = 0, nd
a the sum of the roots b the product of the roots
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FP2 2.1 17
4 e roots of f(x) = 3x4 + 5x3 4x2 19x 12 = 0 are α, β, γ and δ
a Find the sum of the four roots. b Find the product of the four roots.
5 If α, β, γ are the roots of the equation x 3
5x + 3 = 0, nd the values of
a α+β+γ b α + β + γ2
2 2
c α3 + β3 + γ3
6 Given that α, β, γ are the roots of the equation x3 + 2x2 4x + 2 = 0, nd the
cubic equation whose roots are αβ, βγ, and γα
7 Given the cubic equation x3 13x + q = 0 has roots α, β and 3β, nd the
possible values of q
17.2 Complex roots of a polynomial equation
When a polynomial function with real coecients has no real roots, two of the You learned about complex
roots will be a complex number. e complex roots of a polynomial with real conjugate pairs in Chapter 2
coecients always occur in conjugate pairs Complex Numbers
If z = x + iy is a root of a polynomial equation with real coecients, then
z ∗ = x − iy is also a root of the polynomial equation, where z ∗ is the
conjugate of z
Suppose z is a root of the polynomial anzn + an 1zn 1 + an 2zn 2 + ... + a0 = 0
en, taking the conjugate of both sides,
an z n + an 1 z n 1 + an 2 z n 2 + ... + a0 = 0
Using z1 + z 2 = z1 + z 2 gives
an z n + an 1 z n 1 + an 2 z n 2 + ... + a0 = 0
which gives
an ( z ∗ )n + an 1 ( z ∗ )n−1 + an 2 ( z ∗ )n−2 + ... + a0 = 0
Since all the ai are real, ai = ai. erefore, you have
an ( z ∗ )n + an 1 ( z ∗ )n−1 + an 2 ( z ∗ )n−2 + ... + a0 = 0
Hence, z∗ is also a root of the polynomial.
In general, if the coecients of a polynomial function are not real, then there is
no expectation that roots will occur in complex conjugate pairs. You can see this
in Example 4, where the quadratic has a b coecient of 3 i and the roots are
not a complex conjugate pair.
Example 4
noitseuQ
e equation z2 + (3 + i)z + p = 0 has a root of 2 i. Find the value of p and the
other root of the equation.
Note
Using, z = 2 i The sum of the roots
(2 i)2 + (3 + i) (2 i) + p = 0
Note is (3 + i).
⇒ p = −10 + 5i Since 2 i is a root, z = 2 i
satises the equation. Note
rewsnA
So the equation is: z2 + (3 + i)z 10 + 5i = 0
b The solutions in this case are
+ = − ⇒ −(3 + i)
a not complex conjugate pairs
Taking α = (2 i) (given), then Note
because the coefcients of
(2 i) + β = −(3 + i) Solve for β the quadratic are not real.
β = −(3 + i) (2 i) = −5
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Example 5 Note
Note The function is cubic, so you
noitseuQ
Show that 4 i is a root of the polynomial
equation f(z) = z3 6z2 + z + 34 = 0. To prove that z = 4 i is a know it has three roots; there
Hence nd the other roots. root, you prove that f(4 i) = 0. is still one root to nd.
If z = 4 i is a root, then
z = 4 + i is also a root, since Note
Substituting z = 4 i in f(z) = z3 6z2 + z + 34 = 0 the roots occur as complex
Next, you need to nd the
f(4 i) = (4 i)3 6(4 i)2 + (4 i) + 34 conjugate pairs, so you will
quadratic with real coefcients
= 52 47i 90 + 48i + 4 i + 34 have found one of the other
that is a factor, then divide f(z)
=0 two roots.
by this quadratic to nd the
erefore, 4 i is a root of f(z) = z3 6z2 + z + 34 = 0. third factor.
rewsnA
Hence, 4 + i is also a root (complex conjugate pairs).
Note
[z (4 + i)][z (4 i)] = z2 8z + 17 Note
Dividing z3 6z2 + z + 34 = 0 by z2 8z + 17: If z (4 + i) and z (4 i) are
Clearly state your reasoning.
factors of the polynomial, then
f(z) = (z2 8z + 17)(z + 2)
it follows that the quadratic
erefore, the three roots of f(z) = z3 6z2 + z + 34 = 0 with real coefcients that
are 4 + i, 4 i and 2. results from multiplying them
together is also a factor.
Example 6
Show that 2 + i is a root of the polynomial equation
noitseuQ
z4 12z3 + kz2 140z + 125 = 0.
Find the remaining roots of the equation.
Substituting z = 2 + i into f(z) = z4 12z3 + kz2 140z + 125
Note
f(2 + i) = (2 + i)4 12(2 + i)3 + k(2 + i)2 140(2 + i) + 125
By proving that f(2 + i) = 0,
= − 7 + 24i 24 132i + k(3 + 4i) 280 140i + 125
you prove that z = 2 + i is a
=0
root. Correspondingly,
erefore, (2 + i) is a root of f(z) = z4 12z3 + 62z2 140z + 125 = 0. z = 2 i is also a root.
Hence, z = 2 i is also a root Note
(complex conjugate pairs).
Clearly state your reasoning.
rewsnA
If z (2 + i) and z (2 i) are factors
of the polynomial, so is
[z (2 + i)] [z (2 i)] = z2 − 4z + 5 Note Note
Dividing z 12z + 62z
4 3 2
140z + 125 Find the quadratic with real Divide f(z) by the quadratic to
by z2 4z + 5 coefcients that is a factor. nd the other factors.
f(z) = (z2 4z + 5) (z2 8z + 25)
e roots of z2 8z + 25 = 0 are 4 ± 3i Note
(using quadratic formula).
State how you found the
erefore, the four roots of f(z) = z4 12z3 + 62z2 140z + 125 = 0
roots.
are 2 + i, 2 i, 4 + 3i and 4 3i.
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FP2 2.1 17
To solve problems involving polynomials, it is important that you understand
the properties of the various dierent types of function. For instance, a cubic
function has a degree of three and will therefore have up to three roots. When
f(x) has no stationary points, there is only one real solution to f(x) = 0. When the
values of f(x) at its stationary points are of opposite sign, f(x) = 0 has three real
solutions since it means the curve must cross the x-axis three times. erefore,
the curve of a cubic function could take the form of one of the following:
y y y y
0 x
0 x 0 x 0 x
Example 7
e roots of the equation f(x) ≡ 2x3 3x2 + 7x 19 = 0
are α, β and γ. Show that
noitseuQ
a there is only one real root
b the real root lies between x = 2 and x = 3
c the real part of the two complex roots
1 3
lies between − and −
4 4
a f(x) ≡ 2x3 3x2 + 7x 19
Note Note
f ′(x) = 6x2 6x + 7
To show that a cubic equation To nd the values of f(x) at its
6x2 6x + 7 = 0
has only one real root, nd stationary points, differentiate
6 ± 36 − 168
⇒x= the values of f(x) at its f(x) and nd the roots of the
12
stationary points. quadratic f ′(x) = 0.
f ′(x) = 0 has no real roots.
rewsnA
Hence, the cubic f(x) has no stationary points,
which means that f(x) = 0 has only one real root.
b f(2) = −1 and f(3) = +29
Note
f(x) has opposite signs at x = 2 and x = 3 and
Substitute the given values See Chapter 9 Numerical
is continuous for 2 ≤ x ≤ 3. erefore, the real
of x into f(x). Methods for a reminder if you
root of f(x) = 0 lies between x = 2 and x = 3.
need to.
c Let the three roots of the equation be α, β, γ,
where α is a real number between 2 and 3, and β
and γ are complex numbers.
(continued)
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(continued)
Let the roots be represented by p + iq and p iq.
Note
b
Using the sum of roots + + γ = − Since the roots of a polynomial
a
3 with real coefcients occur in
α + β +γ =
2 conjugate complex pairs, β
3 and γ are conjugate complex
α + p + iq + p − iq =
2 numbers.
3
⇒ 2p = −α
rewsnA
2
Since 2 < α < 3,
3 3
− 3 < 2p < − 2
2 2
3 1
⇒ − < 2p < −
2 2
3 1
⇒ − <p<−
4 4
1 3
Hence, the real part of each complex root, p, lies between and
4 4
Exercise 2
1 Solve the equation x4 5x3 + 2x2 5x + 1 = 0, given that i is a root.
2 Solve the equation 3x4 x
3
+2 x
2
4x 40 = 0, given that 2i is a root.
3 e cubic equation 4z + kz + 25 = 0 has a root z = 2 i.
3 2
a If θ = 2 i, calculate θ 2 and θ 3
b Hence nd the value of k
4 Determine the number of real roots of the equation 2x3 7x + 2 = 0.
5 Determine the range of possible values of k if the equation x3 + 3x2 = k has
three real roots.
6 One root of the equation z4 5z3 + 13z2 16z + 10 = 0 is 1 + i. Find the
other roots.
7 a Show that one root of the equation z3 + 5z2 56z + 110 = 0 is 3 + i.
b Find the other roots of the equation.
Summary
▶ Given a cubic equation, ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0
• the sum of the roots is
• the sum of all the possible products of the roots taken two at a time is
• the product of the roots is .
erefore, if you know the roots of a cubic, you can use them to nd the
equation of the cubic. Similarly, if you have the equation of a cubic, you can
use it to nd the values of the roots.
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FP2 2.1 17
▶ , where is the sum of the roots taken one at a
time and is the sum of the products of all possible pairs of roots.
is is an important result.
▶ In a polynomial equation of degree n, axn + bxn 1
+ cxn 2 + ... = 0, then the
• sum of the roots (taken one at a time):
• sum of the products of all possible pairs of roots:
• sum of the products of all possible combinations of roots taken three at
a time is
• sum of the products of all possible combinations of roots taken four at a
time . . . and so on
• product of the n roots: .
▶ If z = x + iy is a root of a polynomial equation with real coecients, then
is also a root of the polynomial equation, where z ∗ is the
conjugate of z. e complex roots are said to occur in conjugate pairs.
▶ In general, if the coecients of a polynomial function are not real, then
there is no expectation that roots will occur in complex conjugate pairs.
Review exercises
1 Find the sum and product of the roots of the equation.
7(x + 3)2 =
2 e numbers α, β and γ satisfy the equations
a Show that
b e numbers α, β and γ are also the roots of the equation
Write down the values of p and q
c Given that α = 2i, nd the value of r
3 e cubic equation , where p and q are constants,
has three complex roots α, β and γ . It is known that
a Write down the value of α β γ, and hence show that
b Hence nd the value of α, given in the form x + i y
c Find the value of p
4 a Show that one root of the equation z4 − 2z3 + 6z2 + 22z + 13 = 0 is 2 − 3i.
b i Find the other roots of the equation.
ii Hence factorise z 4 − 2z3 + 6z2 + 22z + 13 into two quadratics, each of
which has real coecients.
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Practice examination questions
1 e cubic equation
z3 + pz2 + 25z + q = 0
where p and q are real, has a root α = 2 3i.
a Write down another non-real root, β, of this equation. (1 mark)
b Find
i the value of α β (1 mark)
ii the third root, γ, of the equation (3 marks)
iii the values of p and q. (3 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2009
2 e cubic equation
z3 + qz + (18 12i) = 0
where q is a complex number, has roots α, β, and γ.
a Write down the value of
i αβγ (1 mark)
ii α + β + γ. (1 mark)
b Given that β + γ = 2, nd the value of
i α (1 mark)
ii β γ (2 marks)
iii q. (3 marks)
c Given that β is of the form ki, where k is real, nd β and γ . (4 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2008
3 e cubic equation
z3 + pz2 + 6z + q = 0
has roots α, β and γ .
a Write down the value of αβ + βγ + γ α. (1 mark)
b Given that p and q are real and that α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 = −12
i explain why the cubic equation has two non-real roots and one
real root (2 marks)
iind the value of p. (4 marks)
c One root of the cubic equation is 1 + 3i.
Find
i the other two roots (3 marks)
ii the value of q . (2 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2007
4 e cubic equation
x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0
where p, q and r are real, has roots α, β and γ.
a Given that
α+β+γ=4 and α2 + β 2 + γ 2 = 20
nd the values of p and q. (5 marks)
b Given further that one root is 3 + i, nd the value of r . (5 marks)
AQA MFP2 January 2006
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Proof by Induction and
18 Finite Series
Introduction Objectives
If you are the member of a club and your membership automatically renews By the end of this chapter,
on payment each year, then you can prove that you are a member simply by you should know how to:
showing that you were a member once, and that you paid your dues each ▶ Use proof by
year thereafter. A similar concept occurs in mathematics. For instance, if induction to prove
you can show that a formula is true for k = 1 and you can establish that the divisibility and De
formula must be true for k + 1, provided it was true for k, then that formula Moivre’s theorem.
must also be true for all values of k. In this chapter, this idea is used to prove ▶ Sum various
several formulae to be true including the formula for that you saw in nite series, using
Chapter 4 Series techniques such
as partial fractions,
induction and
Recap dierencing.
You will need to remember . . .
▶ How to manipulate expressions given in the summation notation,
such as . For a reminder,
▶ How to manipulate partial fractions. see Chapter 4 Series
18.1 Proof by induction
Mathematical induction, or proof by induction, can be used to prove that a
given statement applies to any natural number, n.
To prove a statement by induction, you proceed in two steps:
1 You assume that the statement is true for n = k and use this
assumption to prove that it is true for n = k + 1
2 You then prove the statement for n = 1.
Step 2 tells you that the statement is true for n = 1 Step 1 then tells us that, when
k = 1, the statement is true for n = 2. Using step 1 again, when k = 2, the
statement must be true for n = 3 Using step 1 yet again, the statement is true for
n = 4. Similarly, step 1 can be repeated for n = 5, n = 6, and so on. erefore, the
statement is true for all integers n ( ≥ 1).
e processes used in step 1 to prove that the statement is true for n = k + 1, will
vary according to the nature of the statement. In general, you start with n = k
then show that that this expression is true when n = k + 1.
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FP2 2.4–FP2 2.5 18
Is it important to note that when proving a result by induction, it is essential
thatyou state what it is you are trying to show and that you write all of the
explanatory statements in full as part of your working.
Some examples of proof by induction for dierent types of statement are
covered in this section.
Series
When proving n = k + 1 for a statement about the sum of a series, it is important
to note the following relationship:
for a sequence, (un), with sum ∑ Sn = u1 + u2 + + u , it follows that
∑
n
Sn+1 = S + u +1
n n
Example 1
noitseuQ
∑= ∑
n 20
1
a Prove that r n (n + 1). b Hence nd r
r 1
2 10
∑=
k
1
a Assuming formula is true for n = k, then k (k + 1). r
2 Note
∑
n r 1
1
To prove that r = n (n + 1) is true for n = k + 1, need to prove Step 1, assume the formula is
r 1
2
true for n = k and write down
∑= + +
+
k 1
1
r (k 1)(k 2). the result of n = k
r 1
2
∑ =∑ + + Note
+
k 1 k
r r (k 1)th term Note
r 1 r 1
Using
∑= + +
+
k 1
1 State what you need to show.
r k (k 1) k + 1
r 1
2
Note
= 1 [k (k + 1) + 2(k + 1)]
rewsnA
2 Simplify the right-hand side. Note
= 1 (k + 1)(k + 2) Step 2, prove it is true for
2
n = k + 1.
∑=
n
1
erefore, n (n + 1) is true for n = k + 1, if it is true for n = k.
r
r 1
2
1
When n = 1, LHS of the formula = 1; RHS of the formula = × 1 × 2 = 1
Note
2
erefore, the formula is true for n = 1. Step 3, prove the statement is
true for n = 1.
∑=
n
1
erefore, r n (n + 1) is true for all integers n ≥ 1.
r 1
2
Note
∑ = ∑ −∑
20 20 9
b r r r
The sum of a series is given
10 1 1
1 from 1 to n, so you must
= × 20 × 21 − 1 × 9 × 10 = 210 45 = 165 convert the series to a series
2 2
starting at 1.
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Example 2
noitseuQ
∑
n
Prove that r .r ! = (n + 1)! − 1.
r 1
∑
k +1
To prove formula is true for k + 1, need to prove r .r ! = (k + 2)! − 1
r 1
Assuming that the formula is true for n = k, then
∑
k
r .r ! = (k + 1)! − 1
r 1
∑
k +1
r .r ! = (k + 1)! − 1 + (k + 1)th term
r 1
= (k + 1)! 1 + (k + 1)(k + 1)!
rewsnA
= (k + 1)!(1 + k + 1) 1
= (k + 2)(k + 1)! 1
= (k + 2)! 1
erefore, the formula is true for n = k + 1.
∑ ∑
n n
When n = 1: LHS of r .r ! = 1; RHS of r .r ! = (n + 1)! − 1 = 2! − 1 = 1
r 1 r 1
erefore, the formula is true for n = 1.
∑
n
erefore, r .r ! = (n + 1)! − 1 is true for all n ≥ 1.
r 1
Sequences
When a sequence is dened by a recurrence relation, you can use proof by
induction to prove that a given formula for the sequence is true for all values.
As before, in order to express the statement in terms of n = k + 1 you need to use
the result of n = k
Example 3
noitseuQ
e sequence an+1 = an + 2n + 1, a1 = 2 . Use induction to prove that an = n 2 + 1
for n ≥ 1.
Need to prove that ak +1 = (k + 1)2 + 1.
Assuming that the statement is true for n = k, then
ak +1 = a + 2k + 1 = (k 2 + 1) + 2k + 1 = k 2 + 2k + 2 = (k + 1) 2 + 1
k
rewsnA
erefore the result is also true for n = k + 1.
Now check that the hypothesis is true for n = 1.
LHS = a1 = 2
RHS = a1 = 12 + 1 = 2
erefore the result is true for n = 1, and for all positive integers n
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FP2 2.4–FP2 2.5 18
If each term in a recurrence sequence is based on two previous terms, you
would have to assume that the formula works for both n = k and n = k + 1, then
prove it works for k = n + 2 and that it is true for n = 1 and n = 2.
De Moivre’s theorem
De Moivre’s theorem is an important formula in mathematics because it
connects complex numbers with trigonometry. You will learn more about this
formula in Chapter 20 De Moivre’s eorem. It is included in this chapter as an
example of proof by induction on trigonometric equations.
Example 4
De Moivre’s theorem states that, for all integral values of n,
noitseuQ
(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
Use proof by induction to prove that this is true for all positive integers.
Assuming that the statement is true when n = k, then
(cos θ + i sin θ)k = (cos kθ + i sin kθ)
⇒ (cos θ + i sin θ)k+1 = (cos kθ + i sin kθ) (cos θ + i sin θ)
Note
Using (cos θ + i sin θ) (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ) = cos (θ + ϕ) + i sin (θ + ϕ),
cos(θ + φ) = cos θ cosφ sin θ sin φ
rewsnA
(cos θ + i sin θ)k+1 = cos (k + 1)θ + i sin (k + 1)θ
and sin(θ + φ) = sin θ cos φ + cos θ sin φ
erefore, the statement is true for n = k + 1.
When n = 1, you have (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos θ + i sin θ
And cos nθ + i sin nθ = cos θ + i sin θ
erefore, the statement is true for n = 1
erefore, de Moivre’s theorem is true for all positive integers.
Some other examples
Sometimes you might have a more complicated looking series but the same
principles apply.
In the case of a dierential equation, in order to create your expression in terms
dn+1 y d dn y
of n = k + 1, you will need to use = You then simplify the RHS as
dx n+1 dx dx n
usual.
Example 5
noitseuQ
dn x n
1
Prove that (e sin x ) = 2 2 e x sin x + nπ
dx n 4
dk x k
1
Assuming the formula is true of n = k, then (e sin x ) = 2 2 e x sin x + kπ
dx k 4
erefore,
Note
rewsnA
d k+1 x d dk x d k2 x 1
(e sin x ) = (e sin x ) = 2 e sin x + kπ
dx k +1
dx dx k dx 4 Using product rule.
1 1
= 2 2 e x sin x + kπ + cos x + kπ
k
4 4
(continued)
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(continued)
Using a sin θ + b cos θ = R sin (θ + α)
d k+1 x k
1 1
dx k+1
(e sin x ) = 2 2 e x 2 sin
x + 4 kπ + 4 π
= 22
1
1
( k +1)
e x sin x + (k + 1)π
4
n
dn x 1
rewsnA
erefore, n (e sin x ) = 2 2 e x sin x + nπ is true for n = k + 1.
dx 4
d x
When n = 1: (e sin x) = ex sin x + ex cos x
dx
1
= 2e x sin x + π
4
erefore, the formula is true for n = 1.
n
dx 1
erefore, n (e x sin x ) = 2 2 e x sin x + nπ is true for all integers n ≥ 1.
dx 4
In the following example you need to prove a statement that involves the If you need a reminder of
multiplication of matrices. e same principles apply, assume the statement is true how to multiply matrices,
for n = k and use this assumption to prove it is true for n = k + 1. To express the see Chapter 7 Matrices and
statement in terms of n = k + 1, you will need to remember how to multiply matrices. Transformations.
Example 6
noitseuQ
2 1 2n 2 n 1
If A = , prove that A = 0
n
0 1 1
Assuming the statement is true for n = k for all integers n ≥ 1 then,
k k
Ak = 2 2 1
0 1
erefore,
2k 2k 1 2 1
Ak+1 = Ak × A = ×
0 1 0 1
rewsnA
k+1 2 k + 2 k − 1
= 2
0 1
k+1 2 k+1 1
⇒ A k+1 = 2
0 1
erefore, the statement is true for n = k + 1, provided that it was true for n = k.
When n = 1, the statement is true.
2 1 n 2n 2n 1
erefore, A = A = for all n ≥ 1.
0 1 0 1
Divisibility
Proof by induction can also be used to prove that a general term is divisible by
a certain integer. As before, assume that the divisibility statement is true for
n = k, and prove that the divisibility remains correct as you increase n from
k to k + 1. Finally, check the divisibility is true for n = 1 (or whatever initial
value is given).
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Example 7
noitseuQ
Prove that 52n + 22n 2 3n 1 is divisible by 13.
Assume the statement is true for n = k for all integers n ≥ 1, then
uk = 52k + 22k 2 3k 1 and it is a multiple of 13. Note
Need to prove that uk+1 = 5 2(k+1)
+22(k+1) 2 (k+1) 1
3
Simplify. Note
is divisible by 13. Assume for now it is.
erefore, uk+1 = 52(k+1) + 22(k+1) 2 3(k+1) 1 Simplify.
Note
uk+1 = 5252k + 2222k 2313k 1
= 25 × 52k + 12 × 22k 23k 1 Break up the exponent. Note
rewsnA
erefore, ‘25’ and ‘12’ are not divisible
uk + uk+1 = 25 × 5 + 12 × 2 3 + 1 × 5 + 1 × 2
2k 2k 2 k 1 2k 2k 2 k 1
3 by 13. On the assumption
= 26 × 52n + 13 × 22n 23n 1 that uk+1 is divisible by 13
Note and uk is also divisible by 13,
Both 26 and 13 are divisible by 13. Since the
Adding un and u n+1 it follows that uk + uk+1 and
sum of un and un+1 is divisible by 13, either
uk+1 uk are also divisible
both un and un+1 are divisible by 13, or
Note by 13.
both un and un+1 are not divisible by 13.
When n = 1, un = 52 + 2030 = 26, which is divisible By the assumption that un Note
by 13. is divisible by 13, then
u n+1 must also be divisible Express the term 52k as
erefore, un is divisible by 13 for all integer n ≥ 1.
by 13. 1 × 52k 2 and 2k 1 as 1 × 22k 2
In general, you can use un+1 ± aun, when ‘a’ is an
3(k 1)
integer, for any a as long as a does not contain a
factor of the divisor. For instance, in Example 7 you could have used un+1 12un =
13 × 52n to prove the divisibility However, you could not have used 13un+1 13un,
which is divisible by 13, to prove anything about the divisibility of un+1 or un
Example 8
noitseuQ
Prove that 52n 1 is divisible by 24.
Assume the statement is true for n = k for all integers n ≥ 1, then un = 52n 1.
Need to prove that the statement is true for uk+1 = 52k+2 1.
erefore,
Note
uk+1 = 52k+2 1
= 25 × 52k l To eliminate the 1, you need
rewsnA
uk+1 uk = 24 × 5k to subtract un from un+1,
giving un+1 un = 24 × 5n
which is divisible by 24.
You could also use, for example,
erefore, either both uk+1 and uk are divisible by 24, or both uk+1 and uk are not
un+1 + 23un = 48 × 5n − 24.
divisible by 24.
When n = 1, 52n 1 is 24, which is divisible by 24.
erefore, all un are divisible by 24.
erefore, 52n 1 is divisible by 24 for all n ≥ 1.
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Example 9
noitseuQ
Prove that 34n+2 + 52n+1 is divisible by 14.
Note
Assume this is true for n = k for all integers n ≥ 1, then uk = 34k+2 + 52k+1
erefore, uk+1 = 34(k+1)+2 + 52(k+1)+1 You are trying to prove
divisibility by 14. First look at
uk+1 = 34(k+1)+2 + 52(k+1)+1
the integer term in 52k+1;
= 3434k+2 + 5252k+1 uk+1 + uk gives (25 + 1)52k+1
= 81 × 34k+2 + 25 × 52k+1 and uk+1 uk gives
uk+1 11uk = 81 × 34k+2 + 25 × 52k+1 11(34k+2 + 52k+1) (25 1)52n+1
rewsnA
= 81 × 34k+2 + 25 × 52k+1 11 × 34k+2 11 × 52k+1 Neither 25 + 1 = 26, nor
25 1 = 24 are divisible
= 70 × 34k+2 + 14 × 52k+1
by 14, so this is unhelpful.
which is divisible by 14. However, both uk+1 + 3uk and
erefore, either both uk+1 and uk are divisible by 14, or both uk+1 and uk are uk+1 11uk make the integer
not divisible by 14. term in 52k+1 divisible by 14,
When n = 1, un = 34n+2 + 52n+1 = 36 + 53 = 854, which is divisible by 14. giving respectively
erefore, all un are divisible by 14. (25 + 3) = 28 and
(25 11) = 14. Using
erefore, 34n+2 + 52n+1 is divisible by 14 for all integers n ≥ 1.
uk+1 11uk, you need to
check that the integer term
Example 10 in 34k+2 also satises this
divisibility.
noitseuQ
Prove that 7n + 4n + 1 is divisible by 6.
uk+1 = 7k+1 + 4k+1 + 1 Note
= 7 × 7k + 4 × 4k + l
To eliminate the +1, you
uk+1 u k = 6 × 7 k + 3 × 4k
subtract uk from uk+1, to give
= 6 × 7k + 3 × 22k uk+1 uk = 6 × 7k + 3 × 4k
= 6 × 7k + 6 × 22k 1 You cannot use 2uk+1 2uk,
rewsnA
which is divisible by 6. as this would involve
multiplying by 2, which is a
erefore, either both uk+1 and uk are divisible by 6, or both uk+1 and uk are not
factor of 6, which you are
divisible by 6.
trying to prove is a factor of
When n = 1, un = 7k + 4k + 1 = 7 + 4 + 1 = 12, which is divisible by 6.
the given expression. Now,
erefore, all un are divisible by 6. you need to show that 3 × 4k,
erefore, 7n + 4n + 1 is divisible by 6 for all integers n ≥ 1. as well as 6 × 7k, is divisible
by 6.
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FP2 2.5 18
Exercise 1
∑
n
1 Use proof by induction to prove that r2 = 1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) for all
6
integers n ≥ 1 r 1
∑
n
2 Use proof by induction to prove that r3 = 1 n 2 (n + 1)2 for all integers n ≥ 1.
r 1
4
1 0
3 Use proof by induction to prove that if M = for all integers n ≥ 1,
4 1
1 0
then M n =
4n 1
4 Prove that 13n 6n−2 is divisible by 7 for all integers n ≥ 1
5 Prove that 26n + 32n−2 is divisible by 5 for all integers n ≥ 1
6 Prove that 72n 1 is divisible by 48 for all integers n ≥ 1
7 e sequence u1, u2, u3, . . . is dened by
4
u1 = u = 4
5 n+1 5 un
Prove by induction that for all n ≥ 1,
4n+1 4
un =
4n+1 1
8 e function f is given by f(n) = 17n 9n−2. Express f(n + 1) 9f(n) in the form
p × 17n. Prove by induction that 17n 9n−2 is a multiple of 8, for all integers n ≥ 2.
18.2 Finite series
You know from your A-level Mathematics studies that a nite series is the
summation of a nite number of terms. You can sum a nite series using a
number of methods including induction, partial fractions and dierencing.
Summing by partial fractions
You should have seen the summation of nite series using partial fractions in your
A-level Mathematics studies. e basis of this method is that most of the terms
cancel out. You can use this approach to prove certain summation formulae are true.
Example 11
noitseuQ
∑
n
1
Find
r 1
r (r + 1)
1 1
as the sum of partial fractions: =1− 1
r (r + 1) r (r + 1) r r +1
Hence, Note
rewsnA
∑ ∑
= 1 − 1
n n
1
r (r + 1) r r +1
Notice that all the terms
r 1 1 r
except the rst and the last
1 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + + 1
=
1 + 1 − 1 cancel each other out.
1 2 2 3 3 4 n 1 n
n n + 1
(continued)
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(continued)
erefore,
rewsnA
∑
n
1
=1− 1 = n
r 1
r (r + 1) 1 n + 1 n + 1
Summing by dierencing
Example 12
noitseuQ
∑
n
2
Find
r 1
r (r + 1)(r + 2)
2 2
as the sum of partial fractions: =1− 2 + 1
r (r + 1)(r + 2) r (r + 1)(r + 2) r r + 1 r + 2
Hence,
∑ ∑ − 2 + 1
n n
2 1
=
r 1
r (r + 1)(r + 2) r 1
r r +1 r + 2
= 1 − 2 + 1 + 1 − 2 + 1 + 1 − 2 + 1 Note
2 3 2 3 4 3 4 5
Do not reduce fractions to
rewsnA
+ 1 − 2 + 1 + ... + 1 2
+ 1 their lowest terms, since this
4 5 6 n 2 n 1 n
obscures the cancellation
+ 1 − 2 + 1 + 1 − 2 + 1 which should occur.
n 1 n n +1 n n +1 n + 2
After cancellation,
∑
n
2
=1− 2 + 1 + 1 2
+ 1
r 1
r (r + 1)(r + 2) 2 2 n +1 n +1 n + 2
=1− 1
+ 1
2 n +1 n + 2
Exercise 2 In Chapter 4 Series, you saw
∑
n
1 that you could use the method
1 Find of dierences to nd the sum
r 2
r 2
1
of some nite series in cases
∑
n
1 where the terms cancelled out.
2 Find
r 1
(r + 1)(r + 2)
∑
n
1
3 Find
r 2
(r + 2)(r + 4)
∑
n
1
4 Find
r 2
(r − 1)r (r + 1)
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FP2 2.5 18
Summary
▶ Proof by mathematical induction can be used to prove that a given
statement applies to any natural number, n. To prove a statement by
induction, you proceed in two steps.
• You assume that the statement is true for n = k and use this assumption
to prove that it is true for n = k + 1.
• You then prove the statement for n = 1.
▶ In doing so, you prove that the statement is true for all integers (n ≥ 1).
▶ You can use proof by induction to prove the formula for the general term of
a recurrence sequence is true for all positive integers.
▶ You can use proof by induction to prove that a general term is divisible by a
given integer.
▶ A nite series is the summation of a nite number of terms. You can sum a
nite series using a number of methods including induction, partial
fractions and dierencing.
Review exercises
1 Given that A = , prove by induction that An =
for all integers n ≥ 1
2 Use induction to prove that 9n 2 × 5n + 1 is divisible by n for all integers n ≥ 1
3 Given that show that and nd B
Hence nd
Practice examination questions
1 a Prove by induction that 2 + (3 × 2) + (4 × 22) + … + (n + 1)2n 1 = n2n
for all integers n ≥ 1. (6 marks)
b Show that (3 marks)
AQA MFP2 January 2006
2 e sequence u1, u2, u3, … is dened by u1 = 2, un+1 =
Prove by induction that, for all integers n ≥ 1,
(6 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2013
3 a Express (k + 1) + 5(k + 1) + 8 in the form k + ak + b, where a and b are
2 2
constants.
(1 mark)
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b Prove by induction that, for all integers n ≥ 1,
(6 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2014
4 a Given that f(k) = + 2 ×
12k show that f(k + 1) − 5f(k) = a × 12k
5k 1
where a is an integer. (3 marks)
b Prove by induction that 12n + 2 × 5n 1 is divisible by 7 for all integers n ≥ 1.
(4 marks)
AQA MFP2 January 2011
5 a e function f is given by
f (n) = 15n 8n 2
Express
f (n + 1) 8f (n)
in the form k × 15n. (4 marks)
b Prove by induction that 15n 8n 2 is a multiple of 7 for all integers n ≥ 2.
(4 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2006
6 a Express in partial fractions.
(3 marks)
b Use the method of dierences to nd
giving your answer as a rational number. (5 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2010
7 a Prove by induction that, for all integers n ≥ 1,
(7 marks)
b Find the smallest integer n for which the sum of the series diers from 1
by less than 10−5. (2 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2012
8 a Given that
nd the values of A and B. (2 marks)
b Use the method of dierences to show that
(3 marks)
c Find the least value of n for which diers from 0.5 by less
than 0.001. (3 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2009
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19 Series and Limits
Introduction Objectives
Sometimes the value of a function is easy to nd but other times it is much By the end of this chapter,
harder to estimate accurately. For example, it is easy to nd cos 60° but it is you should know how to:
much harder to estimate cos 59°. If you were programming a calculator, the ▶ Apply the Maclaurin
most algorithmic way to estimate the value of cos 59° would be to use the theorem, including
Maclaurin eorem for cos x. e Maclaurin theorem is an example of a the formulae for ex,
power series (an innite series in ascending powers of x) that can be used to ln(1 + x), sin x, cos x,
express a wide range of functions. You will be introduced to this important and (1 + x)n given in
series in this chapter. You also will study some limits such as , which the formulae booklet.
▶ Find the intervals in
exist even though on rst glance they appear to be undened.
which Maclaurin’s
theorem converge.
▶ Understand the
Recap behaviour of xke x as
You will need to remember . . . x → ∞, and xk ln x as
▶ How to use sigma notation. x → 0.
▶ How to sum geometric series using the formula ; ▶ Calculate various
improper integrals
if there is no upper bound on k then whenever | r | < 1 involving ex and ln x.
▶ Use series expansions
▶ When geometric series converge. to nd various limits.
▶ How to dierentiate trigonometrical functions.
such as sin x, cos x and tan x.
▶ How to perform integration by parts.
▶ e binomial theorem:
where
19.1 Convergence
As you know from geometric progressions in earlier studies, an innite series
is
the sum of an innite sequence of numbers. For example, the innite geometric
1 1
series + + + +
2 2 2
1
2k
∞
When you state that an innite series,
n
∑
ak , converges, you mean that the
∑ a , have a limit as n → ∞. e limit of the sum of a series gives the
k 0
sums, Sn = k
k 0
number a series heads towards. e limit is always close to the sum of the
series, provided enough terms are included in that sum.
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FP2 2.6 19
An innite series is said to diverge if it does not converge.
When a series diverges, it could behave in one of the following ways:
▶ Diverge to +∞; for example: 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 +
▶ Diverge to −∞; for example: 1 2 4 8 16
▶ Oscillate nitely; for example: 1 1 + 1 1 + 1 −
▶ Oscillate innitely: for example: 1 2 + 4 8 + 16 −
Example 1
noitseuQ
∑n
∞
1
Prove that the series does not converge.
n 1 Note
To prove that the series does
not converge, you write out its
∑n = +
∞
n 1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + + + +
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
rst few terms.
1 1
Now, the rst term is greater than . e second term is Note
2 2
1 1 1 You can always increase
e sum of the next two terms is greater than + =
4 4 2 the sum by more than by
rewsnA
1 1 1 1 1
e sum of the next four terms is greater than + + + = adding the next 2k terms.
8 8 8 8 2
1 1
Similarly, the sum of the next eight terms is greater than eight times , which is Note
16 2
is pattern keeps repeating. Even though each term is less
∑n
∞ than the preceding term, and
1
erefore, exceeds any pre-assigned real number L. Hence, it cannot the terms tend to zero, the
n 1
sum is not nite.
coverage to L, and so it diverges.
19.2 Maclaurin’s theorem
Many functions can be expressed as a series in ascending positive integral
powers of x (a power series) by means of the Maclaurin theorem.
e Maclaurin theorem states that
2
2!
r!
f( x ) = f(0) + x f ′(0) + x f ′′(0) + + x f (r ) (0) +
provided that f(0), f ′(0) … f(r)(0) all have nite values.
Power series can be useful when a function cannot be evaluated. For example,
to evaluate cos 59° to a given number of decimal places, one method is to use
enough terms of a power series expansion for cos x. Maclaurin’s theorem can
be obtained by repeatedly dierentiating a function and inserting x = 0 to nd
the relevant coecient as per the formula above.
By doing this, you can express a function as an innite sum of terms and you
can obtain more accurate estimates of expressions such as cos 59° by using
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more terms of the series. e precise number of terms you need is beyond the
scope of this book. However, what is important is to make sure that the series
you are using converges. Some Maclaurin’s theorems converge only in a narrow
interval of convergence.
Assuming that f(x) can be expanded as a power series, you can deduce the
terms of the series e following expansions of sin x, cos x, ex, (1 + x)n and
ln(1 + x) are used frequently and you should make sure you know them.
Power series for sin x Note
First, express the function as an innite series.
For the power series, x is
Let sin x = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + , where each a is a constant.
n measured in radians, not
When x = 0, sin 0 = a0. But sin 0 = 0, therefore a0 = 0. degrees.
Dierentiating sin x = a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + , you obtain
cos x = a1 + 2a2x + 3a3x2 + 4a4x3 +
When x = 0, cos 0 = a1. But cos 0 = 1, therefore a1 = 1.
Dierentiating again, you obtain sin x = 2a2 + 3 × 2a3x + 4 × 3a4x2 + 5 × 4a5x3 +
When x = 0, sin 0 = 2a2 ⇒ a2 = 0.
Dierentiating yet again, you obtain
cos x = 3 × 2a3 + 4 × 3 × 2a4x + 5 × 4 × 3a5x2 +
1 1
When x = 0, cos 0 = 3 × 2a3 ⇒ a3 = − =−
3 × 2 ×1 3!
1 1
Repeating the dierentiation, you obtain a4 = 0 a5 = a6 = 0 a7 = −
5! 7!
erefore, you have
x3
+ x − x ++ ( 1)n x 2n+1
5 7
sinx = x − +
3! 5! 7! (2 n + 1)!
is series converges for all real x and hence the expansion is true for all real
values of x
Power series for cos x
You can use the same procedure as used for sin x to nd the power series for
cos x. However, it is much easier to start from the expansion for sin x. Hence,
you have
cos x =
d
dx
d x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + which gives
dx 3! 5! 7!
cos x = 1 −
x2
2!
+
x4
4!
−
x6
6!
+ + ( (21)n)!x +
n 2n
is series is convergent for all real x
Power series for ex
Let ex = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + , where each an are constants.
When x = 0, e0 = a0 But e0 = 1, therefore a0 = 1
Dierentiating ex = a_0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + , you obtain
ex = a1 + 2a2x + 3a3x2 + 4a4x3 +
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When x = 0, e0 = a1 ⇒ a1 = 1
Dierentiating again, you obtain ex = 2a2 + 3 × 2a3x + 4 × 3a4x2 + 5 × 4a5x3 +
1
When x = 0, e0 = 2a2 ⇒ a2 =
2
Dierentiating yet again, you obtain ex = 3 × 2a3 + 4 × 3 × 2a4x + 5 × 4 × 3a5x2 +
1 1
When x = 0, e0 = 3 × 2a3 ⇒ a3 = =
3 × 2 × 1 3!
1 1 1 1
Repeating the dierentiation, you obtain a4 = , a5 = , a6 = , a7 =
4! 5! 6! 7!
erefore,
x2 x3 x4 x5 xn
ex = 1 + x + + + + + + +
2! 3! 4! 5! n!
is series converges for all real x
Power series for (1 + x)n for rational values of n
Let (1 + x)n = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + Setting x = 0, you discover that a0 = 1.
Dierentiating, you obtain n(1 + x)n 1 = a1 + 2a2 x + 3a3 x2 +
When x = 0, you discover that a1 = n
If n is a positive integer (or zero), the series will eventually terminate, giving the
normal expansion for (1 + x)n. However, in all other cases you can nd the
n × (n −1) × × (n − k +1)
general value of ak by repeated dierentiation, which is ak = k
is series converges when | x | < 1.
nx n (n 1) x 2
(1 + x )n = 1 + + + for 1 < x < 1 when n is an integer.
1! 2!
You will recognise this series as the binomial theorem expansion which you met
in your A-level mathematics studies. Since n is not a natural number, this
expansion is not a nite series.
Power series for ln(1 + x)
Since ln 0 is not nite, you cannot have a power series for ln x. Instead, you use
a power series for ln(l + x).
Let ln(l + x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + When x = 0, ln 1 = a0. But log 1 = 0,
therefore a0 = 0.
Dierentiating ln(l + x) = a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + , you obtain
1
1+ x
= a1 + 2a2x + 3a3x + 4a4x +
2 3
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However, using the power series expansion of (1 + x)n above, you can expand
1
1+ x
. Hence, you have
as (1 + x) 1 to give 1 x + x2 x3 + x4 x5 +
1 x + x x + x x + ≡ a + 2a x + 3a x + 4a x +
2 3 4 5
1 2 3
2
4
3
Equating coecients, you obtain a = 1, a = − , a = , a = − ,
1 1 1
1 2 3 4
2 3 4
erefore, you have
ln(1 + x ) = x −
x2
2
+
x3
3
−
x4
4
+
x5
5
−
When |x| < 1, the series converges. By inspection, you notice that the expansion
is valid when x = 1, but not when x = −1 Hence, you have
ln(1 + x ) = x −
x2
2
+
x3
3
−
x4
4
+
x5
5
− + (−1) n +1 xn
n
+ for 1<x≤1
and,
ln(1 − x ) = − x −
x2
2
−
x3
3
−
x4
4
−
x5
5
− − (−1) n +1 xn
n
+ for 1≤x<1
You can use these techniques to expand a power series of related functions and
to determine the range of values for which the expansions are valid.
Power series for more complicated functions
You can combine power series for simple functions to make power series for
more complicated functions.
Example 2
noitseuQ
Find the power series for cos x2
The power series for cos x is
Note
( 1) x 2n +
n
x2 x 4
cos x = 1 − + − + To obtain the power series for
2! 4! (2n )!
cos x 2, replace every x in the
( x 2 )2 ( x 2 ) 4
+ ((21)n)! (x ) +
n
rewsnA
cos x 2 = 1 − + − 2 2n cos x series with x 2
2! 4!
=1−
x4
2! 4!
+
( 1)n 4n
x8
− ... +
(2n)!
x +
Since the power series for cos x is valid for all values of x, the power series for
cos x2 is valid for all values of x2, that is, for all values of x
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Example 3
noitseuQ
Find the power series for ln(l + 3x), stating when the expansion is valid.
In the expansion for ln(l + x), ln(1 + x ) = x −
x2
2
+
x3
3
− Note
(3 x )2 (3 x ) 3 Substitute 3x for x
ln(1 + 3 x ) = (3 x ) − + ...
2 3
9
= 3x − x 2 + 9x 3 −
rewsnA
2
Since the expansion for ln(l + x) is valid for 1 < x ≤ 1, the expansion for
1 1
ln(l + 3x) is valid for 1 < 3x ≤ 1, so − < x ≤
3 3
erefore,
Note
9
ln(1 + 3 x ) = 3 x − x 2 + 9 x 3 −
2
1
for − < x ≤
3
1
3
Since you are asked for terms
only up to x 4, you do not need
Example 4 to consider terms in higher
powers of x
noitseuQ
Find the power series for e4x sin 3x, up to and
including the term in x4
Note
e power series for ex is e x = 1 + x +
x2
2!
+
x3
3!
+
x4
4!
+ Similarly, using the power
series for sin x, and replacing
x with 3x, you obtain the
erefore, the power series for e4x is e 4 x = 1 + (4 x ) +
(4 x )2 (4 x ) 3 (4 x ) 4
2!
+
3!
+
4!
+ power series expansion for
sin 3x
sin3 x = (3 x ) −
(3 x )3 (3 x )5
3!
+
5!
erefore, the power series for e4xsin 3x is
rewsnA
(4 x )2 (4 x ) 3 (4 x ) 4 (3 x )3 (3 x )5
e 4 x sin3 x = 1 + (4 x ) + + + + (3 x ) − + −
2! 3! 4! 3! 5!
32
3
32
3
9
= 1 + 4 x + 8 x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + 3 x − x 3 +
2
Ignoring terms in x5 and higher powers,
9 3
e4x sin 3x = 3x + 12x2 + 24x3 x + 32x4 18x4
2
erefore,
39
e4x sin 3x = 3x + 12x2 + x3 + 14x4
2
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Example 5
noitseuQ
Find all the terms up to and including x4 in the power series for esin x
Using the power series for ex, esin x = 1 +
sin x sin 2 x sin 3 x
1!
+
2!
+
3!
+ Note
erefore, You now apply the power
series for sin x. Since you are
2 3 4
x 3
x3
x 3
x3
x− + x − + x − + x − +
esin x = 1 + 3! + 3!
+ 3!
+ 3!
+ asked for terms only up to x 4,
rewsnA
1! 2! 3! 4! you can ignore terms in higher
2x 4 powers of x
x2
⇒ esin x = 1 + x −
x3
3!
+
2!
3! + x + x +
3
3! 4!
4
which gives
x2 x4
esin x = 1 + x + −
2 8
Exercise 1
1 Find out whether these innite series converge or diverge.
∞ ∞ ∞
5n 1
a ∑
n 1
n!
b
n 2
2 1
n c∑ n 1
n2
2n ∑
1
2 a Find the binomial expansion of (1 + 8 x ) 4 up to and including the term
in x3
1
b Find the binomial expansion of (16 + 8 x ) 4 up to and including the term
in x3
3
7
3 a Find the binomial expansion of 1 x up to and including the term
2
in x
3
3
7 x
b Find the range of values for which the binomial expansion of 1
2
is valid. 3
8
c Given that x is small, show that ≈ a + bx + cx2, where a, b and c
2 7x
are to be found.
4 Find the power series for
a e3x b cos x2
5 Find the power series for
a sin 2x b cos 5x c e8x d ln(l + x2) e ln(l 2x)
6 Find the power series of each of these functions, up to and including the
term in x4
a sin x2 b (l + x)e3x c (2 + x2)cos 3x d ecos x e ln(1 + cos x)
2 x2
7 Find the power series expansion of e
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19.3 Finding the limits of a series
You already know that the limit of the sum of an innite series gives the number
a series heads towards. e limit of the sum of an innite series is
approximately equal to the sum when enough terms have been included. We
can ensure that the sum is as close as we’d like to the limit by making sure that
we include enough terms.
Finding the limit of a series requires a limiting process, whereby you solve the
limit to nd the value of the function at its limit. You can evaluate a limit
expression of a series, f(x) directly by substituting in the appropriate value of x
When it is not easily possible to evaluate a limit expression directly, for example
when the limit is a quotient such that at x = 0 it is undened, you can use series
expansion to nd the limit.
Using power series
Power series are useful to nd the limits of a series as x tends to zero. For
f (x)
example, to nd limit of as x → 0, when f (0) = g(0) = 0. To nd such a
g (x)
limit, you expand both the numerator and the denominator of the expression as
a power series in x and then divide both by the lowest power of x present. en
you use x = 0.
f (0) 0
If you simply use x = 0 to begin with, you would obtain = , which means
g(0) 0
that you have proceeded incorrectly.
Example 6
noitseuQ
x sin x
Find the limit of as x → 0.
x 2 (e x 1) Note
Expand using power series.
x sin x
x − x −
x3 x5
+ −
3! 5!
x 3
−
x
5
+
= =
3! 5! Note
+
x 2 (e x 1) x2 x 4
x 1+ x +
2
+ − 1 x 3
+ Divide the numerator and the
2! 2!
denominator by x 3
1 x2
rewsnA
− +
x sin x 3! 5!
= Note
x 2 (e x 1) 1 + x + x
2! 3!
2
Let x → 0.
erefore,
1
x sin x 1
lim 2 x = 3! =
x→0 x (e 1) 1 6
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Example 7
noitseuQ
1 cos x
Find the limit of as x → 0.
sin 2 x
1 cos x
x2 x 4
1− 1− +
2! 4!
− x2 x 4
−
2! 4!
+
Note
= = Expand using power series.
sin 2 x x3 x5
x − + −
2
x2 −
2x 4
3!
+
3! 5!
1 x2
Note
rewsnA
− +
1 cos x 2! 4!
=
sin 2 x 1 − 2 x 2 +
3!
Divide the numerator and the
denominator by x 2
erefore,
1
1 cos x 2! 1
lim = =
x→∞ sin 2 x 1 2
Exercise 2 ∞
nx n
1 You are told that y = ∑3
n 0
n
When does this series converge?
ex 1
2 Find the value of lim
x→∞ x
sin3 x
3 Find the value of lim
x→∞ x
4 Find the power series expansion of cos x3. Which values of x is this valid for?
∞
4
5 Prove that the series ∑
n 1
n
does not converge.
19.4 Improper integrals
You know from Chapter 6 Calculus, that an improper integral is one that
has either
▶ a limit of integration of ±∞, or
▶ an integrand that is innite at one or other of its limits of integration,
or between these limits.
In the rst case, if you replace ±∞ with n you can then nd the limit of the
integral as n → ±∞. When this limit is nite, the integral can be found (see
Example 12). When this limit is not nite, the integral cannot be found. In the
rst case, you replace one or other of the limits of integration with p, for
example, and then nd the limit of the integral as p tends to the value of the
limit it has replaced.
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Example 8
y
noitseuQ
∞ 4
1 y= 1
Determine ∫ d x. 3 x
1
x2
2
∞ n 1
1 1 Note
∫ x 2 d x = lim
n ∫ x2 dx 0 1 2 3 4 x
The upper limit is ∞, so you
→∞
1 1
n
1 1 replace it with n; this is the
lim − lim − + 1
= =
Note
rewsnA
n→∞ x 1 n →∞ n same method you used in
1 1 Chapter 6 Calculus This shows that the area
As n → ∞ → 0 and lim − + 1 = 1
n n n →∞ under the curve
∞
is nite even though the
1 boundary is of innite length.
erefore
∫ x2 dx = 1
1
is section will extend the use of improper integrals from what you saw in
Chapter 6 Calculus; you will be required to use a limiting process in order to
evaluate the integral. You will need to explain in detail how you use the
Note
limiting process.
At x = 0, the integrand is
Example 9 innite. Therefore, replace the
lower limit with p and nd the
noitseuQ
Determine ∫ x ln x d x limit as p → 0. Use integration
0
by parts to perform the
integration; this is the method
e e
you have seen before.
∫ x ln x d x = lim
p 0∫
x ln x d x
→
0 p
x2
e
e x Note
lim ln x ∫p 2 dx
rewsnA
=
0 2
p→ p You need to apply a limiting
e2
p2 e2 p2 process, so use the generic
= lim − ln p − +
0 2
p→ 2 4 4
statement that polynomials
e dominate logarithms.
e2 e2 e2
∫ x ln x d x = 2 −
4
=
4
0
Example 10
noitseuQ
Evaluate the improper integral ∫ x e x d x showing the limiting process used.
0
Note
At x = ∞, the limits are not
∞ n
Integral ∫ x e x d x = lim ∫ x e x d x
n→∞ nite. Therefore, replace the
0 0
Note upper limit with n and nd
rewsnA
n
the limit as n → ∞. Use
n
= lim
− xe − x
0
+
∫e
− x
dx Since e n dominates the
n→∞
0
polynomial n integration by parts to perform
= lim ( −ne − n
− e − n
)+e
0
= 1 the integration.
n→∞
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Exercise 3
Find the value, where it exists, of each of the integrals in questions 1 to 4
π
∞ ∞ 2 2
1 1 2 1 3 1 4
∫ x 2 a2 dx ∫ x 2 + a2 dx ∫ x +2 dx ∫ tan x dx
a 0 2 0
∞
5 Evaluate the improper integral ∫ x e 5x
dx showing the limiting
process used. 0
∞
6 Evaluate the improper integral ∫ x e 7 x dx showing the limiting
process used. 0
∞
4p + 5 4 4 3
7
Show that lim = . Hence evaluate ∫ and show the
p→∞
3p + 7 3 4p + 5 3 p + 7
1
limiting process used.
∞
1 5
8 Evaluate the improper integral
∫ x 5 x + 7
showing the limiting process
1
used and giving your answer in the form ln k
Summary
▶ e Maclaurin theorem can be used to express some functions as a series in
ascending positive integral powers of x. e Maclaurin theorem states that
provided that f(0), f′(0) …
f (0) all have nite values.
(r)
▶ e Maclaurin theorem can be applied to a number of functions, some
examples are given below and included in the Formulae and Statistical
Tables booklet. You need to know when each of these Maclaurin’s
theorems converge.
• , converges for all real numbers.
• , converges for 1 < x ≤ 1.
• , converges for all real numbers.
• , converges for all real numbers.
• converges if n is a positive integer, or if
| x | < 1. (Note that this formula is in the Formulae and Statistical Tables
booklet in the Binomial section.)
▶ You can combine power series for simple functions to make power series
for more complicated functions.
• diverges when
• provides no information when .
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▶ Understand that when a limit contains terms involving a polynomial and
an exponential or logarithmic function, for example, xke x as x , and xk→∞
→
ln x as x 0, that e dominates x , while x dominates log x
x n n
▶ It is possible to calculate various improper integrals involving ex and ln x,
which often require a limiting process.
Review exercises
1 Find the limit .
2 Find the limit .
3 Find the rst four terms of the power series expansions of the following,
and state where they converge.
a tan 7x b ln(1 2x)
4 Using Maclaurin’s theorem, nd the rst three non-zero terms in the
+
expansion of ln(1 3 sin x). Hence nd .
5 By using the series expansion for cos x, nd the rst three non-zero terms
in the expansion of sec x. Using Maclaurin’s theorem, nd the rst two
non-zero terms in the series expansion of tan x. Hence nd .
Practice examination questions
1 a Find the binomial expansion of up to and including
the term inx2. (2 marks)
b i Find the binomial expansion of up to and
including the term in x2. (3 marks)
ii State the range of values of x for which the expansion in
part b i is valid. (1 mark)
c Find the binomial expansion of up to and including
the term in x . 2
AQA MPC4 June 2012
2 a Write down the expansion of e3x in ascending powers of x up to and
including the term in x2. (1 mark)
b Hence, or otherwise, nd the term in x2 in the expansion, in ascending
powers of x, of . (4 marks)
AQA MFP3 January 2013
3 It is given that y = ln (1 + sin x).
a Find . (2 marks)
b Show that . (3 marks)
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c Express in terms of and e y. (3 marks)
d Hence, by using Maclaurin’s theorem, nd the rst four non-zero terms
in the expansion, in ascending powers of x, of ln(1 + sin x). (3 marks)
AQA MFP3 June 2012
4 a Use integration by parts to show that , where c is
an arbitrary constant. (2 marks)
b Hence evaluate , showing the limiting process used. (4 marks)
AQA MFP3 January 2009
5 a Find . (3 marks)
b Explain why is an improper integral. (1 mark)
c Evaluate , showing the limiting process used. (3 marks)
AQA MFP3 June 2011
6 a Write down the expansions in ascending powers of x up to and
including the term in x3 of
i cos x + sin x (1 mark)
ii ln (1+3x) (1 mark)
b It is given that y = e tan x
i Find and show that = . (5 marks)
ii Find the value of when x = 0. (2 marks)
iii Hence, by using Maclaurin’s theorem, show that the rst four
terms in the expansion, in ascending powers of x, of etan x are
(2 marks)
c Find
(3 marks)
AQA MFP3 January 2011
7 a Explain why is an improper integral. (1 mark)
b Find (3 marks)
c Hence evaluate showing the limiting process used.
(3 marks)
AQA MFP3 January 2008
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20 De Moivre’s Theorem
Introduction Objectives
e denition in Chapter 2 Complex Numbers, helped us By the end of this chapter,
to understand the non-real roots of quadratic equations. e majority you should know how to:
of this chapter will be about de Moivre’s theorem, including its use to ▶ Prove de Moivre’s
solve equations in the form You will also use the theorem to theorem.
express terms such as cos 6θ in powers of cos θ, and conversely to express ▶ Solve equations of the
cos 6 θ in terms of multiple angles such as cos 6θ without having to learn form .
complicated multiple-angle formulae. You will also consider functions ▶ Express in terms
such as and use them to solve integrals such as . of multiple angles,
and express
in terms of powers of
; similarly for sin
Recap and tan.
You will need to remember . . . ▶ Use de Moivre’s
▶ How to add, multiply and divide complex numbers. theorem to integrate
▶ How to write complex numbers in polar (modulus-argument) form. functions like
▶ How to manipulate sines and cosines using See Chapter 2 Complex
trigonometric identities. ▶ Use the formula
Numbers
▶ How to use induction to prove results. See Chapter 18 Proof by
▶ How to expand using the binomial theorem. Induction and Finite Series
20.1 De Moivre’s theorem
De Moivre’s theorem has many applications in mathematics. For example,
nding powers and roots of complex numbers when expressed in their polar
form; expressing powers of trigonometric functions in terms of multiple angles
and vice versa; and expressing a function as an exponential of a complex
function and thus allowing you to integrate certain functions.
You saw in Chapter 2 Complex Numbers that a complex number given in the
Cartesian form (z = x + iy) can be written in the polar form (r ; where r is the
modulus and θ is the argument) as z = r (cos θ + i sin θ).
De Moivre’s theorem states that (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos n θ + i sin n θ, for all
integral values of n. When n is not an integer, then cos n θ + i sin n θ is
only one of the possible values.
Proof when n is a positive integer
You can use proof by induction to show that de Moivre’s theorem is true for all
positive integer values of n
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You assume that the statement is true when n = k. Hence, you have
(cos θ + i sin θ) = (cos kθ + i sin kθ)
k
⇒ (cos θ + i sin θ) +1 = (cos θ + i sin θ) (cos θ + i sin θ)
k
k k
Using (cos θ + i sin θ) (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ) = cos θ cos ϕ − sin θ sin ϕ +
i(cos θ sin ϕ + sin θ cos ϕ)
= cos (θ + ϕ) + i sin (θ + ϕ) you obtain
,
(cos θ + i sin θ)
k +1
= cos ( + 1) θ + i sin ( + 1)θ
k k
erefore, the statement is true for n = k +1
.
When n = 1, you have (cos θ + i sin θ) = cos θ + i sin θ
n
And cos n θ + i sin n θ = cos θ + i sin θ
erefore, the statement is true for n = 1
erefore, de Moivre’s theorem is true for all values of n ≥ 1. at is, for all
positive integers.
Proof when n is a negative integer
When n is a negative integer, n = −p, where p is a positive integer, you have
1
(cos θ + i sin θ ) = (cos θ + i sin θ ) =
n p
(cos θ + i sin θ ) p
Using de Moivre’s theorem for the positive integer p, you obtain
1 1
=
(cos θ + i sin θ ) cos p θ + i sin p θ
p
cos pθ i sin pθ
=
(cos pθ + i sin pθ )(cos pθ − i sin pθ )
which gives
1
= cos pθ − i sin pθ
(cos θ + i sin θ ) p
But n = −p, hence you have
cos pθ i sin pθ = cos( nθ) i sin( n θ) = cos θ + i sin θ
n n
erefore, you have (cos θ + i sin θ) = cos nθ + i sin nθ for all negative integers.
n
Simple application to complex numbers
You must always make sure the complex number is in the form
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) when applying de Moivre’s theorem.
You can use the theorem to express a complex number, z , in multiple-angled n
form, that is, in terms of cos nθ and sin nθ
Example 1
noitseuQ
Find the value of (cos θ + i sin θ)5 in multiple-angle form.
Note
rewsnA
(cos θ + i sin θ)5 ≡ cos 5θ + i sin 5θ
Using de Moivre’s theorem:
(cos θ + i sin θ) = cos nθ + i sin nθ
n
e theorem can also be used to simplify an expression in
the form cos nθ + i sin nθ
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Example 2
noitseuQ
Simplify (cos 8θ + i sin 8θ)(cos 6θ + i sin 6θ).
Using de Moivre’s theorem: Note Note
(cos 8θ + i sin 8θ) = (cos θ + i sin θ)8
rewsnA
Using the laws of indices. Use de Moivre’s theorem to
(cos 6θ + i sin 6θ) = (cos θ + i sin θ)6
express the answer as
⇒ (cos θ + i sin θ)8(cos θ + i sin θ)6 = (cos θ + i sin θ)14 cos nθ + i sin nθ
= cos 14θ + i sin 14θ
It is possible to calculate positive powers of complex numbers, zn, using de
Moivre’s theorem. First you express the complex number in its r, θ form, then
using de Moivre’s theorem you express it in multiple-angle form and evaluate.
Example 3
noitseuQ
3
π
Find cos + i sin
π
6 6
π π
3
π π Note
cos 6 + i sin 6 ≡ cos 3 × 6 + i sin 3 × 6
rewsnA
Appling de Moivre’s theorem:
π π
≡ cos + i sin = i (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
2 2
Example 4
noitseuQ
6
π
Find sin + i cos
π
3 3
π θ = sinθ , Note Note
Using cos
2 You need the complex
6 6
number to be in the sin = cos = cos
π π π π
sin 3 + i cos 3 ≡ cos 6 + i sin 6
rewsnA
‘cos θ + i sin θ’ form before
and similarly for cos .
≡ cos π + i sin π you can apply the theorem.
= −1
6
π π
erefore, sin + i cos = −1
3 3
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Example 5 demonstrates an alternative method to get the complex number in
Example 4 into the correct form to apply the theorem.
Example 5
noitseuQ
6
π
Find sin + i cos
π
3 3
6 6 Note
π π π π
sin 3 + i cos 3 ≡ i cos 3 i sin 3 Factor out the i.
6
π π Note
≡ i cos − + i sin −
rewsnA
3 3
Using cos(x) = cos ( x) and
6
π π sin( x) = −sin(x).
sin 3 + i cos 3 ≡ i [cos(−2π ) + i sin(−2π )] = −1 × 1 = −1
6
6
Note
π π
erefore, sin + i cos = −1 Applying de Moivre’s theorem
3 3
to the RHS.
6
Note that in Example 5, cos π π
i sin ≡ cos 2π − i sin 2π and hence you
3
3
might have deduced that (cos θ i sin θ) n ≡ cos n θ i sin nθ. However, this
cannot be used as a correct version of de Moivre’s theorem, which is only
applicable to (cosθ + i sin θ) n erefore, if you are asked to use de Moivre’s
6
π π
theorem to nd the value of cos i sin for example, you must
3 3
6
π π
change this to cos + i sin as shown in Example 5
3 3
Example 6
noitseuQ
Find the value of (1 + i ) 4
π
z = (1 + i) ⇒ z = 2 cos + i 2 sin
π Note
4 4
4
Note Using z ≡ x + iy = r cos θ + i r sin θ,
π π
⇒ (1 + i) = 2 cos + i sin where and
4
4 4
Factor out . tan .
rewsnA
4
π π
= ( 2 )4 cos + i sin
4 4
π π
= ( 2 )4 cos 4 × + i sin 4 ×
Note
4 4 You learned how to create the
Apply de Moivre’s theorem.
= 4(cos π + i sin π) modulus-argument form of a
erefore, (1 + i)4 = −4. complex number in Chapter 2
Complex Numbers.
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Example 7
noitseuQ
1
Find the value of
(4 4i)3
π π Note
4 − 4i = 4 2 cos − + i sin −
4
4 Convert 4 4i into its (r, θ)
1 1 form.
⇒ = 3
(4 4i)3 π π
4 2 cos 4 + i sin − 4
1
= 3
π π
128 2 cos + i sin −
4 4
rewsnA
3
π 1 π
=
cos − 4 + i sin − 4
128 2
1 1 3π 3π
⇒ = cos + i sin Note
(4 4i) 3
128 2 4 4
Use de Moivre’s theorem.
1 1 1 1 1
= − + i = × − (1 − i)
128 2 2 2 128 2 2
erefore,
1 1
= (−1 + i)
(4 4i) 256
3
Exercise 1
1 Simplify (cos 11θ + i sin 11θ) (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ).
2 Using de Moivre’s theorem, nd the value of
a (cos θ + i sin θ)6 b (cos 2θ + i sin 2 θ)4
9 6
π π π π
c cos 3 + i sin 3 d cos + i sin
4 4
1
6
1 π π
e f cos 6 + i sin 6
(cos 2θ + i sin 2θ ) 4
10 9
2π 2π π π
g cos 5 + i sin 5 h cos + i sin −
18 18
3 Simplify.
a (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ) (cos 7θ + i sin 7θ)
b (cos 5θ + i sin 5θ) (cos 6θ i sin 6θ)
5
π π
cos 3 +i sin 3
c d (l + i)4 + (l i)4
4
π π
cos
3 i sin
3
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4 Simplify.
a (1 + i)8 b (2 3 i)6
c (3 3 i)6 d (1 i)4
e (2 + 2 3 i)6 f (2i 3)9
5 Simplify.
a (cos θ i sin θ)5 b (sin θ + i cos θ)4
1
1
c d 10
(sinθ + i cosθ )6 π π
sin 5 i cos
5
cos4 x + i sin 4 x
6 Show that can be expressed in the form cos nx + i sin nx,
cos5 x i sin5 x
where n is an integer to be found.
20.2 Further applications of de Moivre’s
theorem to complex numbers
nth roots of unity
When n is not an integer, de Moivre’s theorem gives only one of the possible
values for (cos θ + i sin θ)n
that is, it gives cos n θ + i sin n θ
1
However, (cos θ + i sin θ ) n can take n dierent values.
1
Let (cos θ + i sin θ ) n = r (cos φ + isin φ )
Comparing the moduli of both sides, you have r = 1.
1
Raising both sides to the nth power, and using [(cosθ + i sinθ ) n ]n = cosθ + i sinθ
you obtain
1
(
cosθ + i sinθ = [(cosθ + i sinθ ) n ]n = cosφ + i sinφ )
n
⇒ cosθ + i sin θ = cos nϕ + i sin nϕ
erefore, you have
cosθ = cosnϕ and sin θ = sin nϕ
which gives
nϕ = θ, θ + 2π, θ + 4π, θ + 6π, . . .
since cos (θ + 2π) = cos θ, and sin (θ + 2π) = sin θ.
at is, you have
θ θ + 2π θ + 4π
φ= ,...
n n n
1
which means that (cosθ + i sinθ ) n is equal to
θ
cos + i sin
θ
n n
or
θ + 2π + i sin θ + 2π
cos
n
n
or
θ + 4π + i sin θ + 4π
cos
n
n
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2π Im
and so on, adding each time until you obtain
n
1
θ + (n − 1)2π θ + (n − 1)2π
(cosθ + i sinθ ) n ≡ cos + i sin 2π
n n n
All subsequent values are repeats of the n dierent values given above.
1
erefore, (cos θ + i sin θ ) n has n dierent values. 0 Re
Note that these n solutions are symmetrically placed on a circle drawn on an
Argand diagram.
Solving equations in the form z n
= a + ib
e method explained above for nding the nth roots of unity, can be used in
general, to nd the solutions to equations of the form zn = a + ib. You learned how to draw
e general method is to convert z = a + ib to the r, θ form, nd one root using Argand diagrams in Chapter 2
de Moivre’s theorem and then sketch an Argand diagram and use symmetry to Complex Numbers
nd the other values.
Example 8
noitseuQ
Find all the roots of z6 = −64.
64 = 64(cosπ + i sinπ)
1 1 1
Note
Im
⇒ (−64) = 64 (cos π + i sin π )
6 6 6
Expressing z = −64 in the
π π form z = r (cos θ + i sin θ).
= 2 cos + i sin
6 6
Using symmetry, the other roots
Note
are as shown in the diagram. 0 Re
π π Using de Moivre’s theorem.
2 cos + i sin
2 2
Note
rewsnA
5π 5π
2 cos
+ i sin
6 6 Sketch an Argand diagram
5π 5π and use symmetry to nd the
2 cos
+ i sin − other roots.
6 6
π π
2 cos
+ i sin − Note
2 2
π π Since all of these values can
2 cos
+ isin − be expressed simply in the
6 6
1 3 i form a + ib, it is common
(−64) 6 = ± ± ,±i
2 2 to give these answers in the
form shown here.
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Example 9
noitseuQ
Find the values of the roots of z 2 = −1 − 3 i
2π 2π
−1 − 3i = 2 cos − + i sin − Note
3 3
From de Moivre’s theorem, one root is Express in the form
1 cos θ + i sin θ
2π 2π 2 1
π π
2 cos 3 + i sin − 3 = 2 cos − 3 + i sin − 3
2
Note
1 3
= 2+ − i
2 2
Sketch an Argand diagram.
rewsnA
2 6
− i =
2 2
From the diagram, by symmetry, the other root is Im
2
2 6 − √2 + √6 i
i 2 2
2 2
1
erefore,
1 2 6
(−1 − 3 i) 2 =± − i 0
2 1 1 2 Re
2 2
1
Example 10 2
√2
2
√6
2
i
noitseuQ
Find the solutions of 27z3 = 8.
27z3 = 8 ⇒ 3 z = 3 1 × 2
Note
1 3
3
1 has the following values: 1, − ± Take the cube root of both
2 2 sides, remembering to
Using 3 1 = 1,
2 multiply one side of the
3z = 2 ⇒ z =
3 resulting equation by each of
rewsnA
1 3 the three cube roots of unity,
Using 3 1 = − + i,
2 2 taken one at a time. In this
1 3 case, it is simpler to multiply
3 z = −1 + 3i ⇒ z = − + i
3 3 by the three cube roots.
1 3
Using 3 1 = − − i,
2 2
1 3
3 z = −1 − 3i ⇒ z = − − i
3 3
Example 11
noitseuQ
Find the solutions of 16z4 = (z l)4
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16z4 = (z 1)4
Note
⇒ 2 z = 4 1( z − 1)
Take the fourth root of
4
1 = 1, − 1, i, − i
both sides, remembering
Using 4 1 = 1, to multiply one side of the
2z = z 1 ⇒ z = −1 resulting equation by each of
Using 1 = −1, 4 the four fourth roots of unity,
1 taken one at a time.
2z = −(z 1) ⇒ 3z = 1 ⇒ z=
3
Using 4 1 = i,
2z = i (z 1)
rewsnA
i
⇒z=−
2 i
i(2 + i)
⇒z=−
(2 − i)(2 + i)
1
which gives, z = (1 − 2i)
5
Using 4 1 = − i, 2z = −i (z 1)
i
⇒z=
2+i
i(2 i)
⇒z=
5
1
which gives, z = (1 + 2 i)
5 1 1
erefore, the four solutions of 16z4 = (z l)4 are 1, (1 ± 2i)
3 5
Exponential form of a complex number
Using the Maclaurin theorem for ex, cosx and sinx, you can show that You learned about the
eix = cos x + i sin x Maclaurin theorem in
is is the exponential form of a complex number. Chapter 19 Series and Limits.
Expressed generally, you have
Tip
z = r(cosθ + i sin θ) ⇒ z = reiθ
You can use the identity
You can use the exponential form to simplify many types of problem, including
eix = cos x + i sin x without
nding certain integrals.
justication.
Note that using the exponential form of (cos θ + i sin θ)n, you have
(cos θ + i sin θ)n = (eiθ)n = ei (n θ) ≡ cos nθ + i sin nθ
which is another way of proving de Moivre’s theorem.
Example 12
noitseuQ
Express 2 + 2i in reiθ form.
Note
π
rewsnA
e modulus of 2 + 2i is 2 2 and its argument is .
iπ 4 Using z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) ⇒
⇒ 2 + 2i = 2 2e 4
z = reθ
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Example 13
noitseuQ
Express 1 i 3 in reiθ form.
e modulus of 1 i 3 is 2 and its argument is
π.
rewsnA
3
Hence,
iπ
1 − i 3 = 2e 3
You can express the roots of a complex number using the exponential form.
Example 14
noitseuQ
1
Find the values of ( –2 + 2i ) 3 and show their positions on an Argand diagram.
1
3π 3π 3 Note Note
= 2 2 cos + i sin
1
(–2 + 2i ) 3
4 4 Expressing the complex numbers Draw an Argand diagram.
1
in the exponential form.
3 3π 3π
= 2 2 cos + i sin
3
4 4
Note
erefore, from de Moivre’s theorem,
1
one value of ( −2 + 2i ) 3 is 2 2 cos π + i sin π
rewsnA
4 4 Find one value of .
By symmetry, the other roots are Im
π + 2π + isin π + 2π
1
2 2 cos
4 3
4
3 π
1 √2e 4
1
π 4π π 4π
and 2 2 cos + + isin +
4 3 4 3
ese three roots are therefore: 11iπ
1 iπ 1 11iπ 1 19 iπ √2e 12
2 e ,2 e
2 4 2 12
,2 e
2 12
1 0 1 Re
Multiplying one complex number
by another
Expressing the two numbers, z1 and z2, 1
in their exponential form, you have
19iπ
z1 z 2 = r1e iθ1 × r2 e iθ2 √2e 12
which gives z1 z2 = r1r2ei(θ1θ2 )
is is a very simple way of proving that to nd
the product of two complex numbers, you multiply
the moduli and add the arguments. You saw this rule in Chapter 2
Complex Numbers
Simplifying certain integrals
You can simplify integrals of the type e ax cos bx dx ∫
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Example 15
noitseuQ
Find ∫ e2 x sin x dx .
∫ e sin x dx = Im ∫ e (cos x + i sin x ) dx where Im ∫ is the imaginary part of the
2x 2x
given integral.
Using the exponential form of cos x + i sin x
∫ e sin x dx = Im ∫ e × e d x
2x 2x ix
Note
= Im ∫ e(2 + i) x
dx Express this in terms of the
rewsnA
1 exponential form.
⇒ ∫ e2 x sin x dx = Im e (2 + i) x
2+i
2 i
= Im e2 x (cos x + i sin x ) + c
(2 + i) (2 − i)
(2 cos x + sin x + 2i sin x − i cos x )
= Im e2 x
+c
2 2 (i)2
e2 x
erefore, ∫ e2 x sin x dx = (2 sin x − cos x ) + c
5
Example 16
noitseuQ
Find ∫ e 4 x cos 3 x dx .
∫ e cos3 x dx = Re ∫ e (cos3 x + i sin3 x )dx where Re ∫ is the real part of the
4x 4x
given integral.
Using the exponential form of cos 3x + i sin 3x
∫ e cos 3 x dx Re ∫ e (4 dx
4x + 3i) x
=
rewsnA
1
= Re e(4 + 3i) x
+ c
4 + 3i
4 3i
= Re e 4 x (cos 3 x + i sin 3 x ) + c
(4 + 3i) (4 − 3i)
e 4 x 4cos 3 x + 3sin3 x
erefore, ∫ e 4 x cos 3 x dx = +c
25 25
Exercise 2
1 Find the possible values of z, giving your answers in
i a + ib form
ii reiθ form
a z4 = −16 b z3 = −8 + 8i c z3 = 27i
d z2 = 16i e z5 = −32
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2 Find the six sixth roots of unity.
3 Solve each of these.
a (z + 2i)2 = 4 b (z l)3 = 8 c z2 = (z + l)2 d (z + 3i)2 = (2z 1)2
4 Find the seven seventh roots of unity in the eiθ form.
5 Solve z5 = 32i. Give your answers in the riθ form, and show them on an
Argand diagram.
6 By considering the ninth roots of unity, show that
cos 2π + cos 4π + cos 6π + cos 8π = − 1
9 9 9 9 2
7 By considering the seventh roots of unity, show that
cos π + cos 3π + cos 5π = 1
7 7 7 2
8 Evaluate each of these.
a ∫e 4x
cos5 x dx b ∫e 3x
sin7 x dx
c ∫e 2x
sin 4 x dx d ∫e 4x
cos3 x dx
20.3 Trigonometric identities
You can also use de Moivre’s theorem to express multiple-angled trigonometric
terms as powers of the related single-angle trigonometric term. For example,
you can use the theorem to express cos 6θ, in powers of cos θ, and conversely to
express cos6θ in terms of multiple angles such as cos 6θ
Expressions for cosn θ and sinn θ in terms of coskθ
and sinkθ
It is possible to express powers of trigonometric functions in terms of multiple
angles without having to learn complicated multiple-angle formulae.
Let z = cos θ + i sin θ
1
You then have = (cos θ + i sin θ) 1 = cos θ i sin θ
z
1 1
which gives z + = 2 cosθ and z − = 2i sinθ
z z
You also have zn = (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ (de Moivre’s theorem) so
1 1
=
zn cosnθ + i sin nθ
1
= cosnθ − i sin nθ
z n
which gives
1
z n + n = 2 cosnθ
z
1
zn − = 2i sin nθ
zn
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1 1
With the help of these four identities for z ± and z n ± , you can write any
z zn
power of cosθ or sin θ in terms of multiples of θ
If z = cosθ + i sinθ , to express
1
▶ cos n in terms of z, use the identity z n + = 2cos nθ
zn
1
▶ sin nθ in terms of z, use the identity z n − = 2 i sinn
zn
For example, to express cosn in terms of cos rθ :
1 1 1
Set z = cos + i sin and use the identity cosθ = z + , where z + = 2 cos θ .
2 z z
Raise both sides of the identity to the nth power and collect terms of the form
1
zr + r .
z 1
en use the identity z r + r = 2 cos rθ to write the expression in the required form.
z
Similarly, to express sinn θ in terms of sin rθ and cos rθ :
1 1 1
Set z = cosθ + i sinθ and use the identity sinθ = z − , where z − = 2i sin .
2i z z
Raise both sides of the identity to the nth power and collect terms of the form
1 1
z r + r or z r
z zr
1 1
Use the identity z + = 2 cosrθ (if n is even) or z r − = 2i sin rθ (ifn isodd) to
z zr
write the expression in the required form.
Example 17
noitseuQ
If z = cosθ + i sin θ, express the following in terms of θ
a z4 b z 3
a z4 = cos 4θ + i sin 4θ Note
rewsnA
b z 3 = cos( 3θ) + i sin( 3θ) You know that, when
⇒ z = cos 3θ i sin 3θ
3 z = cosθ + i sin θ,
zn = cos n θ + i sin n θ for all
Example 18 integer values of n
noitseuQ
Given that z = cosθ + i sin θ, express the following in terms of z
a cos 6θ b sin 3θ
Note
When z = cos θ + i sin θ
1 1 It can help to write down the
z n + n ≡ 2 cosnθ and z n − n ≡ 2i sin nθ
z z appropriate identities.
1
a 2 cos 6θ ≡ z +6
z6
Note
rewsnA
1 1
⇒ cos 6θ ≡ z 6 + 6
2 z Note Using the identity,
1
b 2i sin 3θ ≡ z 3 − 3 Using the identity,
z
1 3 1 i 1
⇒ sin 3θ ≡ z − 3 = − z 3 − 3
2i z 2 z
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Example 19
noitseuQ
Express cos3 θ as the cosines of multiples of θ
1 1 Note Note
cosθ ≡ z +
2 z
3 Express cos θ in terms of z Hence express cos3 θ in
1 1
cos 3 θ ≡ z + using identity . terms of z
2 z
3
1 1
≡ z + Note
23 z Note
1 1 1 1 Rearrange the terms on the
≡ z 3 + 3z 2 × + 3z × 2 + 3 Collect terms of the type
rewsnA
8 z z z RHS.
, according to the
1 3 1
≡ z 3 + 3z + + 3 values of n (as you are
8 z z Note
required to give the answer as
1 3 1 1 the cosines of multiples of θ). Convert the RHS.
cos 3 θ ≡ z + 3 + 3 z +
8 z z
1
cos 3 θ ≡ (2cos3θ + 3 × 2cosθ )
8
1 3
cos θ ≡ cos3θ + cosθ
3
4 4
Example 20
noitseuQ
Express cos6 θ as the cosines of multiples of θ
Note
6
1 1 Using identity .
cos6 θ ≡ z + where z = cos θ + i sin θ.
2 z
6
1 1 1 1
Using the binomial theorem, z + = z 6 + 6 z 5 × + 15 z 4 × 2 + ... + 6
z z z z Note
erefore,
1 6 15 6 1 Collect terms in the form
cos6 θ ≡ z + 6 z + 15 z + 20 + 2 + 4 + 6
4 2
rewsnA
64 z z z
1 6 1 4 1 2 1
≡ z + 6 + 6 z + 4 + 15 z + 2 + 20
64 z z z
1 Note
cos6 θ ≡
(2cos6θ + 6 × 2cos4θ + 15 × 2cos2θ + 20)
64 Converting the RHS using
1 3 15 5 identity .
⇒ cos6 θ ≡ cos6θ + cos4θ + cos2θ +
32 16 32 16
Example 21
noitseuQ
Express sin 5 θ as the sines of multiples of θ
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5
1 1 Note
sin 5 θ ≡ z − where z = cos θ + i sin θ.
2i z
Using the binomial theorem, Using identity .
1 5 10 5 1
sin 5 θ = z − 5 z + 10 z − + 3 − 5
3
32i 5 z z z
rewsnA
1 5 1 3 1 1
= z − 5 − 5 z − 3 + 10 z −
32i z z z
1
sin 5 θ ≡ [2i sin5θ − 10i sin3θ + 20i sinθ ]
32i Note
1 5 5
⇒ sin 5 θ ≡ sin5θ − sin3θ + sinθ Converting the RHS.
16 16 8
Expansions of cos nθ and sin nθ as powers
of cosθ and sinθ
It is also possible to express multiple-angle trigonometric functions in terms of
powers of trigonometric functions using de Moivre’s theorem.
To change the function cos nθ into powers of cosθ, you express cos nθ as the
real part (Re) of cos nθ + i sin nθ:
cos nθ = Re(cos nθ + i sin nθ)
By de Moivre’s threoem, you have:
cos nθ + i sin nθ = (cos θ + i sin θ)n
⇒ cos nθ = Re(cos θ + i sin θ)n
You then expand the right-hand side by the binomial theorem and extract the
real terms to nd cos nθ in terms of powers of cos θ
Similarly, to change the function sin nθ into powers of sin θ, express sin nθ as
the imaginary part (Im) of cos nθ + i sin nθ. You then expand the right-hand
side of sin nθ = Im(cos θ + i sin θ)n and extract the imaginary terms.
A similar technique can be used to express tan nθ as powers of tan θ: express
cos nθ and sin nθ as powers of sin and cos and then divide the two expressions.
Example 22
noitseuQ
Express sin 3θ in terms of sin θ
sin 3θ = Im(cos 3θ + i sin 3θ), where Im (z) is the imaginary part of z.
Note
cos 3θ + i sin 3θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)3
Note Express sin nθ as the
⇒ sin 3θ = Im(cos θ + i sin θ)3
imaginary part of
rewsnA
Using de Moivre’s theorem.
Expanding the RHS using the binomial cos nθ + i sin nθ
theorem,
sin 3θ = Im[cos3 θ + 3 cos2 θ(i sin θ) + 3 cos θ(i sin θ)2 + (i sin θ)3]
= Im(cos3 θ + 3i cos2 θ sin θ 3 cos θ sin 2 θ i sin 3 θ)
= 3 cos2 θ sin θ sin 3 θ
(continued)
248 De Moivre’s Theorem
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FP2 2.2 20
(continued)
Using cos2 θ = 1 sin 2 θ Note
sin 3θ = 3(1 sin θ)sin θ sin θ
2 3
The answer must be in
rewsnA
= 3sin θ 3sin 3 θ sin 3 θ terms of so you need
erefore, to choose an appropriate
sin 3θ = 3sin θ 4sin 3 θ identity.
Example 23
noitseuQ
Express the following in terms of powers of cos θ
sin 6θ
a cos 6θ b
sin θ
a cos 6θ = Re(cos 6θ + i sin 6θ)
Hence, cos 6θ = Re(cos θ + i sin θ)6
Note
Expanding the RHS using the binomial theorem,
Using de Moivre’s theorem.
6×5 6×5× 4
cos 6θ = Re[cos6 θ + 6cos 5 θ (i sinθ ) + cos 4 θ (i sinθ ) 2 + cos 3θ (i sinθ ) 3
2 ×1 3 × 2 ×1
6×5× 4× 3 6×5× 4× 3×2
+ cos2 θ (i sinθ ) 4 + cosθ (i sinθ ) 5 + (i sinθ ) 6 ]
4 × 3 × 2 ×1 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 ×1
⇒ cos 6θ = cos6 θ 15cos4 θ sin2 θ + 15cos2 θ sin4 θ sin6 θ
Using sin2 θ = 1 cos2 θ
cos 6θ = cos6 θ 15cos4 θ(1 cos2 θ) + 15cos2 θ(1 cos2 θ)2 (1 cos2 θ)3
= cos6 θ 15cos4 θ + 15cos6 θ + 15cos2 θ 30 cos4 θ + 15cos6 θ 1
+ 3 cos2 θ 3 cos4 θ + cos6 θ
erefore,
rewsnA
cos 6θ = 32 cos6 θ 48 cos4 θ + 18 cos2 θ 1
b sin 6θ = Im (cos 6θ + i sin 6θ)
Hence, sin 6θ = Im(cos θ + i sin θ)6
Expanding the RHS using the binomial theorem,
6×5 6×5×4
sin6θ = Im[cos6 θ + 6cos 5 θ (i sinθ ) + cos 4 θ (i sinθ ) 2 + cos 3θ (i sinθ ) 3
2 ×1 3 × 2 ×1
6×5× 4×3 6×5× 4×3×2
+ cos2 θ (i sinθ ) 4 + cosθ (i sinθ ) 5 + (i sinθ ) 6 ]
4 × 3 × 2 ×1 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 ×1
⇒ sin 6θ = 6 cos5 θ sin θ − 20 cos3 θ sin3 θ + 6 cos θ sin5 θ
erefore,
sin6θ
= 6 cos5 θ 20 cos3 θ(1 cos2 θ) + 6 cos θ(1 cos2 θ)2
sinθ
= 6 cos5 θ 20 cos3 θ + 20 cos5 θ + 6 cos θ 12 cos3 θ + 6 cos5 θ
erefore,
sin6θ
= 32 cos5 θ 32 cos3 θ + 6 cos θ
sinθ
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Example 24
a Express sin 5θ in terms of sin θ
π 2π 6π 7π
b Hence, prove that sin , sin , sin and sin are the roots of
5 5 5 5
the equation 16x4 20x2 + 5 = 0.
noitseuQ
π 2π
c Deduce that sin 2 and sin 2 are roots of the equation
5 5
16y2 20y + 5 = 0, and hence nd the exact value of
π 2π
i sin sin
2π
ii cos
5 5 5
a sin 5θ = Im(cos 5θ + i sin 5θ)
Hence,
sin 5θ = Im(cos θ + i sin θ)5
= Im(cos5 θ + 5i cos4 θ sin θ + 10i2cos3 θ sin 2 θ + 10i3cos2 θ sin3 θ
+ 5i4cos θ sin4 θ + i5sin5 θ)
erefore,
sin 5θ = 5cos4 θ sin θ 10cos2 θ sin3 θ + sin5 θ
Using cos2 θ = 1 sin2 θ
sin 5θ = 5(1 sin 2 θ)2 sin θ 10(1 sin2 θ) sin3 θ + sin5 θ
⇒ sin 5θ = 16 sin5 θ 20 sin3 θ + 5 sin θ
b From part a
sin5θ
= 16 sin4 θ 20 sin2 θ + 5
sinθ
When sin 5θ = 0, 16 sin4 θ − 20 sin2 θ + 5 = 0, therefore,
16x4 20x2 + 5 = 0 on substituting x = sin θ
Note
π 2π 3π
rewsnA
sin 5θ = 0 ⇒ θ = 0 (excluded), ,... The solutions of
5 5 5 16x 4 20x 2 + 5 = 0 are
which give the following values for sin θ:
x = sin θ, where θ satises
π 2π , sin 3π which is the same as sin 2π
sin , sin
5 5 = 0. All the x are
5 5
4π 6π
which is the same as sin and sin 7π different, and since sin 5θ is
sin
5
5
5 divided by sin θ, you exclude
sin π which is zero and hence excluded. the possible root sin θ = 0.
erefore, the four dierent non-zero values of x for 16x4 20x2 + 5 = 0
are:
π sin 2π sin 6π sin 7π
sin
5
5
5
5
c Substitute y = x2 to obtain the equation 16y2 20y + 5 = 0, whose roots are the
two dierent values for y given by the substitution.
π
ere are just two values of x2, sin 2 and sin 2
2π , since
5 5
6π = − sin π and sin 7π = − sin 2π , which give
sin
5
5
5
5
sin2
= sin 2 and sin 2 = sin 2 2π
6π π 7π
5
5
5
5
(continued)
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FP2 2.2 20
(continued)
erefore, the two dierent roots of the equation 16y2 20y + 5 = 0 are
π
y = sin 2 and y = sin 2
2π
5 5
i Using the product of the roots of a polynomial, you have You saw how to nd the
for 16y2 20y + 5 = 0 product and sum of roots of a
5 polynomial in Chapter 17
αβ =
16 Roots and Polynomials.
π 2π 5
⇒ sin2 sin 2 =
5 5 16
π 2π 5
⇒ sin sin = ±
5 5 16
π
Since both sin and sin
2π are positive, you obtain
5 5
π 2π = 5
sin sin
5 5 4
rewsnA
ii Since 16y2 20y + 5 = 0 is a quadratic equation, its roots are
20 ± 400 − 320
y=
32
20 ± 80 5 ± 5
⇒ y= =
32 8
π
Since these two roots are sin 2 and sin 2
2π , and
5 5
2π > sin π > 0, you have sin2 π = 5 5
sin
5
5
5 8
θ
Using the identity cos θ = 1 − sin2 , you obtain
2
2π = 1 − 2sin2 π
cos
5
5
5 5
= 1− 2 ×
8
2π 5 1
⇒ cos =
5 4
Exercise 3
1 If z = cos θ + i sin θ, nd the values of each of the following.
1 1 1
a z2 b z4 + 4 c z5 + 5
z2 z z
2 Express each of the following in terms of z, where z = cos θ + i sin θ
a cos 6θ b sin 5θ c cos 4θ
d sin θ
3
e cos 3θ
4
3 Express each of the following in terms of cos θ
sin 4θ
a cos 6θ b cos 4θ c
sinθ
4 Express each of the following in terms of sin θ
cos 7θ cos 5θ
a sin 3θ b sin 5θ c d
cosθ cosθ
5 Express each of the following in terms of sines or cosines of multiple angles.
a sin3 θ b cos3 θ c cos5 θ d sin5 θ
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1
6 Prove that cos 4 θ = (cos4θ + 4cos2θ + 3)
8
3tanθ tan 3 θ
7 Prove that tan 3θ = . Hence solve t3 3t2 3t + 1 = 0.
1 3tan 2 θ
2π 4π 6π
8 When cos 4θ = cos 3θ, prove that θ = 0,
7 7 7
2π 4π 6π
Hence prove that cos , cos and cos are the roots of
7 7 7
8x3 + 4x2 4x 1 = 0.
Summary
▶ De Moivre’s theorem states that for any
integer n
▶ When n is not an integer, de Moivre’s theorem gives only one of the possible
values for (cos θ + i sin θ) , that is, it gives cos nθ + i sin nθ e other values
n
can be found using the symmetry on an Argand diagram.
▶ De Moivre’s theorem allows you to express a complex number, in
multiple-angle form, for example, (cos θ + i sin θ)5 ≡ cos 5θ + i sin 5θ
▶ You can use de Moivre’s theorem to simplify an expression in the form
cos nθ + i sin nθ, for example,
(cos nθ + i sin nθ)(cos mθ + i sin mθ) = cos (n + m)θ + i sin(n +m)θ
▶ It is possible to calculate positive powers of complex numbers, z , using de
n
Moivre’s theorem. First you express the complex number in its r, θ form, then
use de Moivre’s theorem to express it in multiple-angle form and evaluate.
▶ It is possible to solve equations of the form by expressing the
complex number in its r, θ form, then applying de Moivre’s theorem to nd
one root and using symmetry to nd the other roots.
▶ e exponential form of a complex number is ei = cos x + i sin x, expressed
x
generally you have z = reiθ
▶ Using the exponential form of (cos θ + i sin θ) , you have another proof of de
n
Moivre’s theorem: (cos θ + i sin θ) = (ei θ) = ei ( θ) ≡ cos nθ + i sin nθ
n n n
▶ De Moivre’s theorem can be used to express powers of trigonometric
functions, cos nθ and sin nθ, in terms of multiple-angle trigonometric
function, for example cos kθ and sin kθ, using the following identities:
•
▶ e formulae and can also be used to help to
solve integrals like
▶ De Moivre’s theorem can be used to express multiple-angle trigonometric
functions as powers of trigonometric functions.
252 De Moivre’s Theorem
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FP2 2.2 20
▶ To change the function cos nθ into powers of cosθ, you express cos nθ as the
real part (Re) of cos nθ + i sin nθ, that is, cos nθ = Re(cos θ + i sin θ)n. en
you expand the RHS using the binomial theorem and extract the real terms.
▶ Similarly, to change the function sin nθ into powers of sin θ, express sin nθ
as the imaginary part (Im) of cos nθ + i sin nθ. You then expand the RHS of
sin nθ = Im(cos θ + i sin θ)n and extract the imaginary terms.
Review exercises
1 Find all solutions of z2 = −25i.
2 Solve (z i)4 = 81(z + 2)4
3 Express sin2 5θ in terms of z, where z = cos θ + i sin θ
4 Express cos6 θ in terms of sines and cosines of multiple angles.
Practice examination questions
1 a i Express each of the numbers and 1 − i in the form ,
where r > 0. (3 marks)
ii Hence express
in the form , where r > 0. (3 marks)
b Solve the equation
giving your answers in the form , where a is a positive integer, and
. (4 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2010
2 Use de Moivre’s theorem to nd the smallest positive angle for which
(5 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2007
3 a i Use de Moivre’s theorem to show that
and nd a similar expression for . (5 marks)
ii Deduce that
(3 marks)
b Explain why is a root of the equation
and write down the other three roots of this equation in
trigonometrical form. (3 marks)
c Deduce that
(5 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2011
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4 a Express in the form , where r > 0 and (3 marks)
b i Solve the equation , giving your answers in the form
, where r > 0 and (4 marks)
ii e roots of the equation are represented by the
points P, Q and R on an Argand diagram.
Find the area of the triangle PQR, giving your answer in the form
, where k is an integer. (3 marks)
c By considering the roots of the equation , show that
. (4 marks)
AQA MFP2 January 2013
5 a i Show that is a root of the equation . (1 mark)
ii Write down the ve other non-real roots in terms of . (2 marks)
b Show that
. (2 marks)
c Show that
i (3 marks)
ii (4 marks)
AQA MFP2 January 2010
6 a i By applying de Moivre’s theorem to , show that
. (3 marks)
ii Find a similar expression for . (1 mark)
iii Deduce that
. (3 marks)
b i Hence show that is a root of the cubic equation
. (3 marks)
ii Find two other values of , where , for which is a root
of this cubic equation. (2 marks)
c Hence show that
. (6 marks)
AQA MFP2 January 2008
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21 Polar Coordinates
Introduction Objectives
Coordinates tell us the location of something. Imagine programming a By the end of this chapter,
robot that mops the oor. Cartesian coordinates tell the robot how far to go you should know how to:
east and then how far north. Polar coordinates, in contrast, would tell the ▶ Relate Cartesian and
robot which direction to face (how much to rotate) and then how far to go polar coordinates.
in that direction. ▶ Convert Cartesian
coordinates into polar
and vice versa.
▶ Sketch many curves
Recap given in the form
You will need to remember . . .
▶ Trigonometric identities such as the double-angle formula ▶ Use a formula to nd
, and how to use them to integrate functions such the sector area under
as a curve given in terms
▶ How to use angles in radians. of polar coordinates.
▶ e area of a sector of a circle with central angle θ radians and radius r,
is .
21.1 Position of a point
y-axis
e position of a point, P, in a plane can be given in terms of its distance
P (x y )
from a xed point, O, called the , and the angle that OP makes with
pole
a xed line called the . When the position of a point is given
initial line y
in this way, you have the polar coordinates of the point.
In the diagram, the Cartesian coordinates of point P would be given as O x x-axis
(x, y). Its position in polar coordinates would be given as (r, θ), where r
(≥ 0) is the distance of P from the origin, O, and θ is the anticlockwise P (r, θ )
angle that OP makes with the x-axis, which is normally taken as the
r
initial line.
θ is normally measured in radians and its principal value is taken to be
θ
between π and π O Initial line
(x-axis)
Example 1
You have already been
π introduced to the polar
noitseuQ
Plot the point P with polar coordinates 4, and the point Q with coordinates
6 coordinates in Chapter 2
π
2, Complex Numbers.
3
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FP2 2.3 21
P
Note
4
Draw the line OP at
π
6 Note radians to the x-axis. Make
O x OP = 4 units. Then P is the
rewsnA
Draw the line OQ at point identied.
O radians to the x-axis. The
π x
3 negative value of the angle
2 means that is measured in
Q a clockwise direction from
the x-axis. Make OQ = 2 units.
Then Q is the point identied.
Connection between polar and Cartesian coordinates
You saw in Chapter 2 Complex Numbers that there is a relationship between the
polar and Cartesian coordinates. For example, from the diagram you can see
that the point P is (x y) in Cartesian coordinates and (r θ) in polar coordinates,
which leads to:
P
x = r cos θ y = r sin θ
y r
r = x2 + y2 tan θ = y
x
If either x or y is negative, you should refer to the position of the point θ
O x x
to determine the value of θ because the inverse tangent returns only
π π
values of θ between − < θ <
2 2
You can use the above equations to convert the equation of a curve from its
Cartesian form to its polar form, or vice versa.
Example 2 y
1
noitseuQ
Find the polar equation of the curve x2 + y2 = 2x.
0 x
Substituting x = r cos θ y = r sin θ into x2 + y2 = 2x r2cos2 θ + r2sin2 θ = 2r cos θ
1
⇒ r2(cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = 2r cos θ
rewsnA
⇒ r2 = 2r cos θ
⇒ r = 2 cos θ (since r ≠ 0)
Hence, the polar equation of the given curve is r = 2 cos θ
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Example 3
noitseuQ
Convert the Cartesian coordinates ( 1, − 3) into polar form.
2
r= 1+ ( 3 ) = 2 Note Note
3 Using . To nd the value of θ, rst
tan θ =
1 nd the angle using the
π
Note formula tan θ = and then
rewsnA
tan 1
3=
3
To nd the angle with the make sure you pick the
2π
erefore, =
π
−π = −
same tangent in the correct corresponding value of θ in
3 3
quadrant, add or subtract π to the correct quadrant.
ensure that the value of θ is
in the interval .
Example 4
noitseuQ
Find the Cartesian equation of the curve r = a cos θ
Note
Multiply r = a cos θ by r
r2 = ar cos θ
Substituting r2 = x2 + y2 and x = r cos θ
Note
rewsnA
x2 + y2 = ax
2 2
This is a circle with centre
a a
⇒ x
2
2
+y =
2
and radius .
Exercise 1
1 Plot the points with the following polar coordinates.
π 2π π
a 3, b 2, c 3,
4 3 3
3π π
d 2, e 4,
2 4
2 Find the Cartesian equation of each of these curves.
a r=4 b r cos θ = 3 c r sin θ = 7
2
d r = a(1 + cos θ) e = 1 + cos θ
r
3 Find the polar equation of each of these curves.
x2 y2
a x2 + y2 = 9 b xy = 16 c + = 1
9 16
d x2 + y2 = 6x e (x2 + y2)2 = x2 y2
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FP2 2.3 21
21.2 Sketching curves given in polar
coordinates
e normal way to sketch a curve expressed in polar coordinates is to plot
points roughly using simple values of θ. Sometimes polar curves are closed;
each area that is enclosed is called a loop of the curve.
Note that throughout this chapter, you will require that r is positive in order
for a point to be on a curve.
To sketch a curve in polar coordinates, start by creating a table for some points
on the curve. For example, let’s sketch the curve of r = a cos 3θ
π π π π 5π 11π 2π 13π 7π 5π
θ 0
18 9 6 2 9 18 3 18 9 6
3 1 1 3 3 1
r a a a 0 0 a a a a a 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
Since r must always be positive, the curve does not exist for any values that
make r negative, so these values should θ=
π
2π 2π = − 1 a. 6
not be plotted. For example, when θ = r = a cos
9 3 2 θ = 5π
2π 6
is means that the curve does not exist when θ = . Similarly,
9
the curve does not exist for any value of θ between a
O
π π 5π 7π 9π 11π 13π 15π
and and and and
6 2 6 6 6 6 6 6
Plotting the values given in the table and joining the points gives
a curve with three loops or lobes.
π π 5π
Notice that the half-lines θ = θ = and θ = are all
6 2 6
tangents to the loops. e tangents meet at the origin or pole. All three loops
are congruent
In general, when sketching curves from polar coordinates,
▶ it is useful to look for any symmetry
• if r is a function of cos θ only, there is symmetry about the initial line
π
• if r is a function of sin θ only, there is symmetry about the line θ =
2
▶ the equations r = a sin θ and r = a cos θ are circles
You should recognize r = k as a circle for any positive constant k
Example 5
Sketch r = 1 + 2 cos θ. Part of a table giving values for r is given.
noitseuQ
π π π 2π 2π π π π
θ 0 0
6 3 2 3 3 2 3 6
r 3 1+ 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 1+ 3 3
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1 + 2 cos θ = 0
Note
1
⇒ cos = −
2 To nd when r is negative, Note
2π 4π 2π solve r = 0.
⇒ =
3 3
or −
3
Sketch r = 1 + 2 cos θ
2π 4π Note
erefore, 1 + 2 cos θ is negative for <θ < Note
3 3 Since only positive values
The dashed part represents
of r are relevant, the curve
rewsnA
the negative values of r, which
does not exist for values of
are commonly displayed by
θ between graphics calculators, but you
and should not be shown on should exclude completely
O your sketch. Some graphing from any sketch you draw.
calculators include negative
values of r, which you should
ignore.
When a polar equation contains sec θ or cosec θ, it is often easier to use its
Cartesian equation when sketching the curve.
Example 6
noitseuQ
Sketch r = a sec θ
Note
r = sec θ =
a
a
Convert the polar form into
cos θ Cartesian.
⇒ cos θ =
r a
⇒ x = a
Note
rewsnA
Using trigonometric identity,
a
Note
O
x = is the straight line shown.
a
Example 7
noitseuQ
Sketch r = a sec(α θ)
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FP2 2.3 21
α θ) = a
r cos(
Note Note
r cos θ cos α + r sin θ sin α = a
Transpose terms using Using the trigonometric identity,
x cos α + y sin α = a
cos(u + v) = cos u cos v + sin u sin v
, since cos θ
a cosec α appears in many polar
α coordinate identities and sec θ Note
rewsnA
is less easy to work with.
O x Sketch the curve.
a sec α Note
Replace r cos θ with x and
r sin θ with y, using
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ
Example 8
e curve S is given by the formula r = 8(1 − cos θ ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π .
e circle C with Cartesian equation x 2 + y 2 = 16 intersects the curve S at the
noitseuQ
points A and B
a Find the polar coordinates of the points of intersection.
b Show that the length of AB is 4 3.
a e polar equation of C is r 2 = 16 , so r = 4 . Note Note
At A and B, 4 = 8(1 − cosθ ) First ensure that both Find all possible points
1 equations are in polar form. of intersection by
erefore cos θ =
2 nding all solutions of
π 5π
θ = or ,
3 3
π 5π
e points of intersection are 4, and 4,
3
rewsnA
and not only the principal value.
3
b B
θ Note Note
O
A Sketch the graph. It would be possible to convert
A and B into Cartesian
Using the diagram, coordinates to nd the
length AB = 2r sinθ =4 3 distance between them, but
it’s easier to think about
where the points are.
Exercise 2
1 Sketch each of these curves.
a r =4 b r cos θ=3 c r sin θ=7
2
d r = a(1 + cos θ) e = 1 + cos θ
r
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2 Sketch each of these curves.
a r = a sin 2θ, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
b r = a cos 4θ, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
c r = 2 + 3 cos θ, π≤θ<π
d r = a θ, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
π π
e r = 4 sec θ, − ≤θ <
2 2
3 Sketch the curve r = (4 + 2 cos θ ) sin θ ,0 ≤ θ ≤ π .
4 Circle C is given by the equation x 2 + ( y − 8)2 = 64
a Prove that this locus can be written as r = 16sin θ .
b Curve S is given by r = 8 sin θ + 4,0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π . e circle C meets the
curve S at points P and Q
e point M is the point so that OPMQ is a rhombus. Find the area of the
rhombus OPMQ
21.3 Area of a sector of a curve
You already know from your A-level mathematics studies that integration can
a
where a and b are the real number boundaries of the interval.
∫
be used to nd the area under a curve using the general expression f( x ) d x ,
b
Now you will look at how to nd the area of a sector of a curve. If you have the
equation for part of a curve given in polar coordinates, there is a general
formula that you can use.
Let A be the area bounded by the curve r = f(θ) and the two radii at α and at θ
As θ increases by δθ, the increase in area, δA, (shaded in the diagram) is given by
1 2 1 r= θ
f( )
r δθ ≤ δ A ≤ (r + δ r ) 2 δθ (using areas of sectors)
2 2
Dividing throughout by δθ, you obtain
r +δ r θ + δ θ
( )
1 2 δA 1
r ≤ ≤ (r + δ r ) 2
2 δθ 2
δA dA rθ
As → 0, → and δ r → 0. erefore, you have ( , )
δθ dθ r + δr
dA 1 2
= r r
dθ 2 δθ
Integrating both sides with respect to θ, you obtain
dA 1 α θ
∫ dθ dθ = ∫ 2 r 2 dθ
O
1
⇒ =∫
A r 2 dθ
2
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Tip
β
1 2
e general equation for the area of a sector of a curve is A = ∫ r dθ ,
2 When applying this formula,
when the area is bounded by the radii θ = α and θ = β α
it is important to remember
θ=
π that r must be dened and be
6
non-negative throughout the
θ = 5π interval α ≤ θ ≤ β
6
O a
When nding the area using the general equation for the area of a sector of a
curve, you should rst sketch the curve as this makes it easier for you to nd
the boundaries.
Example 9
noitseuQ
Find the area of one loop of the curve r = a cos 3θ
1
6 Note Note
A = ∫ r 2 dθ
2 π You know from your sketch
6
in Example 4 that one loop is Using .
bounded by the tangent lines
π
6
1
⇒ A= a 2 cos2 3θ dθ
2∫π
Note
rewsnA
6
π Using the double-angle
6
1 1 formula, cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ 1,
A = a 2 ∫ (cos6θ + 1)dθ
2 2 to integrate.
π
6
π
a 2 sin 6θ 6 a2 π π a 2π
= +θ = + =
4 6
π
6
4 6 6 12
a 2π
So, the area of one loop of r = a cos 3θ is
12
When a curve is symmetrical in other quadrants, it is often better to use only
the area in the rst quadrant. erefore in Example 9, you could have used
π π
6 6
1 2 2
2 × ∫ a 2 cos2 3θ dθ instead of using a cos 3θ dθ .
0
2∫ π
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Example 10
π
e curve r = kθ and the half-lines = and θ = π intersect.
2
noitseuQ
π
a Sketch the curve of r = kθ for ≤θ ≤ π
2
π
b Find the area bounded by the curve r = kθ and the half-lines θ = and θ = π .
2
a
kπ
2
kπ
rewsnA
π
1 2 2
b A =
2π ∫
k θ dθ
Note
2
π
k θ 3
2 2
π 3 π 3 7 2π 3
k k
Using .
= = − =
2 3 π 2 3 24 48
2
7 k 2π 3
Hence, the required area is
48
Example 11
Sketch the curves r = 1 + cos θ and r = 3 sin θ. Find Note
noitseuQ
a the points where the curves meet Before sketching the two
b the area of the region enclosed by the two curves. curves, you should note that
r = 1 + cos θ is similar to
r = 1 + 2 cos θ (Example 5 )
P (32 , π3 )
and sin θ is similar to
r = a cos θ (Example 4 );
curves of the form r = a + b
cos n θ have a similar shape.
O 1 2 x
Note
rewsnA
The two curves meet when
. To solve
θ θ the equation, there are two
a sinθ ≡ sin + Note
2 2 possible approaches: you can
use double angle formulae; or, Using sin 2x = 2 sinx cosx
θ θ
≡ 2 sin cos use the harmonic form to write
2 2
A sin θ + B cos θ in the form
θ . Here, double
Note
cos θ ≡ 2 cos2 1
2 angle formulae have been used. Using .
(continued)
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(continued)
Express 1 + cos θ = 3 sinθ as
θ θ θ
1 + 2 cos2 − 1 = 2 3 sin cos
2 2 2
θ θ θ
2 cos2 = 2 3 sin cos
2 2 2
θ θ
cos = 3 sin or
θ
cos = 0
2 2 2
θ
tan =
1
⇒ 2 or θ=π
3
θ π π
⇒ = ⇒θ =
2 6 3
3 π
erefore, the curves meet at
2 3 and (0, π).
b
P
Note Note
These are polar coordinates The shaded region in the
rewsnA
(r, θ). To nd the area diagram is bounded by the
O x contained between the curve sin θ and
π
3
curves, you draw the line the two radii
1
∫( ) 2
Area = 3 sin θ dθ OP and consider separately
2 0 the two areas so formed.
P
O x Note
π
1 The shaded region is bounded
Area =
2π∫(1 + cos θ )2 dθ by the curve r = 1 + cos θ and
3 the two radii
erefore,
π
3 π
1 1
∫( )
2
2 0
3 sinθ dθ +
2 ∫ (1 + cos θ ) dθ
π
2
π
3 Note
3 π
1 1 Add the two areas together.
=
20 ∫
3 sin 2 θ dθ +
2π ∫
(1 + 2 cos θ + cos 2 θ )dθ
3
(continued)
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(continued)
π
3 π
3 1 1 1
= (1 − cos 2θ )dθ + ∫ 1 + 2 cos θ + (cos 2θ + 1) dθ
4 ∫0 2 2 π
2
3 1 1 3 1
π
3
= θ − sin2θ + θ + 2sinθ + sin2θ
2 2 2 2 4
rewsnA
π
0
3
3π 3 1 3π 3π 3
= − + − − 3−
4 3 4 2 2 6 8
3π 3 3
= −
4 4
3π 3 3
erefore, the area contained within the curves is
4 4
Exercise 3
π
1 Find the area bounded by the curve r = aθ and the radii = ,θ = π .
2
2 For each of these curves, nd the area enclosed by one loop.
a r = cos 2θ
a
b r = sin 2θ
a
c r = cos 4θ
a
3 Find the area enclosed by the curve r = a cos θ
4 Find the area enclosed by the curve r = 2 + 3 cos θ
5 a Find the polar equation of the curve (x2 + y2)3 = y4
b Hence
i sketch the curve
ii nd the area enclosed by the curve.
6 Find where these two curves intersect.
r = 2 sin θ 0 ≤θ <π
and r = 2(1 sin θ) π<θ<π
Hence, nd the area which is between the two curves.
7 e curve, S, is given by r = 1 + sin 2θ for π ≤ θ ≤ π. Find θ when r = 0 and
hence nd the area of one loop.
Summary
▶ e position of a point in polar coordinates is given as (r, θ), where r (≥ 0)
is the distance of P from the pole, O, and θ is the anticlockwise angle that
OP makes with the initial line (usually the x-axis).
▶ θ is normally measured in radians and its principal value is taken to be
between π and π
▶ You can convert Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates, and vice versa,
using the formulae
x = cos θ
r y = sin θ
r tan
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▶ To sketch a curve given in polar coordinates, plot some points roughly
using simple values of θ and join using a smooth curve. Since r must always
be positive, you should not sketch points where r is negative. In general,
• it is useful to look for any symmetry
– if r is a function of cos θ only, there is symmetry about the initial line
– if r is a function of sin θ only, there is symmetry about the line
• the equations r = a sin θ and r = a cos θ are circles.
▶ You should recognize as a circle for any positive constant k
▶ When a polar equation contains sec θ or cosec θ, it is often easier to use its
Cartesian equation when sketching the curve.
▶ When you are given part of a curve in polar coordinates, you can nd
the area of the sector using the formula .
Review exercises
1 Find the Cartesian equation of r = a( 1 cos θ).
2 Find the polar equation of x2 + y2 + 8y = 16.
3 a Show that y2 = 1 − 2x can be written as .
b A curve has Cartesian equation y = 1 2x. Find its polar equation.
2
4 A curve has polar equation for .
a Sketch the curve.
b Find the area of the region bounded by the curve.
Practice examination questions
1 e diagram shows a sketch of a loop, the pole O and the initial line.
O
e polar equation of the loop is .
Find the area enclosed by the loop. (6 marks)
AQA MFP3 January 2009
2 A curve has polar equation . Find its Cartesian equation in
the form . (4 marks)
AQA MFP3 June 2014
3 e Cartesian equation of a circle is .
Using the origin O as the pole and the positive x-axis as the initial line,
nd the polar equation of this circle, giving your answer in the form
. (4 marks)
AQA MFP3 June 2013
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4 e diagram shows a sketch of a curve C, the pole O and the initial line.
O Initial line
e polar equation of C is .
Show that the area of the shaded region, bounded by the curve C and the
initial line, is . (4 marks)
AQA MFP3 June 2012
5 e diagram shows a sketch of the curve C with polar equation
Initial line
O
a Find the area of the region bounded by the curve C. (6 marks)
b A circle, whose Cartesian equation is , intersects
the curve C at the points A and B
i Find, in surd form, the length of AB. (6 marks)
ii Find the perimeter of the segment AOB of the circle, where O is
the pole. (3 marks)
AQA MFP3 January 2012
6 A curve C has polar equation
a Find the Cartesian equation of C, giving your answer in the
form y2 = f(x). (5 marks)
b e straight line with polar equation intersects the curve C
at the points P and Q. Find the length of PQ. (4 marks)
AQA MFP3 January 2011
7 e curve C1 is dened by
e curve C2 is dened by
a Find a Cartesian equation of C1. (3 marks)
b i Prove that the curves C1 and C2 meet at the pole O and at one
other point, P, in the given domain. State the polar coordinates
of P. (4 marks)
ii e point A is the point on the curve C1 at which .
e point B is the point on the curve C2 at which .
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FP2 2.3 21
Determine which of the points A or B is further away from the
pole O, justifying your answer. (2 marks)
iii Show that the area of the region bounded by the arc OP of C1 and
the arc OP of C2 is , where a and b are rational
numbers. (10 marks)
AQA MFP3 June 2011
8 e polar equation of a curve C1 is
a i Find the Cartesian equation of C1. (4 marks)
ii Deduce that C1 is a circle and nd its radius and the Cartesian
coordinates of its centre. (3 marks)
b e diagram shows the curve C2 with polar equation
i Find the area of the region that is bounded by C2. (6 marks)
ii Prove that the curves C1 and C2 do not intersect. (4 marks)
iii Find the area of the region that is outside C1 but inside C2. (2 marks)
AQA MFP3 June 2010
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The Calculus of Inverse
22 Trigonometrical Functions
Introduction Objectives
You know from previous studies how to dierentiate the trigonometric By the end of this chapter,
functions sine, cosine and tangent. It is also possible to dierentiate the you should know how to:
inverses of these functions; the results are familiar rational functions. ▶ Sketch the graphs of
e inverse functions are very useful in calculus. A useful application is inverse trigonometric
to integrate functions of the form or , for a given constant a functions.
▶ Use the derivatives
of and
▶ Integrate functions in
Recap
You will need to remember . . . the form ,
▶ Dierentiate and integrate standard trigonometrical functions, for
and
example sin x, with x in radians.
▶ Find integrals such as using appropriate identities. ▶ Integrate functions in
▶ Simplify trigonometric equations using appropriate trigonometric the form
identities and formulae.
22.1 Inverse trigonometric functions
e inverse function sin 1x, is dened as the angle whose sine is x. For example,
π 1 1 π
sin = ⇒ sin 1 =
6 2 2 6
Hence, if θ = sin 1x, then sin θ = x.
1
If sin θ = , then there are innitely many possible values of θ. If you use only
2 π π
values of sin 1 x that return a value of θ in the interval − ≤ θ ≤ then it ensures
2 2
the function sin 1 x has only one value for any given input x
Occasionally, arcsin x is used instead of sin 1 x and arctan x instead of tan 1 x .
Don’t be confused by the notation sin 1 x . In the past you have used positive
powers of sin x to mean sin 3 x = ( sin x ) and this is still correct. However, sin 1 x
3
1
is not the same as ; instead, it is a special notation to mean the inverse of
sin x
sin x
d
Recall from your A-level mathematics studies that sin x = cos x only because x
dx
is measured in radians. If you tried the same in degrees, the formula would be
more complicated. e same applies here; any mention of angles in this chapter
assumes that they are measured in radians
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Example 1
noitseuQ
2π
If sin 1 x = find cos 1 x .
5
2π 2π Note
sin 1 x = → sin =x
5 5 Using the identity
rewsnA
2π π 2π π
sin = cos = cos sin θ = cos .
5 2 5 10
π
∴ cos 1 x =
10
Sketching inverse trigonometric functions
You should already be very familiar with the shape of some trigonometric functions.
y y = cos x y y = sec x
3
1 2
1
0 0
π π 3π 2π x π π 3π 2π x
2 2 1 2 2
1 2
3
y y = sin x
y y = cosec x
3
1 2
1
0
π π 3π 2π t 0
π π 3π 2π x
2 2 1 2 2
1
2
3
y y = tan x
y y = cot x
3
3
2
2
1
1
π π 0 π π x
2 1 2 π π 0 π π x
2 1 2
2
2
3
3
When sketching these functions, it is useful to remember the key coordinates:
π 3π
▶ sin x: sin 0 = 0, sin = 1, sin π = 0, sin = −1 and sin 2π = 0.
2 2
π 3π
▶ cos x: cos 0 = 1, cos = 0, cos π = −1, cos = 0 and cos 2π = 1.
2 2
▶ tan x: tan 0 = 0, tan π = 0 and tan 2 π = 0; the following are vertical asymptotes:
π 3π
tan , tan etc.
2 2
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Inverse sine graph
Before sketching an inverse trigonometric function it is important to dene its
domain.
e domain (possible x-values) of y = sin 1 x is 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and the range (y-values)
π π Note
is ≤ sin 1 x ≤ . e graph of y = sin 1 x is obtained by reecting the graph of
2 2 Restrict the domain so that the
y = sin x in the line y = x for 1 ≤ x ≤ 1. graph of sin 1 x is a function.
To draw the sketch to an acceptable degree of accuracy, you need to nd the
gradient of the sine curve at the origin. To do this, you dierentiate y = sin x,
dy Note
which gives = cos x
dx
dy We restrict the domain so that
At the origin, where x = 0, you have = cos 0 = 1
dx sin 1 x has only one value.
So, the gradient of y = sin x at the origin is 1.
For example, we want to
You then proceed as follows: make sure that sin 1 0 is not
▶ Draw the line y = x. Show this as a dashed line. simultaneously dened to be
▶ Next, carefully sketch the graph of y = sin x across the domain of y = sin 1 x, nπ for every integer n. By
remembering that y = x is a tangent to y = sin x at the origin. convention, the values of
▶ Finally, carefully sketch the reection of y = sin x in the line y = x, to give sin 1 x are all required to be in
the graph shown below. the interval < sin 1 x <
y
π
2
1 1 x
π
2
e graphs of other inverse trigonometric functions are found similarly: that is,
by reecting the graph of the relevant trigonometric function in the line y = x
across its domain. If the curve of the function passes through the origin, start by
nding its gradient at that point.
Inverse tangent graph
π π
y = tan 1 x has all values of x as its domain and < tan 1 x <
as its range.
2 2
e graphs of y = tan x and y = tan x (or arctan x) are shown below.
1
y
π
2
π
4
10 5 0 5 10 x
π
4
π
2
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FP2 2.7 22
Inverse cosine graph
y = cos−1 x has 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 as its domain and 0 ≤ cos−1 x ≤ π as its range. e graphs
of y = cos x and y = cos−1 x (or y = arccos x) are shown below.
y
π
1 0 1 x
Exercise 1
1 Find the value of each of these inverse functions. Tip
1 3
a sin 1 0.5 b sin 1 c cos 1
2
2 From your earlier studies, you
should know how to use your
d tan 1 1 e sec 1
2 f cot 1 3 calculator to work these out.
2 Sketch the graph of each of these inverse functions.
a sec 1 x b cosec 1 x c cot 1 x
2π
3 If cos 1 x = , nd sin 1 x
5
Prove that tan 1
1 + x = π + tan 1 x
4
1 x 4
22.2 Dierentiation and integration of
inverse trigonometric functions
You should already know from earlier studies how to dierentiate and integrate
trigonometric functions.
▶ If f(x) = sin x, then f ′(x) = cos x
▶ If f(x) = cos x then f ′(x) = −sin x
▶ If f(x) = tan x then f ′(x) = sec2 x
1
▶ ∫ sin ax d x = − cos ax + C
a
1
▶ ∫ cos ax d x = a sin ax + C
1 1
▶ ∫ tan ax d x = − a ln | cos ax | +C = a ln | sec ax | + C
You will now look at how to dierentiate and integrate inverse trigonometric
functions. To dierentiate, convert the trigonometric function into the form
sin/cos/tan y = x rst, and then dierentiate. You then use the derivative to help
you identify the associated standard integral.
sin 1 x
If y = sin 1 x, then sin y = x.
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Dierentiating sin y = x, you obtain
dy dy 1 1
cos y =1⇒ = =±
dx dx cos y 1 sin 2 y
Since cos2 y = 1 sin2 y, cos y = ± 1 − sin 2 y
As the gradient of y = sin 1 x is always positive we accept only the positive value
Since the gradient of sin 1 x is positive, we use only the positive square root.
dy 1
So =
dx 1 sin 2 y
1
=
1 x2
You can use this derivative to help you identify the associated standard integral
(by reversing the dierentiation process):
∫
dx
= sin 1 x + c
1 x2
Similarly, if = sin 1 , then sin =
x x
y y
a a
Dierentiating, you get
dy 1 dy 1 1
cos y = ⇒ = =
dx a dx a cos y a 1 sin 2 y
dy 1 1
⇒ = =
dx x
2
a
2
x
2
1
a
a
erefore, you have
x
If f(x) = sin , then 1
a
d x 1
▶ sin 1 = , where (|x| < a)
dx a a 2
x2
∫
dx x
▶ = sin 1 + c
a 2
x 2 a
cos 1 x
If = cos
y
1
x , you can show that,
∫
d 1 dx
cos 1 x = and = − cos 1 x + c
dx 1 x2 1 x2
π
In the diagram, sin θ = x, cos ϕ = x and = −θ
2
y
π
erefore, you have θ = sin 1
x and ϕ = cos 1
x , giving sin −1 x = − cos −1 x π
2
∫
dx
So, you get = sin 1
x + c π
1 x2 2
π
= −cos 1 + ′ where ′ =
x c , c + c.
2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 x
erefore, it is unusual to use a function in cos 1 x in dierentiation or
in integration, as it is simply an alternative to sin 1 x
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FP2 2.7 22
tan 1 x
If y = tan 1 x you can show that
d 1 dx
tan 1 x = −
and ∫ = tan 1 x + c
−
dx 1+ x 2 1+ x 2
1
x x
If y = tan , then tan y =
a a
x
Dierentiating tan y = , you obtain
a
dy 1
sec2 y =
dx a
⇒ dy =
1
=
1
=
1
2
dx a sec2 y a (1 + tan 2 y ) x
a 1 +
a
dy a
⇒ =
dx a2 + x2
erefore,
d x a dx 1 x
tan 1
= and ∫ = tan 1
+c
dx a a 2
+x 2
a 2
+x 2
a a
ese formulae can help you to dierentiate related inverse functions.
Example 2
Dierentiate each of these inverse functions.
x
noitseuQ
1
a i sin ii sin 14x
3
1
x
b tan
5
d x 1
a i sin 1 = Note
dx 3 9 x2
d d 1
sin 1 x1 Using
ii sin 1 4 x = − −
=
dx dx 4 1
16 x2
rewsnA
d 4
⇒ sin 1 4 x =
dx 1 16 x 2
1
Note
d 1
x 5 5
b tan =
=
dx 5
1+
x 25 + x 2
5
Using
e standard integrals of inverse trigonometric functions can be used to
integrate functions that contain complex numbers.
1
You can integrate any function of the form 2 , using one of three ways:
ax + bx + c
▶ you can factorise the denominator and use partial fractions if
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has distinct real roots
▶ you can factorise and use substitution if the roots are equal
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▶ if the roots are complex, you can complete the square to express the
quadratic in the form a(x + b)2 + c where C is an arbitrary constant and
dx 1 x
then use the formula tan 1 + C .
∫
=
2 2
x +a a a
1
Hence, you should now be able to integrate any function of the form
2
1 ax + bx + c
and functions such as 2 2
using algebraic manipulation and your formula
a x
booklet. In this chapter, the focus is integrating a function whose denominator
has complex roots.
You need to make sure that the coecient of x2 is 1 before you can apply the
appropriate formula.
Example 3
Evaluate Note
noitseuQ
2 1
Here the denominators of both
1 1 functions are already in the
a ∫ dx b ∫ dx
0
4 x
2
0
4 3x 2 form that suggests using an
inverse trigonometric function.
2 2
1
Note
x
1
a ∫ dx = sin
0
4 x
2
2
0
π
= sin 1 1 − sin 1 0 =
− −
− 0 Using
2
2
1 π
erefore, ∫ dx = .
0
4 x
2 2
1 1
1 1 1
b dx dx Note
∫ 3∫
=
4 3x 2 4 2
3 x
rewsnA
0 0
1 For integrals in this form,
1 1 always reduce the coefcient
dx
3∫
=
2
2
2 of x 2 to unity before integrating.
0 ( 3)
x
1
1 3x
sin
1
=
3
2
0
1 3 1 π
= sin − 1
sin 1 0−
= ×
3
2 3 3
1
1 π π 3
Hence, ∫ dx = or
0
4 3x 2
3 3 9
Example 4
noitseuQ
3
1
Evaluate ∫ dx
0
9 + x
2
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FP2 2.7 22
3 3
1 1 1
x Note Note
∫ 9 + x2 dx = tan
3 3 0
0
Again, the denominator
rewsnA
1 1 1 π Using is already in a form that
= tan 1 1 − tan 1 0 = ×
− −
3 3 3 4 suggests using an inverse
3
1 π trigonometric function.
erefore, ∫ dx =
0
9 + x
2
12
Example 5
noitseuQ
1
Find dx
∫ 16 + 25 x 2
1 1 1 Note
dx = dx
∫ 16 + 25 x 2 25 ∫ 16
25 + x2
Reduce the coefcient of x 2
1 1 to unity before integrating.
= dx
∫ 2
rewsnA
25 ( 5 ) + x 2
4
1 1 x Note
= × tan 1
+ c
25 54
4
5
1 1 5x Using
1
erefore, dx = tan + c
∫ 16 + 25 x 2 20
4
Example 6
noitseuQ
dx
Find ∫
x2 + 6 x + 25
Note
In this question, you would try to factorise the quadratic, or by inspection realise that
the denominator here does not have real factors. Therefore, you anticipate that the
rewsnA
integral will be an inverse trigonometric function and you start by using the method of
completing the square to turn the quadratic denominator into the form a(x + b)2 + c
Then you reduce the coefcient of (x + b)2 to unity so that you can use the standard
integration formula with (x + b) replacing x
(continued)
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(continued)
Completing the square: x2 + 6x + 25 = (x + 3)2 + 16
dx dx Note Note
erefore, ∫ =
∫ ( x + 3) 2 + 16
6 x + 25
rewsnA
x2 +
dx 1 x + 3 Using
= tan 1
c same form as ,
+
∫ ( x + 3)2 + 16 4
4
with (x + 3) replacing x and
4 replacing a Formally,
you can use integration by
Example 7 substitution with u = x + 3
but then , and so the
noitseuQ
dx
Find ∫ substitution is trivial.
11 − 8 x − 4 x 2
11 − 8 x − 4 x 2 = − (4 x 2 + 8 x − 11)
Note
To convert 11 8x 4x 2 into
11
=
2
−4 x + 2 x −
the form a(x + b)2 + c, it is
4 easier rst to factorise out the
minus sign, and then take
15
Completing the square: 11 − 8 x − 4 x 2 = −4 ( x + 1) 2 − the sign back inside when
4
the square is completed. The
= 15 − 4( x + 1)2 minus sign must be kept
within the square root.
rewsnA
15
= 2 − ( x + 1)
2
4
dx 1 dx
∫ 2∫
=
11 − 8 x − 4 x 2 15
4 − ( x + 1)2
1
x + 1 Note
= sin 1
+ c
2
15
4
dx 1 2( x + 1) Using
1
erefore, ∫ = sin
+ c
11 − 8 x − 4 x 2 2 15
Exercise 2
1 Dierentiate each of the following with respect to x
a sin 1 5x b tan 1 3x
c sin 1
2x d sin 1 x2
1
x
e tan f (3tan–1 5x)4
1 + x2
g (sin 1 2x)3
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2 Find each of the following integrals.
dx dx dx
a ∫ b ∫ c ∫
4 x2 9 x2 25 4 x 2
dx dx dx
d e f
∫ 9 + x2 ∫ 16 + x 2 ∫ 9 + 25 x 2
3 Evaluate these denite integrals, giving the exact value of your answers.
1 2 3
dx dx dx
a ∫ b ∫ c ∫
0
1 x2 0
4 + x2 0
9 x2
1
5
2
dx dx
d e ∫ 1 25 x 2
∫ 4 + 3x 2 1
0
5
4 Evaluate these denite integrals, giving your answers correct to three
signicant gures.
0.1 2
dx dx
a ∫ b ∫
0
4 25 x 2 4 + 9x 2
1
2 1
dx dx
c ∫ 3 − ( x − 1)2 d ∫
1
4( x + 1)2 + 5
0
2 1
dx dx
e ∫ 20 − 8 x − x 2 f ∫ 16 x 2 + 20 x + 35
0 0
7
10
5 Find the exact value of dx
∫ 25 16 x 2
0
Summary
▶ sin 1 x (arcsin x), cos 1 x (arccos x), and tan 1 x (arctan x) are inverse
trigonometric functions.
▶ You can use the fact that if θ = sin 1 x, then sin θ = x to nd the values of
other inverse functions. In order to ensure that sin 1 x is a function (and
therefore has only one value) we use the convention that < sin 1 x <
(in radians).
▶ To ensure that cos 1 x is a function, we use the convention that 0 < cos 1 x < π
▶ To ensure that tan 1 x is a function, we stipulate that < tan−1 x < π.
▶ To sketch an inverse trigonometric function:
• If the curve passes through the origin, start by nding its gradient at
that point.
• Draw the line y = x; show this as a dashed line.
• Sketch the graph of the trigonometric function across the domain of
the inverse trigonometric function, then sketch the reection in the
line y = x.
• ensure that the graph is a function by restricting the range to ensure
that, for example, 0 < cos−1 x < π, using the convention for each inverse
function, above.
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▶ Use the conventions described in the text to ensure that the inverse given is
in fact a function.
▶ You can use the formula booklet to nd the derivatives of inverse sine,
cosine and tangent functions.
• If f(x) = sin 1 x then f ′(x) =
• If f(x) , then , where (|x| < a) and
• If y = cos 1 x, and
• If y = tan 1 x,
• If y = tan 1
, and
▶ You can integrate any function of the form , using one of three ways.
• You can factorise the denominator and use partial fractions if
has distinct real roots.
• You can factorise and use substitution if the roots are equal.
• If the roots are complex, you can complete the square and use the
formula
▶ You can nd integrals such as using algebraic manipulation
and your formula booklet.
Review exercises
1 Dierentiate both of the following with respect to x
a b (sin–1 2x)3
2 Find both of the following integrals.
a b
3 Find 4 Find
5 Find 6 Find
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Practice examination questions
1 a Express 7 + 4x 2x2 in the form a − b(x − c)2, where a, b and c are
integers. (2 marks)
b By means of a suitable substitution, or otherwise, nd the exact
value of
(6 marks)
AQA MFP2 January 2012
2 By using the substitution u = x 2, or otherwise, nd the exact value of
(5 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2008
3 a Given that , nd . (2 marks)
b Use integration by parts to show that
where a and b are rational numbers. (6 marks)
AQA MFP2 January 2011
4 a Dierentiate with respect to x. (2 marks)
b Show that
(5 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2007
5 e function f, where , has domain and has inverse
function f 1, where .
a Show that
(2 marks)
b Hence show that
(4 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2012
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23
Arc Length and Area of
Surface of Revolution
Introduction Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to nd the length of various arcs and surfaces By the end of this chapter,
of revolution about the x-axis. Example applications of these results include you should know how to:
nding the arc length that a cricket ball travels assuming that its trajectory is ▶ Calculate the arc
a parabola, or nding the surface area of a rugby ball. length of a curve
using Cartesian
and parametric
techniques.
Recap
▶ Calculate the area
You will need to remember . . .
of the surface of
▶ How to integrate, including by substitution and by parts.
revolution of a curve
▶ How to use trigonometric identities such as .
using Cartesian
▶ How to nd the parametric form of various curves.
and parametric
techniques.
23.1 Arc length
You know from A-level mathematics that the connection between x and y can
be given in Cartesian form, such as y = f(x), or in parametric form. In the latter,
xand y are dened separately as functions of a parameter, a third variable,
usually denoted as t or θ. For example, x = t + 1 and y = t2 − 1 relates to the
coordinate (4, 8) when t = 3. You also know that it is possible to convert
parametric equations into a Cartesian equation and vice versa.
You can calculate the arc length of a curve using coordinates given in either the
Cartesian or the parametric form.
Cartesian form
e length of an arc or a curve can be found by a similar method to that used to See Chapter 6 Calculus for a
dierentiate from rst principles. Consider two points, P and Q, on a curve. P is reminder of dierentiation by
the point (x, y) and Q is the point (x + δx, y + δy). rst principles if you need to.
Let s be the length of the arc from a point T, and δs the length of the arc PQ
y
Since δs is very small, you can approximate the arc PQ to a straight line.
Hence, using Pythagoras’s theorem, you have (δx)2 + (δy)2 = (δs)2 Q (x + δ x, y + δ y )
Dividing by (δx)2, you obtain δs δy
2 2 P (x, y )
δy δs δx
1+ =
δ x δ x
As δx → 0, this gives T
2 2
dy ds
1+ = 0 x
dx dx
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2
ds dy
⇒ = 1 +
dx dx
2
dy dx
erefore, you have s = ∫ 1+
dx
x2
2
dy
If the equation of a curve is y = f(x), then s = ∫ 1 + dx can be used
x
dx
to calculate the length of the arc, s, between the points x1 and x2
1
x2
dy 2
2
Note you might see this as s = 1 + dx , which of course, is
∫
dx x
equivalent. 1
Example 1
noitseuQ
Find the length of the arc of the curve x3 = 3y2 from x = 1 to x = 4.
dy
3x 2 = 6 y Note
dx
dy x 2 Differentiating with respect
= to x
dx 2 y
4 2
dy dx
Arc length ∫ 1
1+
dx
Note
4 2 4
x2 x4
∫
1
1+
2 y
dx =
∫
1
1+
4 y 2
dx Using .
x3
Substituting y 2 = Note
3
rewsnA
4 4 Express the function in terms
3x 4 3x
Arc length ∫
1
1 + 3 dx =
4x ∫ 1
1+
4
dx of one variable.
Use the substitution 1 +
3x
= u2 Note Note
4
Substitute u 2 to avoid dealing Substitute into the original
du 3 8 integral and change the limits
2u = ⇒ u du = dx with square roots.
dx 4 3 to u = 2 (from x = 4) and
2 2
8 2 8 u3
Arc length = ∫
7
3
u du =
9 7
4
(from x = 1).
4
3
64 8 7 2 1
= − = ( 64 − 7 7 )
9 9 4 9
Parametric form
Using the same two points used with the Cartesian form on the diagram on
page 302, P and Q, you can approximate the arc PQ to a straight line:
(δx)2 + (δy)2 = (δs)2
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To obtain the parametric form, you divide (δx)2 + (δy)2 = (δs)2 by (δt)2, where t is
the parameter:
2 2 2
δx δy δs
+ =
δt δt δt
As δt → 0, you have
2 2 2
dx dy ds
+ =
dt dt dt
2 2
⇒ ds dx dy
= +
dt dt dt
which gives
2 2
dx dy
s= ∫ + dt
dt dt
You sometimes express this as Tip
dx dy
s= ∫
x 2 + y 2 dt where x =
dt
and y =
dt You use the dot notation
only when the independent
If the equation of a curve is given in terms of a parameter, t, and the
variable is t, often when
values of each end of an arc are given by t1 and t2, then the length of the
t2
2 2
t represents time. Thus, ẋ
dx
arc can be calculated using s = ∫ dt
+ dy dt usually expresses speed and
t
dt ẋ˙ acceleration.
1
t2
dx 2 dy 2 2
Again, you might see this in the equivalent form: s = + dt .
t1
dt dt
∫
Example 2
noitseuQ
Find the circumference of the circle x2 + y2 = r2.
2π 2 2
dx dy Note
s= ∫
0
+ dθ
dθ dθ
Note
π
Using Using just the part of the
2 2 2
dx dy circle in the rst quadrant and
s=4 ∫ + dθ
dθ dθ then multiply by 4.
rewsnA
0
π
2
and the parametric equations
for a circle: x = r cos θ,
s=4 ∫0
r sin θ + r cos θ dθ
2 2 2 2
y = r sin θ
Note
π Using that the derivative of
2 π
a cos x is a sin x and the
∫
= 4 r dθ = 4 [ rθ ]0 = 2π r
2
0
derivative of r sin x is r cos x
Exercise 1
1 Find the length of the arc of x3 = y2 from x = 0 to x = 3.
2 Find the length of the arc of x3 = 6y2 from x = 1 to x = 2.
3 Find the length of the arc of the parabola x = at2, y = 2at, between the points
(0, 0) and (ap2, 2ap).
4 Find the length of the arc of the cycloid x = a(t + sin t), y = a(l cos t),
between the points t = 0 and t = π
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23.2 Area of a surface of revolution
When a curve, y = f(x), is rotated about the x-axis between the y
lines x = a and x = b, you obtain a three-dimensional body. y = f(x )
Ignoring the plane surfaces at either end of this body, the
surface of this body is known as the surface of revolution.
e area of surface of revolution is the area of this surface
(it is also sometimes known as the curved surface area). e y y + δy
formulae required to nd the value of the area can be given
in both Cartesian and parametric forms. 0 a b x
Let S be the area of the surface formed by rotating the curve
y = f(x) between the lines x = a and x = b, about the x-axis. Let
the curved surface area of the shaded strip be δS
Treating the strip as being bounded by two cylinders, you
have 2πy δs ≤ δ S ≤ 2π(y + δy)δs
As δx → 0, δs → 0, so you have x=a x=b
dS
= 2π y
ds
⇒ ∫
S = 2π y d s
which gives,
2
dy d x
∫
S = 2π y 1 +
dx
or, in parametric form
t2 2 2
dx + dy dt
S = 2π y
∫
t1
dt dt
or ∫
S = 2π y x 2 + y 2 dt
When a curve, y = f(x), is rotated through 2π radians about the x-axis,
the area of surface of revolution can be calculated using:
x2 2
dy dx (in Cartesian form), where the rotation occurs
▶ S = 2 πy 1 +∫
x
dx
between the lines x = x1 and x = x2
t2 2 2
dx + dy
▶ S = 2π y ∫
t
dt dt ∫
dt or S = 2 πy x 2 + y 2 dt (parametric
form), where the rotation occurs between the points dened by t = t1
and t = t2
1
x
dy 2 2
Again, you might see these expressed as S = 2π y 1 + dx and
1 x dx
∫
t
dx 2 dy 2 2
t
∫
S = 2π y + dt respectively.
dt dt
Example 3
noitseuQ
Find the surface area, S, of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = r2
a using the Cartesian form b using the parametric form.
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y
dy
a S = ∫ 2π y 1 + dx
2
Note
dx
2
+ y2 = r2 The sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2
dy
2x + 2y =0 is obtained by rotating
dx
r the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2
which gives
r 0 x
about the x-axis. Hence,
x2 you can use the formula
S = ∫ 2π r 2 − x 2 × 1+ dx
r
y2
r r
z
y2 + x2
∫ 2π r x dx = ∫ 2π r d x
2 2
= −
− r
y2 r −
By symmetry, the integral from x = − r to x = r is twice the integral from x = 0
Note
rewsnA
to x = r. erefore,
r
r
Differentiating x 2 + y 2 = r 2
S = 2 ∫ 2π r d x = [ 4π rx ]0 = 4π r 2
0
gives .
Hence, the surface area of a sphere is 4πr2
b Using the parametric form, x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, for the rotated circle, so
π
S = ∫ 2π sin θ r 2 sin 2 θ + r 2cos 2 θ dθ
π
2
π
= 2 ∫ 2π r sin θ dθ = 4π r 2
0
Hence, the surface area of the sphere is 4πr2
Exercise 2
Find the area of the surface generated by rotating about the x-axis each of the
following.
1 e arc of the curve x = 2t3, y = 3t2, between the points where t = 0 and t = 4.
2 e arc of the curve x = t2, y = 2t, between the points where t = 0 and t = 2.
3 e part of the asteroid x = a cos3t, y = a sin3t, which is above the x-axis.
1
4 e curve y = 5 x 2 , from x = 4 to x = 9.
Summary
▶ If the equation of the curve is y = f(x), the length of an arc can be calculated
using
• (Cartesian form), where the arc is between points
x1 and x2
• (parametric form), where the values of each
end of an arc are given by t1 and t2
▶ When a curve, y = f(x), is rotated through 2π radians about the x-axis, the
area of surface of revolution can be calculated using
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• (Cartesian form), where the rotation occurs
between the lines x1 and x2
• or (parametric form),
where the rotation occurs between the points dened by t1 and t2
Review exercises
1 If , nd the arc length of f(x) between x = 2 and x = 3.
2 Find the arc length of the curve between x = 3 and x = 7.
3 Find the area of the surface of revolution of about the x-axis
between x = 0 and x = h, and use this together with the area of a circle,
A = πr2, to nd the surface area of a cone of radius r and height h
Practice examination questions
1 e arc of the curve with equation between the points where
x = 0 and is rotated by radians about the x-axis. Show that the area
S
(2 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2013
2 a Given that show that (4 marks)
Tip
b A curve is given parametrically by the equations
You can nd the derivatives of
x = ln(sec t + tan t) sin t, y = cos t
trigonometric functions in the
e length of the arc of the curve between the points where t = 0 and
formulae booklet.
is denoted by s
Show that s = ln p, where p is an integer. (6 marks)
AQA MFP2 January 2011
3 A curve has equation y =
Show that the length of arc s of the curve between the points where x = 0
and x = 1 is given by
s= (4 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2007
4 A curve has parametric equations
a Show that
(3 marks)
b e arc of the curve between t = 1 and t = 2 is rotated through
radians about the x-axis.
Show that S, the surface area generated, is given by where k is a
rational number to be found. (5 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2006
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24 Hyperbolic Functions
Introduction Objectives
In this chapter, you will be introduced to two new functions, cosh x and By the end of this chapter,
sinh x. e most common real-world example is the catenary curve, which you should know how to:
describes how a wire hangs between two telegraph poles, and can be ▶ Dene hyperbolic
represented by the curve . functions.
▶ Solve equations such as
▶ Prove identities such as
Recap
You will need to remember . . .
▶ How to use and algebraically manipulate parametric equations,
▶ Express inverse
exponential functions and logarithmic functions.
functions, such
▶ How to use and algebraically manipulate parametric forms of
as , in
equations.
logarithmic form.
▶ How to dierentiate exponential and logarithmic functions, including
▶ Prove dierentiation
usingthe
formulae, including
• quotient rule,
• chain rule, ▶ Prove and use
identities, such as
24.1 Hyperbolic functions
ere are six hyperbolic functions. ey are called ‘hyperbolic’ because they See Chapter 1 Loci, Graphs and
are related to the parametric equations for a hyperbola. Hyperbolic sine of x Algebra if you need a reminder
and hyperbolic cosine of x are written sinh x and cosh x. By convention, you of what a hyperbolic function is.
pronounce sinh as ‘shine’ and cosh as ‘cosh’.
ey are dened by the following relationships:
1 1
sinh x = (ex e x) cosh x = (ex + e x)
2 2
Hyperbolic functions such as cosh x and sinh x are analogous to the regular
(circular) trigonometrical functions in the sense that while (x = cos t, x = sin t) is
a parametric equation that represents a circle of radius 1, (cosh t, sinh t) is a
parametric equation that represents the hyperbola x2 − y2 = 1.
In a similar manner to the more familiar trigonometric functions, there are also
four other hyperbolic functions.
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e denitions of the six hyperbolic functions are as follows:
1 1 x
sinh x = (ex e x) cosh x =(e + e x)
2 2
sinh x e x e x
1
tanh x = = cosech x =
cosh x e x + e x
sinh x
1 1
sech x = coth x =
cosh x tanh x
You pronounce tanh as ‘than’, (co)sech as ‘(co)sheck’ and coth as ‘coth’.
To evaluate a hyperbolic function, you can either consult your calculator
instructions, or you can use their denition.
Example 1 Note
noitseuQ
Find, to 4 decimal places, Substitute 2 in place of x in
a sinh 2 b sech 3 sinh x = (ex e x ).
1 2
a sinh2 =
2
(e − e 2 ) = 3.6268 (4 dp) Note
rewsnA
1 1 Use your calculator to
b sech 3 = =
cosh 3 10.0677… ndcosh 3, then use
sech 3 = 0.0993 (4 dp) sech x =
Graphs of cosh x, sinh x and tanh x
You need to be familiar with, and recognise, the graphs of the following y
4
hyperbolic functions: sinh x, cosh x and tanh x
3
y = cosh x 2 y = cosh x
You obtain the graph of y = cosh x by nding the mean values of a few 1 x
y = ex y=e
corresponding pairs of values of y = ex and y = e x, and then plotting these mean
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 x
values.
y
y = sinh x 3
To produce the graph of y = sinh x, you nd half the dierence between a few y = sinh x
2
corresponding pairs of values of y = ex and y = e x, and then plot these values.
1 x
y = ex y=e
y = tanh x 2 1 0 1 2 x
e tanh curve is obtained by dividing the values of sinh x by the values of cosh x: 1
sinh x (e x e x ) 2
you have tanh x = which gives tanh x = x
cosh x (e + e x ) 3
1 e 2x y
⇒ tanh x =
1+ e 2x
erefore, tanh x < 1 for all values of x, and as x → + ∞, tanh x → 1. y = tanh x
1 e2 x
Since tanh x = − tanh x > −1 for all values of x, and as x → −∞, tanh x → −1. 2 1 0 1 2 x
1 + e2 x
Hence, the graph of y = tanh x lies between the asymptotes y = 1 and y = −1.
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Standard hyperbolic identities
ere are a number of standard hyperbolic identities that you will be expected
to know, and should also be able to prove.
Standard hyperbolic identities:
▶ cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1
▶ coth2 x 1 = cosech2 x
▶ 1 tanh2 x = sech2 x
cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1
From the exponential denitions of cosh x and sinh x, you have
1 1
cosh 2 x = (e x + e x ) = (e2 x + 2 + e 2x
) [1]
2 4
2
and 1 1
sinh 2 x = (e x − e x ) = (e2 x − 2 + e [2]
2x
)
2 4
Subtracting [2] from [1], you obtain
1 1
cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = (e 2 x + 2 + e − 2 x ) − (e 2 x − 2 + e − 2 x ) = 1
4 4
erefore, you have
cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1
Notice the similarity of this hyperbolic identity with the usual trigonometric
identity, cos2 x + sin2 x ≡ 1.
coth2 x 1 = cosech2 x
Dividing the identity cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1 by sinh2 x, you obtain
cosh 2 x sinh 2 x 1
− ≡
sinh x sinh x sinh 2 x
2 2
which gives
coth2 x 1 = cosech2 x
1 tanh2 x = sech2 x
Similarly, dividing the identity cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1 by cosh2 x, you obtain
cosh 2 x sinh 2 x 1
− ≡
cosh x cosh x cosh 2 x
2 2
which gives
1 tanh2 x = sech2 x
Some other useful hyperbolic identities
You will be asked to prove the following identities in Exercise 1; you will need to
make sure you can prove them.
▶ cosh (A + B) = cosh A cosh B + sinh A sinh B
▶ sinh (A B) = sinh A cosh B cosh A sinh B
A+B A−B
▶ sinh A + sinh B = be able to 2 sinh cosh
2 2
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Solving equations involving hyperbolic functions
Equations involving hyperbolic functions are solved by either using the basic
hyperbolic denitions (as shown in Example 2) or using the standard methods
that you use to solve trigonometric equations (as shown in Example3).
Example 2
noitseuQ
Find the values of ex for which 8 cosh x 12 sinh x = 1.
Note
8 cosh x 12 sinh x = 1 → 4ex + 4e x
(6ex 6e x) = 1
2ex + 10e x = 1 Using cosh x = (ex + e x)
2e2x + 10 = ex
rewsnA
and sinh x = (ex e x).
2e + e
2x x
10 = 0
(e x
2)(2e + 5) = 0
x
Note
5
ex = 2 or
2 Solve each of the equations.
Example 3
Note
noitseuQ
Solve the equation 2 cosh2 x sinh x = 3. Give your answer to four signicant
gures. Using the identity
cosh2 x sinh2 x ≡ 1.
2(1 + sinh 2 x ) – sinh x –3 = 0
2 sinh 2 x – sinh x –1 = 0 Note
rewsnA
(2 sinh x + l)(sinh x 1) = 0 By factorising.
1
⇒ sinh x = 1 or
2
⇒ x = 0.8814 or 0.4812
Exercise 1
1 Evaluate each of the following, giving your answer
i in terms of e ii to three signicant gures.
a cosh 2 b sinh 3 c tanh 4
d sech 2 e cosech 4 f coth 6
2 Prove that cosh x sinh x = 1.
2 2
3 Starting with the denitions of sinh x and cosh x, prove each of the
following identities.
a cosh (A + B) = cosh A cosh B + sinh A sinh B
b sinh (A B) = sinh A cosh B cosh A sinh B
A + B cosh A B
sinh A + sinh B ≡ 2sinh
2
c
2
4 Solve each of these equations, giving your answer to three signicant gures.
a 3 sinh x + 2 cosh x = 4 b 4 cosh x 8 sinh x + 1 = 0
c cosh x + 4 sinh x = 3
5 Find the values of ex for which 8 cosh x 4 sinh x = 7.
Hence nd the values of x giving your answers as natural logarithms.
1 ex
6 Show that = where p is a constant to be found.
6 cosh x + 8 sinh x p e2 x
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24.2 Dierentiation of hyperbolic functions
You need to be able to prove the results of dierentiating hyperbolic functions.
Dierentiating sinh x and cosh x
To dierentiate sinh x and cosh x, you use their exponential denitions.
Hence, for sinh x, you have
d d 1 x −x 1 x −x
sinh x = (e − e ) = (e + e )
dx dx 2 2
1
From the denitions, you know that (ex + e x) = cosh x
2
erefore, you have
d
sinh x = cosh x
dx
If you were then to dierentiate cosh x:
d d 1 x −x 1 x −x
cosh x = (e + e ) = (e − e )
dx dx 2 2
From the denition of sinh x , you conclude
d
cosh x = sinh x
dx
Dierentiating tanh x
sinh x
To dierentiate tanh x, you use tanh x =
cosh x
which gives
d d sinh x cosh x cosh x sinh x sinh x (Using the quotient rule.)
tanh x = =
dx dx cosh x cosh 2 x
cosh 2 x sinh 2 x 1
= = = sech 2 x
cosh 2 x cosh 2 x
erefore, you have
d
tanh x = sech 2 x
dx
Dierentiating functions of the form cosh ax
To dierentiate functions such as cosh ax, again you use the exponential
denitions. Hence, you have
d d 1 ax
cosh ax = (e + e ax
)
dx dx 2
1
= (ae ax − ae ax
)
2
1
From the exponential denitions, note that a (e ax e ax
) = a sinh ax
2
erefore,
d
cosh ax = a sinh ax
dx
d
sinh ax = a cosh ax
dx
d
tanh ax = a sech 2 ax
dx
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FP2 2.9 24
Dierentiating functions of the form cosh2 x
To dierentiate functions such as cosh2 x, you express it as (cosh x)2 and then
apply the chain rule (as demonstrated in part b of Example 4).
Example 4
dy Note
noitseuQ
Find when
dx
a y = 3 cosh 3x b y = 3 cosh 3x + 5 sinh 4x + 2 cosh4 7x Use your answer from part a
in part b then to differentiate
dy
Note
cosh4 7x, express it as
a = 3 × 3 sinh 3x
dx (cosh 7x )4 and apply the
= 9 sinh 3x Using .
rewsnA
chain rule.
dy d
b = 9 sinh 3x + 20 cosh 4x + 2 (cosh 7x)4
dx dx
= 9 sinh 3x + 20 cosh 4x + 2 × 4 × 7 sinh 7x cosh3 7x Note
= 9 sinh 3x + 20 cosh 4x + 56 sinh 7x cosh3 7x
Using the chain rule
Integration of hyperbolic functions
It is possible to apply the dierentiation formulae given above to deduce the
following results of integration:
1
∫ cosh ax d x = a sinh ax + c
1
∫ sinh ax d x = a cosh ax + c
sinh ax 1
∫ tanh ax d x = ∫ cosh ax dx = a ln cosh ax + c
1
∫ sech ax d x = a tanh ax + c
2
Example 5
noitseuQ
Find ∫ (2 sinh 4 x + 9 sech 2 3 x ) d x .
∫ 2 sinh 4 x d x + ∫ 9 sech 3 x d x
2
Note
rewsnA
2 9 Using
= cosh 4 x + tanh3 x + c
4 3
1
= cosh 4 x + 3tanh3 x + c and
2
Exercise 2
1 Dierentiate, with respect to x, each of the following.
a cosh 2x b sinh 5x c tanh 3x
d 3 cosh5 3x e 2 sinh4 8x
2 Integrate, with respect to x, each of the following.
a sinh 3x b cosh 4x
x
c sinh d tanh 4x
3
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3 Dierentiate, with respect to x, each of the following.
a coth x b sech x c ln tanh 5 x
24.3 Inverse hyperbolic functions
You can dene the inverse functions of the hyperbolic functions in a similar
way to the inverses of the ordinary trigonometric functions.
Hence, for example, if y = sinh 1x, then sinh y = x. Likewise for cosh 1x, tanh 1x,
cosech 1x, sech 1x and coth 1x
Sometimes these functions are written as arcsinh x, arccosh x etc.
Sketching inverse hyperbolic functions
See Chapter 22 e Calculus
You need to be familiar with, and recognise, the graphs of the following inverse
of Inverse Trigonometrical
hyperbolic functions: sinh 1x, cosh 1x and tanh 1x
Functions if you need a
e curve of y = sinh 1 x is obtained by reecting the curve of y = sinh x in the reminder.
line y = x
To draw the curve with reasonable accuracy, you need to nd the gradient of
y = sinh x at the origin. Accordingly, you dierentiate y = sinh x, to obtain
dy y
= cosh x 3
dx y = sinh x y=x
us, at the origin, where x = 0, you have
dy 2
= cosh 0 = 1
dx
y = sinh 1x
at is, the gradient of y = sinh x at the origin is 1. 1
You now proceed as follows:
▶ Draw the line y = x as a dashed line. 3 1 0 1 2 x
▶ Sketch carefully the graph of y = sinh x, remembering
1
that y = x is a tangent to y = sinh x at the origin. y = sinh 1x
▶ Reect this sinh curve in the line y = x
2
You can sketch the other inverse hyperbolic functions in a similar
way; that is, by reecting the curve of the relevant hyperbolic y = sinh x
3
function in the line y = x. In each case, you must nd the gradient
of the hyperbolic curve at the origin. y
y = tanh 1x
Take for example, y = tanh x, which gives 2
dy
= sech2 x
dx
At the origin, where x = 0, you have y = tanh x
dy 1
= sech 2 0 = =1 2 1 0 1 2 x
dx cosh 2 0 y = tanh x
at is, the gradient of y = tanh x at the origin is 1.
y=x
Also, you know that y = tanh x has asymptotes y = 1 and y = −1. erefore,
because y = tanh 1 x is the reection of y = tanh x in y = x, y = tanh 1 x has 2
y = tanh 1x
asymptotes x = 1 and x = −1.
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FP2 2.9 24
Logarithmic form of inverse hyperbolic functions
e inverse hyperbolic functions cosh 1x, sinh 1x and tanh 1x can all be
expressed as logarithmic functions; doing so gives an exact answer. You need to
know these forms and the proofs of these results.
Expressing cosh 1x as a logarithmic function
Let cosh 1x = y
You then have x = cosh y
1 y 1
⇒ x = (e + e y ) (Using the exponential denition, cosh x = (ex + e x).)
2 2
Multiplying throughout by 2ey, you obtain
2xey = e2y + 1
⇒ e2y 2xey + 1 = 0
To solve this equation, you treat it as a quadratic in ey, which gives
2x ± 4x2 − 4
ey =
2
⇒ e = x ± x −1
y 2
Taking the logarithms of both sides, you obtain
y = ln( x ± x 2 − 1)
Since cosh x = y has two solutions for every y > 1, and because cosh 1 y must be a
function, it is important to choose which of the two values should be dened to be
cosh 1 y. By convention, cosh 1 y is dened to be the solution that is not negative.
To ensure that ln ( x ± ( x 2 − 1)) > 0, you need x ± ( x 2 − 1) > 1, and therefore it is
important to choose the larger value, x + ( x 2 + 1) for the value of cosh 1 y
e value of cosh 1 x is ln( x + x 2 − 1).
e other solution of cosh y is y = ln( x − x 2 − 1). is other solution can be
written:
( x − x 2 − 1)( x + x 2 − 1)
ln( x − x 2 − 1) = ln
x + x2 −1
x 2 − ( x 2 − 1)
= ln
x + x2 −1
1
= ln
x + x −1
2
= − ln( x + x 2 − 1)
Hence, you have
ln( x ± x 2 − 1) = ± ln( x + x 2 − 1)
which matches the symmetry of the graph of cosh x.
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Example 6
noitseuQ
Find the value of cosh 1 2 in logarithmic form. Note
Using
rewsnA
and substituting x = 2.
cosh 1 2 = ln(2 + 3)
Example 7
noitseuQ
Find the exact coordinates of the points where the line y = 3 cuts the graph of
y = cosh x
When y = 3,
x = cosh 1 3
rewsnA
⇒ x = ln(3 + 8) = ln(3 + 2 2 )
By symmetry, the other value of x is − ln(3 + 2 2 ).
erefore, the two points are (ln(3 + 2 2 ), 3) and (− ln(3 + 2 2 ), 3)
Expressing sinh 1 x as a logarithmic function
Let y = sinh 1 x. You then have
1
x = sinh y ⇒ x = (e y − e y ) (Using the exponential denition,
2 1
sinh x = (ex e x).)
2
Multiplying throughout by 2ey, you obtain
2xey = e2y 1
⇒ e2y 2xey 1 = 0
Treating this equation as a quadratic in ey, you have
2x ± 4x2 + 4
ey = ⇒ e y = x ± x2 +1
2
Taking the logarithms of both sides, you obtain y = ln( x ± x 2 + 1)
e value of sinh 1 x can only be ln( x + x 2 + 1). You cannot have
sinh 1 x = ln( x − x 2 + 1) because x < x 2 + 1, which would give the logarithm of
a negative number, which is a complex number.
Hence, you have
e logarithmic form of the inverse of sinh is, sinh 1 x = ln( x + x 2 + 1)
Example 8 Note
noitseuQ
Find the value, in logarithmic form, of sinh 1 3. Using .
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rewsnA FP2 2.9 24
sinh 1 3 = ln(3 + 10)
Expressing tanh 1 x as a logarithmic function
Let y = tanh 1 x. You then have
sinh y
x = tanh y =
cosh y
1 y
2
(e e y)
⇒ x= 1 y
2
(e + e y)
Multiplying the numerator and the denominator by 2ey, you obtain
e2 y 1
x = 2y
e +1
⇒ e2yx + x = e2y 1
erefore, you have
1+ x 1 1+ x
e2 y = ⇒ y = ln
1 x 2 1 x
Hence,
1 1+ x
e logarithmic value of tanh 1 x is ln , for |x| < 1.
2 1 x
In summary,
e logarithmic forms of some of the hyperbolic functions are,
▶ cosh 1 x = ln( x + x 2 − 1) x ≥ 1
▶ sinh 1 x = ln( x + x 2 + 1)
1 1+ x
▶ tanh 1 x = ln −1< x <1
2 1 x
Example 9
noitseuQ
1
Find the value, in logarithmic form, of tanh 1
Note
2
Using .
1 1
3
rewsnA
2
tanh 1
= ln 1
2 2
2
1
= ln3
2
If you are asked to nd the value of cosech 1 x, sech 1 x or coth 1 x in
logarithmic form, use the denition of the relevant hyperbolic function
to express the equation in terms of sinh x, cosh x or tanh x, then express
the term as the associated inverse function and then nally apply the
appropriate logarithmic value.
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Example 10
noitseuQ
1
Find the value, in logarithmic form, of sech 1
2
1
y = sech 1
2
1
⇒ sech y =
2
Note
⇒ 1
=
1
rewsnA
cosh y 2
Using sech x =
⇒ cosh y = 2
⇒ y = cosh 1
2
Note
cosh 1 2 = ln(2 + 3) Note
Using that fact that if
erefore, sech 1
1
= ln(2 + 3). =
y cosh 1x, then cosh y =x Using the logarithmic form of
2 cosh x :
Dierentiation and integration of inverse
hyperbolic functions
You need to be able to prove the results of dierentiating inverse hyperbolic
functions.
sinh 1 x
=
If y sinh 1 x, then sinh y x =
Dierentiating sinh y x, you obtain =
cosh y
dy
dx
1 =
⇒ dy
=
1
dx cosh y
You know that cosh y = ± (1 + sinh 2 y ) . But sinh 1 x is always increasing and
dy
therefore you need to ensure that >0
dx
erefore
⇒ dy
=
1
dx cosh y
=
1
1 + sinh y
2
=
1
1+ x2
erefore,
d 1 1
dx
sinh 1 x =
1+ x2
and it follows that, ∫ 1+ x2
d x = sinh 1 x
If y = sinh 1 , then sinh y = .
x x
a a
x
Dierentiating sinh y = , you obtain
a
dy 1
cosh y =
dx a
⇒ dy
=
1
=
1
dx a cosh y a 1 + sinh 2 y
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FP2 2.9 24
which gives
dy 1 1
= =
dx x
2
a 2
+ x2
a 1+
a
erefore, Formulae booklet
1 x
d x
sinh 1 =
1
and it follows that, ∫ d x = sinh 1
dx a a + x2
2 a +x
2 2 a In the Formulae and Statistical
Tables booklet you will see that
cosh 1 x
If y = cosh 1 x, then cosh y = x
Dierentiating cosh y = x, you obtain
dy
sinh y =1
dx
dy 1
⇒ =
dx sinh y
Since cosh 1 x is always increasing, again you choose the positive square root.
erefore
dy 1 1 1
⇒ = = = 2
dx sinh y cosh 2 y 1 x 1
which gives
d 1
cosh 1 x =
dx x2 1
erefore,
d 1 1
dx
cosh 1 x =
x2 1
and it follows that, ∫ x2 1
dx = cosh 1 x
x
If y = cosh 1 , then cosh y =
x
a a
x
Dierentiating cosh y = , you obtain
a
dy 1
sinh y=
dx a
dy 1 1
⇒ = =
dx a sinh y a cosh 2 y 1 Formulae booklet
which gives
Formulae and Statistical
dy 1 1
In the
= = Tables booklet you will see that
dx x
2
x2 a2
a 1
a
erefore,
d x 1 1 x
cosh 1 = and it follows that,
∫ d x = cosh 1
dx a x2 a2 x2 a2 a
tanh 1 x
If y = tanh 1 x, then tanh y = x
dy
Dierentiating, sech2 y =1
dx
dy 1 1 1
= = =
dx sech 2 y (1 tanh 2 y ) (1 x 2 )
erefore,
d 1 1
dx
tanh 1 x =
1 x 2
and it follows that,
1 x2 ∫
dx = tanh 1 x
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x x
If y = tanh 1 , then tanh y = .
a a
x
Dierentiating tanh y = , you obtain
a
dy 1
=
sech 2 y
dx a
⇒ dy
=
1
=
1
dx a sech 2 y a (1 tanh 2 y )
which gives
dy 1 a
= = Formulae booklet
dx x 2 a2 x 2
a 1
a
In the Formulae and Statistical
erefore, Tables booklet you will see that
d x a 1 1
tanh 1 = 2
x
and it follows that, d x = tanh 1 ∫
dx a a x 2
a x
2 2
a a
<
(|x| a)
1
Note that you can integrate using partial fractions:
a2 x2
1 1 1 1 1 a+x
∫a 2
x2
dx =
+ ∫
2a a + x a x
dx = ln
2a a x
+ c , which gives the other
form shown in the Formulae and Statistical Tables booklet.
is result is the logarithmic form of tanh−1 Hence, it is unusual to use a
x
a
function in tanh 1 x in dierentiation or integration.
Example 11
Dierentiate
noitseuQ
a i sinh 1 b cosh 1
x x
ii sinh 1 4x
3 5
d x 1
a i sinh 1 = Note
dx 3 9 + x2
Using
d d
x 1
ii sinh −1 4 x = sinh −1 1 =
rewsnA
dx dx 4 1
+ x2
16
d 4
sinh 1 4 x = Note
dx 1 + 16 x 2
Using
d x 1
b cosh 1 =
dx 5 x2 25
Before using the appropriate integration formulae, make sure that the
coecient of x2 is 1 as you did with inverse trigonometric functions.
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Example 12
noitseuQ
2 1
1 1
Find a ∫ dx b ∫ dx
4 + x2 4 + 3x 2
0 0
Note
2
1 x
2 The denominator of the
a
dx = sinh 1
∫ 4 + x2 2 term is ‘ ’ so use
0
0
,
= sinh 1 1 − sinh 1 0
− −
= sinh 1 1 = ln (1 + 2 ) Note
with a = 2.
1 1
1 1 1 Before integrating, you must
b ∫ 4 + 3x 2 d x = 3 ∫ dx
0 0
4
+ x 2
reduce the coefcient of x 2 Note
3
1 to unity. The denominator is in the
1 1
= dx form so use
3 ∫0 2
2
+ x2
3 ,
rewsnA
⇒ =
1
sinh
3
1
3x
2
with .
0
1 3
sinh sinh 1 0
− 1 −
=
3
2
1 3 3
= ln + +1
3 2 4
1 3+ 7
= ln
3 2
erefore,
1
1 1 3+ 7
∫ 4 + 3 x 2 dx = 3 ln 2
0
Example 13
noitseuQ
6
1
Find ∫ d x.
3
x 2
9
Using the appropriate integral formula, Note
6 6
1
1
x The denominator is in the
∫ x 2 9 dx = cosh
3 3 form so use
rewsnA
= cosh 1
2 cosh 1 1 ln(2 = + 3) 0 ,
erefore,
6
with a = 3.
1
∫ x 2 9 dx = ln(2 + 3)
3
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You saw in Chapter 22 e Calculus of Inverse of Trigonometrical Functions that
the standard integral of inverse trigonometric functions can be used to integrate
1
functions in the form 2 . e standard integrals of inverse hyperbolic
ax + bx + c
functions can also be used to integrate functions of this form. If the roots are not
real, you can complete the square and use the appropriate standard integral for
an inverse hyperbolic function.
Note
Example 14
Start by completing the
noitseuQ
∫
1 square to factorise the
Find d x.
4 x 2 − 8 x − 16 quadratic in the denominator,
and reduce the coefcient of
x 2 to unity.
4 x 2 − 8 x − 16 = 4 x 2 − 2 x − 4
= 2 ( x − 1)2 − 5
erefore,
∫ ∫
1 1 dx
dx =
4 x − 8 x − 162 2 ( x − 1)2 − 5
1 x 1
= cosh 1 +c
rewsnA
2 5
erefore,
∫
1
4 x − 8 x − 16
2
1
2
( 1
d x = ln ( x − 1)2 − 5 + x − 1 − ln 5 + c
2
)
1 2
= ln(( x − 1) 5 + ( x − 1) 5 1 + c
2
1
= ln
2
( )
x2 − 2x − 4 + x −1 + c ′
Exercise 3
1 Dierentiate each of the following with respect to x
a sinh 1 5x b sinh 1
2x c cosh 1 3 x
4
d sinh 1 x2 e sech 1 x f coth 1 x
2 Find each of the following integrals.
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
1 1 1 1
a b c d
x2 4 4 x 2 25 9 + x2 25 + 16 x 2
3 Evaluate each of the following denite integrals, giving the exact value of
your answer.
2 8 2
1 1 1
a
0
∫4+ x 2
dx b
4
x 16
2
dx ∫ c
0
4 + 3x 2
dx ∫
4 Evaluate each of the following integrals, giving your answer in terms of
logarithms.
2 2 4
1 1 1
a
1
∫ 25 x 2
4
dx b
1
4 + 9 x 2
d∫
x c
3
( x − 1)2 − 3
dx ∫
1 2 1
1 1 1
d ∫
0
4( x + 1)2 + 5
dx e ∫
0
4 + 8x + x 2
dx f ∫
0
16 x 2 + 20 x + 35
dx
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Summary
▶ ere are six hyperbolic functions, with denitions as follows:
sinh x = (ex e x) cosh x = (ex + e x) tanh x =
cosech x = sech x = coth x =
▶ You obtain the graph of y = cosh x by nding the mean values of a few
corresponding pairs of values of y = ex and y = e x, and then plotting these
mean values.
▶ To produce the graph of y = sinh x, you nd half the dierence between a
few corresponding pairs of values of y = ex and y = e x, and then plot these
values.
▶ e tanh curve is obtained by dividing the values of sinh x by the values of
cosh x; the graph of y = tanh x lies between the asymptotes y = 1 and y = −1.
▶ ere are a number of standard hyperbolic identities that you should know
and be able to prove.
• cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1
• coth2 x 1 = cosech2 x
• 1 tanh2 x = sech2 x
• cosh (A + B) = cosh A cosh B + sinh A sinh B
• sinh (A B) = sinh A cosh B cosh A sinh B
▶ You can solve equations such as using the denition
of each function and then solving a quadratic equation in ex. Or you can use
the standard methods used to solve trigonometric equations.
▶ e derivatives for the hyperbolic functions are as follows; you need to be
able to prove these results:
• ;
• ;
• = sech2 x;
• To dierentiate functions such as cosh2 x, you express it as (cosh x)2
and then apply the chain rule.
▶ e results of integrating the hyperbolic functions are as follows:
• dx = ln cosh ax + c
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▶ e inverse of sinh is expressed as sinh 1, likewise for the other hyperbolic
functions. If y = sinh 1x, then sinh y = x. Likewise for cosh 1x, tanh 1x,
cosech 1x, sech 1x and coth 1x.
▶ You need to be familiar with, and recognise, the graphs of sinh 1x,
cosh 1x and tanh 1x. You can sketch these inverse hyperbolic functions
by reecting the curve of the relevant hyperbolic function in the line
y = x. In each case, you must nd the gradient of the hyperbolic curve at
the origin.
▶ It is possible to express inverse functions in logarithmic form using the
following formulae
•
• cosh 1 x = x ≥ 1 (the positive sign gives the value)
• tanh 1 x = where |x| < 1
▶ You can use the denitions of inverse hyperbolic functions to prove
dierentiation formulae such as
• •
• •
• •
▶ e results of integrating inverse hyperbolic functions are as follows:
Review exercises
1 Solve , correct to two signicant gures.
2 Find the exact solutions of .
3 Dierentiate
a 4 cosh4 7x b 2 sinh3 6x
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FP2 2.9 24
4 a Find the integral
b Find
5 Find
Practice examination questions
1 a Show that , where m is an integer. (3 marks)
b Use the substitution to show that
(5 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2013
2 a Show that . (2 marks)
b Solve the equation giving your
answers in the form ln 2. k (5 marks)
AQA MFP2 January 2013
3 a y
Sketch the graph of = tanh x. (2 marks)
b Given that u = tanh x, use the denitions of sinh x and cosh x in terms of
ex and e x to show that . (6 marks)
c i Show that the equation can be written as
. (2 marks)
ii Show that the equation has only one solution
x
for .
Find this solution in the form a
, where is an integer. (5 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2009
4 a Using the identities
show that:
i t t
tanh2 + sech2 = 1 (2 marks)
ii (3 marks)
iii (3 marks)
C
b A curve is given parametrically by
x = sech t y = 4 tanh t
i Show that the arc length, s, of C between the points where t = 0 and
is given by
(4 marks)
u
ii Using the substitution = et, nd the exact value of . s (6 marks)
AQA MFP2 June 2010
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Dierential Equations of
25 First and Second Order
Introduction Objectives
Whenever you solve an indenite integral, you are in fact solving a By the end of this chapter,
dierential equation. Dierential equations are vital to science and you should know how to:
engineering. When scientists model radioactive decay, they are using a ▶ Recognise and use
dierential equation. When you look at a cup of coee cooling, Newton’s general and particular
law of cooling leads us to a dierential equation. In mechanics, when solutions of rst order
modelling the movement of a damped spring, you are forced to consider linear dierential
an underlying dierential equation. More complex (partial) dierential equations of the form
equations can be used in applications such as the air ow around a wing,
, provided
inheat ow through an iron bar and in multiple other elds.
that P and Q are
functions only of x
▶ Recognise and
Recap use general and
You will need to remember . . . particular solutions
▶ Integration skills. of second order
▶ How to solve separable rst-order dierential equations. equations of the form
,
for real a, b and c
25.1 First-order linear equations ▶ Find solutions to
equations of the form
dy
First-order linear dierential equations are of the form + Py = Q,
dx ,
where P and Q are functions of x
where
Solving using an integrating factor , or a
You can solve such an equation by rst multiplying both sides by the polynomial.
integrating factor e
∫ Pdx
dy
Multiplying + Py = Q by e∫Pdx, you get
dx
dy
e ∫ Pdx + Pe ∫ Pdx y = Qe ∫ Pdx
dx
Since the left-hand side is the dierential of ye∫Pdx, you therefore have
d
dx
( ye ∫ Pdx ) = Qe ∫ Pdx
which gives
ye ∫ Pdx
∫
= Qe ∫ Pdx dx
e right-hand side is often integrated by parts.
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Example 1
noitseuQ
dy
If + 3 y = x , nd y.
dx
e integrating factor is e 3dx = e3x ∫
Multiplying both sides by e3x
dy
e3 x + e 3 x 3 y = xe 3 x
dx
d
⇒ ( ye 3 x ) = xe 3 x
dx
Integrating by parts,
rewsnA
ye 3 x
∫
= xe 3 x d x
1 1
3
= e3 x × x − ∫ 3e 3x
dx
erefore
1 1
ye 3 x = xe 3 x − e 3 x + c
3 9 Note
Multiplying both sides by e 3x Note The constant term, c, has
1 1
y = x − + ce 3 x You must also multiply c by e 3x
now become a function of x
3 9
Example 2
noitseuQ
dy
Solve the dierential equation x − 2y = x4.
dx
dy 2 y Tip
− = x3
dx x
e integrating factor is Divide both sides by x to
2
∫ − dx make the rst term .
e x = e 2 ln x = e ln x
2
1
Since eln u = u, you have e ln x = 2
2
1 dy 2
x Note
− y = x Note
x 2 dx x 3 Multiply the differential
equation by the integrating To obtain a particular
rewsnA
Simplifying, factor, . solution, you need to be
d 1 given a specic point which
y = x
dx x 2 lies on the curve. Hence,
1 you can nd the value of c
⇒
x2 ∫
y = x dx
This extra fact is called a
1 x2 boundary condition.
⇒ y= +c
x2 2 Example 3 illustrates such a
Multiplying both sides by x , you obtain the 2
general solution situation.
1
y = x 4 + cx 2
2
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Example 3
noitseuQ
dy 1
Solve the dierential equation + y = x 2 given that y = 3 when x = 2.
dx x
1 dx
e integrating factor is e ∫ x = e ln x = x
Multiplying the dierential equation by the integrating factor, x, you have
dy
x + y = x3
dx
which you express as
d
rewsnA
( xy ) = x 3
dx
1
⇒ xy = x 4 + c
4
When x = 2, y = 3, which gives
6=4+c ⇒ c=2
erefore, the solution is
1 4 1 3 2
xy = x +2 or y= x +
4 4 x
Exercise 1
1 Simplify each of the following.
1 2 +1)
a e ln x 2 b e 2 ln( x c e 3 ln x
e∫ ( x2
x
d e∫ tan x dx e 1)dx
f e3x ln 2
In each of questions 2 to 7, nd the general solution.
dy dy
2 +3 = 3 dx − 5 y = e2 x
dx
dy dy
4 x + y = x2 5 x − 2y = x3
dx dx
dy 4y dy
6 = 5( x − 1)3 7 tan x
dx
+ y = e2 x tan x
dx x 1
25.2 Second-order dierential equations
d2 y
An equation is termed second order when it contains the second derivative, ,
dy dx 2
usually along with terms in , y and x
dx
Solving using an auxiliary equation
d2 y dy
is approach is used to solve the equations in the form a + b + cy = 0.
dx 2
dx
is method relies on you making the substitution y = Aenx.
Hence, you have
dy d2 y
= nAenx and = n 2 Aenx
dx dx 2
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which give
an2Aenx + bnAenx + cAenx = 0
at is,
an2 + bn + c = 0
is quadratic equation is called the auxiliary equation
e solution of a second-order dierential equation using this approach
depends on the type of solution that satises its auxiliary equation. ere are
three types of solution of a quadratic equation:
1 Two real and dierent roots
2 Two real and equal roots
3 Two complex roots
Type 1 solution two real and dierent roots
e auxiliary equation has two real, dierent roots, n1 and n2. So, the
d2 y dy
solution of a + b + cy = 0 is
dx 2
dx
y = Aen1x + Ben2 x
where A and B are arbitrary constants.
To verify that this is the full solution, you need to conrm that the following two
conditions are true:
▶ ere are two arbitrary constants, as it is a second-order dierential
equation.
d2 y dy
▶ e solution does satisfy the equation a 2 + b + cy = 0
dx dx
Notice that there are indeed the two required arbitrary constants.
To prove that the solution, y = Aen1x + Ben2 x, satises the dierential equation,
you substitute it and its derivatives in the LHS of
d2 y dy
a 2 +b + cy = 0
dx dx
Which gives
d2 y dy
a + b + cy = a(n12 Aen1x + n22 Ben2 x ) + b(n1 Ae n1x + n2 Be n2x ) + c ( Ae n1x + Be n 2x )
dx 2
dx
= Aen1x (an12 + bn1 + c ) + Be n2x (an22 + bn2 + c )
=0
since n1 and n2 are roots of the equation an2 + bn + c = 0.
To nd the values of A and B, you need two boundary conditions. Usually,
these are either
▶ the values of y at two dierent values of x, or
dy
▶ the value of y and that of for one value of x.
dx
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Example 4
noitseuQ
d2 y dy
Find y when 2 − − 3 y = 0, given that x = 0 when y = 2 and y is nite as x
dx 2 dx
tends to innity.
d2 y dy
Substituting y = Aenx and its derivatives in 2 − − 3 y = 0 you get
dx 2 dx
2n2 n 3 = 0
⇒ (2n 3)(n + 1) = 0
3
⇒ n= and 1
2
rewsnA
erefore, you have
3x
y = Ae 2 + Be x
When x = 0, y = 2, which gives
2=A+B
You know that as x tends to innity, y is nite. erefore, A = 0 because the limit
3
of e 2 as x tends to innity is not nite.
Hence, B = 2, which gives y = 2e x
Type 2 solution two real and equal roots
e auxiliary equation has two real, equal roots, n. In this case, you cannot, as
in Type 1, use just y = Aenx + Benx, since this simplies to y = (A + B)enx or
y = Cenx, which has only one arbitrary constant. e solution is, therefore,
y = (A + Bx)enx
To prove this is the solution, you must show that it satises the equation
d2 y dy
a 2 +b + cy = 0
dx dx
Dierentiating y = (A + Bx)enx twice, you get
dy
= Benx + nenx ( A + Bx )
dx
d2 y
= Bnenx + n 2 enx ( A + Bx ) + ne nx B
dx 2
= n2(A + Bx)enx + 2nBenx
d2 y dy
Substituting these in the LHS of a 2 + b + cy = 0, you have
dx dx
d y
2
dy
a 2 +b + cy = a [n 2 ( A + Bx )enx + 2nBenx ] + b[ Be nx + ne nx ( A + Bx ) ] + c ( A + Bx )e nx
dx dx
= (A + Bx)enx(an2 + bn + c) + (2na + b)Benx
Since n is a root of an2 + bn + c = 0, the rst term is zero.
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
Consider now the quadratic formula, n = When its roots are
2a
coincident, b2 4ac = 0. erefore, you have
b ⇒ 2na + b = 0
n=−
2a
So the second term is also zero.
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d2 y dy
Hence, a + b + cy does equal zero, and y = (A + Bx)enx is indeed the
dx 2 dx
required solution.
Example 5
noitseuQ
d2 y dy
Solve + 6 + 9 y = 0.
dx 2 dx
d2 y dy
Substituting y = Aenx and its derivatives in + 6 + 9 y = 0, you get
dx 2 dx
n2 + 6n + 9 = 0
rewsnA
⇒ (n + 3)(n + 3) = 0
⇒ n = −3
erefore, the general solution is
y = (A + Bx)e 3x
Type 3 solution two complex roots
e auxiliary equation has two complex roots, n1 ± in2
d2 y dy
erefore, the solution of a 2 + b + cy = 0 is
dx dx
y = Ae(n1 +in2 ) x + Be (n1−in2 ) x
= en1x ( Ae in2 x + Be in2 x )
= en1x A cosn2 x + iA sin n2 x + B cos(−n 2 x ) + iB sin(−n 2x )
= en1x ( A cosn2 x + iA sin n2 x + B cosn 2 x − iB sin n 2 x )
= en1x ( A + B )cosn2 x + i ( A − B )sin n2 x
Since A and B are arbitrary constants, you can combine (A + B) to give an
arbitrary constant C, and you can combine i(A B) to give an arbitrary constant D.
So, you have y = en1x (C cosn2 x + D sin n2 x )
Example 6
noitseuQ
d2 y dy dy
Solve − 2 + 3 y = 0, given that y = 0 and = 6, when x = 0.
dx 2 dx dx
d2 y dy
Substituting y = Aenx and its derivatives in − 2 + 3 y = 0, you get
dx 2 dx
n2 2n + 3 = 0
2 ± 4 − 12
⇒ n= = 1 ± 2i
2
rewsnA
erefore, the general solution is
y = e x (C cos 2 x + D sin 2 x )
To nd C and D, you use the boundary conditions.
When x = 0, y = 0, which gives
0 = C cos 0 + D sin 0 ⇒ C = 0
(continued)
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(continued)
Hence, you have
y = De x sin 2 x
dy
As one boundary condition is given in terms of you dierentiate the above:
dx
dy Note
rewsnA
= De x sin 2 x + 2 De x cos 2 x
dx
dy Sometimes it is more
When x = 0, = 6, which gives
dx convenient to denote by
6 = D sin0 + 2 D cos0
⇒ 6 = 2D ⇒ D=3 2 ′ ′
y or f ( x ), and by y ″ or
erefore, the solution is y = 3 2e x sin 2 x . f ″( x ), where y = f(x ).
Exercise 2
In questions 1 to 12, nd the general solution of each dierential equation.
d2 y dy d2 y dy d2 y dy
1 − 6 − 8y = 0 2 + 3 + 2y = 0 3 2 − − 6y = 0
dx 2 dx dx 2 dx dx 2 dx
d2 y dy d2 x dx d2 x dx
4 3 + 4 − 7y = 0 5 − 7 − 8x = 0 6 − 11 + 28 x = 0
dx 2 dx dt 2
dt dt 2
dt
d2 y dy d2 y dy d2 y dy
7 + 4 + 4y = 0 8 − 6 + 9y = 0 9 + +y =0
dx 2 dx dx 2 dx dx 2 dx
d2 y dy d2 x dx d2 x dx
10 + 4 + 8y = 0 11 − 6 + 7x = 0 12 + 2 + 13 x = 0
dx 2 dx dt 2 dt dt 2 dt
The complementary function and particular integral
is method is required for second-order dierential equations in the form
d2 y dy
a 2 +b + cy = f ( x )
dx dx
=
If y g(x) is the solution of
d2 y dy
a 2 +b + cy = 0
dx dx
and y = h(x) is a solution of
d2 y dy
a 2 +b + cy = f (x )
dx dx
then
=
y h(x) + λg(x)
is the general solution of
d2 y dy
a + b + cy = f (x )
dx 2 dx
To prove this, substitute y h = +λ
g and its derivatives in the LHS of
d2 y dy
a 2 +b + cy = f ( x )
dx dx
you have
ay ′′ + ′ + = ′′ + λ ′′ + ′ + λ ′ + + λ
by cy a(h g ) b(h g ) c(h g)
= ah ′′ + bh ′ + ch + λ(ag ′′ + bg ′ + cg)
= f(x)
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since h is a solution of ah″ + bh ′ + ch = f(x), and g is a solution of
ag″ + bg′ + cg = 0
erefore,
y = h(x) + λg(x)
is the general solution of ay ″ + by ′ + cy = f(x).
g(x) is called the complementary function (CF), and h(x) is called the
particular integral (PI)
e particular solution is obtained by inserting boundary conditions into the
general solution.
Types of particular integral
e particular integral depends on the function f(x).
You will consider three types of function f(x): Tip
▶ polynomial You will only be expected
▶ exponential to use this method for
▶ trigonometric polynomials of degree 4
When f(x) is a polynomial of degree n, the particular integral will also be a orless.
polynomial of degree n.
Example 7
By nding
a the complementary function
noitseuQ
b the particular integral,
solve the equation
d2 x dx
+ 3 − 4x = 8
dt 2 dt
a For the complementary function, you use
d2 x dx
+ 3 − 4x = 0
dt 2 dt
Substituting x = Aent in the above equation, you get
n2 + 3n 4 = 0
⇒ (n + 4)(n − 1) = 0
⇒ n = 1 or 4
rewsnA
So, the CF is x = Ae + Be
t 4t
b For the particular integral, f(x) is a polynomial of degree 0. Hence, x = c for
the particular integral.
d2 x dx
Substituting x = c in 2 + 3 − 4 x = 8,
dt dt
4c = 8 ⇒ c = − 2
So, the PI is x = −2.
erefore, the general solution is x = Aet + Be 4t
2.
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Example 8
d2 y dy
noitseuQ
Find the solution of 2 + 3 − 4 y = 2 + 8 x 2 , given that, when
dx dx
dy
x = 0, y = 0 and = 1.
dx
To nd the CF, you use
d2 y dy
+ 3 − 4y = 0
dx 2
dx
Substituting y = Aenx in the above equation,
n2 + 3n 4=0
⇒ (n + 4)(n 1) = 0
⇒ n=1 or 4
So, the CF is y = Ae + Bex 4x
To nd the PI, you substitute y = a + bx + cx2 and its derivatives in
d2 y dy
+ 3 − 4 y = 3 + 8x 2
dx 2
dx
which gives
2c + 3(b + 2cx) 4(a + bx + cx2) = 3 + 8x2
Equating coecients of x2 : 4c = 8 ⇒ c = −2
Equating coecients of x : 6c 4b = 0 ⇒ b = −3
Letting x = 0 in the above equation, you get
rewsnA
2c + 3b 4a = 3
⇒ a = −4
So, the PI is y = −4 3x 2x2
erefore, the general solution is
y = Aex + Be 4x
4 3x 2x2
You now need to nd values for A and B
When x = 0, y = 0, which gives
0=A+B 4
⇒ A+B=4 [1]
Dierentiating y = Aex + Be 4x 4 3x 2x2, you have
dy
= Ae x − 4 Be 4 x − 3 − 4 x
dx
dy
When x = 0, = 1, which gives
dx
1 = A 4B 3
⇒ A 4B = 4 [2]
From [1] and [2], you get A = 4 and B = 0.
erefore, the general solution is y = 4ex 4 3x 2x2
When f(x) is an exponential function you proceed as follows:
d2 y dy
Take, for example, the equation + 3 − 4 y = 3e7 x
dx 2 dx
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In this case, f(x) = 3e7x. e particular integral will be of the same form: Ce7x
e CF is y = Aex + Be 4x
see Example 8
To nd the PI, you substitute y = Ce and its derivatives in
7x
d2 y dy
+ 3 − 4 y = 3e7 x
dx 2 dx
is gives
49Ce7x + 21Ce7x 4Ce7x = 3e7x
1
⇒ 66C = 3 ⇒ C =
22
1 7x
So, the PI is y = e .
22 e7 x
erefore, the general solution is y = Ae x + Be 4x
+
22
When f(x) is a trigonometric function of the form a sin nx you proceed as
follows:
Take, for example, f(x) = 4 sin 2x. e particular integral will be of the form
Csin 2x + Dcos 2x
Example 9
noitseuQ
d2 y dy
Solve + 3 − 4 y = 4sin2 x .
dx 2
dx
e CF is y = Aex + Be 4x
see Example 8
Tip
Consider
Suppose you were simply
y = C sin 2x + D cos 2x
to consider y = C sin 2x
Dierentiating this, you have as the PI. Because there is
y ′ = 2C cos 2x 2D sin 2x only a sin 2x term on the
y ″ = −4C sin 2x 4D cos 2x right-hand side, you would
d2 y dy
Substituting y ′ and y ″ in 2 + 3 − 4 y = 4sin2 x , you get obtain
dx dx
4C sin 2x 4D cos 2x + 6C cos 2x 6D sin 2x 4C sin 2x 4D cos 2x = 4 sin 2x and
Equating coecients of sin 2x: 8C 6D = 4
Substituting these in
rewsnA
⇒ − 4C 3D = 2 [1]
Equating coecients of cos 2x: 8D + 6C = 0
you would obtain
⇒ − 4D + 3C = 0 [2]
4C sin 2x + 3 × 2C cos 2x
Solving the simultaneous equations [1] and [2], you get
4C sin 2x = 4 sin 2x,
8 6
C=− and D=− which includes only one term
25 25
erefore, the PI is in cos
8 6 This means that this equation
y = − sin2 x − cos2 x
25 25 could not be solved. Hence,
Hence, the general solution is the PI used must contain
8 6 both sin 2x and cos 2x terms.
y = Ae x + Be 4 x − sin2 x − cos2 x
25 25
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Example 10
noitseuQ
d2 y dy dy
Solve − − 2 y = 3e2 x , given that y = 0 and = 11 when x = 0.
dx 2 dx dx
To nd the CF, use
d2 y dy
− − 2y = 0
dx 2 dx
Substituting y = Aenx, you obtain
n2 n 2=0
⇒ (n 2)(n + 1) = 0
⇒ n=2 or 1
So, the CF is y = Ae + Be 2x x
To nd the PI, let y = Cxe2x
Note
Dierentiating y = Cxe2x,
xe2x is used here because e2x
dy
= Ce2 x + 2Cxe 2 x already forms part of the CF.
dx
d2 y
= 2Ce2 x + 2Ce 2 x + 4Cxe 2 x
dx 2
Note
d2 y dy
Substituting these in 2 − − 2 y = 3e2 x , you get
rewsnA
dx dx The x-terms should cancel at
4Ce2x + 4Cxe2x Ce2x 2Cxe2x 2Cxe2x = 3e2x this stage.
3Ce2x = 3e2x ⇒ C = 1
erefore, the PI is y = xe2x
Hence, the general solution is y = Ae2x + Be x + xe2x
e boundary conditions tell us that:
y = 0 when x = 0 ⇒ 0=A+B
dy
= 2 Ae2 x − Be x + e 2 x + 2 xe 2 x
dx
dy
= 11 when x = 0 ⇒ 11 = 2A B + 1 ⇒ 10 = 2A B
dx
Since 0 = A + B, you have
10 10
A= and B = −
3 3
e solution is, therefore,
y =
10 + x e2 x 10 e x
3
3
Example 11
noitseuQ rewsnA
Solve y ″ − 4y ′ + 4y = 3e2x
To nd the CF, you substitute y = Aenx and its derivatives in
y ″ − 4y ′ + 4y = 0, which gives
n2 4n + 4 = 0 (continued)
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⇒ =
(continued)
(n 2)(n 2) 0
⇒ n=2 (repeated root)
erefore, the CF is y (A Bx)e2x = +
To nd the PI, you need to use a term in x2e2x, since both e2x and xe2x already
form terms in the CF. erefore, you let y Cx2e2x, so =
y′ = 2Cx e + 2Cxe2 2x 2x
y″ = 4Cx e + 4Cxe + 2Ce + 4Cxe
2 2x 2x 2x 2x
rewsnA
= 4Cx e + 8Cxe + 2Ce
2 2x 2x 2x
Note
Substituting these in y ″ − 4y ′ + 4y = 3e , 2x
4Cx e + 8Cxe + 2Ce 4(2Cx e + 2Cxe ) + 4Cx e = 3e
2 2x 2x 2x 2 2x 2x 2 2x 2x
The terms in x 2 and x should
cancel at this stage.
2Ce = 3e ⇒ C=2
2x 2x
3
3
erefore, the PI is y = x 2e2 x
2
3
erefore the general solution is y = A + Bx + x 2 e2 x .
2
Example 12
noitseuQ
Solve y ″ + 16y = 2 cos 4x
=
To nd the CF, you substitute y Aenx and its second derivative in
″+ =
y 16y 0, which gives
+ = ⇒ =±
n2 16 0 n 4i Note
=
erefore the CF is y A cos 4x B sin 4x + For the PI you need to use
e PI is given by terms in x cos 4x and x sin 4x,
=
y Cx cos 4x Dx sin 4x + since the CF already contains
′=
y C cos 4x 4Cx sin 4x D sin 4x 4Dx cos 4x + + the terms cos 4x and sin 4x
y ″=−
4C sin 4x 4C sin 4x 16Cx cos 4x 4D cos 4x 4D cos 4x 16Dx sin 4x + + Therefore, the PI is given by
= +
y Cx cos 4x Dx sin 4x
″+ =
rewsnA
Substituting the above in y 16y 2 cos 4x
+
8C sin 4x 16Cx cos 4x 8D cos 4x 16Dx sin 4x 16Cx cos 4x + +
16Dx sin 4x 2 cos 4x =
Simplifying, equating sin and cos terms, and remembering that the terms in x
should cancel, you nd
=
C 0 and D =
1
4
1
erefore, the PI is y = x sin 4 x .
4
Hence, the solution is
= x
+
y A sin 4x B cos 4 x + sin 4 x
4
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25.3 Using a complementary function
andparticular integral to solve a rst
order equation
Although you can solve many rst-order dierential equations without using
complementary functions and particular integrals, you may be asked to solve a
rst-order dierential equation using this method.
Example 13
Find the complementary function and a particular integral for the dierential
noitseuQ
equation below, and hence write down the general solution.
dy
− 5 y = 4 x − e3 x
dx
dy Tip
e complementary function is the solution of − 5 y = 0, which is y = Ae5 x
dx While there are exceptions,
e particular integral is of the form y = bx + c + de 3 x . Substituting gives:
the use of this method to
rewsnA
b + 3de 3 x − 5bx − 5c − 5de 3 x = 4 x − e 3 x solve rst order equations is
4 4
Equating terms, b = − , c = − and d =
1 somewhat time-consuming,
5 25 2
4 4 1 and should be avoided unless
erefore the general solution is y = Ae5 x − x − + e 3 x
5 25 2 you are instructed to use it.
Exercise 3
In questions 1 to 9, nd the general solution of each dierential equation.
d2 y dy d2 y dy
1 + 7 − 8 y = 16 x 2 + 4 + 3 y = 4e 2x
dx 2
dx dx 2
dx
d2 y dy d2 y dy
3 2 2 − 3 − 5 y = 10 x 2 + 1 4 3 + 2 − y = 4sin5 x
dx dx dx 2
dx
d2 y dx d2 s ds
5 − 4 − 5 x = 3e 3t 6 − 8 + 15 s = 5cos2t
dt 2 dt dt 2 dt
d2 y dy d y
2
dy
7 + 5 + 4 y = 2e x 8 − 2 + 3 y = 22e 4 x
dx 2 dx dx 2 dx
d2 y dy
9 + 6 + 10 y = 3e 4x
dx 2 dx
Summary
You have learnt to solve:
▶ equations of the form , provided that P and Q are functions
only of x, by using the integrating factor
▶ second-order equations of the form , for real a, b and c,
starting with
▶ solutions to equations of the form , using a
particular integral.
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Review exercises
1 Find the solution of , given that y = 0 when x = 0.
2 Solve , given that when x = 0, y = 0 and .
3 Solve , given that when t = 0, x = 1, and when t = 1, x = 4e.
4 Solve , given that when t = 0, x = 1, and when , x = 0.
Practice examination questions
1 a Find the values of the constants p and q for which p sin x + q cos x is a
particular integral of the dierential equation
(3 marks)
b Hence nd the general solution of this dierential equation. (3 marks)
AQA MFP3 January 2011
2 a Show that is an integrating factor for the rst-order dierential equation
(3 marks)
b Hence nd the general solution of this dierential equation,
giving your answer in the form y = f(x). (4 marks)
AQA MFP3 January 2009
3 a Find the values of the constants a, b and c for which a + b sin 2x + c cos 2x
is a particular integral of the dierential equation
(4 marks)
b Hence nd the solution of this dierential equation, given
that y = 4 when x = 0. (4 marks)
AQA MFP3 June 2014
4 Solve the dierential equation
given that as and that when x = 0. (10 marks)
AQA MFP3 June 2014
5 a Find the values of the constants a, b and c for which is a
particular integral of the dierential equation
(5 marks)
b Hence nd the general solution of this dierential equation. (3 marks)
c Hence express y in terms of x, given that y = 1 when x = 0 and that
as . (4 marks)
AQA MFP3 June 2013
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Vectors and Three-Dimensional
26 Coordinate Geometry
Introduction Objectives
In this chapter, you discover how to use vectors in three dimensions. By the end of this chapter,
Vectors can be used with matrices to describe linear transformations. you should know how to:
You will learn about the vector product, which can be used to nd the ▶ Calculate the vector
volume of a parallelepiped (a prism with parallelogram faces). Both the product and know its
vector product and the scalar product have applications in mechanics. For properties.
example, the vector product can be used to calculate torque. ▶ Use the vector
product to calculate
the area of a triangle
Recap or parallelogram.
You will need to remember . . . ▶ Recognise direction
▶ at the vectors i, j and k represent the three-dimensional vectors ratios and direction
cosines.
, and respectively. ▶ Apply vectors to
geometric problems
involving points, lines
▶ How to nd the magnitude of a given vector in R2 (xy plane) or
and planes.
R3 (xyz space).
▶ Use Cartesian
▶ How to convert the vector equation of a line into Cartesian
coordinates to make
form y = mx + c, and vice versa.
calculations about
▶ How to nd the scalar product of two vectors, , where
points and lines, and
θ is the angle between a and b, and use this to nd the angle between
to nd the line of
two vectors. See Chapter 7 Matrices
intersection of two
▶ How to nd the distance of a point from a line. and Transformations
non-parallel planes.
▶ How to calculate the determinant of a if you need a reminder
▶ Calculate the scalar
matrix. of determinants.
triple product and
use this to nd
the volume of a
26.1 Vectors parallelepiped.
▶ Use the scalar triple
You should know from previous studies that vectors have magnitude and product to identify
direction, and a single vector is expressed as a or AB, for example. Vectors can coplanar vectors.
also be written in component form, OP = xi + yj where i and j are unit vectors in
the x and y directions respectively.
If you know the magnitude, r, and the direction, θ, of a vector, you can resolve
the vector into components as OP = r cos θ i + r sin θ j. If you know the
components x and y, you can nd the magnitude and direction as r = x 2 + y 2
y
and tan θ =
x
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In previous studies, you will also have learned how to multiply a vector by a scalar
quantity and to nd the scalar product of two vectors. In this chapter, you will learn
about vector products and the scalar triple product. First, there is some background
knowledge to cover so that it is possible to understand these new concepts.
Direction ratios
You know from previous studies that when one vector is a scalar multiple of
3
another vector, the two vectors are parallel. For example, vector a = 4 is
15 5
parallel to vector b = 20 since b = −5a
25
e direction of a vector can be specied by the ratios of the components in the
i, j and k directions. ese are called the direction ratios of the vector and are
normally expressed as integers. For example, the direction ratios of the vector
28i 21j 14k are 4 : 3 : 2.
Usually, these would be changed to a format that uses the fewest number of
negative terms, so 4 : 3 : 2.
e direction ratios specify the direction of a vector in three-dimensional space.
Note that two lines that do not intersect and are not parallel are said to be skew
Direction cosines
e direction cosines are cosines of the angles between each of the coordinate
axes (x, y, z) and a vector.
y
For instance, take the vector a, which in three-dimensional space has the a
components (a1, a2, a3). e angle that vector a makes with the i-axis can be
a1
given by cos 1
, where |a | is the magnitude of vector a and a1 is the θy
a
θz
component of a in the i-direction. θx
a1
If θx is the angle that vector a makes with the i-axis, you have cos θ x =
a2 a3 a z x
Likewise for θy and θz, you have cos θ y = and cos θ z =
a a
a1 a2 a3
So, the three values , and are known as the direction cosines of vector a
a a a
ey represent another way of specifying the vector’s direction.
If the direction cosines are l, m and n, then you will notice that
l
2
+ m2 + n2 = 1
e relationship given above means that if you know two of the direction
cosines of a vector, you can nd the third.
You can use the direction cosine to calculate the angle between the vector and a
specied axis.
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Example 1
noitseuQ
a Find the direction cosines of the vector 3i 4j + 5k
b Find the angle that the vector makes with the z-axis.
a a1 = 3, a2 = −4, a3 = 5 Note
2
|a| = 32 + ( −4 ) + 52 = 50 = 5 2
Hence, the direction cosines are
3 4 5 Note Find the magnitude of .
respectively, , ,
rewsnA
5 2 5 2 5 2
The direction cosines are
a
b cos z = 3 given by , and , so
a
cosθ z =
5
=
1
write down the values of each
Note
5 2 2
erefore, the angle that the vector
component. If θ is the angle that the
π vector makes with the z-axis.
makes with the z-axis is
4
Example 2
noitseuQ
1
If two of the direction cosines are , nd the possible values of the third
3
direction cosine.
1 1 Note
+ + n2 = 1
9 9
rewsnA
The sum of the squares of the
1 1 7
n = ± 1− − = ± three direction cosines is 1.
9 9 3
7
erefore, the third direction cosine is ±
3
Determinants
You saw in Chapter 7 Matrices and Transformations how to calculate the
determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix; recall that only a square matrix has a
a b
determinant. e 2 × 2 determinant of matrix a b is written
and
c d c d
is calculated as ad bc.
ab c ab c
Given the matrix d e f
, the 3 × 3 determinant d e f
gh i
gh i
e f d f d e
=a −b +c
g h which is, a(ei f h) b(di fg) + c(dh eg).
h i g i
Note it is much easier to learn the method for evaluating a determinant than to
remember its formula. e determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix is found by expanding
the matrix along its rst row. In turn, you take each element in the rst row,
cover up its column and the rst row, and nd the determinant of the 2 × 2
matrix that is left. You then combine the three results: a(ei fh). Notice the
minus sign for the b-term, which relates to the fact that b is an odd number of
places from the rst element, a.
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Example 3 Note Note
noitseuQ
3 7 8 Expand the matrix along its Find the determinant of each
Evaluate 4 2 5 rst row, remembering that 2 × 2 matrix.
1 9 15 b is negative, then for each
component in the rst row,
cover up its column and the rst Note
3 7 8
2 5 4 5 4 2 row to create a 2 × 2 matrix. You could also have
4 2 5 =3 −7 +8
9 15 1 15 1 9
rewsnA
1 9 15 identied the values of a,
= 3(30 45) 7(60 5) + 8(36 2) ei, fh etc. directly from the
matrix and used a(ei f h)
= −45 385 + 272
b(di fg) + c (dh eg).
= −158
Determinants, unlike matrices, always consist of a square array of elements.
Since determinants are always square, the expansion method just described
can be applied to determinants of any size. erefore, to evaluate the
determinant of a 4 × 4 matrix, you rst expand it along its top row to get an
expression involving four 3 × 3 matrices, remembering to alternate the plus and
minus signs. For example,
1 3 4 2
−1 −3 −4 5 −3 −4 5 −1 −4
5 −1 −3 −4
= 1 −3 4 7 − 3 2 4 7 + 4 2 3 7
2 3 4 7
8 5 6 1 5 6 1 8 6
1 8 5 6
5 −1 −3
2 2 3 4
1 8 5
You then proceed to evaluate each 3 × 3 matrix as before.
Recall that the determinant of the square matrix A is denoted either by |A| or by You rst saw this in Chapter 7
det A, and whenever two matrices A and B have the same order (size), Matrices and Transformations
det AB = det A × det B.
Exercise 1
1 For each vector, state
i the direction ratios ii the direction cosines.
a 6i + 12j 12k b 3i 4j 5k
c 12i + 8j 20k d 9i 18j 27k
2 Calculate the value of each of these determinants.
3 8 5 3 3 3
a
3 5 b
4 7 c 9 2 2 d 1 4 1
2 6 3 2 2 5 1 6 7 5
a 5 1 4 3 1
e 6 3 3 f 1 5 2
8 2 4 −5 −1 k
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26.2 Vector product
e product of two vectors can be formed in two distinct ways: the scalar
product and the vector product (sometimes called the cross product).
a×b a×b b
e vector product of two vectors a and b is denoted by
a × b, and is dened as b
a × b = | a || b | sin θ nˆ a
n̂
where θ is the angle measured in the anticlockwise θ a
sense between a and b, and n̂ is a unit vector, such that
a, b and n̂ (in that order) form a right-handed set.
e vector product of a and b produces a vector perpendicular
to both a and b.
Some important properties of the vector product
ere are some important properties of the vector product that you must
remember in order to use it properly.
e vector product is not commutative
ˆ , it follows that b × a = − | a || b | sin(−θ ) n
Since a × b = | a || b | sin θ n ˆ , as the
three vectors must form a right-handed set.
erefore, you have a × b = −b × a, which is known as the anticommutative
rule
e vector product of parallel vectors is zero
e angle, θ, between two parallel vectors, a and b, is 0° or 180°. erefore,
sin θ = 0, which gives the vector product a × b = 0
0 is called the zero vector. It is usually represented by an ordinary zero, 0.
Likewise, a × a = 0, since the angle between a and a is zero. Hence, you have the
following important result:
i×i=j×j=k×k=0
Note, in comparison, the scalar product a . a = a2
e vector product of perpendicular vectors
Considering the unit vectors i and j, which are perpendicular, θ = 90° and you
have the vector product i × j = 1 × 1 sin 90° n̂ = n̂
erefore, i, j, n̂ form a right-handed set. But, by denition, i, j, k form a
right-handed set. erefore, n̂ = k k
Hence, you have
i×j=k j × i = −k
Similarly, you have
j×k=i k × j = −i
i j
k×i=j i × k = −j
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Notice from the diagram, that these vector products are positive when the i
alphabetical order in which i, j and k are taken is clockwise, but negative when
this order is anticlockwise
Note, in comparison, for perpendicular vectors a and b, the scalar product
a . b = 0. k j
So, in summary,
For two vectors a and b:
▶ a × b = −b × a
▶ a × b = 0 when a and b are parallel
i×j=k j × i = −k
j×k=i k × j = −i
k×i=j i × k = −j
The vector product in component form
Expressing a and b in their component form, you have a = a1i + a2j + a3k and
b= b i + 2j + 3k
1
b b
If a = a1i + a2j + a3k and b =b1i + b2j + b3k, then
a × b = ( 1i + 2j + 3k) × ( 1i + 2j + 3k)
a a a b b b
= 1i × 1i + 2j × 1i + 3k × 1i + 1i × 2j + 2j × 2j + 3k × 2j + 1i × 3k
a b a b a b a b a b a b a b
+ 2j × 3k + 3k × 3k
a b a b
= a b
1 2
k a b
2 1
k+ a b
3 1
j a b
1 3
j+ a b
2 3
i a b
3 2
i
a×b=( a b
2 3
a b
3 2
)i (a1b3 b a
1 3
)j + (a1b2 a b
2 1
)k [1]
From the denition of a 3 × 3 determinant, you obtain
i j k
a a a a a a
2 3 1 3 1 2
a
1 a
2
a
3 = i− j+ k
b b b b b b
2 3 1 3 1 2
b b b
1 2 3
=( a b
2 3
a b
3 2
)i (a1b3 b a
1 3
)j + (a1b2 a b
2 1
)k [2]
Note that the RHS of [1] and [2] are identical. erefore, you have
i j k
a×b= a
1 a
2
a
3
b b b
1 2 3
erefore,
You can calculate a vector product using the formula:
i j k
a × b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
Using this formula is the easiest way to calculate a vector product.
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An alternative form of this determinant is using the transpose of this formula,
shown below (this is the version you will see in the formulae booklet). Since the
determinant of a matrix is the same as its transpose, the formulae are
equivalent.
i a1 b1 a2 b3 a3b2
ˆ = j a2 b2 = a3b1 a1b3
Vector product: a × b =| a || b | sin θ n
k a3 b3 ab ab
1 2 2 1
Example 4
noitseuQ
Evaluate (2i + 3j k) × (7i + 4j + 2k).
2 7 i j k
× 4 = 2 1 =i 3 1 2 1 2 3
3 3 j +k
4 2 7 2 7 4
1 2 7 4 2
rewsnA
erefore, Note
2 7 Using
3 × 4 = 10 i − 11 j − 13 k
1 2
Example 5
a Evaluate AB × CD , where A is (6, 3, 0), B is (3, 7, 1), C (3, 7, 1) and D is
noitseuQ
(4, 5, 3).
b Hence nd the shortest distance between AB and CD
a
3 6 3 Note Note
AB = b − a = −7 − −3 = 4
First nd and , and
1 0 1 then nd their vector product.
Using .
4 3 1
CD = d − c 5 7 = −2
rewsnA
3 1 2
Note
3 1 i j k
AB × CD = 4 × 2 = 3 4 1
Using
(a2b3 a3b2) i (a1b3 b1a3) j + (a1b2 a2b1)k
1 2 1 2 2
AB × CD = 10 i − 5 j + 10 k
erefore,
2
AB × CD = 102 + ( −5 ) + 102 = 15
(continued)
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(continued)
b
Note
The line that is the shortest distance between AB and CD is perpendicular to both AB
and CD, so you need to nd a vector perpendicular to both AB and CD. Let P and Q
be general points on AB and CD respectively. For PQ to be perpendicular to both AB
and CD, you need since the vector product of and will
lead to a vector that is perpendicular to both and , and so is a multiple of PQ
To complete the calculation we need to invent a multiplier, k. If you solve this equation,
you will nd that the shortest distance between and is add in
modulus line like before k
6 3
P is the point with position vector 3 +t 4 Note
0 1 Using vector equation of a
1 line ; to get to some
rewsnA
4
Q is the point with position vector 5 + s −2
general point on the line AB,
3 2 you rst get to the point A
along vector a and then a
6 3 4 1 10
+ s −2 = k −5 distance determined by t
QP = −3 + t 4
5
in the direction of vector b,
0 1 3 2 10
where b is the vector .
erefore, Note
2 3t s = 10k
8 4t + 2s = −5k Using .
3 + t + 2s = 10k
Solving these simultaneous equations: k = 0.4, s = 1 and t = −1.
10
e modulus of is 15.
5
10
erefore, the shortest distance between AB and CD is
k ( AB × CD) = 0.4 × 15 = 6
Area of a triangle and parallelogram
One of the applications of the vector product, is to calculate the area of a A
b
triangle and a parallelogram.
c
Consider the triangle ABC whose sides are a b and c, as shown in the C
diagram. From the denition of the vector product, you have a
| a × b | = | ab sin θ n
ˆ| B
where θ is the angle between a and b
However, the angle between a and b is 180° − C, and sin (180° − C) = sin C
erefore, you obtain
| a × b | = | ab sin (180° − C ) n
ˆ | = | ab sin C n
ˆ|
Since n̂ is a unit vector, |a × b| = ab sin C. Hence, you have
1 1
Area of triangle ABC = ab sin C = | a × b |
2 2
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Similarly, you can show that the area of triangle ABC is given by
1 1 1 1
bc sin A = | b × c | and ac sin B = | a × c |
2 2 2 2
In general, to nd the area of a triangle whose sides are a, b and c, you
can use any of the formulae:
1 1 1
Area of a triangle = | a × b | or | b × c | or |a× c|
2 2 2
It is also possible to calculate the area of a parallelogram using vectors. Any two
vectors with the angle θ between them form two sides of a parallelogram in
three-dimensional space. e area of the parallelogram can be shown to be
equal to the length of the vector product of the two vectors.
Area of a parallelogram = |a × b|
Example 6
noitseuQ
Find the area of triangle PQR where P is (4, 2, 5), Q is (3, 1, 6) and R is (1, 4, 2).
1 4 3 Note
PR = r − p = 4 2 = 2
First, nd any two sides.
2 5 3
3 4 1
PQ = q − p = −1 2 = 3
6 5 1
rewsnA
i j k Note Note
PR × PQ = 3 2 3
Calculate the magnitude of Using any one of the area
1 3 1
the vector product. formulae, you need to
PR × PQ = −7 i + 6 j + 11k calculate the vector product;
| PR × PQ | = 49 + 36 + 121 = 206 Note here the component form of
the vector product has been
erefore, the area of Using any one of the area
1
triangle PQR = 206 formulae, for example, .
2 used, .
Exercise 2
1 Find a × b
1 2 3 2
a a = −4 b= 3 b a= 4 b = −3
3 1 5 4
4 1 1 3
c a = −4 b = −5 d a= 4 b= 2
2 3 6 5
2 Find the area of a triangle ABC where A is (1, 3, 2), B is (3, 1, 2)
and C is ( 1, 3, 5).
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3 Find the area of a triangle PQR where P is (1, 5, 3), Q is (2, 1, 6)
and R is (4, 1, 2).
2 4
4
e vectors a and b are given by a = −1 and b = 0
5 2
a Find a × b
1
b You are given the equations of two lines, r = 0 + sa and,
1 1
r = 0 + t b . What is the shortest distance between the two lines?
3
26.3 Applications of vectors to coordinate
geometry
Vectors can be used to nd the intersection of a line and a plane, to nd the
angle between two planes or between a line and a plane in two- and three-
dimensional geometry. Before you look at these applications, you will rst
revisit the vector equation of a line and be introduced to the vector equation of
a plane.
26.4 Equation of a line
You saw during your A-level mathematics studies that a line is dened by the
direction of the line and a point on the line, resulting in the equation of the line
as r = a + λb where a is the position vector of a point on the line and b is a vector
in the direction of the line.
Using the components of r, a and b, this becomes
xi + yj+ zk = a1i + a2j+ a3k + λ [b1i + b2j+ b3k], which leads to the alternative form:
e Cartesian equations of the straight line that passes through point A,
with position vector a = a1i + a2j + a3k, and has a direction given by
x a1 y a2 z a3
vector b = b1i + b2j + b3k, is = =
b1 b2 b3
If r is the position vector of a general point on a line, a is the position vector of a
point on the line and b is a vector in the direction of the line, then the two
vectors (r a) and b are two vectors in the same direction. From the denition
of a vector product, using a × a = 0 for parallel vectors, (r a) × b = 0.
erefore,
e equation of a line can also be given in a vector product form,
(r a) × b = 0 where a is the position vector of a point on the line and
b is a vector in the direction of the line.
26.5 Equation of a plane
A plane is a two-dimensional cross section (or slice) of three-dimensional
space.
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Equation in the form r = a + tb + sc
e position vector of any point on a plane can be expressed in terms of:
▶ a, the position vector of a point on the plane, and
▶ b and c, which are two non-parallel vectors in the plane.
From the diagram, you can see that the position vector of b
a point P on the plane is given by P
A
OP = OA + AR + RP R c
where AR is parallel to vector b, and RP is parallel to vector c
a
Hence, AR = tb and RP = sc, for some parameters t and s
erefore,
O
e vector equation of a plane through point A is r = a + tb + sc, where b
and c are non-parallel vectors in the plane, and t and s are parameters.
Equation in the form r = a + λ(b a) + μ(c a)
= (1 λ − μ)a + λb + μc
e plane can also be dened by using three non-collinear points on the plane.
e plane through points A, B and C, has a point on the plane, A, and the two
vectors AB (or b a) and AC (or c a) in the plane. Hence,
e plane through non-collinear points A, B and C has vector equation,
r = a + λ(b a) + μ(c a) = (1 − λ − μ)a + λb + μc.
Equation in the form r n =d
Sometimes it is useful to have an equation of the plane that does not rely on
parameters. Given n is a vector perpendicular to the plane, using the equation
of the plane, r = a + tb + sc, you have
r n = (a + tb + sc) n
= a n + tb n + s c n
Since b and c are perpendicular to n b n = c n = 0.
Hence, you have r n = a n, where r n is the same for all points r on the plane.
erefore,
e vector equation of the plane is r n = d, where d is a constant that
determines the position of the plane.
▶ If n is a unit vector, then d is the perpendicular distance of the plane from
the origin.
▶ When d has the same sign for two planes, these planes are on the same side
of the origin.
▶ When d has opposite signs for two planes, these planes are on opposite sides
of the origin.
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Cartesian form
You can nd the Cartesian equation of a plane in the form r n = d. In a similar
way to nding the Cartesian equation of a line, you take r n = d and replace r by
xi + yj + zk, which gives the equation of a plane as
x
y
n=d
z
Let n = ai + bj + ck, therefore, using the scalar product,
x a
e Cartesian equation of a plane is y b = d or ax + by + cz = d,
z c
a
where a, b, c and d are constants and the vector b is perpendicular to
the plane. c
In the Formulae and Statistical Tables booklet, you will see this as:
e plane through the point A with normal vector n = n1i + n2j + n3k has
Cartesian equation n1x + n2y+ n3z = d where d = a n
In summary,
A plane is identied by
▶ a vector perpendicular to the plane, and
▶ a point on the plane
Example 7
Find the equation of the plane through (3, 2, 7) which is perpendicular to the
noitseuQ
1
vector 5 giving its equation
8
a in vector form b in Cartesian form.
Note
1 3 1
a r⋅ 5
=
2
⋅
5 Using r n = a n Note
8 7 8 Using the scalar product to
1
calculate 49.
rewsnA
erefore, the equation of the plane is r ⋅ −5
= 49.
8
x 1 Note
y = 49
b 5
8
Using answer from part a and
z
replacing r by x i + y j + z k
erefore, the Cartesian equation is x 5y + 8z = 49.
You can use the Cartesian equation of a plane to nd a vector perpendicular to
that plane; it is also possible to nd a unit vector that is perpendicular to the
plane.
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Example 8
Note
noitseuQ
Find the unit vector perpendicular to the plane 2x + 3y − 7z = 11
The vector is
2
3 perpendicular to the plane
A vector perpendicular to the given plane is
7 ax + by + cz = d
e magnitude of this vector is 2 2 + 32 + (−7) 2 = 62 .
rewsnA
2
Note
62
3 The unit vector perpendicular
erefore, the unit vector perpendicular to the given plane is
62 to the given plane must have
magnitude one.
7
62
Given three points on a plane, you can nd two vectors that join them, and use
this to nd the equation of a plane in any required format.
Example 9
Find the equation of a plane through A(1, 4, 6), B(2, 7, 5) and C( 3, 8, 7), giving
noitseuQ
your answer in these forms:
a r = a + tb + sc b rn=d c ax + by + cz = d
2 1 1 Note Note
a AB = b − a = 7 4 = 3
You can use any two vectors To nd the equation of the
5 6 1 on the plane ABC plane in the form
3 1 4 r = a + t b + s c, you need
AC = c − a = 8 4 = 4 to identify one point on the
7 6 1 plane. Here, the point chosen
is A(1, 4, 6).
1 1 4
erefore, the equation is: r = 4 +t 3 + s 4
Note
6 1 1
rewsnA
i j k You and your classmates might not nd solutions
1 4
that appear identical, but you might both be right.
b AB × AC = 3 × 4 = 1 3 1
For example, instead of choosing A, you could have
1 1 4 4 1
chosen B(2, 7, 5) or C ( 3, 8, 7). You could also
= 7i + 3j + 16k have used the vectors and so on.
Note
To nd the equation of a plane in the form r n = d, you need to nd a vector
perpendicular to the plane ABC. By denition, the vector product of any two
non-parallel vectors on the plane will be perpendicular to the plane, so use the
two vectors from part a to make calculations easier.
(continued)
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(continued)
Hence, the vector equation of the plane ABC is Note
7 2 7 Here you used the position
r.
3
=
7
⋅
3
= 14 + 21 + 80 Note vector of B, but you could
rewsnA
16 5 16 have used A or C to obtain
Using the answer to part b
7 the same result.
⇒ r 3 = 115 and, = d or
16
c 7 x + 3 y + 1 6 z =115 ax + by + cz = d
Instead of determining a plane using three points, you can also dene a plane
using two lines it contains.
Example 10
Find the Cartesian equation of the plane containing the two lines
noitseuQ
3 1 2 2
r= 1 +t 3 and r = 3 + s −1
2 4 7 5
e vector perpendicular to this plane is
Note
1 2 i j k
× −1 = −1 You know that two vectors
3 3 −4 = 11i − 3 j − 5 k
are in the plane you are
4 5 2 1 5
rewsnA
trying to nd. These are the
e equation of the plane is 11x 3y 5z = d. direction vectors of the lines,
But the point (3, 1, 2) is in the plane. So, d = 11 × 3 3 × 1 5 × 2 = 20.
erefore, the equation of the plane containing the two lines is
11x 3y 5z = 20
Applying the equation of a plane in the r n = d form
As mentioned at the start of the section, you can use vectors in two- and
three-dimensional geometry. You can use the equation of a plane in the form
r n = d to calculate many dierent things such as the angle between two planes,
the angle between a plane and a line and to nd the distance of a plane from
the origin.
e angle between two planes is the angle between the vectors perpendicular to
the planes.
Example 11
noitseuQ
Find the angle between the planes 3x + 4y + 5z = 7 and x + 2y 2z = 11.
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3 1 Note
Vectors perpendicular to the planes are and 2
4
5 2
Using, the vector is
ab
rewsnA
Using cos θ = , where θ is the required angle,
ab
Note perpendicular to the plane
3 + 8 − 10 ax + by + cz = d
cos θ = Using the scalar product,
5 2 ×3
, to nd the
1
⇒ θ = cos 1 = 87.3° (1 dp) angle between two vectors.
15 2
In order to nd the point where a line perpendicular to a plane meets that
plane, you need to nd the vector equation of the line and also use the equation
of a plane in the form r n = d as this involves a point on the plane and a vector
perpendicular to the plane.
Example 12
noitseuQ
A line from point A(2, 7, 4) is perpendicular to the plane Π, which has the
equation 3x 5y + 2z + 2 = 0. Find where the line from A meets Π
Let T be the point where the line from A(2, 7, 4) meets Π
e equation of AT is Note
2 3 Using the vector equation of a
r = 7 + t −5 line, r = a + λb;
4 2
rewsnA
Substituting x = (2 + 3t), y = (7 5t) and b= since the line AT
z = (4 + 2t) into the equation of the plane Π, Note
3(2 + 3t) 5(7 5t) + 2(4 + 2t) + 2 = 0 Using ax + by + cz = d, is perpendicular to the plane,
1 where a, b, c and d are and using the r n = d form of
⇒ 38t = 19 ⇒ t =
2 constants and the vector
the equation of a plane,
1 1
erefore, the point T is 3 , 4 , 5
2 2 is perpendicular to the plane.
is a vector perpendicular to
To nd the angle between a line and a plane you use the fact that the required the plane.
angle is 90° − θ, where θ is the angle between the line and the vector
perpendicular to the plane.
Example 13
2
noitseuQ
1
Find the angle between the plane 3x + 4y 5z = 6 and the line r = 4 + t 5
Note
8 3
Using the r n = d Cartesian
3
rewsnA
form of the equation of a
Angle perpendicular to the plane = 4
plane.
5
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(continued)
3 1 Note
Therequiredangle = 90° − anglebetween 4 and 5
5 3
is the direction of
rewsnA
ab 3 + 20 + 15
Using cos θ = , cos θ =
| a || b | 5 2 × 35
Note the line r
e required angle Using the scalar product,
38 Line r
, to nd the
= 90° − cos 1 = 65.3° (1 dp)
35 × 5 2 angle between two vectors. Normal
Two non-parallel planes always meet in a line, therefore you can use the
θ
equation of a plane to nd the equation of a common line of the two planes,
which is also known as the line of intersection. To obtain the equation of the
common line, you need to nd a point on it and its direction. To nd the
direction, you take the vector product of the vectors that are perpendicular to
each plane respectively; to nd the point, you solve simultaneous equations for 3x + 4y 5z = 6
the two planes to nd a point where they meet.
If the vectors n1 and n2 are the two directions perpendicular to the
planes, then the direction of the line of intersection is n1 × n2.
Example 14
noitseuQ
Find the equation of the common line (line of intersection) of the two planes
Π1 3x y 5z = 7 and Π2 2x + 3y 4z = 2.
3 2
Note
e vectors 1 and 3 are perpendicular to Π1 and Π2 respectively.
5 4 Using the r n = d form of the
equation of a plane.
3 2
erefore, 1 × 3 is perpendicular to both of these perpendiculars, and
5 4 Note
hence is in the direction of the common line.
Note Using the fact if the vectors n1
erefore, the direction of the common line is and n2 are the two directions
rewsnA
Using the component form of
i j k perpendicular to the planes
the vector product.
3 −1 −5 = 19 i + 2 j + 11k then the direction of the line
2 3 4 of intersection is .
Note
To nd a point on the common line, solving Π1 and Π2 will give only two equations to
solve for three unknowns. So, you let x = 0 and solve the equations for the remaining
two unknowns. However, if letting x = 0 causes problems because of the particular
equations given, you may let either y = 0 or z = 0.
(continued)
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(continued)
To nd a point on the line, let x = 0.
Π1 is 3x y 5z = 7 When x = 0, Π1 gives y 5z = 7
Π2 is 2x + 3y 4z = −2 When x = 0, Π2 gives 3y 4z = 2
rewsnA
Solving these simultaneous equations, z = −1, y = 2.
erefore, the point (0, 2, 1) lies on the common line, so its equation is
Note
0 19
r = −2 + t 2 . Using the vector equation of a
line, r = a + λb
1 11
Distance of a plane from the origin
ˆ ), then d
Consider the equation of a plane in the form r n = d. If n is a unit vector ( n
is the perpendicular distance of the plane from the origin. If n is not a unit vector
and you would like to determine the distance from the origin, then divide each
n d
side of the equation by the magnitude of n to obtain the equation r = . e
|n| |n|
d n
distance of the plane from the origin is then since is a unit vector.
|n| |n|
Example 15
noitseuQ
Find the distance to the plane 3x + 4y 5z = 21 from the origin. Note
Using the r n = d form of the
equation.
3
e equation of the plane is r. 4 = 21
5
Note
Magnitude of n = 32 + 4 2 + (−5) 2 = 5 2 Changing this to the form
r = d, where is a unit
3
rewsnA
vector.
5 2
4 21
r. =
5 2 5 2
5
5 2
21
erefore, the distance from the origin is
5 2
Distance of a plane from a point
To nd the distance of a plane from a point, you rst need to nd the equation
of the plane through the given point parallel to the given plane. en you nd
the distance of each plane from the origin. e dierence between these
distances is equal to the distance of the given plane from the given point.
Example 16
noitseuQ
Find the distance from the point (3, 2, 6) to the plane 3x + 4y 5z = 21.
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Equation of plane parallel to 3x + 4y 5z = 21 through (3, 2, 6):
3x + 4y 5z = (3 × 3) (2 × 4) + (6 × −5)
⇒ 3x + 4y 5z = 29
3
5 2
rewsnA
4 29
⇒r
5 2 =−5 2
5
5 2 Note
erefore, distance from point (3, 22, 6) to the plane is Adding the distance of the
29 21 50 plane from the origin (from
+ = =5 2 Example 15 ).
5 2 5 2 5 2
You can also calculate the distance of a plane from a point by calculating the
equation of the line perpendicular to the plane using the vector equation of a
line.
Example 17
noitseuQ
Find the distance from the point (3, 2, 6) to the plane 3x + 4y 5z = 21.
Equation of line perpendicular to 3x + 4y 5z = 21 through (3, 2, 6): Note
3 3
Using the vector equation of a
r = −2 + t 4
line, r = a + t b
6 5
e line meets the plane 3x + 4y 5z = 21 when
rewsnA
3(3 + 3t) + 4( 2 + 4t) 5(6 5t) = 21
⇒ 50t = 50 ⇒ t = 1
Using r = a + tb, the line meets the plane at (6, 2, 1).
Distance between the points (3, 2, 6) and (6, 2, 1) is 32 + 4 2 + 5 2 = 5 2
erefore, distance from the point (3, 2, 6) to the plane is 5 2 .
Exercise 3
1 Find the equation of a line through the points given, in the form
i r = a + tb ii (r a) × b = 0
a A(2, 4, 7) and B(4, 1, 6) b P(2, 5, 4) and Q(4, 2, 3)
2 In the form a n = d, nd the equation of the plane through
a A(4, 1, 5), B(2, 1, 6), C( 2, 3, 2)
b P(2, 5, 3), Q(4, 1, 2), R(4, 3, 5)
c D(4, 1, 3), E(2, 3, 2), F( 1, 3, 1)
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3 Find, in Cartesian form, the equation of the plane.
3 2 1
a r . 1 =4 b r . 4 =8 c r . 5 +7=0
7 3 3
4 Find the angle between each pair of planes.
a 3x y 4z = 7, 2x + 3y z = 11 b 5x 3y + 2 = 10, 2x y z = 8
c 7x + 4y 2z = 5, 6x + 7y + z = 4 d x 2y 9z = 1, x + 3y + 2z = 0
1 2
5 Find the angle between the line r = 4 + t −3 and the plane 2x + 4y z = 7.
5 4
2 4
6 Find the angle between the line r = −3 + t 2 and the plane
3x y + 2z = 11. 1 5
7 Write the equation of the plane 3x + 4y 5z = 20 in the form r n̂ = d, where n̂
is a unit vector. Hence write down the distance from the plane to the origin.
8 Two planes have equations 3x − 3y + z = 7 and x + 2y 3z = 6. ey meet in
a line. Find the Cartesian equations of the line and its direction cosines.
9 e line l has equation r = (1 + 6t)i + (3 5t)j + (5 + 7t)k
a Write down a direction vector for l
b i Find direction cosines for l
ii Explain the geometrical signicance of the direction cosines in
relation to l
c Write down a vector equation for l in the form ( r − a ) × b = 0
4 3
10 e line L has equation r = 2 + t 1 .
5 2
a Show that P(16, 2, 3) lies on L.
b Find the direction cosines of L and the acute angle between L and the
y-axis.
c e plane Π has Cartesian equation 2 x − 5 y + 3 z = 38. Write down a
normal vector n to Π
d Find the acute angle between L and the normal vector n
e Find the position vector of the point Q where L meets Π
f Determine the shortest distance from P to Π
26.6 Scalar triple product and its applications
e scalar triple product of vectors a b and c is dened as a b × c
You must calculate a b × c as a (b × c).
If you tried to calculate it as (a b) × c, you would have the vector product of a
scalar and a vector (since a.b is a scalar product), which, by denition of a
vector product, cannot exist.
e scalar triple product is found to have useful applications, including calculating
the volume of a parallelepiped, which you will see later in the chapter.
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Example 18
noitseuQ
3 2 7
Calculate 3 ×
4 4
7 1 2 Note
Using, a b × c; you must calculate the vector
3 2 7 3 2 7
4 . 3 ×
4 = 4 . 3 ×
4
product rst; using and
7 1 2 7
1 2
3 (b2c3 b3c2)i (b1c3 b3c1)j + (b1c2 b2c1)k,
rewsnA
10
= 4 11 = 30 − 44 − 91 = −105 you get 10i 11j 13k
7 13
3 2 7
erefore 4 3 × = −105
4
7 1 2
Note
A quicker way to nd a b × c is as follows. Calculate the dot product.
i j k
e vector product b × c is given by b × c = b1 b2 b3
c1 c 2 c3
= i(b2c3 b3c2) j(b1c3 b3c1) + k(b1c2 b2c1)
erefore, the scalar triple product a b × c is given by
a b × c = a1(b2c3 b3c2) a2(b1c3 b3c1) + a3(b1c2 b2c1)
a1 a2 a3
a b × c = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
Applying this result to Example 16, you would have a 3 × 3 matrix, the
determinant of which gives you the same result.
3 2 7 3 4 7
3 × = 2 3 −1
4 4
7 1 2 7 4 2
= 3 × 10 4 × 11 + 7 × −13
= −105
Volume of a parallelepiped
A parallelepiped is a polyhedron with six faces, each of which is a S
R
parallelogram. Since the shape is a three-dimensional one, in order to calculate Q
A
its volume, you need to use three vectors. e scalar triple product is a useful
tool for doing this since at each vertex of a parallelepiped there are three a C D
adjacent edges that can be expressed as non-parallel vectors.
c
P
Consider the parallelepiped OBDCAQRS, which has adjacent edges OA = a, O b
B
OB = b and OC = c
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e volume of a parallelepiped is given by
Volume = Area of base × Perpendicular height
erefore, the volume, V, of OBDCAQRS is
V = |b × c| × Perpendicular height
e perpendicular height, AP, is |a| cos θ erefore, you have
V = |b × c| × |a| |cos θ |
= |a| |b × c| |cos θ |
Note that this is identical to the scalar product x y = |x| |y| cos θ, with |x| = |a|,
|y| = |b × c| and b × c having the same sense as . erefore, PA
e volume of a parallelepiped is given by V = |a b × c|, where the vectors
a, b and c represent three adjacent edges of the parallelepiped.
Note that a cuboid is a special case of a parallelepiped, so this equation can also
be used to nd the volume of a cuboid.
When calculating the volume of a parallelepiped, you can use any vectors that
are measured between dierent pairs of points, but it is important to make sure
that no two vectors are parallel. e best approach to determine three vectors
that are not parallel, is to use one chosen vertex and nd the vector from this
vertex to each of three other points.
Example 19
noitseuQ
Find the volume of parallelepiped ABCDPQRS, where A is (3, 1, 7), B is (2, 0, 4), Note
is (7, 2, 1) and P is (8, 3, 11).
Using V = |a b × c|
D
e volume, V, of parallelepiped ABCDPQRS is given by V = AP AB × AD . Note
8 3 5
Note Here, A is the chosen vertex.
AP = p−a = 3 1 = 2
11 7 4 You could also use the formula
for the scalar triple product, Note
2 3 1
AB = b−a = 0 1 = 1 Find the vector from A to B
4 7 3
7 3 4 Note
rewsnA
=d−a= 2 1 = 1 to nd
AD
Find the vector from A to D
1 7 8
11 Note
× = −20
AB AD
3
V = AP AB × AD
5 11
= 2 20 = 55 − 40 +12 = 27 and (a2b3 a3b2)i
4 3 (a1b3 a3b1)j + (a1b2 a b
2 1
)k
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Coplanar vectors
Vectors are coplanar if they all are contained in the same plane. You can use the
scalar triple product to determine if three vectors are coplanar since,
ree vectors are coplanar if their scalar triple product is zero.
Suppose that a b × c = a (|b||c| sin θ n̂)
= a||b||c| sin θ cos ϕ,
where θ is the angle between b and c, and ϕ is the angle between a and n̂
|
which is perpendicular to the plane containing b and c. erefore, you get
a b c = a||b||c| sin θ sin ψ
where ψ = (90° − ϕ) is the angle between a and the plane containing b and c
× | ,
Hence, when a b and c are coplanar (a, b and c lie in the same plane), you
have
ab×c=0
Instead of saying that a, b and c are coplanar, you can say that the three vectors
are linearly dependent, which means that one vector is a linear combination of
the other two vectors. For example, by calculating a b × c, you can show that the
2 2 1
three vectors a = 8 , b = 5 , c = 1 are coplanar. Alternatively, you
12 9 3
could prove they are linearly dependent by observing they are related by the
equation b a c
1
2
=
You can also consider coplanar vectors in terms of the volume of a
parallelepiped. If vectors are coplanar then it follows that the volume of the
parallelepiped that they generate would be zero. It therefore follows that the
scalar triple product would be zero for three coplanar vectors, since the
volume of a parallelepiped is V = | × |, where ab c ab c
× is the scalar triple
product.
Exercise 4
2 7 1
1 Are the vectors 4
, 2
and 3
coplanar?
1 3 5
3 2 1
2 Find the value of 2 1 × 5
1 4 2
2 3 2
3 Find the value of 4 8 × −3
5 2 6
−1 2 3
4 Find the value of 2 3
. × 8 .
5 1 4
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5 Find the volume of a parallelepiped ABCDEFGH
1 2 5
AB = 3 AD = 1 AE = 2
2 3 7
6 Find the volume of a parallelepiped ABCDEFGH, where A is the point
(3, 5, 7), B is (4, 2, 7), C is (1, 3, 7) and E is (1, 5, 8).
Summary
▶ A two-dimensional vector a can be considered as being composed of two
parts relative to another vector b: one in the direction of a vector b (parallel
to the x-axis), and the other perpendicular to the direction of vector b. e
resolved part of vector a in the direction of vector b is .
▶ e direction of a vector can be specied by the ratios of the components in
the i, j and k directions. ese are called the direction ratios of the vector
and are normally expressed as integers. For example, the direction ratios of
the vector 28i 21j 14k are 4 : 3 : 2.
▶ If θx is the angle that vector a makes with the i-axis, you have cos .
Likewise for θy and θz, you have cos and cos ; these are the
direction cosines of vector a, and they represent another way of specifying a
vector’s direction.
▶ If the direction cosines are l, m and n, then you will notice that .
▶ Given the matrix , the 3 × 3 determinant represents the
expression which is
a(ei fh) b(di fg) + c(dh eg).
▶ e vector product of two vectors a and b is denoted by a × b, and is
dened as , where θ is the angle measured in the
anticlockwise sense between a and b, and is a unit vector, such that a, b
and (in that order) form a right-handed set.
▶ e vector product is anticommutative: a × b = −b × a.
▶ e vector product of parallel vectors is zero: hence, i × i = j × j = k × k = 0.
▶ e vector product of perpendicular vectors, a and b, leads to the following
results:
i × j = k j × i = −k
j × k = i k × j = −i
k × i = j i × k = −j
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▶ Expressing vectors in their component form, and considering the
calculation of the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix, leads to the component
form of the vector product
= (a2b3 a3b2)i (a1b3 a3b1)j + (a1b2 a2b1)k
▶ In general, to nd the area of a triangle whose sides are a, b and c, you can
use any of the formulae
or or
▶ e area of a parallelogram with two sides formed by the vectors a and b is
▶ e equation of a line through a point with position vector a in the
direction of vector b, can be found using the formula
▶ e vector equation of a plane can be written in the form
• , where a is a point on the plane and b and c are two
non-parallel lines within the plane
• r = a + λ(b a) + μ(c a) = (1 − λ − μ)a + λb + μc, where the plane
passes through three non-collinear points A, B and C. e plane
through points A, B and C, has a point on the plane, A, and the two
vectors (or b a) and (or c a)
• r n = d, where d is a constant that determines the position of the plane.
▶ If n is a unit vector, then d is the perpendicular distance of the plane from
the origin.
▶ When d has the same sign for two planes, these planes are on the same side
of the origin.
▶ When d has opposite signs for two planes, these planes are on opposite
sides of the origin.
▶ e Cartesian equation of a plane is = d or ax + by + cz = d, where
a, b, c and d are constants and the vector is perpendicular to the plane.
▶ You can use the equation of a plane in the form r n = d to calculate the
angle between two planes, the angle between a plane and a line, to nd the
distance of a plane from the origin or a point, and to nd the line of
intersection of planes that are not parallel.
▶ If the vectors n1 and n2 are the two directions perpendicular to the planes
then the direction of the line of intersection is .
▶ e scalar triple product of vectors a b and c is dened as a b × c. You must
calculate a b × c as a (b × c).
▶ When the vectors are expressed in component for m, the scalar triple
product can be calculated using .
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▶ e volume of a parallelepiped is given by V = |a b × c|, where the vectors
a, b and c represent three adjacent edges of the parallelepiped.
▶ e scalar triple product can be used to determine that three vectors, a, b,
c, are coplanar precisely when a b × c = 0.
Review exercises
1 Find the resolved part of i 5j 2k in the direction j 7k
2 Find the direction cosines of i + 2j 6k
3 Find, in vector form, the equation of the plane through A(4, 0, 2),
B(2, 1, 1), and C(1, 6, 2).
4 Find the angle between the line and the plane
5 Write the equation of the plane in the form r n = d, where n
is a unit vector, and hence write down the distance of the plane to the origin.
6 Find the volume of a parallelepiped ABCDEFGH, given that
Practice examination questions
1 A line has vector equation
a Determine the direction cosines of this line. (3 marks)
b Explain the geometrical signicance of the direction cosines in relation
to the line. (1 mark)
AQA MFP4 June 2012
2 e line l has equation r = (1 + 4t)i + ( 2 + 12t)j + (1 − 3t)k
a Write down a direction vector for l. (1 mark)
b i Find direction cosines for l. (2 marks)
ii Explain the geometrical signicance of the direction cosines in
relation to l. (1 mark)
c Write down a vector equation for l in the form . (2 marks)
AQA MFP4 January 2009
3 e non-zero vectors a and b have magnitudes a and b respectively.
Let and .
By considering the denitions of vector and scalar products, or
otherwise, show that . (3 marks)
AQA MFP4 January 2011
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4 e xed points A and B and the variable point C have position vectors
respectively, relative to the origin O, where t is a scalar parameter.
a Find the equation of the line AB in the form (3 marks)
b Determine in terms of t. (4 marks)
c i Show that is constant for all values of t, and state the value
of this constant. (2 marks)
ii Write down a geometrical conclusion that can be deduced from the
answer to part ci. (1 mark)
AQA MFP4 June 2010
5 e points X, Y and Z have position vectors
respectively, relative to the origin O
a Find
i ; (2 marks)
ii (2 marks)
b Using these results, or otherwise, nd
i the area of triangle OXY (2 marks)
ii the value of a for which x, y and z are linearly dependent. (2 marks)
AQA MFP4 January 2009
6 e points A, B, C and D have position vectors a, b, c and d respectively
relative to the origin O, where
a Find . (3 marks)
b e points A, B and C lie in the plane Π. Find a Cartesian equation for Π
(2 marks)
c Find the volume of the parallelepiped dened by and .
(3 marks)
AQA MFP4 June 2013
7 e planes Π1 Π 2
and Π3 have Cartesian equations
respectively.
Find, in the form , a vector equation for the line L, which is the
intersection of Π1 and Π2. (5 marks)
AQA MFP4 June 2012
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27 Solutions of Linear Equations
Introduction Objectives
You already know how to use two simultaneous linear equations in x and y By the end of this chapter,
to solve real world questions. When solving such equations, there are three you should know how to:
possible outcomes related to how the lines appear when drawn in R2 (xy ▶ Solve up to three
plane): if there is no solution for x and y, the lines are parallel but distinct; if linear equations in
there is a unique solution for x and y, then the lines intersect in one place; three unknowns.
or, the two equations are the same, and therefore the lines are identical ▶ Explain the geometric
and there are innitely many solutions. In this chapter, you will look at a interpretation of
similar situation but in R3 (xyz space), hence you will be dealing with three the solution of three
planes rather than two lines. equations in three
unknowns.
Recap
See Chapter 7 Matrices
You will need to remember . . .
and Transformations if
▶ How to solve two simultaneous linear
you need to.
equations.
▶ How to store data as a matrix. See Chapter 26 Vectors
▶ How to nd the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix. and ree-Dimensional
▶ How to create and use equations of a plane. Coordinate Geometry
27.1 Simultaneous linear equations
In earlier studies of mathematics, you have solved two equations with two
unknowns. It is also possible to solve three linear equations in up to three
unknowns, for example
a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0
a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0
a3x + b3y + c3z + d3 = 0
ere are several ways to solve three linear equations and it is acceptable for
you to use any method you like. For example, you might decide to use the
elimination method you used for solving two simultaneous equations, and start
by eliminating z and then y
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Example 1
A system of three equations is given. Find the solution of the three equations
using elimination.
noitseuQ
2x + 5y + z = 15 [1]
3x 4y 5z = 1 [2]
5x + 3y + 2z = 10 [3]
5[1] + [2] gives 13x + 21y = 76 [4] Note
2[1] [3] gives x + 7y = 20 [5] Eliminating z
rewsnA
[4] + 13[5] gives 112y = 336 → y = 3
Substituting into [5] and then [1] gives x = 1, z = −2.
e solution of the three equations is x = 1, y = 3, z = −2.
However, in this chapter, you will see how to use determinants to produce a
general solution that can be used to help solve three linear equations with
three unknowns, but rst you should understand the geometric interpretation
of the solutions.
Geometric interpretation of three equations
in three unknowns
Each of the three equations aix + biy + ciz + di = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3) can be considered You learned about the
as the equation of a plane in three-dimensional space. equation of a plane in
Chapter 26 Vectors and
With three planes, there are seven possible congurations:
ree-Dimensional Coordinate
▶ e three planes intersect in a single point. In this case, the three equations Geometry
have a unique solution
▶ e equations have no solutions and are said to be inconsistent. ere are
four ways this can happen:
• e three planes form a triangular prism. In this case, there is no
point where all three planes intersect so the equations are
inconsistent.
• Two of the planes are parallel and separate, and are intersected by the
third plane. Again, there is no point where all three planes intersect, so
the equations are inconsistent.
• All three planes are parallel and separate; the planes have no common
point and so the equations are inconsistent.
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• Two of the planes are coincident and the third plane is parallel but
separate; the planes have no common point and so the equations are
inconsistent.
▶ e two remaining congurations correspond to the three equations having
innitely many solutions
• e three planes have a common line, giving an innite number of
points (x, y, z) that satisfy all three equations. In this case, the equations
are said to be linearly dependent, and the conguration is called a
sheaf of planes or a pencil of planes.
• All three planes coincide, giving an innite number of points that
satisfy all three equations.
When you solve three linear equations in three unknowns algebraically, you
can use your result to determine the geometrical representation of these
equations if they were planes. So, if you were to nd that there was a unique
solution, you would expect the planes to intersect at a single point, as is the case
in Example 1
Example 2
A system of equations is given by
x + 2y + 2z = 7
noitseuQ
3x 9y + z =11
2x 11y z = 4
a Find the solution of this system of equations, showing all your working.
b interpret this solution geometrically
a
1 2 2
Determinant 3 9 1 = 9 + 11 −2 ( −3 − 2 ) + 2 ( −33 + 18 ) =0
2 −11 −1
hence the equations do not have a unique solution
let y = t
x + 2z = 7 2 t [1]
3x + z = 11 + 9t [2]
rewsnA
2x z = 4 + 11t [3]
2[2] [1] 5x = 15 + 20t
x = 3 + 4t
2 [1] [3] 5z = 10 15t
z = 2 3t
solution is x = 3 + 4t, y = t, z = 2 3t
b None of the equations are a multiple of any other; hence the equations
represent three planes which meet in a line they form a sheaf.
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Exercise 1
In questions 1 to 3, use elimination or substitution.
a Find the solution of each of the systems of three equations.
b State the geometrical implications of your results.
1 2x + 5y + z = 15
3x 4y 5z = 1
5x + 3y + 2z = 10
2 3x + 2y + 5z = 1
4x y 3z = 6
2x − 3y z = −8
3 4x + 5y + 4z = −3
x − 6y 7z = 13
2x + 4y + z = −7
27.2 Using determinants to nd the number
of solutions of three simultaneous equations
It is possible to use determinants to discover where three simultaneous
equations have a unique solution.
If the equations’ coecients include an unknown, λ say, then the determinant
will involve λ. ere may be values of λ for which the determinant is zero, and
for these values the equations do not have a unique solution. By substituting
these values back into the equations you can decide whether the equations are
then inconsistent (no solution) or consistent (an innite number of solutions).
All other values of λ will correspond to equations with a unique solution.
Example 3
noitseuQ
How many solutions are there to the simultaneous equations below?
4x λy + 6z = 2 2y + λ z = 1 x 2y + 4z = 0
Note
a1 b1 c1 4 λ 6
First, nd the determinant of
a2 b2 c2 = 0 2 λ
1 2 4 the system to see if there is a
a3 b3 c3
unique solution.
rewsnA
2 λ
+λ 0 λ +6
0 2
=4
2 4 1 4 1 2 Note
Using the expansion of a 3 × 3
= 4(8 + 2λ) + λ( λ) + 6( 2)
determinant.
= −λ2 + 8λ + 20
erefore, there is a unique solution unless λ2 + 8λ + 20 = 0,
⇒ λ2 8λ 20 = 0
⇒ (λ 10)(λ + 2) = 0
(continued)
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(continued)
ere is a unique solution unless λ = 10 or λ = −2.
If λ = 10, the equations are
4x 10y + 6z = 2 [1]
2y + 10z = 1 [2] Note
x 2y + 4z = 0 [3] Use equations [1] and [3] to
get the same expression as
[1] 4[3], gives
that on the left-hand side of
2y 10z = 2
equation [2].
⇒ 2y + 10z = −2
is contradicts equation [2], so the equations have no solution; they are
inconsistent when λ = 10.
If λ = −2, the equations are
rewsnA
4x + 2y + 6z = 2 [4]
2y 2z = 1 [5]
x 2y + 4z = 0 [6]
Note
4[6] [4]
Get the same expression on
−10y + 10z = −2
2 LHS of [5] using [4] and [6].
⇒ 2y 2z =
5
is contradicts equation [5], so the equations have no solution. ey are
inconsistent when λ = −2.
erefore, the determinant does not equal zero and there is a unique solution.
When there is not a unique solution, you cannot use the general formula for the
solution of three equations; you must then proceed using some other method,
such as elimination.
Example 4
noitseuQ
Solve the equations.
2x 3y + 4z = 1 [1] 3x y = 2 [2] x + 2y 4z = 1 [3]
a1 b1 c1 2 3 4 Note
a2 b2 c2 = 3 1 0 =0 Determine if there is a unique
a3 b3 c3 1 2 4
solution.
erefore, there is not a unique solution.
rewsnA
Note
Adding equations [1] and [3]
3x y = 2 To eliminate z
is is equation [2], therefore, equations
are linearly dependent.
Let x = t
(continued)
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(continued)
Using equation [2], y = 3t 2. Substituting
Note
into equation [3], Note You cannot nd a unique
4z = t + 2(3t 2) 1
rewsnA
Each value of the parameter t solution for two equations in
7t 5
⇒ z= gives a different point. Since three unknowns, so set one
4
7t 5 there is only one parameter, variable (in this case, x) to be
So, the solution is t , 3t 2,
4 this solution represents a line. a parameter and use this to
calculate the others. Since x
Exercise 2 is no longer an unknown, you
1 Find the value of the determinant of the coecients and hence determine have only two unknowns in
whether the system of equations has a unique solution. these two equations, and so
a 5x 5y + 2z = 7 x 3y + 2z = 4 x + y + 4z = 8 you can solve them.
b 4x + 3y + 7z = 21 2x + 4y + 6z = 3 x + 2y + 5z = 18
2 a Show that the equations
x + 2y +5z = 7 2x +3y 4z =11 4x +7y + pz = q
have a unique solution unless p = 6.
b If p = 6, nd the value of q that ensures the equations are consistent.
3 A set of three planes is given by the system of equations
λx + 2y z = 4 [1]
2x + λy + z = 6 + λ [2]
2x + 3y + z = 0 [3]
λ 2 1
a Show that 2 λ 1 = λ2 − λ − 6
2 3 1
b Determine the number of solutions for the system of equations in the
cases in which
i λ=7 ii λ = −2
Summary
▶ ree linear equations with three unknowns can be solved using
elimination, or using determinants.
▶ ere are three possible outcomes when solving three linear equations with
up to three unknowns.
• ere is a unique solution geometrically, this means that the three
planes intersect at one point.
• ere is no solution and the equations are inconsistent
geometrically, this means that.
– the three planes form a triangular prism, or
– two of the planes are separate and parallel, and are intersected by
the third plane, or
– all three planes are parallel and separate, or
– two of the planes are coincident and the third plane is parallel but
separate.
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• ere are innitely many solutions geometrically, this means that
– the three planes have a common line, giving an innite number of
points that satisfy all three equations; or
– all three planes coincide, giving an innite number of points that
satisfy all three equations.
ere is a unique solution exactly when ≠0
Review exercises
1 Find the solution to the three equations.
3x 2y 2z = 2
4x y z = 2
5x 5y 6z = −5
2 Find the two values of a for which the system of equations
does not have a unique solution.
3 Find the two values of k for which the system of equations
does not have a unique solution. When k = 4, nd the value of b that would
make the system consistent.
Practice examination questions
1 A system of equations is given by
where a and b are constants.
a Find the unique solution of the system in the case when
a = 3 and b = 2. (5 marks)
b i Determine the value of a for which the system does
not have a unique solution. (3 marks)
ii For this value of a, nd the value of b such that the system of
equations is consistent. (4 marks)
AQA MFP4 January 2008
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2 e system of equations S is given in terms of the real parameters a and b by
a Find the two values of a for which S does not have a
unique solution. (4 marks)
b In the case when a = 2, determine the value of b for which S
has innitely many solutions. (4 marks)
AQA MFP4 June 2011
3 e system of equations
does not have a unique solution.
a Show that a = −3. (3 marks)
b Given further that the equations are inconsistent, nd the possible
values of b. (2 marks)
c State, with a reason, whether the vectors and
are linearly dependent or linearly independent. (1 mark)
AQA MFP4 June 2013
4 A set of three planes is given by the system of equations
where k is a constant.
a Show that .
b In each of the following cases, determine the number of solutions of the
given system of equations.
i k=1
ii k=2
iii k=3
c Give a geometrical interpretation of the signicance of each of the three
results in part b in relation to the three planes.
AQA MFP4 June 2006
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28 Matrix Algebra
Introduction Objectives
Matrices can be used to understand transformations in R (xyz space),
3 By the end of this chapter,
as they can in R2 (xy plane). You will discover that, in three dimensional you should know how to:
space, rotations are about a line rather than about a point; and reections ▶ Find the inverse of a
are in a plane, rather than in a line. You will also learn about invariant 3 × 3 matrix.
points and invariant lines and eigenvectors. Eigenvalues and related ▶ Find the 3 × 3 matrices
eigenvectors have applications in sciences as diverse as geology and that represent
vibration analysis, and can even be used as part of a program to rank rotations about the
pages for a search engine. coordinate axes.
▶ Find the 3 × 3 matrices
that represent
reections in the
Recap planes x = 0, y = 0,
See Chapter 7 Matrices and
You will need to remember . . . z = 0, x = y, x = z and
Transformations for a reminder
▶ How to multiply compatible matrices y = z.
of the rst four bullet points.
▶ Find the eigenvalues
▶ at if then the transpose, and eigenvectors of
2 × 2 and 3 × 3
▶ How to nd the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix: matrices.
▶ Find the characteristic
▶ at matrices can represent transformations of R2 equation of a 3 × 3
▶ About invariant points and lines of matrix.
See Chapter 26 Vectors and
transformations in R2
ree-Dimensional Coordinate
▶ How to calculate the determinant
Geometry
of a 3 × 3 matrix.
▶ How to solve three linear equations See Chapter 27 Solutions
in three unknowns. of Linear Equations
28.1 Inverse matrices
You learned about the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix in Chapter 7 Matrices and
Transformations
a b 1 d b
e inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix A = is . You swap the
c d det A c a
position of a and d and then make b and c negative; then you divide by the
determinant of A
To nd the inverse of a 3 × 3 matrix, you need to nd the determinant of the
matrix and the minor determinant of each element in the matrix.
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The minor determinant
e minor determinant of an element of a matrix is the determinant of the
matrix formed by deleting the row and column containing that element. For
example, the minor determinant of the middle element, 2, of the matrix
5 6 9
5 9
5 9
7 2 1 is the determinant of the matrix , which is = 13
3 8 3 8
3 4 8
Finding the inverse of a 3 × 3 matrix
You proceed in the following order:
You learned how to do this
1 Find the value of the determinant, Δ, of the matrix.
in Chapter 26 Vectors and
2 Find the value of the minor determinant of each of the elements.
ree-Dimensional
3 Form a new matrix from the minor values, inserting them in the positions
Coordinate Geometry
corresponding to the elements from which they were derived. Insert a
minus sign at each odd-numbered place, counting on from the top left
entry of the matrix. ese minor values with their associated signs (+ or )
are called the cofactors of the elements of the original matrix.
You learned how to transpose
4 Find the transpose of the result by reecting its elements along the leading
matrices in Chapter 7 Matrices
diagonal.
and Transformations
Hence, you have
e inverse of the 3 × 3 matrix, A is
1 T
a b c A B C
d e f 1
=
− D E −F
,
∆
g h i
G H I
where A, B, C, . . . are the minor determinants of the elements
a, b, c, . . . respectively. Δ is the determinant of the original matrix.
Example 1
noitseuQ
1 2 5
Find the inverse of M, where M = 2 3 4
Note
1 1 2
Step 1, nd the value of the
determinant, Δ, of the matrix.
det M = 1(6 4) 2(4 4) + 5(2 3) = −3
e minor determinants are: Note Note
2 0 1 Step 2, nd the minor Step 3, form a new matrix
rewsnA
−1 −3 −1 determinants. For example,
using the minor determinants
−7 −6 −1 the minor determinant of and then insert the appropriate
2 −0 −1
the top right entry is det signs (+ or ), counting on
+1 −3 +1 from the top left corner of the
= 2 3 = −1.
−7 +6 −1 matrix.
(continued)
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(continued)
erefore,
Note
T
2 −0 −1
M 1
=
1
+1 −3 +1 Multiply by , to form the
3
−7 +6 −1 matrix to be transposed.
rewsnA
erefore,
Note
2 1 7
− − You obtain the transpose by
2 1 7 3 3 3
M 1
=
1
3
0 3 6 =
0 1 2 reecting the matrix in its
−1 1 −1 1 1 1 leading diagonal.
3 3 3
Exercise 1
1 Evaluate PQ and QP, where You learned how to multiply
6 4 1 2
P =
2 3
and Q =
2 3
two matrices together in
Chapter 7 Matrices and
Transformations.
What do you conclude from your results, and why has it happened?
3 4
Find the inverse of
4 5
2
2 7
3 Find the inverse of
1 4
1 2 1
4 Find the inverse of 3 1 5
1 4 0
4 11 5
5 Find the inverse of 1 4 2
1 2 1
3 4 2
6 Find the inverse of 2 1 5
3 4 1
28.2 Transformations
You saw in Chapter 7 Matrices and Transformations that linear transformations
in two-dimensional space could be represented using matrices.
It is also possible to represent linear transformations of a three-dimensional
space onto a three-dimensional space, R3, by a matrix , where M
x x1
M y = y
1
z z
1
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means that the image of (x y z) under the transformation, T, is (x1, y1, z1).
For example, in three dimensions, you might represent T by the matrix
a b c
M = d e f
g h i
Hence, to nd, under T, the image of the point with position vector i, you calculate
a b c 1 a
d e f
0 = d
g h i 0 g
So, under T, the image of the point (1, 0, 0) is (a, d, g), which you can see is the
rst column of M
To nd which type of transformation is represented by a matrix, you can nd
the images of the vectors (1, 0, 0) and (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1). Common linear
transformations are rotations about the origin, reections in lines through the
origin, stretches and shears.
In three dimensions, you nd the images of the points (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1),
which are the vertices of the unit cube. In vector form, these are the images of
the vectors i, j and k. ese become the columns of the matrix representing the
transformation, where the rst column represents the image of i, the second is
the image of j and the third is the image of k
So, you calculate where a point is following the transformation and use this to
nd the matrix of a transformation. For example, a reection in the plane x = 0
will result in the point (1, 0, 0) being transformed to ( 1, 0, 0); meanwhile the
points (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1) are xed. erefore, the transformation matrix is
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
ere are some common transformations that you should know:
▶ rotations of θ ° about the Tip
1 0 0
x-axis: 0 cos θ sin θ
It is a good idea to know
how to create matrices to
0 sin θ cos θ
represent transformations
cos θ 0 sin θ by considering the image of
the vertices of the unit cube,
y-axis: 0 1 0
sin θ 0 cos θ rather than just relying on
learning the formulae.
cos θ sin θ 0
z-axis: sin θ cos θ 0
0 0 1
λ 0 0
▶ enlargement, scale factor λ: 0 λ 0
0 0 λ
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▶ reections in the planes,
1 0 0 0 1 0
x = 0: 0 1 0
x = y: 1 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
y = 0: 0 1 0 y = z: 0 0 1
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 1
z = 0: 0 1 0 x = z: 0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
Here, the direction of rotation is taken to be as follows: if you look down from
the positive z-direction, the rotation about the z-axis is anticlockwise, whereas
from the positive y-direction, the rotation about the y-axis is clockwise.
1 0 0
▶ e 3 × 3 identity matrix is I = 0 1 0 . (Recall from Chapter 7 Matrices
0 0 1
and Transformations that the identity of a matrix is any square matrix
where all the elements in the leading diagonal are 1 and all other elements
are 0.)
You can use the list above to help you recognise a type of transformation. Notice
that the matrix used for the rotation always has 1 0 0 (in the top row for the
x-axis rotation), 0 1 0 (in the middle row for the y-axis rotation) and 0 0 1 (in the
lowest row for the z-axis rotation), which should make it simple to identify
when a matrix represents such a rotation.
Determinants and areas
Recall from Chapter 7 Matrices and Transformations that after a linear
transformation, the area of the unit square (and all other areas) might change.
M
e new area of a unit square is given by |det | multiplied by the original area,
M
where is the matrix corresponding to the transformation. In other words, the
determinant is the area scale factor of the transformation. If the determinant of
the matrix is negative, this indicates that the transformation includes a reection.
When working in three-dimensions, |det M | is the volume scale factor
of the transformation.
You should know from earlier studies that if a shape is enlarged by a scale factor
of k, then the volume of the shape becomes multiplied by k3. So, k3 is the value
of the determinant and is the volume scale factor of the enlargement. For
example, if a shape is enlarged by a scale factor of 3, then the volume of the
shape becomes multiplied by 27, which is the value of the determinant of this
enlargement.
After transformation under T, the volume of the unit cube becomes |det M |.
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Example 2
a Find the matrix Mrepresenting an enlargement, scale factor 2, with the
noitseuQ
origin as the centre of enlargement.
b What is the volume scale factor of the enlargement?
a e images of the vertices of the unit cube are:
Note
(1, 0, 0) → (2, 0, 0)
(0, 1, 0) → (0, 2, 0)
Alternatively, you could have
(0, 0, l) → (0, 0, 2)
Note used
Hence,
rewsnA
Find the images of the points
M
2 0 0
= 0 2 0
(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1); with λ = 2.
here you multiply each
0 0 2
element by the scale factor, 2. Note
b Volume of unit cube = |detM|
e determinant of M is 8,
so the volume scale factor of the transformation is 8. Using .
You will remember that if a shape is enlarged by a scale factor of k, then the
volume of the shape becomes multiplied by k 3 us if the shape is enlarged by
a scale factor of 2, then the volume of the shape becomes multiplied by 8, which
is the value of the determinant of this enlargement.
Example 3
noitseuQ
Find the matrix M representing a reection in the line y = x in the xy plane.
e images of the vertices of the unit cube are:
Note
(1, 0, 0) → (0, 1, 0)
(0, 1, 0) → (1, 0, 0)
Find the images of the points
(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1)
(0, 0, 1) → (0, 0, 1)
rewsnA
under the transformation.
Hence, you have
0 1 0
M= 1 0 0
0 0 1
Recall from Chapter 7 Matrices and Transformations that it is possible to
combine two or more simple transformations to produce a more complicated
transformation.
M N
If represents a transformation, T, and represents a transformation
S, then the matrix NM
represents the eect of performing the
transformation T and then performing transformation S.
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Since transformation T is applied rst, to nd the image of x you should nd x M
and then premultiply by to nd N NM
x. erefore the matrix NM
represents the
transformation of T followed by the transformation S.
Example 4
e transformation T is the composite transformation of
S: an enlargement, scale factor 3
noitseuQ
R: a rotation through an angle of 45° about the y-axis
a Find the matrix N representing the composite transformation.
b Give the volume of the unit cube under the transformation T.
3 0 0 Note
a S: Let the matrix be , AA =
0 3 0
0 0 3
Using with λ = 3.
1 1
0
2 2
BB
R: Let the matrix be ,
= 0 1 0
Note
1 1
0
2 2 Find the matrices that
represent the transformations
1 1
S and R.
0
2 2 3 0 0
BA
= 0 1 0
×
0 3 0
Note
1 1 0 0 3
0
rewsnA
2 2 Apply S rst and premultiply
by R to nd BA.
3 3
0
2 2 Note
= 0 3 0
3 3
0
2 2 Using , where θ = 45°
3 3
0
2 2
N
= 0 3 0
Note
3 3
0
2 2
Using .
b Volume of unit cube = det N
= 27
Exercise 2
1 Find the matrix in R3 representing a reection in the plane z = 0.
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12 5
0
13 13
2 What transformation of R3 is represented by the matrix 0 1 0 ?
5 12
0
13 13
3 Find the matrix that represents an enlargement by scale factor 2, and the
matrix that represents a reection in the plane x = 0. Calculate the matrix
that represents the enlargement followed by the reection.
4 a Find the matrix that represents a reection in the plane x = 0, and the
matrix that represents a reection in the plane y = x
b Find the matrix that represents a reection in the plane x = 0 followed by
another reection in the line y = x
c Describe the single transformation given by combining the two
reections in part b
5 Find the matrix representing the following transformations in R3:
a An enlargement of scale factor 5.
b A reection in the plane y = x
28.3 Invariant points and lines
Recall from Chapter 7 Matrices and Transformations that an invariant point of
the transformation T is a point that is unchanged by that transformation. at
is, Tx = x. Note that 0 is always an invariant point in any linear transformation.
For example, the only points that are unchanged by reection in the plane y = x
are the points on the plane y = x itself. erefore, the only invariant points in
this transformation are on the plane y = x
Reection in the plane y = x also maps a line onto itself, so this is an invariant
line of the reection in the plane y = x. With the exception of the origin, each
point on L does change: for example, (3, 3, 0) becomes ( 3, 3, 0). However,
each point on L is reected to another point on L
Every line in the plane is also an invariant line, since all of its points remain
unchanged under the reection.
In general, it is harder to nd invariant lines than invariant points, so you start
with the general method to nd invariant points.
To nd the invariant points of a transformation represented by a matrix M,
solve Mx = x for the vector x. is determines the points that were not
changed by M
Example 5
noitseuQ
2 1 3
Find the invariant points of the transformation whose matrix is 1 1 4
1 5 0
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2 1 3 x Note Note
M x=
1 1 4
y
You have three simultaneous The invariant points obey the equation
1 5 0 z equations to solve.
2x + y + 3z = x
, so start by
rewsnA
x + y + 4z = y Note
x + 5y = z
Solve the simultaneous
x = −4μ, y = μ, z = μ equations using your preferred calculating .
So, ( 4μ, μ, μ) method; you learned how to
So the line of points x = −4y = −4x is solve three linear equations in
invariant under the transformation. three unknowns in Chapter 27
Solutions of Linear Equations
Eigenvectors and eigenvalues
An eigenvector of a linear transformation is a vector pointing in the direction of
an invariant line under that transformation.
For example, let T be a reection of 2 in the line y = x. e line y = −x is invariant
Note
R
1
under T. erefore, is an eigenvector of T, since it is on the line y = −x
1
Any multiple of can be
Each point on y = −x is reected to a dierent point, other than the origin.
(2, 2) is on the invariant line y = −x, but it maps onto ( 2, 2).
used, for example, .
2
You say that the eigenvalue for the eigenvector under T is 1, since all the
2
points on the line y = −x map onto points whose coordinates are 1 times the
original coordinates.
M is the matrix that represents T, then you can express the above as
If
M 22 = −1 × 22
In general, if M is the matrix for a transformation T, then
M xy = λ xy x
y
means that λ
is an eigenvector of T, and is the
x
eigenvalue of T associated with
y
.
x x x
In three-dimensional space, M y = λ y
means that
y is an
z z z
x
eigenvector of T, and that λ is the eigenvalue of T associated with
y
z
Once you have found the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors, you can
easily nd the invariant lines through the origin. e methods of Chapter 26
If an eigenvector has eigenvalue 1, then all points on the line r = t are
v v can help you to nd the
invariant points. corresponding Cartesian
v r
For any eigenvector , the line = t is an invariant line.
v equation.
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Finding eigenvectors and eigenvalues
a b c
To nd the eigenvalues of a transformation whose matrix is M
= d e f
,
then you must solve:
g h i
a b c x x
d e f
y =λ y
g h i
z
z
is gives
ax + by + c = λx
dx + ey + fz = λy
gx + hy + iz = λz
from which you obtain
(a – λ)x + by + cz = 0
dx + (e λ)y + fz = 0
gx + hy + (i λ)z = 0
For the eigenvectors to be non-zero, these three equations must have non- See Chapter 27 Solutions of
unique solutions, as per the geometric interpretation. Linear Equations for a reminder
Hence, you have of geometrical interpretations
of the solution of three linear
a λ b c equations if you need to.
d e λ f =0
g h i λ
at is, det ( M λI) = 0. is equation is known as the characteristic equation
of the matrix M
To nd the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a 3 × 3 matrix M, rst nd
the eigenvalues, by solving the equation det (M λI) = 0 for λI. en nd
x
the eigenvectors by solving Mx = λ x for each value of λ, where x = y
z
Note that you could use the same method for 2 × 2 matrices: to nd eigenvalues,
you again use the equation det ( M I
λ ) = 0; and to nd eigenvectors you solve
M xy = λ xy
Example 6
5 6
M=
noitseuQ
e matrix represents the plane transformation T.
6 7
Determine a the eigenvalue of M b a corresponding eigenvector of M
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−5 − λ 6 Note
a =0
−6 7−λ
⇒ ( 5 λ (7 λ + 36 = 0 ) )
Using det ( M − λI ) = 0
⇒ λ − 2λ 35 + 36 = 0
2
⇒ λ 2λ + 1 = 0 2
λ 1) (λ − 1) = 0
(
⇒ λ=1 Note
erefore, the eigenvalue is 1. Factorising the LHS.
5 6 x x
rewsnA
b = Note
6 7 y y
Note
⇒ simultaneous equations: The eigenvector for the
eigenvalue 1 is given by the
5 +6 =
Note that there is only one
x y x solution to this equation.
different equation from which
6 +7 =
x y y
to solve for two unknowns.
Both of which give 6 = 6 x y Therefore, you cannot obtain
⇒ = x y a unique solution to such a
1 set of equations. Hence you
erefore, the direction of the eigenvector is
1 =
obtain x y
1
Hence, is an eigenvector for the eigenvalue 1.
1
Example 7
1 1 2
noitseuQ
Given the matrix 0 2 2 nd a the eigenvalues b the eigenvectors
1 1 3
1 λ 1 2
a 0 2 λ 2 =0 Note
−1 1 3−λ
Using det ( M − λI ) = 0
(1λ) [(2 λ) (3 λ) 2] 1(2) + 2(2 λ) = 0
rewsnA
⇒ (1 λ)( λ 5λ + 4) 2 + 4 2 λ = 0 2
⇒ λ 6 λ + 11λ 6 = 0 3 2
(λ 1) (λ 2) ( λ 3) = 0 Note
⇒ λ = 1, 2, 3 Factorising the LHS.
erefore, the eigenvalues are 1, 2 and 3.
(continued)
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(continued)
b e eigenvector for the eigenvalue 1 is given by a solution to the equation
1 1 2 x x x + y + 2z x
0 2 2 y
= y
⇒
2 y + 2z
= y
1 1 3 z z − x + y + 3z z
⇒ simultaneous equations:
x + y + 2z = x [1]
2y + 2z = y [2]
x + y + 3z = z [3]
Note
Let z = t and solve the simultaneous equations for y:
x + y + 2t = x
Note that there are only two
[4]
different equations from
2y + 2t = y [5] which to solve for three
x + y + 3t = t [6] unknowns. Therefore, you
From, [4], you obtain y = –2t 0 cannot obtain a unique
solution to such a set of
erefore, the direction of the eigenvector is 2t
equations. Hence, let one of
t
0 the unknowns be t. Also note
Hence, 2 is an eigenvector for the eigenvalue 1. that subtracting [3] from [1]
1
=
gives x 0
e eigenvector for the eigenvalue 2 is given by a solution to the equation
See Chapter 27 Solving Linear
rewsnA
1 1 2 x x
Equations if you need to.
0 2 2
y = 2 y
1 1 3 z z
Note
⇒ simultaneous equations: This time, you do not let
x + y – 2z = 2x [7] =
z t, since [8] immediately
2y + 2z = 2y [8] =
gives z 0
x + y + 3z = 2z [9]
Let y = t. en from [7], you obtain x = t
t
erefore, the direction of the eigenvector is t .
0
1
Hence, 1 is an eigenvector for the eigenvalue 2.
0
e eigenvector for the eigenvalue 3 is given by a solution to the equation
1 1 2 x x
0 2 2 y = 3 y
1 1 3 z z
⇒ simultaneous equations:
x + y + 2z = 3x
2y + 2z = 3y
x + y + 3z = 3z
(continued)
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(continued)
which give
2x + y + 2z = 0 [10]
2z = y [11]
x+y=0 [12]
t
Let x = t. en from [12] and [11], you have y = t and z =
2
rewsnA
Note
t
t Since any scalar multiple
erefore, the direction of the eigenvector is of an eigenvector is also an
1t eigenvector, you can write the
1 2
1
Hence, is an eigenvector for the eigenvalue 3. eigenvector for 3 as .
1
2
Example 8
1 1 0 1
noitseuQ
a Show that 1 is an eigenvector of the matrix A, where A = 1 2 1
2 2 0 4
b Find the associated eigenvalue.
1 1 1
a, b If is an eigenvector of A, then A
1 1 = λ −1 where λ is the Note
2 2 2
1
eigenvalue associated with 1
means
2
Hence,
rewsnA
1 1 0 1 1 3 1 1 that is an eigenvector of
A 1 = 1 2 1 1 = −3 ⇒ A 1 = 3 −1
2 2 0 4 2 6 2 2 T, and that λ is the eigenvalue
1 1 1
of T associated with .
A 1 = 3 −1 has the same form as Ax = λx, therefore 1 is an
2 2 2
eigenvector of A and its associated eigenvalue is 3.
Exercise 3 2 1 3
1 Find the characteristic equation of the matrix M where M = −1 3 −2
4 0 1
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1 0 0
2 Find the characteristic equation of the matrix M where M = −1 0 −2
4 5 2
3 Find the invariant points of the transformation represented by
1
0 1
3
M = 1 0
1
3
1 1
0
3 3
5 12
4 e matrix M =
2 5
12
a Find the eigenvalues of M b Show that is an eigenvector.
2
12
c Find another eigenvector that is not a multiple of
2
3 4 4
M
5 e matrix = 4 5 0 . Find its eigenvalues and corresponding
4 0 1
eigenvectors.
Summary
You can now
▶ A
Find the inverse of the 3 × 3 matrix, , denoted as A 1
where A, B, C,… are the minor determinants of the elements a, b, c,…
respectively, and ∆ is the determinant of A
▶ A B AB
Recognise that for two matrices and , det ( ) = det det A B
▶ Represent linear transformations in three-dimensions using matrices,
such that
means that the image of (x, y, z) under the
transformation, T, is (x1, y1, z1), where T is represented by the matrix M.
▶ Find which type of transformation is represented by a matrix and nd the
images of the points (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1), which are the vertices of
the unit cube. In vector form, these are the images of the vectors i, j and k
and they form the columns of the matrix. Alternatively, you can learn the
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formulae given in the chapter, for example, an enlargement of scale factor λ
is represented by the matrix . However, it is advisable to know
how to create the matrices rather than learning the formulae.
▶ Understand that after a transformation represented by the 3 × 3 matrix , M
M
the unit cube is transformed to a paralleliped of volume |det |, therefore,
|detM | is the volume scale factor of the transformation.
▶ M N
Understand that if represents a transformation, T, and represents a
transformation S, then the matrix NM represents the eect of performing
the transformation T and then performing transformation S.
▶ Find the invariant points of a transformation represented by the matrix M
by solving the equation Mx = x for the vector x or the equivalent equation
M I
( ) x = 0.
▶ Use eigenvectors to help you to nd invariant lines of a transformation.
▶ Find the eigenvalues of matrices by using the characteristic equation of the
M
matrix , det( M I λ ) = 0.
▶ Find the eigenvectors that correspond to each eigenvalue by solving the
M
equation x = λx, for each value of λ
Review exercises
1 Find the inverse of .
2 Find the inverse of .
3 e matrix . Find its eigenvalues.
4 e matrix . Find its eigenvalues and the eigenvector
associated with one of the eigenvalues. Are there any invariant points
associated with ? M
5 Find the matrix representing the transformation of a reection in the
plane x = z
Practice examination questions
1 e matrix represents a rotation.
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a State the axis of rotation. (1 mark)
b Find the angle of rotation, giving your answer to the nearest
degree. (2 marks)
AQA MFP4 June 2014
2 a Write down the 3 × 3 matrices which represent the transformations
A and B, where
i A is a reection in the plane y = x (2 marks)
ii B is a rotation about the z-axis through the angle θ,
where θ = . (1 mark)
b i Find the matrix R which represents the composite transformation ‘A
followed by B’. (3 marks)
ii Describe the single transformation represented by R. (2 marks)
AQA MFP4 June 2009
3 e matrix A = , where k is a real constant.
a i Show that there is a value of k for which AAT = mI
where m is a rational number to be determined and I is the 3 × 3
identity matrix. (6 marks)
You saw in Chapter 7
ii Deduce the inverse matrix, A 1, of A for this value of k. (1 mark)
Matrices and
b i Find det A in terms of k. (2 marks)
Transformations that
ii In the case when A is singular, nd the integer value of k and show when det M = 0, M is said
that there are no other possible real values of k. (3 marks) to be singular and does
iii Find the value of k for which λ = 7 is a real eigenvalue of A. (2 marks) not have an inverse.
AQA MFP4 June 2012
4 e matrix M = represents the plane transformation T.
a i Determine the eigenvalue, and a corresponding eigenvector,
of M. (4 marks)
ii Hence write down the value of m for which y = mx is the invariant
line of T which passes through the origin, and explain why it is
actually a line of invariant points. (2 marks)
iii Show that, for this value of m, all lines with equations y = mx + c are
invariant lines of T. (3 marks)
AQA MFP4 June 2012
5 A plane transformation is represented by the 2 × 2 matrix M. e
eigenvalues of M are 1 and 2, with corresponding eigenvectors and
respectively.
State the equations of the invariant lines of the transformation and explain
which of these is also a line of invariant points. (3 marks)
AQA MFP4 June 2008
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29 Vertical Circular Motion
Introduction Objectives
If you are designing a rollercoaster ride for a theme park, it is important By the end of this chapter,
to understand the behaviour of objects moving along curved tracks you should know how to:
under gravity; the safety of the riders depends on it. is chapter analyses ▶ analyse the motion of
situations where an object moves freely in all or part of a vertical circle. a particle moving in a
vertical circle.
▶ decide how the
particle might
Recap move depending
You will need to remember ...
on whether it is
▶ the principle of conservation of mechanical energy: the total suspended by a string
mechanical energy of a system is constant unless work is done on or or rod, or is sliding on
by the system. a surface.
▶ kinetic energy is given by . ▶ decide if and where
▶ gravitational potential energy is given by . the particle will leave
▶ if a particle travels at constant angular speed ω around a circle of the circle.
radius r, then:
• its velocity is tangential to the circle
• its speed around the circle is v = rω
• its acceleration acts towards the centre of the circle
• the magnitude of its acceleration is
29.1 Circular motion with non-uniform P(r cos θ, r sinθ )
speed r
θ
Suppose particle, P, moves in a circle so that at time t its position is O A(Time t = 0)
r
r= r (cos θ i + sin θ j) [1] j
dθ i
where θ is a function of t and = θ is not constant.
dt
You dierentiate [1] to obtain the velocity vector, v:
v = rθ (− sin θ i + cos θ j) [2]
(− sin θ i + cos θ j) is a unit vector perpendicular to r, so the velocity Note
is tangential to the circle.
By the chain rule
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From [2], the speed of the particle is v = rθ . Note
You dierentiate [2] (using product rule) to obtain the acceleration vector, a. is is v = rω for uniform
dθ d(sin θ ) d(cos θ ) speed, but here is not
a = r (− sin θ i + cos θ j) + rθ − i+ j
dt dt dt constant.
= rθ(− sin θ i + cos θ j) − rθ 2 (cos θ i + sin θ j)
(cos θ i + sin θ j) is a unit vector in the direction of r. You could write
(cos θ i + sin θ j) = r
(− sin θ i + cos θ j) is a unit vector tangential to the circle. You could write
(− sin θ i + cos θ j) = t
You then have a = rθ t − rθ 2 r [3]
From [2] and [3] you get:
▶ e particle has speed rθ tangential to the circle.
▶ e particle has a tangential component of acceleration of rθ
2
▶ e particle has a radial component of acceleration of rθ
. is is
negative (towards the centre of the circle). It becomes rω 2 for uniform
speed, but in general θ 2 is not constant.
Motion in a vertical circle
A common example of circular motion with non-uniform speed occurs when a
body is moving in a vertical circle. e speed is non-uniform because there is a
force (gravity) which causes it to speed up or slow down. e body could be
rotating on the end of a string or rod; could be threaded onto a hoop; or could
be sliding on the inner or outer surface of a circular object. e path could be a
complete circle, or just a circular arc.
e behaviour of the system depends on whether the body can leave the
circular path.
1. e body cannot leave the circle
In some situations the body is constrained to stay on the circular path.
Forexample, a body on the end of a rigid rod cannot leave the circle.
Similarly, a bead threaded onto a hoop is constrained to move in a circle.
Such systems can behave in one of two ways:
▶ If the body has enough energy, it rotates in a complete circle.
▶ If its energy is insucient, the body cannot reach the top of the circle, but
oscillates between two symmetrical positions, at each of which its speed is
instantaneously zero. Body cannot reach top of circle
2. e body can leave the circle
In some situations, the body is free to leave the circle. Examples include a body
on the end of a string, or a body sliding on the surface of a circular object.
Such systems can behave in any of three ways.
▶ If the body has enough energy, it rotates in a complete circle.
▶ If the energy is so low that the body cannot rise above the level of the
centre of the circle, it oscillates between two symmetrical positions, at
Body cannot rise above the centre
each of which its speed is instantaneously zero.
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▶ If the body can rise above the level of the centre
Tip
of the circle but does not have enough energy to
complete the circle, it will leave the circle at some An exception to this is where
point and its motion will become that of a the body is sliding on the
projectile. outer surface of a circular
object. In this case, the body
When modelling motion in a vertical circle it is usual
to make the following modelling assumptions :
is bound to leave the circle
at some point and therefore
▶ e body is a particle. Body leaves the circle
will not complete the circle
▶ If the particle is attached to a string or rod, the
whatever its speed.
string or rod is light and inextensible.
▶ If the motion is on a surface, the surface is smooth.
▶ ere is no loss of energy through air resistance.
e assumption that there is no friction or air resistance means that you can
usethe principle of the conservation of mechanical energy . at is, the total
mechanicalenergy of the system (KE + GPE) is constant unless work is done
onor by the system.
Modelling motion in a vertical circle allows you to solve various problems.
Example 1
A particle of mass 2 kg is attached to one end of a light rod of length 1 m, the
other end of the rod is freely pivoted at the xed point O. e particle is at rest at
noitseuQ
the point A vertically below O when it is set into motion with initial speed
u ms 1. Find the angle between the rod and the downward vertical when the
particle reaches its highest point if
a u = 3 ms 1 b u = 5 ms 1
Take GPE to be zero at A.
It is best in this case to solve the problem
Sketch a diagram.
for a general speed u and then substitute
a
the given values for parts and b
1 1
At A KE = × 2 × u2 = u2 KE = mv 2
2 2
GPE = 0
rewsnA
At P KE = 0
O
GPE = 2 g × AB = 19.6(1 − cos θ ) GPE = mgh
θ
B
P
u2 = 19.6(1 cos θ ) Note
u2
⇒ cos θ = 1 Total energy at A = total Zero PE
19.6 A u
energy at P
(continued)
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(continued)
9 Note
a When u = 3, cos θ = 1 − = 0.541 ⇒ θ = 57.3°
rewsnA
19.6
In part b, the bob comes to
25 rest above the level of O. If
b When u = 5, cos θ = 1 − = −0.276 ⇒ θ = 106°
19.6 you replaced the rod with a
string, the bob would leave
Example 2 the circle.
A pendulum of length 2 m consists of a particle P, mass 3 kg, suspended from
a point O. e bob rests vertically below O and is then set in motion with initial
noitseuQ
speed u ms 1.
Find the minimum value of u for the pendulum to perform a complete circle if
the pendulum consists of
a a rod b a string.
a Take speed at B to be v v B
1
At A KE = × 3 × u 2 = 1.5u 2 Sketch a diagram.
2
GPE = 0
At B KE = 1.5v 2 O
GPE = 3 g × 4 = 117.6 J 2m
1.5u2 = 1.5v2 + 117.6 [1]
Zero PE
For a complete circle, v ≥ 0 A u
Energy is conserved.
rewsnA
1.5u2 ≥ 117.6 ⇒ u ≥ 8.85 ms 1
b Apply Newton’s second law in direction BO; v B
Note
v 2
T + 29.4 = 3 × e forces at B are tension
2
3v2 Tand weight 3g = 29.4 N T 29.4 N
= − 29.4 (seediagram).
2 O
3v 2
For a taut string, T ≥ 0: ≥ 29.4
2 2m
⇒ v 2 ≥ 19.6 [2]
Substitute from [2] into [1]
A
1.5u 2 ≥ 1.5 × 19.6 + 117.6 ⇒ u ≥ 9.90 ms 1
Example 3
A hollow cylinder, internal radius 2 m, rests with its axis horizontal. A particle,
P, mass 5 kg, rests inside the cylinder vertically below O, a point on the axis.
e particle is set in motion on the smooth surface of the cylinder in a circle
noitseuQ
about O. Its initial speed is 8 ms 1.
a Find the normal reaction between the cylinder and the particle when the
line OP makes an angle of 60° with the downward vertical.
b the tangential component of acceleration
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a OP = 2, so AB = 2 2 cos 60° = 1 m
1
At A KE = × 5 × 82 = 160 J Sketch a diagram.
2
GPE = 0 v
1 O
At P KE = × 5 × v 2 = 2.5v 2
2 R
60°
GPE = 5 g × AB = 49 J B P
2m
2.5v + 49 = 160
2
49 N
v2 = 44.4
rewsnA
Zero PE
v = 6.66 ms 1 Energy is conserved. A 8 ms 1
R − 49 cos 60° = 5 × v
2
In the direction PO, Note
2
R = 2.5v 2
+ 49 cos 60° F = ma. e forces at P
= 2.5 × 44.4 + 24.5 are the weight, 49 N, and
the normal reaction, R
= 135.5 N
e radial component of
b In the tangential direction acceleration is .
49 sin 60° = 5a
a = 8.49 ms 2
Exercise 1
1 A particle of mass 4 kg is travelling in a vertical circle, which it cannot leave.
e diameter of the circle is 1 m. e particle starts from the bottom of the
circle with speed 8 ms 1. Find the speed of the particle
a after it has rotated through 60° b at the top of the circle.
2 e particle in question 1 starts from the bottom of the circle with
speed u ms 1.
a Find the angle through which it rotates before coming to rest if
i u=3 ii u=4
b Find the value of u if the particle just reaches the top of the circle.
3 A pendulum consists of a light rod of length 1 m with a particle of mass 2 kg
attached to one end. e other end is freely pivoted at a xed point, O,
so that the rod can rotate in a vertical circle. Initially the particle is vertically
below O. It is set in motion with initial speed 6.5 ms 1.
Find
a the speed of the particle
b the force in the rod
when the pendulum makes an angle of
i 30° ii 90° iii 150° with the downward vertical.
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4 A particle of mass 0.1 kg is attached by a string of length 1.5 m to a xed
point, and is made to travel in a vertical circle about that point.
a Find the minimum velocity the particle must have at the lowest point of
the circle if it is to make complete revolutions.
b For this velocity, nd
i the tension in the string when the particle is at point A, 75 cm above
the lowest point
ii the tangential component of the particle’s acceleration when it is at
point A.
5 A stone of mass 0.5 kg performs complete revolutions in a vertical circle
on the end of a light, inextensible string of length 1 m. Show that the string
must be strong enough to support a tension of at least 29.4 N.
6 A solid hemisphere of radius 3 m is xed with its plane face on horizontal
ground. A particle of mass m slides from rest from the highest point of the
hemisphere. e surface of the hemisphere is smooth.
a Show that the particle leaves the surface when it is 2 m above the
ground.
b Find how far from the hemisphere the particle lands.
7 A particle of mass 3 kg moves in complete vertical circles on the end of a
light string of length 2 m. At the highest point of the circle the speed of the
particle is 8 ms 1. Find
a the tension in the string when the particle is at the lowest point
of the circle
b the tension in the string when the string is horizontal
c the tangential component of acceleration when the string is horizontal.
29.2 Leaving the circular path
A particle rotating in a vertical circle on the end of a string will continue to travel
on a circular path provided the string remains taut. It will leave the circle if the
tension in the string becomes zero. Similarly, a particle sliding on a circular
surface will lose contact with the surface if the normal reaction becomes zero.
Example 4
A hollow cylinder, internal radius 4 m, rests with its axis horizontal. A particle, P,
of mass 3 kg rests inside the cylinder vertically below O, a point on the axis.
e particle is given initial speed 10 ms 1 so that it initially travels in a circle
noitseuQ
about O. Find
a the angle between OP and the downward vertical at the point where the
particle leaves the surface
b the speed of the particle as it leaves the surface.
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a AB = 4(1 cos θ)
1
At A KE = × 3 × 102 = 150 J
2 Sketch a diagram.
GPE = 0 v
O
1
At P KE = × 3 × v 2 = 1.5v 2 R
2 θ
GPE = 3 g × AB B P
4m
= 117.6(1 − cos θ ) 29.4 N
Zero PE
1.5v + 117.6(1 − cos θ ) = 150
2
A 10 ms 1
v 2 = 21.6 + 78.4 cos θ [1]
Energy is conserved.
rewsnA
Resolving in the direction PO
v2
R − 29.4 cos θ = 3 ×
4
R = 0.75v 2 + 29.4 cos θ
Substituting from [1] R = 16.2 + 88.2 cos θ
16.2
When R = 0, cos θ = = −0.1837
88.2 Note
⇒ θ = 100.6° e particle leaves the
surface when the normal
b Substitute into [1]
reaction becomes zero.
v2 = 7.2
v = 2.68
e particle leaves the surface at 2.68 ms 1
Example 5
A particle of mass 0.01 kg rests at the top of a smooth sphere of radius 0.2 m
noitseuQ
which is xed to a horizontal table. e particle is displaced slightly so that it
slides o the sphere. How far from the point of contact between the sphere and
the table does the particle strike the table?
At A KE = 0 GPE = 0.01 × g × 0.2 = 0.002 g
1 Sketch a diagram showing A
At P KE = × 0.01 × v 2 = 0.005v 2 R
2 the forces and velocity at a
GPE = 0.01 × g × 0.2cos θ = 0.002 g cos θ general point P P
0.2 m
θ
0.005v 2 + 0.002 g cosθ = 0.002 g Zero PE
v
v 2 = 0.4 g (1 − cosθ ) O
rewsnA
[1] Energy is conserved.
0.01g N
Resolving in the direction PO
0.01g cos θ − R = 0.01 × 5v 2
Note
v = 0.2 g cos θ − 20R
2
e acceleration towards
the centre of the circle is
(continued)
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(continued)
When R = 0 v 2 = 0.2 g cos θ [2] A
2
From [1] and [2], cos θ = ⇒ θ = 48.2° e particle leaves the B
P
3 v = 1.14 ms 1
surface when the normal 48.2°
Substituting into [2] gives v = 1.14 ms 1
reaction becomes zero.
1 O
e distance BC = 0.2(1 + cos 48.2 °) = m
3 0.2 m
1 1 1
= 1.14 sin 48.2° t + gt 2 = 0.850t + gt 2 Note
3 2 2
rewsnA
1
4.9t + 0.850t − = 0
2 e (downward) vertical C
3 component of the initial velocity
t = 0.188 s (or −0.362 s) is 1.14 sin 48.2° = 0.850 ms 1
At P, the horizontal component of the Use , where the Sketch a diagram showing
velocity is 1.14 cos 48.2 ° = 0.760 ms l particle reaches the table at the start of the projectile
e particle travels 0.760 × 0.188 = 0.143 m time t motion.
horizontally from P
BP = 0.2 sin 48.2 ° = 0.149 m
e particle lands 0.149 + 0.143 = 0.292 m from C
Exercise 2
1 A particle of mass 2 kg rotates in a vertical circle on the end of a light
string of length 1 m. e particle starts from the bottom of the circle with
speed 5ms 1. After the string has rotated through an angle θ the particle is
travelling with speed v ms 1 and the tension in the string is T N.
a By resolving forces towards the centre of the circle, show that
T = 2(v2 + g cos θ).
b Show that v2 = 19.6 cos θ + 5.4.
c Hence nd the value of θ for which the particle leaves the circle.
2 A particle of mass 0.01 kg is placed on the topmost point, A, of a smooth
sphere with centre O and radius 0.5 m. It is slightly displaced. When it
reaches point B, it is about to leave the surface of the sphere. Calculate the
angle B
3 A particle of mass m hangs at rest, suspended from a point, O, by a light,
inextensible string of length a. e particle receives a horizontal impulse
so that it starts moving with speed 3 ga . Find the angle between the string
and the upward vertical when it goes slack.
4 A particle of mass m is projected horizontally with speed v from the topmost
point, A, of a sphere of radius a and centre O. It remains in contact with the
sphere until leaving the surface at point B. If angle AOB is 30°, nd v
5 A particle P of mass m is suspended from a xed point O by means of a light
inextensible string of length a. e particle hangs at rest and is then given a
horizontal speed u. e string goes slack when the angle between OP and
the upward vertical is θ.
a Show that u 2 = ga(2 + 3cosθ ).
b Hence nd the range of values of u for which the particle will leave the
circle.
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6 A particle of mass 2 kg is attached to the end of a light,
inextensible string of length 1 m, the other end of which
is attached to a xed point, O. e particle is held with the
string taut and horizontal, and is released from rest. When
the string reaches the vertical position, it meets a xed O
pin, A, a distance x below O. Given that the particle just
x
completes a circle about A, nd the value of x
A
Summary
For a particle moving in a circle with non-uniform speed:
▶ velocity is tangential to the circle, and instantaneous speed is
▶ acceleration has a radial component of magnitude towards the
centre of the circle
▶ acceleration has a tangential component of magnitude .
For a particle moving freely under gravity in a vertical circle:
▶ you use conservation of energy to nd the speed at a given point
▶ a particle attached to a rod or threaded on a hoop cannot leave the circle
▶ a particle on a string or sliding on a surface will leave the circle if the
tension in the string or the normal reaction falls below zero.
Review exercises
1 A particle of mass 2 kg hangs at rest suspended from a point, O, by a rod of
length 3 m. It is then set in motion with speed u ms 1 so that it travels in a
vertical circle about O.
a Find the minimum value of u if the particle is to describe a complete
circle.
u
b For that value of , nd the force in the rod when the rod makes an
angle of 60° with the upward vertical.
2 Repeat question 1 for the case where the particle is suspended by a light
inextensible string.
3 A particle, P, of mass 5 kg can slide on the smooth internal surface of a
cylinder of radius 1.5 m which is xed with its axis horizontal. Initially
P rests at the bottom of the cylinder and is then given speed 8 ms−1 so that it
moves in a vertical circle about a point, O, on the axis of the cylinder.
a Find the angle between OP and the downward vertical when the
particle leaves the surface.
b Find the speed of the particle as it leaves the surface.
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FM2.1 29
4 m
A particle of mass travels in complete vertical circles on the end of a πa
a.
light, inextensible string of length If the maximum tension in the string is
three times the minimum tension, nd the speed of the particle as it passes
through the lowest point on the circle.
3a
5 A B m m
Particles and , of masses and 2 respectively, are connected
by a light, inextensible string of length e particles are placed O
symmetrically, and with the string taut, on the smooth outer surface of a
a,
cylinder of radius 3 as shown, and the system is released from rest. Find
the reactions between the cylinder and the particles at the moment when
A reaches the topmost point.
6 e diagram shows a loop-the-loop on a roller-coaster ride. e car
approaches the loop on a horizontal track. e maximum speed at which
the car can enter the loop is 80 kmh l.
a What is the greatest radius with which the loop can be constructed if the
car is not to leave the track?
b Explain the modelling assumptions you have made in your solution.
Practice examination questions P
1 In crazy golf, a golf ball is hit so that it starts to move in a vertical circle on a
P
the inside of a smooth cylinder. Model the golf ball as a particle, , of mass θ
m a O
. e circular path of the golf ball has radius and centre . At time , the t O
angle between OP and the horizontal is θ, as shown in the diagram.
u
e golf ball has speed at the lowest point of its circular path.
a Show that, while the golf ball is in contact with the cylinder, the reaction
of the cylinder on the golf ball is (6 marks)
b Given that , the golf ball will not complete a vertical circle
inside the cylinder. Find the angle which OP
makes with the horizontal
when the golf ball leaves the surface of the cylinder. (4 marks)
AQA MM2B June 2009
2 a
A smooth hemisphere, of radius and centre , is xed O A
with its plane face on a horizontal surface. A particle, of
P
m
mass , can move freely on the surface of the hemisphere.
A
e particle is placed at the point , the highest point of θ
the hemisphere, and is set in motion along the surface with
speed .u
O
a While the particle is in contact with the hemisphere at a
point , P OP
makes an angle θ with the upward vertical.
Show that the speed of the particle at P is (5 marks)
b e particle leaves the surface of the hemisphere when θ = α. Find cos α
au
in terms of , and . g (5 marks)
AQA MM2B January 2010
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3 A small ball, of mass 3 kg, is suspended from a xed point O by a light
inextensible string of length 1.2 m. Initially, the string is taut and the ball is
at the point P, vertically below O. e ball is then set into motion with an
initial horizontal velocity of 4 ms 1
O
e ball moves in a vertical circle, centre O. e point A, on the circle, is
such that angle AOP is 25°, as shown in the diagram.
1.2 m 25°
a Find the speed of the ball at the point A. (4 marks)
b Find the tension in the string when the ball is at the point A. (3 marks)
A
AQA MM2B January 2013 P 4 ms 1
4 A light inextensible string, of length a, has one end attached to a xed
point O. A small bead, of mass m, is attached to the other end of the string.
e bead is moving in a vertical circle, centre O. When the bead is at B,
vertically below O, the string is taut and the bead is moving with speed 5v
O
e speed of the bead at the highest point of its path is 3v
a Find v in terms of a and g. (4 marks)
a
b Find the ratio of the greatest tension to the least tension in the string, as
the bead travels around its circular path. (5 marks]
AQA MM2B January 2011 B 5v
5 A small bead, of mass m, is suspended from a xed point O by a light A
inextensible string of length a. With the string taut, the bead is at the point
B, vertically below O, when it is set into vertical circular motion with an
initial horizontal velocity u, as shown in the diagram.
e string does not become slack in the subsequent motion. e velocity of O
the bead at the point A, where A is vertically above O, is v.
a Show that . (2 marks)
b e ratio of the tensions in the string when the bead is at the two points
A and B is 2 : 5.
i Find u in terms of g and a. (7 marks) B u
ii Find the ratio u : v. (2 marks)
AQA MM2B January 2012
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30 Collisions in Two Dimensions
Introduction Objectives
When two balls collide on a pool table, or the ball hits the cushion (side By the end of this chapter,
wall of the table), it is rarely a head-on collision. e impulse is usually you should know how to:
at an angle to the direction of travel of the ball; such impacts are called ▶ use impulse and
oblique. You have already studied direct (one-dimensional) impacts, momentum in two
where all the motion takes place along a single straight line, in Chapter 16 dimensions.
Collisions in one dimension; this chapter extends the principles learned to ▶ use Newton’s
oblique impacts, that is where the motion of the object(s) takes place in experimental law of
two dimensions. restitution to analyse
oblique collisions
between:
• an object and a
Recap surface
You will need to remember ...
• two objects.
▶ when a force, F N, acts for a time, t s, it exerts an impulse of I = Ft Ns.
▶ if a particle of mass m kg has velocity v ms 1, it has momentum
of mv Ns.
▶ impulse and momentum are vector quantities, and impulse = change You learned about impulse,
of momentum (Ft = mv mu). momentum and the coecient
▶ if no external force acts on a system, the total momentum of the of restitution in Chapter 16
system remains constant; this is the principle of conservation of Collisions in one dimension.
momentum.
▶ Newton’s experimental law of restitution
where e is the coecient of restitution.
30.1 Impulse and momentum in two
dimensions
When a collision occurs at an angle to the direction of travel of the particle,
rather than head-on, the impacts are said to be oblique. e directions of
motion of the objects are changed by the collision (think of the motion of balls
on a pool table). As a result, the velocities, impulse and momentum are two-
dimensional vectors.
e principles governing momentum and impulse that you saw in Chapter 16 for
one dimension are the same when the motion is in two dimensions, except that you
have to deal with velocities, impulse and momentum as two-dimensional vectors.
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FM2 2.4 30
Impulse = change of momentum. If an impulse, I, changes the velocity of
m m m
Tip
an object of mass from u to v, then I = v u
You will be expected to know
Example 1 I = mv m u and I = Ft in the
Steve kicks a ball of mass 0.8 kg along the ground at 5 ms 1 towards Monica. She examination, so make sure
noitseuQ
kicks it back towards him at 8 ms 1 and at 40° to the horizontal. Find the you learn them.
magnitude and direction of the impulse.
Take the unit vectors i and j, as shown. It can help to sketch a diagram. j
Initial momentum = 0.8 × (−5 i) = −4 i Ns 8 ms 1
i
Final momentum
40° 1
= 0.8 × (8 cos 40°i + 8 sin 40° j) 5 ms
= (4.90 i + 4.11 j) Ns Express the new velocity in
Let the impulse be J component form.
rewsnA
J = (4.90 i + 4.11 j) − (−4 i) = (8.90i + 4.11 j) Ns
Magnitude of J =
Note
8.902 + 4.112 = 9.81 Ns J
e direction of J is the Using impulse = change of 4.11 Ns
angle θ to the horizontal shown. momentum.
4.11 θ
tan θ = ⇒ θ = 24.8°
8.90 8.90 Ns
Recall from Chapter 16 Collisions in one dimension that momentum is conserved
within a system if there are no external forces. is still applies to two dimensions.
During the collision of two freely moving objects there are contact forces
(equal and opposite) between the two objects but no resultant external
force hence momentum is conserved for the complete system:
m m m
u + 2u2 = 1v1 + 2v2
1 1
m
It can be deduced that the total momentum in any chosen direction is
unchanged.
Example 2
Object A, mass 2 kg, has velocity (3i + 4j) ms 1. Object B, mass 3 kg, has velocity
noitseuQ
(i − 2j) ms−1. ey collide and coalesce (stick together). Find their common
velocity after the collision.
After the collision, the two objects move together with velocity v ms 1
Momentum before collision = 2(3i + 4j) + 3(i − 2j) = (9i + 2j) Ns
rewsnA
Note
Momentum after collision = 5v Ns
ere are no external forces,
5v = 9i + 2j
so momentum is conserved.
v = (1.8i + 0.4j) ms 1
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Sometimes you need to relate the change of velocity of an object to the force
acting on it and the time for which it acts. When a force, constant F N, acts for a
time, t s, it exerts an impulse of I = Ft Ns, which produces a corresponding
change of momentum.
Example 3
An object of mass 2 kg is moving with velocity (2i + 3j) ms 1. A force
noitseuQ
F = (i − 2j)N acts for a time of 2 seconds. Find the new velocity of the object.
e impulse acting on the object is I = (i − 2j) × 2 = (2i − 4j) Ns. Note
e initial momentum is 2 × (2i + 3j) = (4i + 6j) Ns.
rewsnA
Using I = Ft and change of
If the nal velocity is v ms 1, the nal momentum is 2v Ns. momentum= impulse.
2v (4i + 6j) = 2i − 4j
v = (3i + j) ms 1
Exercise 1
1 An object of mass 2 kg has a velocity of (8i 3j) ms 1. It receives an impulse
J Ns, which alters its velocity to (2i + 5j) ms 1. Find J
2 A particle of mass 5 kg is travelling with a velocity of (4i + j) ms 1 when it is
subjected to an impulse of (2i 7j) Ns. Find the new velocity of the particle.
3 A particle of mass 3 kg, travelling with velocity (2i 3j) ms 1, is acted on by a
constant force of ( i + 2j) N which changes its velocity to 0.5i ms 1. For how
4
long does the force act?
Footballers A, B and C stand so that the angle ABC = 30°. Player A kicks
a ball of mass 0.5 kg along the ground to B at 8 ms 1. B kicks it directly
towards C along the ground at 6 ms 1. Find the magnitude of the impulse
that B exerted on the ball.
5 A hockey ball of mass 200 grams, travelling along level ground at 15 ms 1, is
struck by a stick so that it travels at the same speed in the opposite direction
but with an initial elevation of 30°. Find the magnitude and direction of the
impulse exerted by the stick.
6 A bullet of mass m, travelling at a speed 2u, strikes an object and ricochets.
Its direction is changed by 60° and its speed is reduced to u. Find, in terms
of m and u, the magnitude of the impulse received by the bullet.
7 An object of mass 2 kg and velocity (2i − j) ms 1 strikes and coalesces with
a second object of mass 3 kg and velocity (4i + 6j) ms 1. Find their common
velocity after impact.
8 An object of mass 4 kg, travelling with velocity (5i + 2j) ms 1, is struck by
a second object of mass 6 kg and velocity v ms 1, which sticks to it. eir
common velocity afterwards is (2i − 4j) ms 1. Find v
9 Objects A and B have masses 5 kg and 3 kg and velocities (i + 2j) ms 1
and (2i − 5j) ms 1 respectively. ey collide, after which A has velocity
( i + 3j) ms 1. Find the velocity of B after the collision.
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FM2 2.4 30
30.2 Elastic impact
When two objects collide, there are two situations to consider:
1 A collision between a moving object and a xed object (e.g. a snooker ball
striking a cushion). In this case there is a xed object, which provides an
external force, so conservation of momentum does not apply.
2 A collision between two objects that are each free to move (e.g. two snooker
balls colliding). In this situation momentum is conserved because there
is no resultant force on the system – all impulses are generated by forces
internal to the system.
In modelling oblique collisions, surfaces are assumed to be smooth, so the
forces generating impulses are the normal contact forces which are
perpendicular to the planes of contact. Hence the impulses are also
perpendicular to the planes of contact. e velocity components in the
direction of this impulse will change but the velocity components at right-
angles to the impulse will not change.
In a collision between a moving object and a xed object, or between two
moving objects, velocity components parallel to the plane of contact will
not change.
e nal velocity components in the direction of the impulse (perpendicular
to the plane of contact) depend on the ‘bounciness' of the objects, and
therefore change according to Newton’s experimental law of restitution:
separation speed
= e (a constant)
approach speed
where the approach speed is the rate at which the gap between the objects You learned about this in
(in the direction of the impulse) decreases before the collision and the Chapter 16 Collisions in one
separation speed is the rate at which the gap increases after the collision. dimension
Oblique collision between a moving object and a xed object
When a moving object collides with a xed object, the conservation of momentum
does not apply since the xed object exerts an external force on the system.
Example 4
A particle of mass 2 kg slides on the surface of a smooth horizontal table at
noitseuQ
2 ms 1. It strikes a smooth vertical wall at 45° and rebounds. e coecient of
restitution between the particle and the wall is 0.6. Find a its velocity after
impact b the magnitude of the impulse exerted by the wall on the particle.
a Take unit vectors i and j parallel and perpendicular to the plane of contact,
as shown.
j
2 ms 1
rewsnA
i v ms 1 Sketch a diagram.
45° θ
before impact after impact
(continued)
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(continued)
Let the velocity after impact be v ms 1 at angle θ to the wall, as shown.
Velocity before impact: u = 2 cos 45°i − 2 sin 45° j = 2 i − 2 j
Note
Velocity after impact: v = v cos θ i + v sin θ j
e impulse is in the
2 = v cos θ [1] j-direction. e velocity
v sin θ = e × 2 = 0.6 2 [2] component in the i-direction
does not change. In the
Divide [2] by [1] tanθ = 0.6 ⇒ θ = 31.0° Using . j-direction, separation
rewsnA
speed= e × approach speed.
Square and add [1] and [2] v 2 = 2.72
⇒ v = 1.65
After impact, the velocity of the particle Using cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1.
is 1.65 ms 1 at 31.0° to the wall.
b e impulse is normal to the wall.
In this direction:
velocity before impact = 2 , velocity after impact = 1.65 sin 31.0° = 0.850
Impulse = 2 × 0.850 (2 × 2 ) = 4.53 Ns
Oblique collision between two moving objects
When there is an oblique collision between two moving objects and both
objects are free to move, you can use conservation of momentum.
Example 5
A small sphere, A, of mass m kg collides at 4 ms 1 with an identical sphere, B, which
noitseuQ
is initially at rest. At the moment of impact, the line joining their centres makes an
angle of 60° with the direction in which A is moving. e coecient of restitution
between the spheres is 0.5. Find the velocities of A and B after the collision.
j
v1
i
60° θ
v2
4 ms 1
before impact after impact
rewsnA
Take i- and j-directions as shown. e impact is in the i-direction.
Before impact: velocity of A is u1 = 4 cos 60° i + 4 sin 60° j = 2 i + 2 3 j
Note
velocity of B is u2 = 0 e sphere B must move in
the direction of the impulse.
After impact: velocity of A is v 1 = v1 cos θ i + v1 sin θ j
velocity of B is v2 = v2 i
( ) (
m 2 i + 2 3 j + m × 0 = m v1 cos θ i + v1 sin θ j + mv 2i )
2 = v1 cos θ + v 2 [1] Momentum is conserved.
2 3 = v1 sin θ [2]
Equate i- and j-components.
(continued)
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FM2 2.4 30
(continued)
v2 − v1 cos θ = e × 2 = 1 [3] Note
From [1] and [3] v2 = 1.5 From Newton’s law of
Substitute into [1] v1 cos θ = 0.5 [4] restitution in the i-direction.
rewsnA
Divide [2] by [4] tan θ = 4 3 ⇒ θ = 81.8°
Square and add [2] and [4]
v12 = 12.25 ⇒ v1 = 3.5
After the collision, A moves at 3.5 ms 1 at 81.8° to the line of centres, and B
moves along the line of centres at 1.5 ms 1
Example 6
Two spheres of mass 2 kg collide. Sphere A has speed 6 ms 1 and sphere B has
noitseuQ
speed 8 ms 1. eir directions make angles of 30° and 45° respectively with the
line of centres on impact. e coecient of restitution between the spheres is
0.4. Find their velocities after the collision.
v1 v2
i
θ ϕ
30° 45°
1
1 8 ms
6 ms
before impact after impact
Take i- and j-directions as shown. e impact is in the i-direction.
Before impact: velocity of A is u
1
= 6 cos 30 °i + 6 sin 30 ° j = 3 3 i + 3 j
velocity of B is u
2
= −8 cos 45 °i + 8 sin 45 ° j = −4 2 i + 4 2 j
After impact: velocity of A is = −v1 cos θ i + v1 sin θ j
rewsnA
v
1
Note
velocity of B is v
2
= v2 cos φ i + v 2 sin φ j
ere is no impulse acting
For A 3 = v1 sin θ [1]
in the j-direction, so the
For B 4 2 = v2 sin φ [2] j-components of velocity do
not change.
2 × 3 3 + 2 × −4 2 = 2 × (−v1 cos θ ) + 2 × v 2 cos φ
⇒ 3 3 + −4 2 = −v1 cos θ + v 2 cos φ [3] Momentum is conserved in
the i-direction.
(
v2 cos φ − (−v1 cos θ ) = 0.4 × 3 3 − ( −4 2 ) )
⇒ v2 cos φ + v1 cos θ = 1.2 3 + 1.6 2 [4] Note
Add [3] and [4] v2 cos φ = 2.1 3 − 1.2 2 [5] Using Newton’s law of
restitution in the i-direction.
Subtract [3] from [4] v1 cos θ = −0.9 3 + 2.8 2 [6]
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(continued)
Divide [1] by [6] tan θ =
3
−0.9 3 + 2.8 2
⇒ θ = 51.3°
Square and add [1] and [6] v 12 = 14.76 ⇒ v1 = 3.84
rewsnA
Divide [2] by [5] tan φ =
4 2
2.1 3 1.2 2
⇒ φ = 71.1°
Square and add [2] and [5] v22 = 35.76 ⇒ v2 = 5.98
°
After the collision, A has speed 3.84 ms 1 and moves at 51.3 to the line of
°
centres. B has speed 5.98 ms 1 and moves at 71.1 to the line of centres.
Exercise 2
1 A snooker ball, moving at 12 ms 1, strikes a smooth cushion at an angle of
°
25 . If the coecient of restitution between the ball and the cushion is 0.7,
nd the velocity of the ball after the collision.
2 A snooker ball of mass 0.2 kg hits the cushion with speed 10 ms 1. Its
°
direction makes an angle of 60 with the cushion. e coecient of
restitution is 0.8. How much kinetic energy is lost during the collision?
3 A ball falls from a height of 2 m onto a smooth surface inclined at 30 to the°
horizontal. e coecient of restitution between the ball and the surface is
0.8. Find the velocity of the ball as it rebounds.
4 A ball, A, is projected along a smooth surface towards a second, identical
°
ball, B, which is at rest. e speed of A is 8 ms 1, at an angle of 30 with the
line of centres at the moment of impact. After the collision, B has a speed of
4 ms 1. Find
a the coecient of restitution b the velocity of A after impact.
5 Two smooth spheres of equal radii collide. e mass of A is 3 kg and that of
+ −
B is 2 kg. A has a velocity of (2i 3j) ms 1 and B a velocity of ( 3i 4j) ms 1,
where the i-direction is along the line of centres at the moment of impact.
e coecient of restitution is 0.8. Find
a the velocities of the spheres after impact
b the kinetic energy lost during the impact.
6 An object slides along smooth horizontal ground towards a vertical wall at a
θ
speed of 2v. Its direction makes an angle of with the wall. After the impact
°
the object is moving at 90 to its original direction, and with speed v. Find
a the value of θ
b the coecient of restitution between the object and the wall.
7 A ball, A, is at the origin. A second, identical ball, B, is at rest at the point
+
3i 4j. A is projected towards B so that they collide. After the impact, B is
+
moving in the i-direction, while A moves in the direction 3i 16j. Show that
this can happen whatever the initial speed of A, and nd the coecient of
restitution between the balls.
8 Two identical balls, each with speed 4 ms 1 move towards each other along
parallel lines separated by the radius of the balls. e coecient of restitution
between the balls is 0.75. Find the velocity of each ball after impact.
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FM2 2.4 30
Summary
▶ If a force F N acts for a time t s, it exerts an impulse of I = Ft Ns.
▶ If a particle of mass m kg has velocity v ms 1, it has momentum of mv Ns.
▶ Impulse = change of momentum, so if an impulse I changes the velocity of
an object of mass m from u to v, you have I = mv mu
▶ e principle of conservation of linear momentum states that the total
momentum of a system in a particular direction remains constant unless an
external force is applied in that direction.
▶ Newton’s experimental law of restitution establishes the constancy of the
ratio between approach and separation speeds:
▶ In a collision between a moving object and a xed object, the xed object
provides an external force, so conservation of momentum does not apply.
▶ In a collision between two objects that are each free to move, momentum is
conserved because there is no resultant force on the system – all impulses
are generated by forces internal to the system.
▶ In an oblique collision between smooth objects, the impulse is normal to
the plane of contact. e velocity components:
• parallel to the plane of contact to do not change
• perpendicular to the plane of contact will change.
Review exercises
1 An object of mass 4 kg has a velocity of (5i j) ms 1. It receives an impulse
J Ns, which alters its velocity to (i + 5j) ms 1. Find J
2 A particle of mass 2 kg is travelling with a velocity of (3i + 2j) ms 1 when it is
subjected to an impulse of (4i 6j) Ns. Find the new velocity of the particle.
3 A particle of mass 2 kg, travelling with velocity (3i j) ms 1, is acted on by a
constant force of (i − 3j) N which changes its velocity to(5i − 7j) ms 1. For
how long does the force act?
4 Objects A and B have masses 3 kg and 4 kg and velocities (2i − j) ms 1
and (i + 5j) ms 1 respectively. ey collide, after which A has velocity
(6i + 3j) ms 1. Find the velocity of B after the collision.
5 A snooker ball, moving at 8 ms 1, strikes a smooth cushion at an angle of
30°. If the coecient of restitution between the ball and the cushion is 0.8,
nd the velocity of the ball after the collision.
6 Spheres A and B have equal radii. Sphere A, of mass 2m kg, collides at
4 ms−1 with sphere B, which has mass m kg and is at rest. A’s direction of
motion makes an angle of 30° with the line of centres at impact. Find the
velocities of the spheres after impact, if the coecient of restitution is 0.75.
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7 e diagram shows the oblique impact between spheres sphere A sphere B
A and B, of equal size, whose masses are 8 kg and 4 kg
respectively. A has initial speed 4 ms 1 and B has initial
speed 2 ms 1. e coecient of restitution between the 30° 60°
spheres is 0.5. Find their velocities after impact.
1
4 ms
1
2 ms
Practice examination questions
1 Two smooth spheres, A and B, have equal before collision
radii and masses 4m and 3m respectively. e
sphere A is moving on a smooth horizontal
surface and collides with the sphere B, which Line of centres
is stationary on the same surface. 30°
Just before the collision, A is moving with
speed u at an angle of 30° to the line of
u
4m 3 m
centres, as shown in the diagram.
Immediately after the collision, the direction of after collision
motion of A makes an angle α with the line of
centres, as shown in the diagram.
e coecient of restitution between the Line of centres α
spheres is .
a Find the value of α. (10 marks)
b Find, in terms of m and u, the magnitude of 4 m 3 m
the impulse exerted on B during the collision. (3 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2011
2 Two smooth spheres, A and B, have equal radii and masses m and 2m
respectively. e spheres are moving on a smooth horizontal plane. e
sphere A has velocity (4i + 3j) when it collides with the sphere B which has
velocity ( 2i + 2j). After the collision, the velocity of B is (i + j).
a Find the velocity of A immediately after the collision. (3 marks)
b Find the angle between the velocities of A and B immediately
after the collision. (3 marks)
c Find the impulse exerted by B on A. (3 marks)
d State, as a vector, the direction of the line of centres of A and
B when they collide. (1 mark)
AQA MM03 June 2008
3 A smooth sphere is moving on a smooth horizontal surface when it strikes
a smooth vertical wall and rebounds. Immediately before the impact, the
sphere is moving with speed 4 ms 1 and the angle between the sphere’s
direction of motion and the wall is α.
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FM2 2.4 30
Immediately after the impact, the sphere is moving with speed v ms 1 and
the angle between the sphere’s direction of motion and the wall is 40°. 4 ms 1
e coecient of restitution between the sphere and the wall is . α
a Show that . (3 marks)
b Find the value of v. (3 marks) 40°
1
v ms
AQA MM03 June 2010
4 Two smooth spheres, A and B, have equal radii and masses 4 kg and
2 kg respectively. e sphere A is moving with velocity (4i − 2j) ms 1 and the
sphere B is moving with velocity
( 2i − 3j) ms 1 on the same smooth 2i 3j
4i 2j
horizontal surface. e spheres j
collide when their line of centres is
parallel to unit vector i. e
i Line of centres
direction of motion of B is changed
through 90° by the collision, as
shown in the diagram.
a Show that the velocity of B
immediately after the collision is . (4 marks)
b Find the coecient of restitution between the spheres. (5 marks)
c Find the impulse exerted on B during the collision.
State the units of your answer. (3 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2013
5 e diagram shows part of a horizontal snooker table of A 1.20 m C
width 1.69 m. 60°
A player strikes the ball B directly, and it moves in a straight
line. e ball hits the cushion of the table at C before u
rebounding and moving to the pocket at P at the corner of 1.69 m
B
the table, as shown in the diagram. e point C is 1.20 m
from the corner A of the table. e ball has mass 0.15 kg
and, immediately before the collision with the cushion, it
has velocity u in a direction inclined at 60° to the cushion. P
e table and the cushion are modelled as smooth.
a Find the coecient of restitution between the ball and the
cushion. (5 marks)
b Show that the magnitude of the impulse on the cushion at
C is approximately 0.236u. (4 marks)
c Find, in terms of u, the time taken between the ball hitting
the cushion at C and entering the pocket at P. (3 marks)
d Explain how you have used the assumption that the cushion
is smooth in your answers. (1 mark)
AQA MM03 June 2012
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Projectiles Launched onto
31 Inclined Planes
Introduction Objectives
In the work you have done on projectiles during your A-level Mathematics By the end of this chapter,
course, you have assumed that the projectile is red from and lands on a you should know how to:
horizontal plane. However, in real life projectiles are often red up or down ▶ nd the time of
a slope; this chapter analyses such situations. ight and range of a
projectile red on an
inclined plane.
▶ nd the maximum
Recap range of a projectile
You will need to remember ... on an inclined plane.
▶ for a projectile red with initial speed U at angle θ to a horizontal ▶ analyse the behaviour
plane, of a projectile that
• taking unit vectors i and j as the horizontal and vertical directions bounces on an
• acceleration a = −g j inclined plane.
• initial velocity u = U cos θ i + U sin θ j
• using v = u + at, velocity at time t is v = U cos θ i + (U sin θ gt) j
• using , position at time t is
Tip
• time of ight = When answering a question,
you should nd the time of
• range = ight, range and so on from
rst principles. Just quoting
• maximum range is achieved when θ = 45° these formulae without
• maximum height, given by , is reached exactly halfway justication may lead to a
through the ight. loss of marks.
For all these formulae you assume that air resistance can be neglected.
▶ when a particle collides obliquely with a xed plane and rebounds, You learned about the
• its component of velocity parallel to the plane does not change coecient of restitution in
• its component of velocity perpendicular to the plane changes Chapters 16 Collisions in one
according to Newton’s experimental law of restitution, that is dimension and 30 Collisions in
(the coecient of restitution).
two dimensions
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FM2 2.2 31
31.1 Inclined plane
If you draw a straight line on an inclined plane, the angle your line makes with
the horizontal depends on the direction in which it is drawn. A ball rolling down
the slope from rest would follow the steepest path, the line of greatest slope.
e angle it makes with the horizontal denes the inclination of the plane.
If you re a projectile ‘up the line of greatest slope,’ it means that its path is
directly above the line of greatest slope.
Finding the range of the projectile
You know from your A-level Mathematics studies that the range of a projectile is
the distance from the start to the point of impact. When a projectile is red up
the line of greatest slope of an inclined plane, the best approach to calculating
its range is to use unit vectors, i and j, parallel and perpendicular to the plane
rather than the usual horizontal and vertical directions.
Example 1
m
A ball of mass is kicked from a point on an inclined plane up the line of
noitseuQ
greatest slope. e plane is inclined at 20° to the horizontal. e initial velocity
of the ball is 20 ms 1 at an angle of 30° to the plane. Find how far up the plane
the ball lands.
i
1
20 ms
It is usually helpful to sketch
mg N P the situation.
30°
20°
O
Take unit vectors i and j parallel and perpendicular to the plane.
Acceleration is a = − g sin20° i − g cos20° j
Initial velocity is u = 20 cos 30°i + 20 sin30° j
rewsnA
At time t r = (20t cos 30° −
1
2
gt 2
t
sin20°) i + (20 sin30° −
1
2
gt 2
cos 20°) j Using .
At P t
20 sin30° −
1
2
gt cos 20° = 0
2
When the ball lands, the
j-component of r is zero.
t (20 sin 30° −
1
2
gt cos 20°) = 0
sin 30°
t = 40g cos20 °
= 2.17 s Note
t = 2.17 s is the time of ight.
e range is OP = 20 × 2.17 cos30° It is one root of the quadratic
1 equation. e other root of the
− × 9.8 × 2.17 2 sin20°
2 t
equation, = 0, corresponds to
= 29.7 m the initial pointO
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Maximum range
When a projectile is red up a plane, the range that it achieves depends on the
angle at which it is red. You need to be able to nd the maximum possible
m
range. Suppose a projectile of mass is red up a plane inclined at an angle α
U
to the horizontal. Its initial velocity has magnitude and makes an angle θ with
the plane. You need to nd an expression for , the range, R U
and the value of θ which makes a maximum. R
Choose unit vectors i and j parallel and perpendicular to the mg
plane, as shown.
Acceleration is a = − g sin α i − g cos α j j
θ
u = U cos θ i + U sinθ j
i
Initial velocity is α
O
At time t
e projectile lands when the j-component of r is zero, so
t (U sin θ − 12 gt cos α ) = 0
2U sinθ
e roots of this are t = 0 (the initial point) and t =
g cos α (the time of ight).
e range R is given by the -component of at this time, so
i r
R = U 2gUcos 1 2U sinθ
sinθ 2
cos θ g sinα
α 2 g cosα
= U
2 sinθ (cos α cos θ sinθ sinα )
2
Note
g cos α 2
= U
2 sinθ cos(α + θ )
2 is uses the formula
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B A B.
g cos α 2 sin sin
To nd the maximum you could dierentiate this expression with
respect to θ (try it). However, in this case there is a neat solution
A B A B
using the formula 2 sin cos = sin ( + ) + sin ( − ). is gives A B
is is a maximum when and so
e maximum range is
For maximum range, the initial direction bisects the angle between the
plane and the vertical.
Although you now have general formulae for the range and maximum range,
you may need to derive these values from rst principles when answering
examquestions.
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FM2 2.2 31
Firing down the slope
Sometimes the projectile is red down the plane. e principles involved are
the same as when ring up a slope.
Example 2
A projectile is red with a speed of 50 ms ¹, at an angle of elevation of 60° to the
horizontal, down a plane inclined at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.
a Find
noitseuQ
i the time of ight ii the range down the plane.
b Show that when the projectile lands it makes an angle
3
of tan 1
with the plane.
2 50 ms 1
a i Take unit vectors i and j as shown.
Acceleration is
60° mg
30°
Initial velocity is u = 50 j
At time t Using r = ut + at 2 j
θ
e projectile lands when Note
e projectile lands when
rewsnA
e time of ight is the j-component of r is zero.
ii e range is
Note
e range R is the
b At time t i-component of r at t = 11.8.
Velocity on landing is
For the angle θ in the diagram,
Hence
Exercise 1
1 A projectile is red with initial speed 60 ms ¹ from a point on a plane
inclined at 20° to the horizontal. Its direction is up the plane, along its line
of greatest slope, and at an angle of 40° to the horizontal. Find
a the time of ight
b the range on the plane
c the angle at which it hits the plane.
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2 Another projectile is red with the same speed and direction as in
question 1, but this time down the plane. Find
a the time of ight
b the range on the plane
c the angle at which it hits the plane.
3 A projectile is red from a point on a plane inclined at an angle of 20° to the
horizontal. e angle of elevation at which the projectile is red is adjusted
so that the range is a maximum. Find the angle of elevation (measured from
the horizontal) if the projectile is red
a up the plane
b down the plane.
4 A projectile is red with a velocity of 30 ms ¹ up a plane inclined at an angle
of 20° to the horizontal. It lands a distance of 25 m away from its point of
projection. Find the two possible values for the angle of projection.
5 e projectile in question 4 is now red down the plane with the same
result. Find the two possible values for the angle of projection in this
situation.
6 A projectile is red up a plane inclined at an angle α to the horizontal so
that its initial direction makes an angle θ with the plane. Show that, when it
lands, it makes an angle λ with the plane where
tan θ
tan λ =
1 2 tan α tan θ
7 A projectile is red with a speed of U ms ¹ up a plane inclined at an angle
α to the horizontal. e initial direction makes an angle θ with the plane.
When it hits the plane, the projectile is moving horizontally.
a Show that tan (θ + α) = 2 tan α
b If α = 20°, nd, in terms of U
i the time of ight ii the range up the plane.
8 A projectile is red down a plane, inclined at an angle α to the horizontal,
with speed U ms−¹. e angle between the line of projection and the plane
is θ. Find
a the time of ight
b the range down the plane
c the maximum range down the plane.
31.2 Other problems
ere are two further situations you need to address. Firstly, what height does
the projectile reach above the plane and, secondly, what happens to the
projectile after it lands.
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FM2 2.2 31
Greatest height
During your A-level Mathematics studies, you found the greatest height reached
by a projectile red on a horizontal plane. is occurred when the projectile
was exactly halfway through its ight.
When dealing with the greatest height reached on inclined planes, there are two
possible values of interest.
1 e greatest perpendicular distance, k, between the projectile and
the plane.
α k
2 e greatest vertical height, h, above the plane. h
k Q
From the diagram, h = , so h will be a maximum when k is a P
cos α
maximum; the two quantities occur at the same point in the ight.
α
e greatest perpendicular distance from the plane corresponds
to the point at which the projectile is moving parallel to the plane.
e j-component of velocity is zero at this point.
Example 3
A projectile is red up a plane inclined at 30° to the horizontal. 30°
Its initial velocity is 25 ms 1 at 20° to the plane, as shown. 25 ms 1 k
h
Find Q
P
noitseuQ
a the greatest perpendicular distance, k, between the projectile and 20°
the plane 30°
b the greatest vertical height, h, above the plane reached by the O
projectile
c the length OP in the diagram.
Take unit vectors i and j parallel and perpendicular to the plane.
Acceleration is = − g sin 30°i − g cos 30° j
a
Initial velocity is u = 25cos 20° i + 25 sin20° j
At time t, v = u + at = (25 cos 20° − g t sin30°) i + (25 sin20° − g t cos30°) j
and r = ut + 1 at 2 = (25t cos20° − 1 gt 2 sin30°)i +
2 2
1 2
(25t sin20°− gt cos 30°) j
2
a At maximum distance from the plane,
rewsnA
25 sin20° − gt cos 30° = 0 ⇒ t = 25 sin20° = 1.007 s
g cos 30° Note
2
25 sin 20° 1 25 sin 20° For maximum distance from
k = 25 × sin20° − g × cos30°
g cos 30° 2 g cos 30° the plane the j-component
252 sin 2 20° of v is zero. e projectile
= = 4.31 m lands when
2 g cos 30° Note
t=
k
= 25 sin 20° = 4.97 m
2 2
b h= e distance k is the
cos 30° 2 g cos2 30° j-component of r when so the maximum occurs
t = 1.007 s. halfway through the ight.
(continued)
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(continued)
c On the diagram OQ = 25 × 25 sin 20° cos 20° −
1 25 sin20°
g sin 30°
g cos 30° 2 g cos 30°
sin 2 20° sin30°
PQ = h sin30° = 25
2
rewsnA
2 g cos2 30°
°
OP = OQ − PQ = 25 sin20
2
g cos2 30° (
cos 20° cos 30° − sin20° sin 30° ) Note
252 sin 20° cos 50° e range of the projectile is
= = 18.7 m
g cos2 30°
= , which is exactly
Bouncing projectiles twice OP
Sometimes when the projectile strikes the plane, it bounces. You then need to
know what happens to it following the bounce. It will obviously strike the plane
for a second time (and maybe bounce again). You need to be able to nd the
distance between the rst and second strike, and whether the second is further
up or further down the plane than the rst.
e plane is assumed to be smooth, so the velocity component parallel to the
plane does not change. You learned about the
e eect on the perpendicular component depends on the coecient of coecient of restitution in
restitution (e) between the projectile and the plane. Its direction will reverse Chapters 16 Collisions in one
and separation speed = e × approach speed. dimensions and 30 Collisions in
two dimensions
Example 4
A projectile is red with speed 40 ms 1 at an elevation of 60° to the
horizontal, up a smooth plane that is inclined at 30° to the
noitseuQ
horizontal. When it strikes the plane, it bounces. e coecient of
1
restitution between the projectile and the plane is . Will the
3
second bounce be higher up the plane than the rst?
Take unit vectors i and j as shown.
Initial velocity is u = 40 cos 30° i + 40 sin 30° j = 20 3 i + 20 j
1
40 ms
1 3
Acceleration is a = − g sin 30° i − g cos 30° j = − gi − gj
2 2
mg
1
At time t,
v = u + at = 20 3 −
gt i + 20 − 3 gt j
2 2 j
30°
rewsnA
i
1 2 1 3
r = ut + at = 20 3t − gt 2 i + 20t − gt 2 j 30°
2 4 4 O
3
e projectile lands when 20t gt 2 = 0
4 Note
80
Time of ight t =
g
3 e projectile strikes
the plane when the
At the moment of rst impact,
j-component of r is zero.
1 80 3 80 20
v = 20 3 − g i + 20 − g j= i − 20 j
2 g 3 2 g 3 3
(continued)
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(continued)
On impact, the i-component of v doesn’t Direction of impact Note
change (the surface is smooth).
It can be helpful to sketch
In the j-direction, approach the velocity components
speed = 20 ms 1 20 before and after impact.
Separation speed = √3
20
e × approach speed =
3
20 20
e velocity after impact is v = i + j 20 Direction after impact
rewsnA
3 3 20
e projectile moves at an angle θ to the plane, where √3
20
tan θ = 3 = 1 45° 20
20 √3
3
θ = 45°
e plane slopes at 30°, so the projectile moves at 30 + 45 = 75° to the horizontal.
e second bounce is higher up the plane than the rst. e angle to the
horizontal is less than 90° so the second bounce is higher up the plane.
Exercise 2
1 A projectile is red with initial speed 40 ms ¹ from a point on a plane
inclined at 20° to the horizontal. Its direction is up the plane, along its line
of greatest slope, and at an angle of 50° to the horizontal.
Find
a the greatest perpendicular distance between the projectile and the plane
b the greatest vertical height of the projectile above the plane.
2 Another projectile is red with the same speed and direction as in
question 1, but this time down the plane. Find
a the greatest perpendicular distance between the projectile and the plane
b the greatest vertical height of the projectile above the plane.
3 A projectile is red with initial speed 60 ms ¹ from a point on a plane
inclined at an angle of 20° to the horizontal. e angle of elevation at which
the projectile is red is chosen so that the range is a maximum. Find the
greatest perpendicular distance between the projectile and the plane.
4 A ball of mass m is dropped from a height of 4 m onto a smooth plane
inclined at 45° to the horizontal. e coecient of restitution between the
ball and the plane is e. After rebounding, the greatest vertical height of the
ball above the plane is 4 m. Find the value of e
5 A projectile is red up the line of greatest slope of a plane inclined at 30°
to the horizontal. Initially the projectile has velocity 40 ms 1 at 60° to the
horizontal. When the projectile strikes the plane it bounces.
a If the coecient of restitution, e, between the projectile and the plane is
0.4, show that the second time the projectile strikes the plane is higher
up than the rst.
b Show that in fact the second strike cannot be lower down the plane than
the rst, whatever the value of e
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6 A ball is red at 20 ms 1 from a point A on a plane inclined at 30° to the
horizontal. e path of the ball is up the line of greatest slope and its initial
direction makes an angle of θ with the plane. e ball strikes the
plane at 90°
3
a Show that tan θ =
2
b e coecient of restitution between the ball and the ground is 0.8. e
ball rebounds and strikes the plane a second time at a point B. Find the
distance AB
7 A projectile is red from a point A with initial speed 20 ms 1, up the line
of greatest slope of a plane inclined at 30° to the horizontal. e initial
direction of the projectile is inclined at 45° to the plane.
a Show that the projectile strikes the plane for the rst time at B, where
AB = 800( 3 1)
3g
When the projectile strikes the plane it bounces. e coecient of
restitution between the projectile and the plane is e
b Show that the projectile strikes the plane for the second time at C, where
C is lower down the plane than B and BC = 800e (e + 2 − 3)
3g
c Find the value of e for which the second impact is back at the starting
point, A
Summary
▶ For a projectile red on an inclined plane, you should choose the i- and
j-directions parallel and perpendicular to the plane.
▶ For a projectile red with speed U up a plane inclined at α to the
horizontal, making an angle θ with the plane, the range is given by
between the plane and the vertical. e maximum range is .
▶ A projectile reaches its greatest distance from the plane (and therefore
greatest vertical height above the plane) when the j-component of its
velocity is zero. is occurs exactly halfway through its ight time.
▶ When the projectile is at its greatest height, the point vertically below it on
the plane exactly bisects the range.
▶ If the projectile bounces on impact, the velocity component parallel to the
plane is unchanged. e component perpendicular to the plane is reversed
and separation speed = e × approach speed.
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Review exercises
1 A particle is projected up the line of greatest slope of a plane inclined at 45°
to the horizontal. Initially the particle travels at 50 ms 1 at 30° to the plane.
Find
a the time before the particle strikes the plane for the rst time
b the range of the particle up the plane
c the greatest perpendicular distance between the particle and the plane
d the greatest vertical height of the particle above the plane.
2 A projectile is red down a plane inclined at 30° to the horizontal. e
initial velocity of the projectile is 40 ms 1 at 60° to the plane. Find
a the range of the projectile down the plane
b the angle at which the projectile strikes the plane.
3 A particle is projected up the line of greatest slope of a plane inclined at 15°
to the horizontal. e initial velocity of the particle is 20 ms 1 at 30° to the
plane. It strikes the plane for the rst time at a point A and rebounds. e
coecient of restitution between the particle and the plane is 0.5. It strikes
the plane for a second time at a point B. Determine whether B is higher or
lower on the plane than A
4 A particle projected with speed u up a plane inclined at an angle θ to the
horizontal has a maximum range R. When red with the same speed down
the plane its maximum range is 2R. Find R and θ
5 A projectile of mass m is red up a plane inclined at an angle α to the
horizontal. e projectile has an initial velocity of magnitude U at an angle
of θ to the plane. When the projectile lands it is travelling at right-angles to
the plane. Show that
Practice examination questions 1
10 ms
1 A particle is projected from a point O on a smooth plane which
is inclined at 30° to the horizontal. e particle is projected
O
40°
down the plane with velocity 10 ms 1 at an angle of 40° above
the plane and rst strikes it at a point A. e motion of the
particle is in a vertical plane containing a line of greatest slope
of the inclined plane. A 30°
a Show that the time taken by the particle to travel from
O to A is (3 marks)
b Find the components of the velocity of the particle parallel to
and perpendicular to the slope as it hits the slope at A. (4 marks)
c e coecient of restitution between the slope and the particle
is 0.5. Find the speed of the particle as it rebounds from the
slope. (4 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2009
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2 A projectile is red from a point O on the slope of a hill which is inclined at
an angle α to the horizontal. e projectile is red up the hill with velocity
U at an angle θ above the hill and rst strikes it at a point A. e projectile is
modelled as a particle and the hill is modelled as a plane with OA as a line
of greatest slope.
a i Find, in terms of U, g, α and θ, the time taken by the
projectile to travel from O to A. (3 marks)
ii Hence, or otherwise, show that the magnitude of the component of
the velocity of the projectile perpendicular to the hill, when it strikes
the hill at the point A, is the same as it was initially at O. (3 marks)
b e projectile rebounds and strikes the hill
U
again at a point B. e hill is smooth and B
the coecient of restitution between the
projectile and the hill is e A
θ
Find the ratio of the time of ight from O to α
O
A to the time of ight from A to B. Give your
answer in its simplest form. (4 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2006
3 A projectile is red with speed u from a point O on a plane u
which is inclined at an angle α to the horizontal. e
projectile is red at an angle θ to the inclined plane and
O θ
moves in a vertical plane through a line of greatest slope of
the inclined plane. e projectile lands at a point P, lower
P
down the inclined plane, as shown in the diagram.
α
a Find, in terms of u, g, θ and α, the greatest perpendicular
distance of the projectile from the plane. (4 marks)
b i Find, in terms of u, g, θ and α, the time of ight from O to P. (2 marks)
ii By using the identity cos A cos B + sin A sin B = cos (A − B),
show that the distance OP is given by
(6 marks)
iii Hence, by using the identity 2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A − B),
or otherwise, show that, as θ varies, the maximum possible distance
OP is (5 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2008
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4 A ball is projected from a point O on a smooth plane which is inclined at an
angle of 35° above the horizontal. e ball is projected with
velocity 20 ms 1 at an angle of 30° above the plane, as shown in A
1
20 ms
the diagram. e motion of the ball is in a vertical plane
containing a line of greatest slope of the inclined plane. e ball
strikes the inclined plane at the point A.
30°
a Find the components of the velocity of the ball, parallel and
35°
perpendicular to the plane, as it strikes the inclined O
plane at A. (7 marks)
b On striking the plane at A, the ball rebounds. e coecient of
restitution between the plane and the ball is . Show that the
ball next strikes the plane at a point lower down than A. (6 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2010
5 A small smooth ball is dropped from a height of h above a
point A on a xed smooth plane inclined at an angle θ to the
h
horizontal. e ball falls vertically and collides with the plane
at the point A. e ball rebounds and strikes the plane again at
a point B, as shown in the diagram. e points A and B lie on a
A
line of greatest slope of the inclined plane.
a Explain whether or not the component of the velocity B
θ
of the ball parallel to the plane is changed by
the collision. (2 marks)
b e coecient of restitution between the ball and the plane is e. Find,
in terms of h, θ, e and g, the components of the velocity of the ball
parallel to and perpendicular to the plane immediately after the
collision. (3 marks)
c Show that the distance AB is given by (7 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2014
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32 Elastic Strings and Springs
Introduction Objectives
You often make the modelling assumption that strings and rods are By the end of this chapter,
inextensible (cannot be stretched). For example, when modelling the you should know how to:
motion of a particle on the end of a string using a vertical circle, you ▶ model the behaviour
assume that the string does not stretch. However, such an assumption is of stretched elastic
not always justied. e springs in vehicle suspensions are designed to strings and springs.
stretch and compress. Bungee ropes and elastic luggage straps are also ▶ nd the work done by
designed to stretch. Weighing machines often involve a spring stretching or a variable force.
compressing. ▶ nd the potential
To model such situations, you must relate the amount of stretch or energy stored in an
compression to the force that has been applied. elastic string or spring.
▶ use conservation
of energy to solve
problems involving
Recap elastic strings and
You will need to remember ... springs.
▶ the kinetic energy is given by .
▶ gravitational potential energy is given by GPE = mgh
▶ the principle of conservation of mechanical energy: the total
mechanical energy of a system is constant unless work is done by or
on the system, or there are sudden changes such as collisions.
▶ the work-energy principle: the total work done on a system equals the
change in mechanical energy of the system.
▶ if the point of application of a constant force F N moves a displacement
x m in the direction of the force, the force does work W = Fx J.
32.1 Elastic strings and springs
A string or spring that can be stretched and then return to its original length
(natural length) when the stretching force is removed, is said to be elastic.
e amount of stretching depends on the force applied. e greater the tension
in the string or spring, the greater the change in its length (the extension). Tip
Experiments on strings and springs have produced the following key facts: If you have the equipment, try
▶ For springs, steel wire and some other stretchable strings the extension is hanging weights on suitable
proportional to the tension. For example, if you double the applied force elastic strings and springs
you will double the extension. ere is a linear relationship between to examine the relationship
tension and extension. between the applied force
and the extension produced.
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▶ If you stretch a string beyond a certain limit, it becomes permanently
deformed and will not return to its original length. is is called the
elastic limit
▶ For some strings (such as elastic bands or bungee cord) the linear
relationship between tension and extension does not apply.
Hooke’s law
is chapter focuses on those cases where there is a linear relationship between Tip
tension and extension, and the linear model, known as Hooke’s Law, can be
applied. Hooke’s law states that the tension is proportional to the extension. The extension is commonly
referred to as either x or e
Hooke’s law (1): e tension, T, and the extension, x, of a string or spring
from its natural length are related by T = kx, where the constant k is Tip
called stiness and is a characteristic of the particular string or spring.
T The model assumes a
is rst version of Hooke’s law, T = kx, can be arranged as k = . From this you
x light spring or string, so
get the SI unit for stiness: the newton per metre (Nm−1)
the tension is the same
Stiness is a measure of how hard it is to stretch a particular string or spring; the throughout.
greater the stiness, the more force you must apply to achieve a given
extension. However, it is of rather limited use because strings or springs of
identical construction but dierent lengths will have dierent values of k.
For example, suppose you have two elastic strings, A and B. ey are identical
except that A is 1 m long and B is l m long. If a tension T stretches A by x m, it
will stretch B by lx m (each 1 m will stretch by x m).
If their stinesses are kA and kB, then T = kA × x and T = kB × lx
kA
It follows that kB =
l
It is therefore more usual to use the modulus of elasticity (λ). is is the
Tip
stiness of 1 m of the string or spring. It follows that the stiness of a string or
λ You will be expected to know
spring of length l is k =
l . It will not be
Hooke’s law (2): e tension, T, and the extension, x, of a string given in the formulae booklet.
λx
or spring from its natural length, l, are related by T = , Note that e is often used
l
where λ is the modulus of elasticity. instead of x
e modulus of elasticity, λ, and the stiness, k, are related by λ = kl. It follows
that the SI unit for λ is the newton (N).
Tip
You need to be able to use Hooke’s law to nd the stretched length of a string
In fact, λ is the tension in
or spring.
the string when stretched to
Example 1 twice its natural length.
An elastic string of length 2 m and modulus of elasticity 49 N has a particle of
noitseuQ
mass 3 kg attached to one end. e other end is fastened to a hook and the
particle is lowered into its equilibrium position. What is the length of the string
in this position?
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Resolving vertically, T − 3g = 0 e particle is in equilibrium.
T = 3g = 29.4 N
rewsnA
49 x 2m
From Hooke’s law, 29.4 = Note
2
x = 1.2 m Use , with λ = 49
e total length of the string is 2 + 1.2 = 3.2 m. and l = 2. T
x
Springs can also be compressed. In these cases, you then have a reduction, x, in
the length (a negative extension) and a thrust force (a negative tension) in the
spring. It can be shown experimentally that you can use Hooke’s law in the same
way in these situations.
e amount you can compress a spring is limited because eventually the coils
3g N
touch. e Hooke’s law model, however, would allow the spring to compress to
a zero or negative length. In a practical situation you would need to check that
the model’s predictions were realistic.
Example 2
A small particle is fastened to two springs whose natural lengths are 0.5 m and
0.3 m respectively. e springs have modulus of elasticity 15 N and 24 N
noitseuQ
respectively. e other ends of the springs are fastened to two xed points 0.6 m
apart on a horizontal table, and the particle rests on the table in equilibrium.
Find the compressed lengths of the springs.
A λ = 15 N B λ = 24 N C
It helps to sketch a diagram.
L 0.6 L
Assume that the particle has zero thickness. State any assumptions made.
Let the length AB be L m. e length BC is then (0.6 L) m.
AB BC
rewsnA
Length L 0.6 − L
Compression 0.5 − L 0.3 − (0.6 − L) = L − 0.3
λx 15(0.5 L) 24( L 0.3)
rust T = = 15 − 30 L = 80 L − 24
l 0.5 0.3
is gives 15 30L = 80L 24
Note
L = 0.355 m
e particle is in equilibrium,
e compressed lengths of the springs are so the two thrusts are equal.
AB = 0.355 m and BC = 0.6 − 0.355 = 0.245 m.
Example 3
Spring AM (natural length 1 m, stiness 30 Nm−1) and spring MB (natural length
noitseuQ
0.5 m, stiness 20 Nm−1) are attached at M to a ball of mass 4 kg. e system is
xed in equilibrium with B 3 m vertically below A. Find the lengths AM and MB
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Spring AM is extended by x m.
A
Stretched length of AM = (1 + x) m Sketch a diagram.
Stretched length of BM = 3 − (1 + x) = (2 − x) m
Extension of BM = (2 − x) − 0.5 = (1.5 − x) m λ = 30 N
e tensions are T1 and T2 as shown. T1
rewsnA
T1 = 30x and T2 = 20(1.5 − x) = 30 − 20x Using Hooke’s law, T = kx 3m
Resolving vertically, T1 − T2 4g = 0 M
30x − 30 + 20x 39.2 = 0 T2
λ = 10 N
x = 1.38 m
4g N
So spring AM is 1 + x = 2.38 m long and spring
B
BM is 2 − x = 0.62 m long.
Exercise 1
1 A force F N is applied to a spring of natural length l m, producing an extension
x m. You are given either the stiness, k Nm−1, or the modulus of elasticity, λ N.
a Find x if F = 40 and k = 80.
b Find x if F = 200, l = 4 and λ = 400.
c Find F if x = 0.4 and k = 60.
d Find the total stretched length of the spring if F = 60, k = 40 and λ = 120.
2 A particle of mass 4 kg is attached to one end of an elastic string whose
other end is xed to the ceiling. e string has a natural length of 2 m and
a modulus of elasticity of 90 N. What is the length of the string when the
particle hangs in its equilibrium position?
3 A spring of natural length 0.9 m is compressed by a force of 40 N to a length
of 0.7 m.
a What is the stiness of the spring?
b If it were stretched by the same force, how long would it be?
4 A spring is designed so that its length doubles when it hangs vertically
supporting a weight of 50 N. When in this position, an extra 20 N is exerted
and the extension increases by 10 cm. Find the modulus of elasticity and
the natural length of the spring.
5 A spring is stretched by a force of 36 N to a length of 1.2 m. When the same
spring is compressed by a force of 24 N, its length is 0.6 m. What are the
natural length and stiness of the spring?
6 Two elastic strings, AB and BC, are joined at B, and the free ends are xed to
points A and C on a smooth horizontal table. e natural length of AB is
85 cm, and of BC is 45 cm. e modulus of elasticity of AB is 45 N and of BC
is 65 N. e distance AC is 2.4 m. Find the stretched lengths.
7 A block of wood of mass 2 kg is fastened to a spring of natural length 50 cm
and modulus of elasticity 20 N. It is placed on a rough table, with the other
end of the spring fastened to a vertical support, as shown. e coecient
of friction between the block and the table is 0.4. If the block is pushed
towards the support, what is the closest it can be to the support and remain
at rest on the table?
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8 A particle of mass 3 kg rests on a smooth plane which is inclined at 40° to
the horizontal. e particle is attached to a point at the top of the plane by
means of an elastic string of natural length 1.6 m and modulus of elasticity
48 N. Find the stretched length of the string.
9 A particle of mass 2 kg rests on a rough plane inclined at 30° to the horizontal.
e particle is attached to a point at the top of the plane by an elastic string of
natural length 2 m and modulus of elasticity 100 N. e coecient of friction
between the particle and the plane is 0.25. Find the distance between the
lowest and highest positions in which the particle will rest in equilibrium.
10 M
A ball of mass 5 kg is attached to the ends of two springs whose other
A B A
ends are xed to points and , with 4 m vertically above . Spring B
AM has natural length 2 m and modulus of elasticity 100 N. Spring BM
has natural length 1 m and modulus of elasticity 20 N. e ball rests in its
equilibrium position. What are the lengths of the springs?
11 l
An elastic string, of natural length 2 and modulus of elasticity λ, is stretched
A B A l
between points and , where is a distance of 4 vertically above . A B
m
particle of mass is attached to the mid-point of the string and is then
d d
lowered a distance until it is in equilibrium. Find in terms of m, g, l
and λ
31.2 Work and energy
You should know from your A-level mathematics studies that the work-energy
principle states that the total work done on a system equals the change in
mechanical energy of the system. You should also know that if the point of
F x
application of a force N moves a displacement m in the direction of the
W Fx
force, the force does work = J.
Work done by a variable force
To stretch a spring or elastic string, or to compress a spring, you apply a force.
Its point of application moves in the direction of the stretching or compression,
so the force does work.
However, you can’t just use ‘force × distance’ to nd the work done because the
magnitude of the force changes as the string stretches. For a variable force, you
need to use calculus to nd the work done.
F
First consider the general situation where the force, , is a function of the You looked at the impact of
x, O
displacement, of its point of application from an origin, . When changes x small changes in Chapter 6
x F
by a small amount, δ , there is a small change, δ , in the force. Calculus
FF F
During this change, the force lies between and ( + δ ).
It follows that the work done, δW, lies between Fδx and (F + δF)δx
Fδx ≤ δW ≤ (F + δF)δx
δW
≤ ≤ (F + δ F )
δx
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δW dW
As δx → 0, δF → 0 and → .
δx dx
dW dW
So, in the limit, F ≤ ≤ F , which means =F
dx dx
You then integrate to nd W
For a variable force F, the work done is W = ∫ F dx . Tip
b
As x changes from a to b, the work done is W = ∫ F dx .
a
. It will not be
Example 4 given in the formulae booklet.
A particle of mass 2 kg is acted on by a force F in the direction of the positive
x-axis. When the particle is at (x, 0), the force is F = 4x3 N. e force starts acting
noitseuQ
when the particle is at rest at (1, 0) and ceases when the particle has moved
to (3, 0).
a Calculate the work done by the force.
b Find the nal speed of the particle.
3
∫ 4 x 3d x = [ x 4 ]1 = 81 − 1 = 80 J
3
a Work done = Note
1
b Initial KE = 0 J Assuming the motion is on a
80 J of work is done on the system, Using the work-energy horizontal plane you can take
rewsnA
so nal KE = 80 J. principle. GPE = 0 J throughout.
Let the nal speed be v ms−1.
1
en KE = × 2v 2 = 80
2
Solving, v = 8.94 ms−1
Work done in stretching a string
Now consider the particular case of an elastic string or spring. In the Hooke’s
λx
law model, the variable force is the tension T =
l
λx λx2
is gives W =
l
∫ dx =
2l
+c
When x is zero, no work has been done by the force, so c = 0.
erefore,
e work done in stretching a string or spring from its natural
λx2 1
length to an extension, x, is W = or (in terms of stiness) W = kx 2
2l 2
e same formula gives the work done in compressing a spring.
Elastic potential energy
When a string or spring is stretched, or a spring compressed, it has stored
energy equal to the work done in stretching or compressing it. is is called
elastic potential energy (EPE)
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For example, if you re a stone from a catapult, you rst do work in stretching
the elastic. When you let go, the elastic does work in accelerating the stone. e
stretched string has stored or potential energy. is energy is ‘recovered’ in the
form of kinetic energy when the string is released.
A string or spring of natural length, l, stretched to an extension, x,
has elastic potential energy given by Note
is formula for EPE also
λx2 1 2
EPE = or (in terms of stiness) EPE = kx applies to a spring which is
2l 2
compressed.
You might be expected to quote this formula, so make sure you learn it. You
might also be expected to derive it. (Note, e is often used instead of x.)
EPE is the third form of mechanical energy.
In situations involving elastic strings or springs, the total energy of the
system is KE + GPE + EPE.
You use this total energy in problems involving conservation of energy.
Provided no work is done on a system and there are no sudden changes
(impacts and so on), the total energy of the system does not change.
If work is done on or by the system, then the work-energy principle applies.
at is, the total work done on a system equals the change in mechanical
energy of the system.
Example 5
A particle of mass 4 kg is attached to one end of a spring of natural length 2 m
and modulus of elasticity 128 N. e other end of the spring is xed to a point,
noitseuQ
O, on a horizontal table. e particle is held 3 m from O and then released.
a Find the speed of the particle when the spring reaches its natural length
b Investigate the subsequent motion of the particle.
B
O 2m L 1m
Take the table top as the zero level for GPE. Note
a GPE = 0 throughout the motion
ere are no outside forces
λx2
128 × 12 or sudden changes, so you
At B EPE = = = 32 J
2l 2×2 can use conservation of
and KE = 0 J energy in this problem.
rewsnA
e total energy at B is 32 J.
Let the speed of the particle at L be v.
1 1
At L EPE = 0 J and KE = mv 2 = × 4 × v 2 = 2v 2
2 2
e total energy at L is 2v2
2v2 = 32 Note
v=4
Total energy at B = total energy at L
e speed of the particle at L is 4 ms−1
(continued)
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(continued)
b e particle carries on through L and the spring begins to compress. e
rewsnA
block slows down as KE is converted to EPE. e particle comes to rest when
EPE is again 32 J, that is when the spring is compressed by 1 m.
Example 6
A small ball of mass 2 kg is attached to one end of an elastic string, natural
length 2 m and modulus of elasticity 100 N. e string hangs vertically with its
noitseuQ
other end xed to the ceiling. e ball is held so that the string is at its natural
length and is then released from rest. Find how far the ball drops before coming
instantaneously to rest.
At L KE = 0
Note
GPE = 0
e ball starts from rest at
EPE = 0
the zero GPE level, and the 2m
e total energy at L is 0 J. string is unstretched.
At lowest position B, the string is
extended by x m. Zero GPE L
At B KE = 0 e ball is again at rest at B
rewsnA
x
GPE = −mgx = −19.6x
λ x 2 100 x 2 B
EPE = = = 25 x 2
2l 2×2
e total energy at B is (25x2 19.6x) J
25x2 19.6x = 0
Note
x = 0 or x = 0.784 m
ere are no outside forces
e ball is at rest at its starting point, L, (when x = 0) or sudden changes, so
and at B when it has dropped a distance of 0.784 m. energy is conserved.
Example 7
One end of an elastic string of natural length 1.2 m and modulus of elasticity
noitseuQ
150 N, is xed to a point A. A particle of mass 0.75 kg is attached to the other
end. e particle is held at A and then released from rest. Find how far the
particle falls before coming instantaneously to rest. Zero GPE
A A
Take GPE = 0 at A.
e particle comes to rest at
1.2 m
B, when the extension = x m.
At A, KE = 0, GPE = 0 and EPE = 0.
At B, KE = 0, L
GPE = −mg (1.2 + x ) = −7.35(1.2 + x )
rewsnA
x
λ x 2 150 x 2
EPE = = = 62.5 x 2
2l 2 × 1.2 B
62.5x2 7.35(1.2 + x) = 0
Note
62.5x2 7.35x 8.82 = 0
ere are no outside forces
x = 0.439 or x = −0.321
or sudden changes, so
e extension at B is positive.
energy is conserved.
e particle falls 1.2 + 0.439 = 1.64 m.
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e problem in example 7 involved a string, so after reaching B the particle
would rebound and the string would go slack. e particle would come to rest
again at A. However, the second root, x = −0.321 m, does not correspond to A.
e model does not distinguish between a string and a spring. For a spring, the
model predicts that, after B, the particle would rebound, compress the spring,
and come to rest when the compression reached 0.321 m.
In some situations you cannot use conservation of energy because work is done
on or by the system.
Example 8
A particle of mass 0.5 kg is attached to one end of an elastic string of natural
length 1 m and modulus of elasticity 50 N. e other end of the string is
attached to a xed point O on a rough horizontal plane. e coecient of
noitseuQ
friction between the particle and the plane is 0.4. e particle is projected from
O along the plane with initial speed 6 ms−l. Find
a the greatest distance from O achieved by the particle
b the speed of the particle when it returns to O
Take the table top as the zero level for GPE.
e friction force is F = 0.4 × 0.5g = 1.96 N. Using .
1
a At O GPE = 0, EPE = 0, KE = × 0.5 × 6 2 = 9 J
2
50 x 2
At greatest extension, x, GPE = 0, KE = 0, EPE = = 25 x 2
2 ×1
Work done against friction = 1.96(x + 1)
25 x 2 + 1.96( x + 1) = 9 Note
25 x 2 + 1.96 x − 7.04 = 0 By the work-energy
x = 0.493 or x = −0.571
rewsnA
principle, the system did
x must be positive, so the greatest distance from O is 1.49 m. work and so its total energy
was reduced.
b When it returns to O, the particle has travelled 2 × 1.493 = 2.986 m
against friction.
Total work done against friction = 1.96 × 2.986 = 5.853 J
e KE of the particle when it arrives back at O = 9 − 5.853 = 3.147 J
If the speed of the particle is then v
1
× 0.5v 2 = 3.147
2
v = 3.55
e particle returns to O with a speed of 3.55 ms−l
Exercise 2
1 A particle of mass 2 kg is acted on by a force F in the direction of the
2
positive x-axis. When the particle is at (x, 0), the force is F = N . e
x
force starts acting when the particle is at rest at (4, 0) and ceases when the
particle has moved to (9, 0).
a Calculate the work done by the force.
b Find the nal speed of the particle.
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2 A ball of mass 500 g is fastened to one end of a light, elastic rope of natural
length 3 m and modulus of elasticity 90 N. e other end of the rope is
fastened to a bridge. e ball is held level with the xed end, and is released
from rest.
a What will be the speed of the ball when it has fallen 3 m?
b How far below the bridge is the lowest point reached by the ball?
3 A ball of mass 0.4 kg is fastened to one end of a light, elastic string of natural
length 4 m and modulus of elasticity 60 N. e other end is fastened to
a point A on the rail of a high balcony. e ball is projected vertically
downwards with initial speed 10 ms−1. e ball comes instantaneously to
rest at a point B vertically below A. It then rebounds, travelling past A and
coming instantaneously to rest at a point C vertically above A. Find the
lengths of AB and AC
4 A particle of mass 2 kg is fastened to one end of a light, elastic string of
natural length 1 m and modulus of elasticity 20 N. e other end of the
string is fastened to a point A at the top of a smooth plane inclined at 30° to
the horizontal. e particle is held at a point 3 m directly down the slope
from A. e particle is released from rest. Find the speed at which the
particle passes through A
5 Find the work done in stretching a spring of natural length 2.5 m and
modulus of elasticity 160 N from a length of 3 m to a length of 3.5 m.
6 A block, B, of mass 5 kg is fastened to one end of each of two springs. e
other ends are fastened to two points, A and C, 4 m apart on a smooth,
horizontal surface, as shown.
4m
Spring AB has natural length 2 m and stiness B
15 Nm−1. Spring BC has natural length 1 m and
stiness 40 Nm−1
a Find the length AB when the block rests in its equilibrium position.
b Find the total elastic potential energy of the system in this position.
e block is moved 0.5 m towards C from the equilibrium position, and is
held there.
c What is the total elastic potential energy of the system in this position?
e block is now released.
d What is the speed of the block as it passes its equilibrium position?
e How far beyond its equilibrium position does it travel before coming
instantaneously to rest?
7 A certain elastic rope, of natural length 5 m, does not conform to Hooke’s
law. Instead, the tension is related to the extension by T = 24x2.
a Find the work done in stretching the rope to a total length of 8 m.
e rope is suspended from a crane with a 10 kg ball attached to the end.
b Find the length of the rope if the ball hangs at rest.
c e ball is pulled down a further distance y m, and then released from rest.
e ball comes to rest again when the rope is just slack. Find the value of y
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8 A particle of mass 2 kg is attached to one end of an elastic string of natural
length 1.2 m and stiness 200 Nm−1. e other end of the string is xed
to a point A on a rough, horizontal plane. e particle is held at rest on
the plane with the string stretched and is then released. e particle just
reaches A before coming to rest. e coecient of friction between the
particle and the plane is 0.5.
a Find the initial extension of the string.
b Find the speed of the particle at the moment when the string went slack.
9 A particle of mass m is attached by means of a light, elastic string of natural
length l and modulus of elasticity λ to a xed point, O, on a rough plane
inclined at an angle α to the horizontal. e coecient of friction between
the plane and the particle is μ. Initially, the particle is held at point, A
directly down the slope from O, such that OA = l, and is then released from
rest. Show that the distance moved by the particle before coming to rest
again is
2mgl (sin α µ cos α )
λ
Summary
▶ Hooke’s law: e tension, T, and the extension, x
its natural length, l, are related by T = kx or
where k (Nm−1) is the stiness and λ (N) is the modulus of elasticity.
▶ e work done by a variable force F is given by
and, as x changes from a to b
▶ e work done in stretching a string or spring from its natural length to an
extension x is or (in terms of stiness) .
▶ A string or spring of natural length l, stretched to an extension x, has elastic
potential energy (EPE) given by
or (in terms of stiness)
▶ e total energy of a system involving an elastic string or spring is
KE + GPE + EPE. If no work is done on or by the system, this total energy
stays the same. If work is done, the change in the total energy equals the
work done (the work-energy principle).
Review exercises
1 A block of mass 5 kg is attached to one end of an elastic string whose other
end is xed to the ceiling. e string has a natural length of 1 m and a
modulus of elasticity of 120 N. What is the length of the string when the
block hangs in its equilibrium position?
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2 Two elastic strings, AB and BC, are joined at B, and the free ends are xed to
points A and C on a smooth horizontal table. e natural length of AB is
1.2 m, and of BC is 0.8 m. e modulus of elasticity of AB is 30 N and of
BC is 50 N. e distance AC is 3 m. Find the stretched lengths.
3 A particle P of mass 4 kg is attached to the ends of two springs. e other
ends are xed to points A and B, with A 3 m vertically above B. Spring
AP has natural length 1 m and modulus of elasticity 80 N. Spring PM has
natural length 0.8 m and modulus of elasticity 40 N. e ball rests in its
equilibrium position. What are the lengths of the springs?
4 Find the work done in stretching a string of natural length 2 m and modulus
of elasticity 200 N from a length of 2.5 m to a length of 3 m.
5 A force F acts along a straight line through an origin O. When the
displacement of the point of application of the force from O is x m, the
magnitude of the force is 8x3 N. Find the work done by the force in moving
its point of application from x = 1 to x = 2.
6 A particle of mass 2 kg is suspended from a point, A, on the end of a spring
of natural length 1 m and modulus of elasticity 196 N.
a Find the length of the spring when the particle hangs in equilibrium.
e particle is now pulled down a distance of 0.5 m and released from rest.
b Find the distance below A at which the particle next comes
instantaneously to rest, assuming that the spring can compress to that
point without the coils touching.
c Find the highest position reached by the particle if, instead of the spring,
you had used an elastic string of the same natural length and modulus.
Practice examination questions
1 An elastic string has natural length 1.5 metres and modulus of elasticity
120 newtons. One end of the string is attached to a xed point, A, on a
rough plane inclined at 20° to the horizontal. e other end of the elastic
string is attached to a particle of mass 4 kg. e coecient of friction
B
between the particle and the plane is 0.8.
e three points, A, B and C, lie on a line of A
greatest slope. e point C is x metres from
A, as shown in the diagram. e particle is C
released from rest at C and moves x
up the plane.
a Show that, as the particle moves up the 20°
plane, the frictional force acting on the
particle is 29.5 N, correct to three signicant gures. (3 marks)
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b e particle comes to rest for an instant at B, which is 2 metres from A.
e particle then starts to move back towards A
i Find x. (8 marks)
ii Find the acceleration of the particle as it starts to move
back towards A. (4 marks)
AQA MM2B June 2014
2 Zoë carries out an experiment with a block, which she places on the
horizontal surface of an ice rink. She attaches one end of a light elastic
string to a xed point, A, on a vertical wall at the edge of the ice rink at the
height of the surface of the ice rink.
e block, of mass 0.4 kg, is attached to the other end of the string. e
string has natural length 5 m and modulus of elasticity 120 N.
e block is modelled as a particle which is placed on the surface of the ice
rink at a point B, where AB is perpendicular to the wall and of length 5.5 m.
e block is set into motion at the point
B with speed 9 ms directly towards the
−1
point A. e string remains horizontal
Ice rink wall
throughout the motion.
a Initially, Zoë assumes that the surface
A B
of the ice rink is smooth. Using this Ice rink surface
5.5 m
assumption, nd the speed of the
block when it reaches the point A. (4 marks)
b Zoë now assumes that friction acts on the block. e coecient of
friction between the block and the surface of the ice rink is μ.
i Find, in terms of g and μ, the speed of the block when it
reaches the point A. (6 marks)
ii e block rebounds from the wall in the direction of the point B. e
speed of the block immediately after the rebound is half of the speed
with which it hit the wall.
Find μ if the block comes to rest just as it reaches the
point B. (6 marks)
AQA MM2B June 2012
3 a An elastic string has natural length l and modulus of elasticity λ. e
string is stretched from length l to length l + e.
Show, by integration, that the work done in stretching the
string is . (3 marks)
b A particle, of mass 5 kg, is attached to one end of a light elastic string.
e other end of the string is attached to a xed point O.
e string has natural length 1.6 m and modulus of elasticity 392 N.
i Find the extension of the string when the particle
hangs in equilibrium. (2 marks)
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ii e particle is pulled down to a point A, which is
2.2 m below the point O.
Calculate the elastic potential energy in the string. (3 marks)
iii e particle is released when it is at rest at the point A.
Calculate the distance of the particle from the point
A when its speed rst reaches 0.8 ms−1. (5 marks)
AQA MM2B January 2013
4 A particle, of mass 10 kg, is attached to one end of a light elastic string of
natural length 0.4 metres and modulus of elasticity 100 N. e other end of
the string is xed to the point O
a Find the length of the elastic string when the particle hangs in
equilibrium directly below O. (2 marks)
b e particle is pulled down and held at a point P, which is 1 metre
vertically below O. Show that the elastic potential energy of the string
when the particle is in this position is 45 J. (2 marks)
c e particle is released from rest at the point P. In the subsequent
motion, the particle has speed v ms−1 when it is x metres below O.
i Show that, while the string is taut, .
(7 marks)
ii Find the value of x when the particle comes to rest for the
rst time after being released, given that the string is
still taut. (3 marks)
AQA MM2AW January 2006
5 Two small blocks, A and B, of masses 0.8 kg and 1.2 kg respectively, are O
stuck together. A spring has natural length 0.5 metres and modulus of
elasticity 49 N. One end of the spring is attached to the top of the block A
and the other end of the spring is attached to a xed point O.
a e system hangs in equilibrium with the blocks stuck together, as A 0.8 kg
shown in the diagram.
B 1.2 kg
Find the extension of the spring. (3 marks)
b Show that the elastic potential energy of the spring when the
system is in equilibrium is 1.96 J. (2 marks)
c e system is hanging in this equilibrium position when block B
falls o and block A begins to move vertically upwards.
Block A next comes to rest when the spring is compressed
by x metres.
i Show that x satises the equation x2 + 0.16x − 0.008 = 0. (5 marks)
ii Find the value of x. (2 marks)
AQA MM2A January 2007
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33
Application of Dierential
Equations
Introduction Objectives
ere are many situations in which acceleration is variable. For example, By the end of this chapter,
the main limitation on the speed of a cyclist is the force of air resistance. you should know how to:
Air resistance is not constant; as the cyclist goes faster, the air resistance ▶ write the equation of
increases. Air resistance is a function of velocity, so even if the cyclist motion of an object
exerts a constant driving force, the acceleration will be dierent at dierent moving in a straight
speeds. e equation of motion will therefore be a dierential equation. line under the action
of a variable force as a
dierential equation.
▶ solve the resulting
Recap
You will need to remember... equation when the
force is
▶ a particle moving in a straight line has displacement x, velocity v and • a function of time
acceleration a at time t • a function of velocity
ese are related as follows: • a function of
• velocity is rate of change of displacement, so displacement.
and
• acceleration is rate of change of velocity, so
and . Tip
▶ how to solve rst-order dierential equations by separating variables. Alternative notation is
sometimes used:
and .
33.1 Variable forces
Suppose that a particle of mass m (which is assumed to be constant) is moving
along a straight line under the action of a variable force. e force may be
expressed as a function of
▶ time
▶ the velocity of the particle
▶ the displacement of the particle.
As Newton’s second law gives the equation of motion, F = ma, the acceleration
will also be a function of time, velocity or displacement. You can write this
equation of motion as a dierential equation, which you solve to nd the
velocity and displacement of the particle.
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Acceleration as a function of time
e simplest situation is one where the force, and therefore the acceleration, is
a function of time.
dv
If a = = F (t ), you integrate to nd the velocity as a function of time.
dt
dx
Replacing v with then gives a dierential equation from which you can nd
dt
the displacement.
Example 1
A body of mass 2 kg, initially at rest at a point O, moves in a straight line under
noitseuQ
the action of a force, F = 18 sin 3t N. Find expressions for
a its velocity
b its displacement from O at time t
a e equation of motion is
dv
18 sin3t = 2 From F = ma
dt
dv
= 9 sin3t
dt
v= ∫ 9 sin3t dt = −3 cos3t + C Integrate to nd v.
rewsnA
When t = 0, v = 0, so C = 3 e body started from rest.
v = 3 − 3 cos3t
dx
b = 3 − 3 cos3t Note
dt
x= ∫ 3 − 3 cos3t dt = 3t − sin3t + C1 Using .
When t = 0, x = 0, so C1 = 0 Integrate to nd x.
x = 3t − sin3t
Acceleration as a function of velocity 1
If acceleration is a function of velocity, a = F (v), you can nd the relationship
dv
between v and t by solving the dierential equation = F (v ) using separation
dt
of variables.
Example 2
A particle of mass 2 kg slides from rest down a smooth plane inclined at 30° to
the horizontal. It is opposed by air resistance with a magnitude of 0.5v N, where
noitseuQ
v is the speed of the particle.
a Find an expression for the velocity of the particle at time t s.
b Show that the particle can never exceed a certain maximum speed.
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a Resolving down the slope, R
0.5v N
dv
e equation of motion is 2 g sin30° − 0.5v = 2
dt v ms 1
dv
4 = 2g − v
dt
4dv 2g N
∫ 2 g v = ∫ dt Separate the variables and 30°
integrate.
−4ln 2 g − v = t + c
When t = 0, v = 0, so c = –4 ln2g
2g
Substituting for c t = 4ln2 g − 4ln 2 g − v = 4ln
rewsnA
2g v
t
2g
e4 =
2g v
t
2 g − v = 2 ge 4
t
v = 2 g 1 − e 4
t
e velocity at time t s is 2 g 1 e 4
ms 1
t
b As t → ∞, e 4 → 0, so v → 2 g
e speed approaches a maximum value of 2g ms 1. is is its terminal
Note
velocity
You can also see that
Exercise 1 v = 2g is its maximum speed
1 A body of mass 1 kg moves along a straight line under a force, F(t), which because at this speed its
varies with time. acceleration is zero.
When t = 0, the velocity of the body is v0. In each of the following cases,
express v in terms of t
1
a F (t) = 3 − 4t, v0 = 0 b F (t ) = 1 − ,v = 0
2(t + 1) 0
c F (t) = 18 sin 3t, v0 = −6
2 A body of mass 2 kg moves along a straight line under a force, F(v), which
varies with velocity.
When t = 0, the velocity of the body is v0. In each of the following cases,
express v in terms of t
1
a F (v ) = , v0 = 4 b F (v) = 3 − v, v0 = 6
2v
c F (v) = 9 − v2, v0 = 1 d F (v) = 12v − v2, v0 = 10
3 A body of mass 2 kg moves along a straight line under a force, F, where
F = 5 − 2v. At time t = 0 s, the body has velocity v = 10 ms 1 and
displacement x = 0 m.
a By writing a dierential equation connecting v and t, express v in
terms of t
b Describe what happens as t increases.
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FM2 2.5 33
4 A particle of mass 5 kg sinks from rest through a uid. e resistance to its Tip
motion has magnitude 4.9v N, where v ms 1 is its speed at time t s.
Velocity approaches terminal
a Find an expression for v in terms of t.
velocity as t increases. For a
b Find the terminal velocity of the particle. particle travelling at terminal
5 A block of mass 2 kg slides along a rough horizontal plane, coecient of velocity the acceleration is zero.
friction 0.5. At time t s it has velocity v ms 1 and has moved a distance x m.
In addition to the friction, it is subject to air resistance of magnitude 0.5v N,
where v is its speed at time t. Its initial speed is 20 ms 1.
a Express t in terms of v
b Hence nd how long it takes for the block to stop.
6 A block of mass 2 kg slides along a rough horizontal plane, coecient of
friction 0.5. At time t s it has velocity v ms 1 and has moved a distance x m.
In addition to the friction, it is subject to air resistance of magnitude
0.2v2 N, where v is its speed at time t. Its initial speed is 7 ms 1.
a Express t in terms of v
5π
b Hence show the block stops after s.
14
Acceleration as a function of velocity 2
So far you have found the relationship between velocity and time. If the
acceleration is a function of velocity, you can also nd the relationship between
velocity and displacement, as follows:
dv dv dx
From the chain rule, = ×
dt dx dt
dx dv dv
But, = v . is gives =v
dt dt dx
dv dv
is means that the equation = F (v ) can be written as v = F (v ).
dt dx
You can then solve by separating the variables to nd the relationship between
v and x
Example 3
A particle of mass 2 kg travels in a straight line through a point O. At O its speed
noitseuQ
is 3 ms 1. Its motion is opposed by a resistance force of magnitude (2v2 + 32) N,
where v ms 1 is its velocity at displacement x m from O.
Note
Find how far it travels before coming to rest.
To relate v to x, write
If the acceleration is a ms , 2a = −(2v + 32)
1 2 acceleration in the form
Note
dv
v = − (v + 16 )
2
Using F = ma. A resistance
dx
force is negative.
v 1
∫ ∫ ln (v + 16 ) = − x + c
rewsnA
dv = − d x ⇒ 2
Separate the variables and
v 2 + 16 2
integrate.
1
When x = 0, v = 3, so c = ln25
2
1 1 1 25
Substituting for c x = ln25 − ln (v 2 + 16 ) = ln 2
2 2 2 v + 16 (continued)
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(continued)
1 25 5
When v = 0, x=
ln = ln
rewsnA
2 16 4
5
e particle travels ln m before coming to rest.
4
Acceleration as a function of displacement
If acceleration is a function of displacement, a = F (x), you can write
d2 x
= F ( x ) and solve this second-order dierential equation.
dt 2
dv dv
However, writing the dierential equation = F ( x ) in the form v = F (x)
dt dx
usually leads to a solution by separating the variables. e result is a
relationship between v and x.
dx
If required, you can then go on to write v as , giving a rst-order dierential
dt
equation. If this equation is solvable, the result is a relationship between x and t
Example 4
A particle of mass 3 kg is free to move on a smooth horizontal plane. It is
attracted towards a xed point, O, on the plane by a variable force, F. When the
12
noitseuQ
displacement from O is x m, F has magnitude 3 N and acts towards O. e
x
particle starts from rest at a distance of 2 m from O.
Find
a its speed when it is 1 m from O b the time it takes to reach O
a Let the acceleration be a. e equation of motion is
12 4
− = 3a ⇒ a=−
x3 x3 Note
dv 4 e force is towardsO (in the dv
v =− 3 Write the acceleration as v
dx x direction of decreasing x) dx
and is therefore negative.
4 v2 2
∫ v dv = ∫ −
x3
dx
2
⇒= 2 +c
x
Separate variables and
integrate.
rewsnA
1
When x = 2, v = 0, so c = −
2
4 4 x2
Substituting for c v2 = −1 ⇒ v=±
x2 x2 Note
4 x
2
4 x 2
e particle moves from
v=− =−
x2 x rest back towards O, so v is
When x = 1, v = − 3 ms 1 negative.
e speed of the particle 1 m from O is 3 ms 1
(continued)
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FM2 2.5 33
(continued)
b From part a, v = dx = − 4 − x
2
dt x
∫ 4
x
x2
dx = dt∫ ⇒ 4 − x 2 = t + c1 Separate variables and
rewsnA
integrate.
= =
When x 2, t 0, so c1 0 =
t= 4 − x2
= =
When x 0, t 2
e particle takes 2 s to reach O
Exercise 2
1 A body of mass 1 kg moves along a straight line under a force, F. When t 0, =
the body has velocity v0 and displacement x0. In each of the following cases,
nd the relationship between v and x
1
a F = , v0 = 4, x 0 = 0
v
b F 3 v, v0 6, x0 0= − = =
= −
c F 5 3v2, v0 3, x0 0 = = 4
d F = , v0 = 0, x 0 = 12
x
6
e F = 2 , v0 = 0, x 0 = 24
x
2 A body of mass 2 kg moves along a straight line under a force, F, where
= − =
F 5 2v. At time t 0 s, the body has velocity v 10 ms 1 and =
=
displacement x 0 m. By writing a dierential equation connecting v and
x, show that v and x are connected by the relationship
15
2(v + x − 10) = 5ln
2v 5
3 A small sphere, A, of mass m, moves in a straight line towards another,
xed, sphere, B. e spheres have an electrostatic charge, so there is a
k
repulsive force between them of magnitude 2 , where k is a constant and
x
x is the distance separating the spheres at time t. Initially, A is at a distance
d from B and is moving with speed u
By solving the equation of motion of sphere A, nd the smallest distance
between the spheres in the subsequent motion.
4 A particle travels in a straight line through a point O. Its acceleration is
−
(4 v2) ms 2, where v is its speed. Its speed as it passes through O is u ms 1.
After it has travelled 1 m from O its speed has increased to 2u ms 1. Find u
5 A block of mass 2 kg slides along a rough horizontal plane, coecient of
friction 0.5. At time t s it has velocity v ms 1 and has moved a distance x m.
In addition to the friction, it is subject to air resistance of magnitude
0.5v N, where v is its speed at time t. Its initial speed is 20 ms 1.
a Express x in terms of v. b Hence nd how far it travels.
6 A block of mass 2 kg slides along a rough horizontal plane, coecient of
friction 0.5. At time t s it has velocity v ms 1 and has moved a distance x m.
In addition to the friction, it is subject to air resistance of magnitude
0.2v2 N, where v is its speed at time t. Its initial speed is 7 ms 1.
a Express x in terms of v
b Hence show the block travels 5ln2 m before stopping.
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Summary
m
Suppose a particle of mass is acted on by a variable force. e force, and therefore
a
the acceleration, , may be a function of time, of velocity or of displacement.
ere are three situations to consider.
▶ a = F (t)
As a dierential equation, this is .
v
Integrating once gives in terms of , and, as t , a second integration
x
gives in terms of t
▶ a = F (v)
Writing and solving gives a relationship between and v t
Writing and solving gives a relationship between and v x
▶ a = F (x)
Writing and solving gives a relationship between and v x
Review exercises
1 A body of mass 2 kg moves along a straight line under a force, ( ), which Ft
varies with time.
t v
When = 0, the velocity of the body is 0. In each of the following cases, nd
the relationship between and v t
a F (t) = 6t − 8, v = 2
0
F (t) = 12 cos 2t, v = 5
b 0
2 A body of mass 3 kg moves along a straight line under a force, F (v), which
varies with velocity.
t v
When = 0, the velocity of the body is 0. In each of the following cases, nd
the relationship between and v t
a b
3 A body of mass 1 kg moves along a straight line under a force, . When = 0, F t
v x
the body has velocity 0 and displacement 0. In each of the following cases,
nd the relationship between and v x
a F = v + 5, v = 0, x = 0
2
0 0
b F = 4 cos x, v = 2, x = 0
0 0
4 A cyclist, travelling at 10 ms 1 on a horizontal road, stops pedalling and
freewheels. e mass of the cyclist and her bicycle is 80 kg. She is subject to
air resistance of magnitude (20 + 4 ) N. v
a Show that it takes 8.11 seconds for her speed to halve.
b Find how far she travels in that time.
5 A lorry of mass 10 tonnes accelerates from rest on a horizontal road under
the action of a driving force of 15 000 N. ere is a total resistance force of
v v
magnitude 20 2 N, where ms−1 is the speed of the lorry.
a Find its maximum speed.
b Find the distance the lorry travels in reaching a speed of 20 ms−1
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Practice examination questions
1 A stone, of mass 2 kg, is moving in a straight line on a smooth horizontal
sheet of ice under the action of a single force which acts in the direction of
motion. At time t seconds, the force has magnitude (3t + 1) newtons, 0 ≤ t ≤ 3.
When t = 0, the stone has velocity 1 ms 1. When t = T, the stone has velocity
5 ms 1. Find the value of T. (6 marks)
AQA MM03 June 2013
2 Alice places a toy, of mass 0.4 kg, on a slope. e toy is set in motion with
an initial velocity of 1 ms 1 down the slope. e resultant force acting on the
toy is (2 − 4v) newtons, where v ms 1 is the toy’s velocity at time t seconds
after it is set in motion.
a Show that . (2 marks)
b By using , nd v in terms of t. (5 marks)
c Find the time taken for the toy’s velocity to reduce
to 0.55 ms 1. (3 marks)
AQA MM2B January 2012
3 A stone, of mass 5 kg, is projected vertically downwards, in a viscous liquid,
with an initial speed of 7 ms 1.
At time t seconds after it is projected, the stone has speed v ms 1 and it
experiences a resistance force of magnitude 9.8v newtons.
a When t ≥ 0, show that . (2 marks)
b Find v in terms of t. (5 marks)
AQA MM2B June 2012
4 An object of mass 2 kg falls from rest in a tank of liquid. e forces on the object
are its weight, an up-thrust due to buoyancy equal to half its weight, and a
resistance force of magnitude 4v2 N, where v ms 1 is the speed of the object.
a Show that the equation of motion of the object can be written as
where x m is the distance the object has fallen from its initial
position. (2 marks)
b Find the terminal speed of the object. (2 marks)
c Find an expression for x in terms of v, and hence nd how far it travels
before reaching a speed of 1.5 ms 1. (6 marks)
5 A block of mass m kg is projected with an initial speed of 10 ms up a1
smooth slope inclined at 30° to the horizontal. e block experiences a
resistance force of magnitude N.
a Show that the equation of motion of the block can be written as
where t s is the time for which the block has been moving. (2 marks)
b Find the time taken for the block to come to rest. (6 marks)
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34 Simple Harmonic Motion
Introduction Objectives
Vibrations and oscillations occur in most areas of life. A guitar string By the end of this chapter,
vibrating, a cork bobbing up and down in the ripples on a pond, a child on you should know how to:
a swing; in all these situations the motion repeats over and over, moving ▶ dene simple
between two extreme positions of instantaneous rest. Simple harmonic harmonic motion
motion refers to one of the most common forms of oscillation. (SHM).
▶ show that a given
situation leads to
SHM.
Recap ▶ nd the frequency,
You will need to remember ... period and amplitude
▶ for an elastic string or spring of natural length l, the extension x and the of SHM.
tension T are related by Hooke’s law: , ▶ nd the velocity of a
particle performing
where k is the stiness and λ is the modulus of elasticity (see Chapter 32
SHM.
Elastic strings and springs)
▶ show that a simple
▶ how to solve dierential equations where the acceleration is a function
pendulum performs
of displacement see Chapter 33 Application of dierential equations
approximate SHM for
small oscillations.
34.1 Oscillation
An oscillation is a repetitive motion. One of the simplest examples is a mass
moving up and down on the end of a spring. To analyse this, you need to nd
the equation of motion.
Consider the case of a particle, mass m, hanging at rest on a light spring, natural You learned about the modulus
length l and modulus of elasticity λ. It is then pulled down a distance a and of elasticity in Chapter 32
released. You need to nd the equation of motion of the particle. Elastic strings and springs
e diagram shows the equilibrium position, E, a distance e below the natural
position, L.
Take downwards to be the positive direction.
Resolving vertically,
I
e particle is in equilibrium, so mg −T =0 ⇒ T = mg
λe
E E
From Hooke’s law, T
E
=
l L
λe TE e
mg = [1]
l
E
mg N
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e second diagram shows the general position, P, of the particle, a distance x
below E.
Resolving vertically,
d2 x I
From Newton’s second law, mg − TP = m
dt 2
λ (e + x ) L
From Hooke’s law, TP =
l e
λ (e + x ) d x
2
E
mg =m 2 [2]
l dt
x
λe λ (e + x ) d2 x a TP
From [1] and [2] =m 2
l l dt P
B
λx d x
2
⇒ − =m 2 mg N
l dt
d2 x λ
⇒ = − x
dt 2 ml
is is the equation of motion of the particle.
e acceleration is towards the equilibrium position, E, and is proportional to
the displacement, x.
In general, a particle moving in a straight line about a central point under the
action of a restoring force proportional to its displacement is said to perform
simple harmonic motion (SHM)
A body performs simple harmonic motion when:
▶ it oscillates about an equilibrium point, usually called O
▶ its acceleration is always directed towards O
▶ its acceleration is proportional to its displacement from O
d2 x
e equation of motion is = −ω 2 x , where x is the displacement from O
dt 2 Tip
e constant used is ω 2 because this is always positive, so the
..
acceleration is in the opposite direction to x, that is x < 0 when x > 0 and
You will be expected to know
x.. > 0 when x < 0.
the equation of motion for
SHM, which can also be
written as .
Showing that a given situation produces SHM
Not all oscillatory motion is simple harmonic motion. In a given situation, you
need to nd the equation of motion of the object at a general displacement x.
If the equation is of the form x = −ω 2 x , then the motion is simple harmonic.
Example 1
A particle, P, of mass 5 kg is attached to an end of each of two springs, AP and
BP. e ends A and B are xed 5 m apart on a smooth horizontal plane. Spring
AP has natural length 2 m and modulus of elasticity 40 N, while the values for
noitseuQ
spring BP are 1 m and 20 N.
a Find point O on the plane at which the particle rests in equilibrium.
b e particle is pulled aside in the direction of A and released. By nding its
acceleration at a displacement of x m from O, show that it performs simple
harmonic motion.
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a Let the extension of spring Sketch a diagram showing P
AP be e m. theequilibrium position.
O
AB = 5 m, so the A B
extension of spring BP
e 2 e
is (2 e) m.
40e 20(2 e )
= Note
2 1
Solving, e = 1 In the equilibrium position,
the tensions in the two
So in the equilibrium position,
springs are equal.
AO = 3 m and BO = 2 m.
b AP = (3 x) m, so the extension P
rewsnA
Note O
of that spring is (1 x) m.
Sketch P at a general
A B
BP = (2 + x) m, so the extension
displacement x from O. Take x
of that spring is (1 + x) m.
right to left to be the positive
e resultant force acting on P is direction. 3m 2m
40(1 x) 20(1 + x )
= −40 x N
2 1
e equation of motion of P is
−40 x = 5 x Using Newton’s second law.
x = −8 x
is is the equation for simple
harmonic motion, with ω 2 = 8
Exercise 1
1 A particle of mass 5 kg is suspended from a xed point on the end of a
light spring of natural length 2 m and modulus of elasticity 70 N. It hangs
in equilibrium at O and is then pulled down a further distance and
released. Taking a general point, P, to be a displacement of x m below O,
nd the equation of motion of the particle to show that it performs simple
harmonic motion.
2 An object of mass 0.5 kg is fastened to the midpoint of a spring of natural
length 2 m and modulus of elasticity 8 N. e ends of the spring are
attached to two xed points, A and B, on a smooth horizontal plane. e
object is displaced from its equilibrium position and released.
a AB = 2 m. By considering a general point, P, when the object has
displacement x from the equilibrium position, show that it performs
simple harmonic motion.
b Repeat part a but with AB = (2 + 2k) m.
3 A particle of mass m rests on a smooth horizontal surface. It is attached
to one end of a light spring of natural length l and modulus of elasticity λ,
the other end of which is xed to a point, A, on the surface. e particle
is pulled further away from A and released. Show that it performs simple
harmonic motion, and state the value of ω2
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4 An elastic string has natural length 2 m and modulus of elasticity 50 N. A
particle of mass 2 kg is attached to the midpoint of the string. e string is
then attached at either end to points A and B, with A at a distance of 4 m
vertically above B. e particle hangs in equilibrium at a point O
a Find the distance AO
e particle is then pulled down a short distance, a, and released.
b Show that the subsequent motion of the particle is simple harmonic.
c Explain what the limitations are on the value of a if the whole motion is
to be a simple harmonic oscillation.
34.2 Solving the SHM equation of motion
Solving the simple harmonic equation of motion means nding expressions for
the velocity and position of the particle.
e velocity at displacement x
d2 x dv See Chapter 33 Application of
Write the equation of motion 2 = −ω 2 x in the form v = −ω 2 x
dt dx dierential equations for a
Separate the variables and integrate:
reminder if you need to.
∫ vd v = −ω ∫ d ⇒ v2
= −ω x + c
2 2
2
2 2
In any oscillation, there is a point at which the particle is at its greatest positive
displacement. It is instantaneously at rest before heading back towards the
centre. is maximum displacement is called the amplitude of the motion.
Let the maximum displacement be x = a.
When x = a, v = 0 and so c =
ω 2a2
2
Substitute this and rearrange to get v 2 = ω 2 (a 2 − x 2 ) [1]
Tip
v can be positive or negative, depending on whether the particle is on the
You will be expected to know
outward or return journey.
this formula forv so make
e position at time t sure you learn it.
You now need to nd an expression for the position at time t
dx
From [1] v = = ω a2 − x 2
dt
Separate the variables and integrate:
∫ dx
a x
2 2
=ω ∫ dt ⇒ sin
x = ωt + ε
a
1
e displacement at time t is x = a sin (ω t + ε ) . [2] See Chapter 22 e calculus of
Using identity sin (θ + φ ) = sin θ cos φ + cos sin , [2] can be written as inverse trigonometrical
x = a sin ω t cos ε + a cos ω t sin ε functions if you need a
reminder.
giving the alternative form
x = A sin ω t + B cos ω t [3] where A = a cos ε and B = a sin ε .
Note that the formulae [2] and [3] were obtained using the positive value for v. If
dx
you started v = = − ω a 2 − x 2 you would end up with x = a cos (ω t + φ ),
dt
where is the constant of integration, and x = A cos ω t + B sin ω t .
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π
e two solutions are equivalent, with = − , because cos (ω t + φ ) =
2
π
cos (ω t + ε − ) = sin(ω t + ε ) and x = A cos ω t + B sin ω . e two solutions are
2
equivalent, diering only in the value of the arbitrary constant ε.
You could also obtain these relationships between x and t by solving
d2 x
+ ω 2 x = 0 using the auxiliary equation, as in Chapter 25 Dierential
dt 2
equations of rst and second order.
e velocity at time t
You have already related v to x in the formula v 2 = ω 2 (a 2 − x 2 ). You can also
relate v to t by dierentiating your expression for x. So for x = a sin(ω t + ε ) you
would get v = aω cos (ω t + ε ) .
e value of the constant ε
e value of ε in the expression x = a sin(ω t + ε ) depends on the stage of the
oscillation at which you choose to take t = 0. e two obvious choices are
1. as the object passes through the centre travelling in the positive direction
2. when the object is at its maximum positive displacement x = a
1. If t = 0 when x = 0, 0 = a sin ε ⇒ ε=0
x = a sin ω t
π
2. If t = 0 when x = a, a = a sin ε ⇒ ε=
2
π
x = a sin ω t + = a cos ω t
2
In practice you are usually dealing with one of these two special cases.
Period and frequency
Sine and cosine are periodic functions, repeating when the argument increases
by 2π
2π
sin(ω t + ε ) = sin(ω t + ε + 2π ) = sin ω t + + ε and similarly
ω
2π
cos (ω t + ε ) = cos ω t + +ε
ω
2π
So if t is increased by , the particle is again at the same stage in the motion
ω
(in the same position and with the same velocity).
e time for one complete oscillation is the period or periodic time of the
motion.
2π
e period is T =
ω
e number of oscillations, or cycles, per second is the frequency of the
oscillation.
1 ω
e frequency is = .
T 2π
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Solving the SHM equation of motion a summary
To summarise:
For a particle performing SHM with equation of
d2 x
motion 2 = − ω 2 x and amplitude a
dt
▶ in general x = a sin(ω t + ε )(or x = a cos(ω t + ε ))
x = A sin ω t + B cos ω t (or x = A cos ω t + B sin ω t )
▶ if x = 0 when t = 0, then x = a sin ω t
▶ if x = a when t = 0, then x = a cos ω t
▶ v is related to x by v 2 = ω 2 (a 2 − x 2 )
▶ to relate v to t you dierentiate your expression for x
2π
▶ the period, T, is given by T =
ω
▶ the frequency is given by
1
=ω
T 2π
Example 2
A block of mass 2 kg hangs from a xed point on the end of a spring of stiness
50 Nm 1. e block rests in equilibrium. It is then struck from below so that it
noitseuQ
starts to move upwards with a speed of 2.5 ms 1
a Find the amplitude of the resulting oscillations.
b Find its maximum acceleration.
c Find the period of the oscillations.
a Let the extension at E, equilibrium position, be e, as shown.
TE = 50e. From Hooke’s law.
Resolve downwards: 2g 50e = 0 [1]
When the block is at P, displacement is x
L
below the E, the tension is TP = 50(e + x).
TE e
Resolve downwards:
E
e equation of motion is 2 g − 50(e + x ) = 2 x [2]
From [1] and [2] x = −25 x 2g N
rewsnA
is is SHM with ω = 5.
At the start of the motion, x = 0 and v = −2.5.
6.25 = 25(a 2 − 0) ⇒ a = 0.5 Using v 2 = ω 2 (a 2 − x 2 )
So the amplitude of the motion is 0.5 m. L
e
Note E
b Maximum acceleration = −25 × −0.5 = 12.5 ms 2
e maximum acceleration
= 2π = 2π
x
c e period of the motion is T s a TP
occurs at the greatest
ω 5 negative displacement, P
B
x = −0.5.
2g N
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Exercise 2
1 A body moves with simple harmonic motion. Its equation of motion is
d2 x
= − 9 x . Initially the body is at the centre of the oscillation and travelling
dt 2
with velocity 3 ms 1. Find
a the period of the oscillation
b the amplitude of the motion
c an expression for the displacement, x, of the body in terms of t
2 A body moves with simple harmonic motion. Its equation of motion is
d2 x
= − 25 x . Initially the body has a displacement of 2 m and velocity
dt 2
0 ms 1. Find
a the period of the oscillation
b the maximum velocity of the body
c an expression for the displacement, x, of the body in terms of t
3 A block of mass M is suspended from a xed point on the end of a spring of
natural length l. It is made to perform vertical oscillations of amplitude a.
Find the period of the oscillations, and the maximum speed of the block if
a M = 2 kg, a = 0.5 m and stiness k = 18 Nm−1
b M = 0.4 kg, a = 0.5 m, l = 2.5 m and λ = 36 N
4 A block, P, of mass 2 kg, is attached to two springs, AP and PB, which
have natural lengths 2 m and 1 m, and moduli of elasticity 20 N and 40 N
respectively. A and B are xed 3 m apart on a smooth horizontal plane, and
the block is made to perform SHM of amplitude 0.6 m along the line APB.
Find the period of the oscillation and the maximum speed of the block.
5 Points A, B, C, D and E lie in that order along a straight line.
AB = BC = 15 cm, CD = 10 cm and DE = 20 cm. A particle is moving with
SHM so that A and E are the extreme positions of its motion. e period of
the motion is 0.2 s.
a Find the maximum speed attained by the particle.
b Find the speed of the particle as it passes through
i B ii D
c Find the time it takes to get from B to D if when it is at B it is travelling
i towards D ii away from D
6 A mass, M kg, is attached to the bottom of each spring system shown below.
e component springs are identical and of stiness k. e mass is made to
perform vertical SHM. In each case, nd an expression for the period of
the motion.
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a b c d
7 A ball of mass 3 kg is attached to one end of a light elastic string of natural
length 2 m and modulus of elasticity 9g N. e other end of the string is
xed to a beam and the ball hangs in equilibrium. It is then pulled vertically
downwards so that the total length of the string is 4 m, then released from rest.
a Find the length of the string in the equilibrium position.
b Show that the ball performs SHM while the string is taut.
c Find the time taken for the ball to again be at rest.
34.3 Simple pendulum
A simple pendulum consists of a mass (the bob) attached to the end of a light,
inextensible string or rod that swings side to side in a vertical plane through the
equilibrium position. e bob is assumed to be a particle and air resistance and
friction are assumed to be negligible.
e diagram shows a simple pendulum of length l with a bob of mass m.
At time t the string or rod makes an angle θ with the vertical.
Consider the equation of motion in the tangential direction (labelled θ in the I
θ
diagram).
e tangential acceleration is lθ . See Chapter 29 Vertical Circular Motion
T
e resultant force in the direction θ is mg sinθ θ̂
By Newton’s second law:
−mg sin θ = ml θ
g
mg N
⇒ θ = − sin θ
l
is is clearly not the equation of SHM. However, if the angle of the swing is
small, you can use the approximation sin ≈ .
g
e equation of motion becomes θ = − θ
l
g
is is the equation of SHM with ω 2
= .
l
2π l
e period of the motion is T = = 2π
ω g
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For small oscillations, a simple pendulum performs SHM with period
l
= 2π
g
e denition of ‘small’ depends on the accuracy required. Sin θ = θ to
2 decimal places if θ is less than 0.3 radians (17.2°).
Unlike previous examples of SHM, the path of the bob is not a straight line. e
equation is in terms of angular displacement rather than linear displacement.
If Φ is the maximum angular displacement (the amplitude) and t = 0 when
g
θ = Φ, then θ = Φ cos t
l
Example 3
A simple pendulum is designed to take 1 second to swing from one extreme to
Note
the other in a region where g = 9.8 ms 2
noitseuQ
a How long should the pendulum be? A pendulum like this is called
a ‘seconds pendulum’. It
b If the pendulum is used to regulate a clock in a region where g = 9.81 ms 2, ‘beats’ one second from one
how much time will the clock gain in 1 hour? end of its swing to the other.
a e period of the pendulum is 2 s, so
l
2 = 2π
9.8
9.8
l = = 0.993 m
rewsnA
π2
9.8 9.8
b With l = and g = 9.81 ms 2, period T = 2π = 1.998980372 s Instead of the 2 s needed for
π2 9.81π 2
anaccurate clock.
2
In 1 hour the pendulum records 3600 × = 3601.836 s.
1.998980372
e clock gains 1.836 s in an hour.
Exercise 3
1 A pendulum has a length of 2 m. Find the period of small oscillations in a
place where g = 9.8 ms 2
2 A clock is controlled by a pendulum. e clock gains 10 s in every hour.
What percentage change in the length of the pendulum is needed for the
clock to keep perfect time?
3 A pendulum clock, which is completely accurate on the Earth, is taken to
the Moon, where the gravity is one sixth of that of the Earth. What time
interval will the clock register during one hour?
4 A simple pendulum of length 3 m is pulled aside 0.2 radians from the
vertical and released. Find
a the period of the resulting oscillation.
b the maximum speed of the bob.
434 Simple Harmonic Motion
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5/28/2020
FM2.6 34
5 A simple pendulum has a period of 4 s. e velocity of the bob in its lowest
position is 0.6 ms 1. Find
a the length of the pendulum
b the maximum angular displacement (in degrees) of the pendulum from
the vertical.
6 A simple pendulum comprises an inextensible string of length 3 m supporting
a small bob of mass 2 kg. e pendulum is released from rest with the string
taut and making an angle of 0.2 radians with the vertical. Find the tension in
the string at the instant that the string passes through the vertical.
Summary
▶ An object performs simple harmonic motion (SHM) about a point O if its
equation of motion is of the form , where x is its displacement
from O
▶ e maximum displacement, a, is called the amplitude of the motion.
▶ e general solution to the equation of motion can be expressed as
, ,
or
▶ Particular cases are
• if t = 0 when x = 0
• if t = 0 when x = a
▶ You can nd velocity v at time t by dierentiating your expression for x
▶ v is related to x by
▶ e time, T, taken for one complete oscillation is the period or
periodic time
▶ e frequency is the number of oscillations, or cycles per second.
Frequency is
▶ For small oscillations, a simple pendulum of length l performs SHM with
period
Review exercises
1 A particle of mass m hangs from a xed point on the end of a light spring
of natural length 1 m and stiness 50 Nm−1. It is pulled down from its
equilibrium position, O, and released. Taking general point P to be a
displacement of x m below O, nd the equation of motion of the particle to
show that it performs simple harmonic motion.
Simple Harmonic Motion 435
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p439.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
2 A body moves with simple harmonic motion. Its equation of motion is
. Initially the body is at the centre of the oscillation and
travelling with velocity 0.4 ms 1. Find
a the period of the oscillation
b the amplitude of the motion
c an expression for the displacement, x, of the body in terms of t
3 A simple pendulum of length 50 cm is pulled aside 0.1 radians from the
vertical and released. Find
a the period of the resulting oscillation
b the maximum speed of the bob.
4 A particle of mass 100 g rests on a smooth horizontal table. It is connected
by means of a spring of stiness 40 Nm 1 to a xed point on the table. e
spring is then stretched by 5 cm and released.
a Show that the particle performs simple harmonic motion, and nd the
period of the motion.
b Find the maximum speed of the particle.
c Find the time taken by the particle from its release until the spring is
compressed by 2.5 cm.
Practice examination questions
1 A particle moves with simple harmonic motion on a straight line between
the points P and Q. e amplitude of this motion is 0.3 m. When the
particle is 0.06 m from P, its speed is 0.9 ms 1.
a Show that the period of motion is seconds. (5 marks)
b Find the magnitude of the maximum acceleration of the
particle. (2 marks)
AQA MM05 June 2006
2 A simple pendulum consists of a particle, of mass m, xed to one end of a
light, inextensible string of length l. e other end of the string is attached
to a xed point. When the pendulum is in motion, the angle between the
string and the downward vertical is θ at time t. e motion takes place in a
vertical plane.
a Show, using a trigonometrical approximation, that for small angles
of oscillation the motion of the pendulum can be modelled by the
dierential equation . (4 marks)
b e pendulum has length 0.5 metres. e pendulum is released from
rest with the string taut and at an angle of to the vertical.
i Given that , nd the values of A and ω. (3 marks)
ii Find the maximum speed of the particle in the subsequent
motion. (3 marks)
AQA MM05 June 2007
436 Simple Harmonic Motion
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p440.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
FM2.6 34
3 A particle moves along a straight line AB with simple harmonic motion.
e point O is the mid-point of AB. When the displacement of the particle
relative to O is x metres, its speed is v ms 1.
When x = 3, v = 5 and when x = 6, v = 2. 5.
a Show that the amplitude of the motion is metres. (4 marks)
b Find the maximum speed of the particle during the motion. (4 marks)
AQA MM05 June 2011
4 A particle P, of mass 0.4 kg, is attached to one end of a light elastic string,
and the other end of the string is attached to a xed point A.
a e particle P hangs in equilibrium at a point E, vertically below
A, where the extension of the string is 0.2 metres.
Calculate the stiness of the string. (3 marks)
b e particle P is pulled vertically downwards from the point E by a
distance of 0.1 metres, and released from rest. e displacement of
Pfrom E at time t seconds after being released is x metres.
i Given that the string does not become slack during the subsequent
motion, show that
where h is a constant to be determined. (4 marks)
ii Hence deduce that the motion of P is simple harmonic. (1 mark)
iii Show that the period of this motion is 0.898 seconds,
correct to three signicant gures. (2 marks)
iv Calculate the maximum speed of P during its motion. (2 marks)
AQA MM05 June 2012
5 A particle, of mass 9 kg, is attached to two identical springs. e other ends
of the springs are attached to xed points, A and B, which are 1.2 metres
apart on a smooth horizontal surface. e springs have modulus of elasticity
45 N and natural length 0.4 m.
e particle is released from rest at a distance of 0.5 metres from B and
moves on the line AB. e midpoint of AB is C. At time t seconds after
release, the displacement of the particle from C is x metres, where the
direction from A to B is taken to be positive.
x
A C B
a Show that the resultant force on the particle, at time t,
is −225x newtons. (4 marks)
b Hence show that the particle moves with simple harmonic
motion. (2 marks)
c State the period of this motion. (2 marks)
d Find the speed of the particle when it is 0.05 metres from C. (4 marks)
e Write down an expression for x in terms of t. (2 marks)
AQA MM05 June 2013
Simple Harmonic Motion 437
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p441.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
Answers
1Loci, Graphs and Algebra
Exercise 1
1 (x 3)2 = −14y + 21 2 (x 2)2 + ( y + 3)2 = 16 3 ( y − 3)2 = −14x 21 4 (x 4)2 + ( y + 4)2 = 32
Exercise 2
1
1 x = −3 and y = 2 x = −2 and y = 0 3 x = 3 and y = 2 4 Student’s own response
2
5 Student’s own response
5 2
6 y 7 y 8x = and y = y
20 20 3 3 y=
2x + 8 15
10 y=6 10 3x 5
y=3 10
0 2 5
y=
6 4 2 0 2 4 6 x 1.0 1.5 x 3
10 10
6x 3 3x 6 4 3 2 1 0 x
20 y= 20 y= 5
x = −4 x+4 x=1 x 1 5
x=
30 30 10 3
Exercise 3
1 x = −4 and 1 y = 1 2 x = −2 and 3 y = 0 3 x = 3 and y = 1 4 x = 1 and 7 y = 8
5 y 6 y
x=1
6 40
4 30
2 y=1 (x + 4)(2x 1) 20
y=
(x 2)(x 1)
10 y=2
6 4 2 0 x
x = −2 x=2 4 2 2 4 x
4 10
(x 3)(x 1) 6 20
y= x=2
(x 2)(x + 2)
8 30
40
50
7 y x=2 8 y
10 10
x = −2 x=5
5 y=2
5
4 0 4 6 x
x=3
y=1 5
10
10 5 0 5 10 15 x
15 (x + 1)(2x + 5)
y=
5 (x 5)(x + 4) 20 (x 5)(x + 2)
y=
(x 3)(x 2)
10
49 5 49 5
9 a y > 1, y ≥ b y > 1, y < 10 a max (0, 1) min 6, b max 0.5,
25 13 25 13
11 a x > −1, x < −2 b x>3
1 1
12 a x < −2, 1 < x < 0 b x > 8, 2 < x < 3 c 5<x< (3 + 65 ), (3 − 65 ) < x < −1
2 2
3
13 a 1 > x > −2 b x > 1, x < −
2
438 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p442.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
Exercise 4
1 y 2 y 3 y 4 y
5 15 (x 3)(y + 2) = 12
15 10
4 10 x y = 25
10 5
3 5 5
2 y=0 10 5 0 5 10 15 x
5 y = −2
1 10 0 10 20 30 40 x 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 x
5 5 10
1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 x 10 x=3
1 10 15
x=0
2 15 15
3
4
5
5 y 6 y 7 y
6 (0, 5) 10 5
4 8
10 5 0 10 x
2 6 (0, 7) 5
( 6, 0) (6, 0)
4 10
8 6 4 2 0 6 x
2 2 15
( 1, 0) (9, 0)
4
5 0 5 10 15 x
6 (0, 5) 2
(0, 1)
4
8 (25 9m2x2) + 18m2x (9m2 + 225) = 0 9 x = 5, y = −3 y
(x 5)(y + 3) = 6
6
4
x=5
2
2 0 6 10 x
2
4 y = −3
6
8
10
10 a y b Student’s own response c a = −1, b = 3, c = 39
6
4
2
4 2 0 2 4 x
2
4
6
Review exercise
1 (y + 1)2 = 10x 25 2 y 3 3x2 + 4x + 4
y y=
6 x2 − 2x − 3
y=
2x2 + 3x 5 15
4
x = −1 x2 x 2 10 x=3
2
5
0 10 20 40 50 60 x
2 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x
x=2 5
4 x = −1
6
15
Answer 439
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p443.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
4 10 < x < −3 5 x < −2, [x ≠ −1] 6 y
10
5
10 0 10 15 x
5
10
15
7 a Student’s own response b 10y2 54 + 2k y + k2 + 72 = 0
Practice examination questions
1 a i x = 3, y = 0 ii and iii y b i 2, 3.5 ii 2 < x < 3, x > 3.5
15 1
y=
10 x 3
5 y = 2x − 5
4 2 0 4 x
5
10
15
2 a i and ii y b i m2x2 + 4(m2 1)x + (4m2 + x) = 0 ii 16m2 = 1 iii x = 6, y ± 2
2
1
P y2 = x 2
4 2 0 2 4 6 x
1
2
3 a a = 2, b = 4 b (m2 4)x2 2m2x + (m2 + 16) = 0 c 3m2 = 16 d y=±4 3
4 a y = 1, x = −1, x = 3 b i (k − 1)x2 2(k 1)x (3k + 1) = 0 ii k 2 k > = 0 iii (1, 0)
c y
5
4
3
2
y=1
1
3 2 0 2 4 x
1 1
3
x = −1 x=3
4
5
1 3
5 a (2, 0), (6, 0) b i (1 + 4m2)x2 8x + 12 = 0 ii iii (3, )
12 12
6 a x = −1, x = 2, y = 0 b x = 1, 2 c y d −2 ≤ x < −1, 1 ≤ x < 2
5
4
3
2
x = −1
1
4 3 2 1 10 1 2 3 4 x
2 x=2
3
4 y = − 12
5
440 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p444.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
2Complex Numbers
Exercise 1
1 a i b 1 c 1
2 a 3 + 2i b 6 3i c 4 + 3i d 2i
3 a 3 4i b 2 + 6i c 4 + 3i
4 a 2 ± 3i b 1 ± 5i
3 15 1
5 a − 1 ± 3i b ± i c (−1 ± 7 i)
2 2 4
Exercise 2
1 a 10 2i b 1 i c 1 + 2i
2 a 3 + 11i b 26 + 2i c 10 + 11i
5 14
3 a + i b 23 + 11 i
17 17 26 26
13 9 28 36
4 a x = 4, y = − 2 b x = −11, y = 22 c x= y= 5 + i
5 5 13 13
7 i 3i 4 8i
6 a z = 3 + 6i b z=− + c z = 1+ d z=− +
2 4 5 3 9
Exercise 3
1 a Im b Im c Im d Im
3 6 6 1.5
2 4 4 1
1 2 2 0.5
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Re 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 Re 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 Re 1.5 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 Re
1 2 2 0.5
2 4 4 1
3 6 6 1.5
e Im f Im g Im h Im
6 15 6
4 10 4 5
2 5 2
6 4 2 0 2 4 6 Re 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 Re 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 Re 5 0 5 Re
2 −5 2
4 10 4 5
6 15 6
π 3π 2π 3π
2 a 2 2; b 3 2; c 4; d 2;
4 4 3 4
π 12 13
e 4; f 13; tan 1
g 4; π h 7; tan 1
2 5 6
3 a i 7 + 41i ii 117 + 44i
b i 5 ii 25 iii 125
c i 0.9273 ii 1.8546 iii 2.7819
53 22
4 a 1 + 3i b 2 2 + 2 2i 5 |z| = ; arg z = − tan−1
5 29
Answer 441
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5/28/2020
Exercise 4
1 a Im b Im c Im d Im
5 6
3
(0, 0) (0, 0) (2, 0)
5 0 5 Re 2 (0, 2)
3 0 3 Re 1 0 5 Re
0 Re
5 3 2
2 a Im b Im c Im
π
3 0 π
0 Re 3π Re 2
4
( 2, 0) 0 Re
3 a Im b Im
2 z i z 2i
| = |
1
0 Re
O Re
c Im d Im e Im
2 2
5
2i 6
π
O Re O Re π
6
O Re
z 2 | = |z 2i
+
6
Review exercise
1 a 1+i b 26 + 2i c 10 +11i
4 19
2 a 1 2i b i 3 3.3 + 0.9i
13 13
3 3i 5 5 3i
4 a − ± b ±
2 2 2 2
442 Answer
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5/28/2020
5 a Im b Im c Im
2 0 Re
( 3, √3 )
2 √3 (0, 1)
( 2, 2)
3 0 Re 0 Re
6 a Im b Im c Im
π 60°
3
O Re O Re 2 O Re
7 a Im b Im c Im
4i
4
π
4
4 O Re O Re
1 O Re
23
8 1.077, −π + tan 1
14
Practice examination questions
11 13
1 + i
2 2
2 a 3 ± 5i b i 3+i ii m = −1 n = 2
3 a 3x y + i (x 3y + 4) b z = 12 + 3i2 4 a (x 2 + y 2 1) 2ix b z = 4 ± 3i
5 a Student’s own response b Im c 10 + 9i 6 Im
(2, 3)
0 Re
0 Re
Answer 443
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p447.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
3Roots and Coecients of a Quadratic Equation
Exercise 1
11 2
1 a 3, 7 b 11, 5 c 5, 4 d
3 3
2 a x 2 7x + 15 = 0 b x 2 + 3x + 5 = 0 c x 2 + 2x − 4 = 0 d x 2 + 5x 11 = 0
7
3 a sum = −2, product = −5 b −2, − c sum = 7 product = 4
2
2
d sum = product = 5 4 Student’s own response
3
Exercise 2
7 12 169
1 16x2 89x + 25 = 0 2 a b α 2 + β2 = 3 6x 2 5x 3 = 0
5 5 25
4 a 5 b 19 c 80
9
5 a α + β = 4, αβ = 9 b 81x2 + 164x + 6368 = 0 6 a α + β = αβ = 2 b 16x2 53x + 168 = 0
4
Review exercise
2 7
1 a 3, 1 b − ,−4 2 a 4 b Student’s own response
3 2
4 1
3 21x2 + 12x 1 4 a b Student’s own response c 108x2 228x + 121 = 0
3 2
Practice examination questions
3 135
1 a − ,−3 b α 3 + β3 = c 24x2 + 81x 146 = 0
2 8
7 1 α β 39
2 a b + = c 5x2 42x + 65 = 0
5 5 β α 5
7 17
3 a ,4 b α 2 + β2 = c 64x2 17x + 4 = 0
2 4
3 3 3
4 a b α2 + β2 = c 4x2 + 12x + 21 = 0
2 4 4
5 a 6, 18 b x2 + 324 = 0 c ±18i
4Series
Exercise 1
2n n n
1 (n + 1)(n + 2) 2 (n + 1)(n2 + n + 1) 3 (n2 − 7) 4 8235
3 2 3
Exercise 2
n n x (1 x 2 n ) nx 2n+1 n
1 (n + 1)(n + 2) 2 (n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3) 3 4 a = 8. (n + 1) 5 3
3 4 (1 x 2 )2 1 x2 2
Review exercise
n
1 21265 2 (4n2 27n − 1) 3 (n + 1)! 1
6
Practice examination questions
1 2906061
2 a sum from r = 1 to n, r2(4r 3) = kn(n + 1)(2n2 1) b 2486190
n
3 a (n + 1)(n + n + 2)
2
b n = 10
4
4 a f(r) f(r 1) = (2r 1)3 b sum of series r = n + 1 to 2n, (2r 1)3 = 3n2(10n2 1)
3 2
5 a f(r) f(r 1) = r3 b sum of series r = n to 2n, r3 = n (n + 1)(5n + 1)
4
6 a f(r + 1) − f(r) = r(3r + 1) b 867500
444 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p448.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
5Trigonometry
Exercise 1
π
1 a i nπ + (−1)n ii 180n° + (( 1)n 45°) b 45, 135
4
2π
2 a i 2nπ ± ii 360n° ± 120° b 120, 240
3
nπ π
3 a i + (−1)n ii 90n° + ( 1)n 15° b 15, 75, 195, 255
2 12
nπ π
4 a i + ii 60n° + 15° b 15, 75, 135, 195, 255, 315
3 12
π
5 n+
6
Exercise 2
πn π π
1 + (−1)n − 2 (360°n ± 135°) 30°
2 4 8
2π 2π 8π 4π 14π 20π 8π 26π 10π 32π
3 a 2π n + π ± 1 b x = 0, , , , , , 2π, , , , , , 4π
3 9 9π 9 3 9 3 9 9 3 9 3 9
π
4 nπ + ( 1)n
2
π π 2nπ 1 1
5 a in + ii 90n° + 7.5° b i + 0.591 + ii 120n° ± 33.85 +
2 24 3 3 3
π π πn π
c i n + + (−1)n ii 45n + ( 1)n11.25 d i 2nπ + π ii 120n° ± 60°
4 16 4 16 3 3
π π
e i nπ + , 2nπ ± ii 180n° + 90°, 360n° ± 60°
2 3
6
nπ π
2 24
Review Exercises
60n + (−1)n 50 20 πn π π πn π π
1 2 + (−1)n + 3 ± +
3 3 4 24 24 2 12 6
π π π nπ
4 6π n ± − 5 6 + 3
2 2
Practice examination questions
π 5π 125π nπ π
1 a nπ + nπ + b 2 +
24 24 64 2 16
24nπ + 7π 24nπ + π 3848π π 1 π 1
3 a b 4 + nπ or + nπ
15 15 15 8 2 24 2
5π 5π π
5 a 2nπ + b 2nπ + , 2nπ +
6 6 6
6Calculus
Exercise 1
1 a h b 0 2 6x2 + 6xh + 2h2 + 6x − 2; 70
3 a 8+h b let h tend to zero; 8
4 a student’s own response b let h tend to zero, gradient is zero; hence P is a stationary point.
Answer 445
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p449.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
Exercise 2
1 8.03 2 2.99 3 450 4 3.001
3
5 cm/s 6 2 cm2/s 7 2.4 cm2/s 8 5.75 cm3
16π
Exercise 3
1 3 2 Does not exist 3 Does not exist 4 Does not exist
2
Review exercise
8
1 a 11 + 2h b 11 2 2x + h; 6 3 cm2/s
3
4
4 5 student’s own response
12π
Practice examination questions
1 a 7+h b let h tend to zero; 7
2 a 125 + 75h + 15h2 + h3 b i 65 + 14h + h2 ii 65
3 a Student’s own response b gradient is zero
2 3
4 5 a no nite value b
5 2
1
1
6 a x 2 tends to innity as x tends to zero b i ii no nite value
2
3π r 2 1000
7 a V= b metres per minute
106 3π
7Matrices and Transformations
Exercise 1
7 1 14 0 2 2
1 2 a , b PQ ≠ QP e product of matrices depends on which one comes rst.
13 14 8 5 18 17
1− k − k 1− k − k 7 2
3 a k = 0, 2 b −1 − k 4 n=6
−1 − k 3 6
0 9 9 0 81 0 81 0
5 a b c is not equal to
9 0 0 9 0 81 0 81
0 9 9 0
6 a b c Student’s own response
9 0 0 9
4 0 16 0
7 a b
0 4 0 16
Exercise 2
4 0 16 0 1 5 k 5
1 2
1 and 2 a b
0 4 0 16 15 4k 4 3 15 2l l 3
1 3 5 5 3
5 0 3 0
3 a 2 2 b c d 2 2
3 1 0 1 0 3 3 1
2 2 2 2
4 a p = 20 b 20
446 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p450.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
Review exercise
3 1
− −
1 0 1 0
1 5 5
2 ,
− 7 − 4 0 1 0 1
5 5
1 3
− − −12 − 12(30.5 )
6 0 4 0
3 a 2 2 b c d 2(30.5 ) 2
3 1 0 1 0 4
2 2
4 a (4, 0) and (0, 4) b Student’s own response 5 a (0, 0) b none
Practice examination questions
p 3 1 3 p + 4 p + 6
1 a i ii b p = −7, k = −27
2 p 3 12 + 2 p 4 + 3p
0 1 1 0 0 1
2 a i ii b
1 0 0 7 7 0
c i 6 ii 2 3, y = tan 105° x
0 4
3 a b 4 c Student’s own response
4 0
0 2k 2k 2 0 4k 2 0
4 a i ii b
2 k 0 0 2k 2 0 4k 2
5
1 k
c i ii scale factor 2 line is y = x tan 22.5°
15 4k 4 3
3 1 1 3
5 a i a 2 2 ii 2 2
1 3 3 1
2 2 2 2
1 0 4
b scale factor 2 line y = x c scale factror 4 reection in y = x
3 4 0
8Linear Graphs
Exercise 1
1 a h b h = 10x2 + 2
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0 2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 x
Answer 447
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p451.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
2a a = 2 b = 5 b x = (100.5)
y2
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 x
3 a Student’s own response b a = 3 b = 2; Y = 3X + 2
4 a Student’s own response b a = 2.2, b = −0.86, Y = 2.2X 0.86
Exercise 2
1 b = 2 n = 2 y = 2x2 2 k = 3 b = 1.8 y = 3 × 1.8x
3 a Student’s own response b a = 8.5, b = 1.7 y = 8.5 × 1.7x
4 a Student’s own response b a = 5 n = 3 y = 5x3
Review exercise
1 a a = 100 b = 36 b a = 100 b = 36 y = 100x2 + 36
y
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
2 a = 7 b = 3 y2 = 7x5 + 3x3
y2
x3
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 x
3 a = 2 n = 4 y = 2x4
log y
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 log x
448 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p452.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
4 a log y b a = 4 b = 1.1
0.78
0.76
0.74
0.72
0.70
0.68
0.66
0.64
0.62
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 x
Practice examination questions
1 a x 2 4 6 8
X 4 16 36 64
y 6.0 10.5 18.0 28.2
b y c i 5.3 ii a = 0.37 b = 4.5
30
20
10
0 20 40 60 80
2
2 a Y = log(a) + nX (which is a linear relationship between X and Y). b a=− n = 10 000
3
3 a Student’s own response b i 12.6 ii 1.1
4 a Student’s own response b i x 1 2 3 4
y 0.40 1.43 2.40 3.35
X 3 8 15 24
Y 1.20 5.72 12 20.1
ii y iii a = 0.9 b = −1.5
30
20
10
0
10 20 30 x
10
9Numerical Methods
Exercise 1
1 1.12 2 0.87 3 2.46 4 84 5 1.41 6 6.54
Exercise 2
1 1.5 2 1.8 3 8.65 4 2.0465 radians
Review exercise
1 3.4899 2 4.4576 3 0.347296
Answer 449
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p453.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
Practice examination questions
1 2.3464 2 9.859 3 46.1
4 a Sign change b 1.7 5 1.40396
6 a change of sign b between 0.175 and 0.2 c 0.1934 7 4.04014
10Bayes’ Theorem
Exercise 1
5
1 R R and R 2 H A and H 3 a 1 b
1
4 1
24
R A 4 2
4 sides 1
4
B R and B T A and T 1
1 3
4
2
4
R B and R H B and H 1
1 1
6 6 2
1
B B 2 1
6
3
B B and B H B and H 6 sides
1
6
1
4
6
1
6 5
6
60
4 a 3 9 b 5 1 1 3
( 2)
1 3
P 13 169 169 H2 8
8
1
H2
1 3 1
T2
1
( 2) 8
3 10
P 13 P 30 1 1 3 1
13 169 H2 ( 2) 8
1 1
H2 T2
1 1 3 1
T2 ( 2) 8
30 1 1 3 1
10 3 H2 ( 2)
P P 13 169 8
13
1
T2
1 H2
1 1 3 1
T2 ( 2) 8
10 100 1 3 1
P 13 169
1
H2 ( 2) 8
1
T2
1 1 1
T2 ( 2 )3 8
6 7
28 48 7 a
red 13 91 L 0 .07
91
Walk 0.35 L 0.93
4
red 6
7 blue 13 24
91 L 0.12
Bus 0.45 L 0.88
24 Walk ′ 0.65
8 L 0.09
blue 3 red 13
91
Car 0.35
7
L 0.91
5 L 0.04
blue 13 15
91
L 0.96
b i 0.257 ii 0.085 iii 0.056
450 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p454.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
8 0.1995 23%
P 0.95
D 0.21 P 0.05 0.0105
0.0316
D 0.79 P 0.04
P 0.96 0.7584
Exercise 2
3
1 2 a 0.7 b 0.125
11
3 a 0.6 b 0.29 c 0.71 d 0.42
42 2 1
4 5a b
167 3 2
13 4
6 Student’s own response. 7a b
27 7
4
8 a 0.23 b 17 (2 dp) 9 0.14 (2 dp) 10
11
Review exercise
1 1
1 a H 1 and H b 2
H 2 E 1
2
1
( 2)3
1 4
8
E 2
1 1
E2 12 ( 2)3 8
H H H 1 and H E 1 1 1
2 ( 2)3 8
E 2 E2 2
1 1
E2 12 ( 2)3 8
1
H 1 and H E1 2 1
( 2)3
1
H H 8
E2 2 E 2
1 1
E2 12 ( 2)3 8
1 1 1
H H’1 E 2 ( 2)3 8
E2 2
E2 12 1
(2 )3
1
8
2 1 2
3 red 10
7 7 a b c
15 15 5 5
red 23 3
green 10 1
5
3 1
green 13 red 5 5
green 25 2
15
20
4 5 a 0.6 b 0.44 (2 dp) c 0.56 (2 dp) d 0.54
41
Answer 451
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p455.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
Practice examination questions
1 a B
E 0.135
0.15
A
0.75
T T 0.675
0.9 0.10
L 0.090
T 0.035
0.1 0.35
0.65 L 0.065
b i 0.85 (2 dp) ii 0.95 (2 dp) iii 0.04 (2 dp)
c 0.487 (3 dp)
191
2 a
300
58
b
191
3 a A + 0.09
0.90
A 0.002 + 0.00784
S 0.02
0.98
0.08 B
0.10
0.02
0.00016
M
0.90
A + 0.009
NS
A 0.72
0.80 + 0.00171
0.19 0.01
B
0.99
0.16929
b i A 0.00216 B 0.01071
ii 130
c i 0.901 to 0.902 ii 0.997 to 0.998
452 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p456.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
4 a F 0.1950
30%
M 0.3575
C 55%
15% 0.0975
A
65%
F 0.0700
35%
V M 0.0900
20% 45%
20%
A 0.0400
15%
F 0.0150
10%
L
M 0.0975
65%
25%
A 3.0375
Sum = 1.0000
b i 0.455 ii 0.214 iii 0.757
c 0.056
5 a E 0.0750
0.30
B M 0.1250
0.50
(0.20)
W 0.0500
0.25
E 0.2400
0.40
a S M 0.2700
0.60 0.45
0.15
W 0.0900
0.15
E 0.0825
0.55
D M 0.0525
0.35
0.10
W 0.0150
159
b i
400
11
ii
53
c 0.0955 to 0.0975
Answer 453
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p457.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
11Discrete Uniform and Geometric Distributions
Exercise 1
1 Mean = 2.5, variance = 1.25 2 Mean = 5, variance = 8
1
; mean = 11, and variance = 33
3 a discrete uniform on integers 2, 4,..., 20 each with probability
10
1 9 33
b discrete uniform on integers 0 9 each with probability ; mean = , variance =
10 2 4
1
4 a Y b p=
10
13 5 151 3
5 6 7 8
32 32 1440 5
9 Student’s own response. 10 a 10.5 b 10.74 (2 dp)
12 a 4n + 1
9
11 25 tokens b Student’s own response c
2 16
Exercise 2
1 1
1 a b 2 i 0.09 ii 0.000009 iii 0.99 iv 0.1
16 8
3 Mean = 2, variance = 2 4 Mean = 2, variance = 2 5 56 6 Student’s own response.
7 a P{Y = y} = (1 − p)y p, y = 0, 1, 2, 3,.... 1 p b Student’s own response.
p
8 0.06 (2 dp) 9 P(S) = 1
Review exercise
5 21 1 3
1 2 3 4 a 0.2 b 0.64
18 50 4 4
Practice examination questions
1
1 Student’s own response. 2 a Student’s own response b Student’s own response c
4
3 a Student’s own response. b i 0.36 (2 dp) ii 0.07 (2 dp)
4 a i Student’s own response ii Student’s own response b i Student’s own response ii 17
5 £1.84 6 a i Student’s own response ii Student’s own response
9 7 4
b i ii E(Y) = Var(Y) =
16 3 9
7 a Student’s own response b i 0.512 ii 42
12Probability and Generating Functions
Exercise 1
1 1 2 9
1 GR(t) = 0.4t + 0.4 t 2 + 0.2t 3 2 k= ; GX (t) = t + t 2 + t 3 3 GX (t) = 0.5t + 0.3t 2 + 0.2t4
14 14 7 14
1 1 2 3 8 10 31
4 a b t + t 2 + t3 + t4 c mean = , variance =
30 30 15 10 15 3 45
1 2 3 4 81 44 5 44
5 GR (t) = t + t 2 + t 3 + t 4 μ = 3, σ 2 = 1 6 GX (t) = + t
k k k k 125 125 25
1 1 5 3 13 23
7 a 2 b GR (t) = t + t 2 + t c mean = , variance =
4 3 12 6 36
1 1 3 1
8 a b P(R = 1} = , P(R = 2} = , P(R = 4} = c 2.8
10 5 10 2
66
9 a a = 13, b = 9
169
454 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p458.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
Exercise 2
1
1 a Discrete uniform on integers 1 – 10 with probabilities each b Bernoulli (p = 0.6)
10
c Geometric (p = 0.3) d Binomial (n = 13 p = 0.9)
1
2 a (0.6 + 0.4t)7 b 0.1t c 0.6 + 0.4t
1 0 9t
3 Student’s own response. 4 Student’s own response.
5 GX (t) =
t t3 t5 t7 t9 t11 mean = 6, variance = 35 6 Student’s own response.
+ + + + +
6 6 6 6 6 6 3
2 t 1 2 1 2 2 2
7 a + b mean = , variance = c + t mean = , variance = d Equal because XR = 1 XR
3 3 3 9 3 3 3 9
5 5
8 a Student’s own response. b E[R] = , Var[R] =
2 4
Exercise 3
0 64 t 2 t 2 (1 − t 6 )(1 − t 8 )
1 2 e 7(1 ) Poisson, mean 7 3 4 (0.375 + 0.5t + 0.125t 2)n
(1 0 2t )2 48(1 t )2
5 GT(t) = (0.6 + 0.4t)3; μ = 1.2; σ 2 = 0.72
6 μ = np; σ 2 = np (1 p). T has a binomial distribution, mean np, variance np(1 p), as expected since T is the number of suc-
cesses in n Bernoulli trials.
7 Student’s own response. 8 (0.375 + 0.5t + 0.125t 2)3; mean = 2.25
1 1 1
9 GX (t) = E[t X ] = t + t 2 + t 4 ; E[T] = 6
2 4 4
Review exercise
2
1 1
∑ 1
∑ 1
∑
10 10 10
1 0.4 + 0.2t2 + 0.4t5. 2.4, 5.04 a Discrete uniform distribution, p = b µ= u σ2 = u2 − u
10 10 =1 10 =1 10 =1
7 35
3 mean = variance = 4 a Bernoulli (p = 0.8) b mean = 0.8, variance = 0.16
2 12
(0 2t )
5 a Geometric (p = 0.2) b GX(x) = ; E[X] = 5
(1 0 8t )
3 6 5
6 a Binomial 5 b mean = 3, variance = 7
5 5 16
Practice examination questions
1 2 2
1 a GB(t) = 1 p + p t b a = 2; P(S = 1} = , P(S = 3} = , P(S = 5} =
5 5 5
t1 t2 t 12 13 143
2 GX(t) = 0.3t + 0.3t 3 + 0.4t 4 mean = 2.8, variance = 1.56 3 GX(t) = + +…+ mean = , variance =
12 12 12 2 12
4 t 5 Student’s own response.
3 2t
0 21t 2
6 a Student’s own response b Student’s own response c Poisson, mean 3μ 7
1 − 1.05t + 0.26 t 2
13 Linear Combinations of Discrete Random Variables
Exercise 1
1 2, 59 2 a 58.5 b 0.85 c 18.1, 5.1
3 Student’s own response. 4 a −0.42 b −0.40
5 Student’s own response. 6 a 23, 20 b 25, 5.8
7 58, 56.70. 0.18 8 18, 1 9 8a, 1. ρ = 1 because of linear relationship between X and Y
10 a 0.29 b 0.42 c Bus. Cycling and lateness have positive correlation.
Exercise 2
1 a 155.4 b i 28.4, 20.8 ii 48.2, 138.2
2 a mean = 12, variance = 30 b Mean = 124, Variance = 165 c Mean = 104, Variance = 606
7 103
3 i 36, 18 ii 12, 2 iii 12, 4 Mean = 12.875 or Variance = 0.458 (3dp)
3 8
5 a Student’s own response b Zero covariance or zero correlation coecient don’t, by themselves, imply independence.
Answer 455
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p459.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
Review exercise
1 −77.3, 1.29 2 a 62.3 b 0.6 c 29.1, 16.8. ese are random variables.
3 a 37, 34.45 b Mean = 4 Variance = 10.874
Practice examination questions
1 Mean = 1120 Variance = 3.34 to 3.36 2 i 28, 23.4 ii 2, 52 iii 61, 43.4
3 i 141, 325 ii 93, 45
4 a i Distribution of X is symmetrical about 4. Student’s own response ii 0.4, 0.54
b i 7.7, 0.71 ii 0.3, 2.31
14Constant Velocity in Two Dimensions
Exercise 1
1 7.62 2 a (3i + 4j) ms−1 b 5 ms−1 c (18i + 18j)m
3 a i p = 3.63i + 1.69j, q = 3.21i + 3.83j ii 8.79, 38.9° b i p = −1.03i + 2.82j, q = 5.64i 2.05j ii 4.67, 9.48°
4 7.02 km, 098.8° 5 a 2.24 ms−1 b 45° c (2ti tj) m d 40.3 s
6 a (4 t)i + (0.5t 2)j b Collide at t = 4, 13i + 16j 7 a 991 km b 173°
Exercise 2
1 a 30.4 ms−1, 064.7° b 17.8 kmh−1, 099.1° c 19.4 ms−1, 249.2°
2 11.7 ms −1
3 441.97 kmh−1, 014.6° 4 a 6 kmh−1 b 10.4 kmh−1
5 a 5.39 ms−1, 80 m b 23.6° to AB, 4.58 ms−1 6 6.17 ms−1, 034.8°
7 a 408 kmh−1, 078.7° b 101.5°, 392 kmh−1 8 Dead heat both take 395 s
9 v 2 u2 v 10 a 12 ms−1 b Student’s own response
Exercise 3
1 a 7i 2j b 7i + 2j 2 28.3 kmh−1, 122°
3 20 kmh−1 from 053.1° 4 a 3.79 km b 15.36
5 a 112.6° b 1 hour 6 Miss by 0.458 km 7 42.5 kmh−1, 105.1°
8 a Student’s own response b Student’s own response c 1 s, 3 m
9 a e closest approach happens when V(A) is perpendicular to (A)V(B) b 4 km, 30°
Review exercise
1 Reduces by 7.56 km, so don’t build 2 16.1 kmh−1 3 a Student’s own response b 1 hour 53 min
4 a 082.2° b 32.4 s 5 0.571 km 6 036.9°
Practice examination questions
1 a 218 ms−1 b 351°
2 a 193° b i 109°
ii 665 s iii No cross wind, calm lake, instantaneous change of direction by the patrol boat
3 a 10i + 6j b Student’s own response c 0.103 d 1.89 km
4 a 035° b i 6.60 km ii 1236.5
5 a 2i + 5j b (100 2t)i + (5t 250)j c Collide when t = 50
15Dimensional Analysis
Exercise 1
1 a ML2T−2 b ML2T−3 c LT−1 d LT−1 e ML2T−2
2 a ML T −1 −2
b ML −3
c T −1
d dimensionless
3 Yes ML2T−2 4 Yes MLT−1 5 Student’s own response 6 a ML2T−3 b Student’s own response
7 T−1 8 a Student’s own response b Student’s own response c Student’s own response
9 ML T , kgm−1s−1
−1 −1
Exercise 2
1 3 c3 5 5 1 b5 1 1 l
1 =− = A≡K 2 = =− γ =− A≡K 3 3 = 0, = γ =− T =k
2 2 b 3 3 3 c 5d 2 2 g
456 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p460.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
kmv 2 kr 4 p
4 v = k λg 5 F= 6 a Cannot nd 4 variables from 3 equations bV=
r ηl
Review exercise
1 a [T ] = T, [r] = L, [g] = LT−2, [R] = L b Yes 2 Student’s own response
kv 2
k T
3 h= 4 v = k gr 5 f=
g l2 ρ
Practice examination questions
1 1 1 3 1
1 α = 1, β = − γ= 2 M−1T 3 a M−1L3T−2 b =− = γ =−
2 2 2 2 2
l
4 α = 0, β = 2, γ = −1 5 a Student’s own response b T =k
g
16Collisions in One Dimension
Exercise 1
1 a A 12 Ns, B 30 Ns b A 8 Ns, B 21 Ns c A 8 Ns, B 30 Ns
2 a 84 Ns b 10 Ns c 35 Ns d 6N
3 7 ms−1 4 a 42 Ns b 120 N 5 a 68 Ns b 10.5 ms−1
2
6 7.2 Ns 7 50 000 Ns, 16 666 N 8 5 ms−1 9 4s
3
Exercise 2
1 a 7 ms−1 b 1.8 ms−1 c 6 ms−1
2 a 1.5 ms−1 in opposite direction b B would need to pass through A
2
3 a 3.2 ms−1 b 0.8 ms−1 4 a 4 ms−1 (direction reversed) b Student’s own response
3
5 3.97 ms−1 6 0.45 kg 7 4.5 ms−1
Exercise 3
1 a 0.75 b 7.2 2 2.5 m
5
3 a 0.75 b 0.5 c
9
4 a 2.51 ms−1, 7.31 ms−1 b 2.64 ms−1, 4.24 ms−1 c 0.91 ms−1, 5.71 ms−1 d 2.71 ms−1, 0.91 ms−1
5 1 ms−1, 2 ms−1 6 a 5.6 ms−1 b 0.2
7 0.6 8 7.38 ms−1, 4.62 ms−1 9 A has speed u, direction reversed, B is at rest
10 a Student’s own response b Yes
Exercise 4
1 2.03 ms−1, 2.34 ms−1, 5.63 ms−1 2 Student’s own response 3 0.538
4 a 2.24 ms−1, 0.32 ms b 0.925 m/s, 0.01 m/s in the direction away from the wall.
Review exercise
1 a 30 Ns b 12 Ns c 7 ms−1 d 3 ms−1
2 a 72 Ns b 17.4 m/s
5
3 0.2 ms−1 4 or 4.25 5 1.86 ms−1, 5.76 ms−1 towards wall
16
Practice examination questions
1 a 3 kg b 5 kg or 1.8 kg 2 a 10 Ns b 8230
1
3 a u(1 + e) b 0.5
2
1 1
4 a u(5 3e), u(e + 5) b Student’s own response c 2.5 mu
2 2
2
5 a 416 Ns b 1.94 ms−1
3
Answer 457
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p461.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
17Roots and Polynomials
Exercise 1
7
1 a 0 b 11 c 0 d
2 3
2 a b 7 c 7
3
7 1 5
3 a b 4 a b 4
8 4 3
5 a 0 b 10 c 9
6 x 3 − 4 x2 + 4 x − 4 = 0 7 q = −12
Exercise 2
5
1 i, i, 5 ± 21 2 2i, 2i, 2, 3 a 3 4i, 2 11i b k = −11
2 2 3
3 i 11
4 3 5 0<k<4 6 1, i, ±
2 2
7 a Student’s own answer b 3 i, 11
Review exercise
58
1 7, 2 a r = −6 + 4i b p = 0, q = 2 3i c 24 + loi
7
1 1
3 a 7 + 2i b α= − 7 + 2i c 203 2li
50 50
4a Student’s own response b i 2 + 3i, 1 [twice] ii (z 2 − 4 z + 13) (z 2 + 2 z + 1)
Practice examination questions
1 a 2 + 3i b i 13 ii 3 iii p = −7 q = −39
2 a i 18 + 12i ii 0 b i 2 ii 9 6i iii 5 6i c β = −3i γ = 2 + 3i
3 a 6
b i sum of squares < 0, so roots are not all real; coecients are real so you have a conjugate pair ii 0
c i 1 3i and 2 ii q = −20
4 a p = −4 q = −2 b 20
18Proof by Induction and Finite Series
Exercise 1
1 Student’s own response 2 Student’s own response 3 Student’s own response 4 Student’s own response
5 Student’s own response 6 Student’s own response 7 Student’s own response 8 Student’s own response
Exercise 2
3 1 1 1 1 9 1 1 1 1 1
1 − − 2 3 4 − +
4 2n 2(n + 1) 2 n+2 40 2(n + 3) 2(n + 4) 4 2n 2(n + 1)
Review exercise
1 1 1 31
1 Student’s own response 2 Student’s own response 3 B=− ; − =
2 840 5304 30 940
Practice examination questions
1 a
Student’s own response b Student’s own response 2 Student’s own response
3 a
Student’s own response b Student’s own response
4 k=7
a b Student’s own response
5 k=7
a b Student’s own response
1 1 894
6 a A= B=− b
2 2 1225
7 a Student’s own response b 316
1 1
8 a A= ;B=− b Student’s own response c 250
2 2
458 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p462.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
19Series and Limits
Exercise 1
1 a converge b converge c converge
1 1 5 2 15 3
2 a 1 2x +10x2 60x3 b − x+ x − x
2 16 256 2048
21 147 2 1715 3 2 2
3 a 1+ x+ x + x b valid for <x< c a = 64 b = 672 c = 4704
2 2 4 7 7
9 1 4 1 8
4 a 1 + 3x + x 2 b 1− x + x
2 2 24
4 4 25 x 2 625 x 4 256 3
5 a 2 x − x 3 + x 5 −… b 1− + c 1 + 8 x + 32 x 2 + x +…
3 15 2 24 3
1 1 1 8 8
d x 2 − x 4 + x6 − x +… e −2 x − 2 x 2 − x 3 −…
2 3 4 3
1 6 1 10 x (4n + 2) 15 2 63 4
6 a x2 − x + x +…+ ( − 1)n +… b 1+ 4x + x + 9x3 + x
3! 5! (2n + 1)! 2 8
9 1 1 1 1
c 2 − 8x 2 + x 4 d e(1– x 2 + x 4 ) e ln (2 − x 2 − x 4 )
4 2 6 4 96
4
71 + 2 x 2 + 20 x 4 + x 6 + ...
3
Exercise 2
1 x <3 2 1 3 3
1 6 1 12 x 6n
4 − x + x + ... + ( −1)n + ... Valid for all values of x 5 Student’s own response
2! 4! (2n )!
Exercise 3
1 1
1 Value does not exist 2 π 2 3 Value does not exist 4 Value does not exist
2 a
1 1 40 12
5 6 7 ln 8 ln
25 49 27 5
Review exercise
1 1 343 3 33614 5 8
1 2 3 a 7x + x + x b −2 x − 2 x 2 + x 3 − 4 x 4
2 2 2 3 15 3
9 17 3 75 4 1 5 4 1 2
4 3x − x2 + x − x limit is 3 5 secx = 1 + x 2 + x tan x = x + x 3 + x 5 limit is 6
2 2 4 2 24 3 15
Practice examination questions
1 1 3 2 1 17 221 2
1 a 1 − 2x − 2x2 b i − x+ x ii 4 < x 4 c − x− x
2 16 256 2 16 256
2 a 1 + 3x + 4 5x 2 b 3x 2
cos x dy 1 1 1 4
3 a b Student’s own response c −e − y ( ) − (e − y ) d x − x2 + x3 − x
1 + sin x dx 2 6 12
4 a Student’s own response b 1
x3 x3 e3
5 a ln x − + c b Integrand is not dened at x = 0 c 2
3 9 9
1 1 9 dy
6 a i 1 + x − x2 − x3 ii 3 x − x 2 + 9 x 3 b i = sec2 xe tan x ii 3
2 6 2 dx
1
iii Student’s own response c
3
1 x 4 −3
7 a e interval of integration is innite b − e −3 x − e −3 x + c c e
9 3 9
Answer 459
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p463.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
20De Moivre’s Theorem
Exercise 1
1 cos14θ + isin14θ 2 a cos6θ + i sin6θ b cos8θ + i sin8θ c 1 d i
1
e cos8θ i sin 8θ f 6 g 1 h i
3 i
2 + 2
3 a cos 10 + i sin 10 b cosθ i sin θ c 1 d 8
4 a 16 b −143 + 180i 3 c 1728 d 4 e 212 f 513 3 + 6290i
5 a cos5θ − i sin 5θ b cos 4θ + i sin 4θ c cos6θ + i sin 6θ d 1
6n = 9
Exercise 2
i π π
i 3iπ 3iπ
1 a i ± 2 (1 + i
− −
ii 2e 4 , 2e 4 , 2e 4 , 2e 4
π 11iπ 11iπ
2 7
11 11 7
5 5 7 7 7
b i 2 3 (1 + i , 2 6 cos π + i sin π , 2 6 cos π
i
sin π ii 2 6 e 4 , 2 6 e 12 , 26 e 12
12
i
12 12 12
iπ 5i π iπ
3 3
c i ( 3 + i), (− 3 + i ), −3i ii 3e 6 , 3e 6 , 3e 2
2 2
π
i 3iπ
d i ±2 2 (1 + i ii 4e 4 , 4e 4
π π 3π 3π iπ 3iπ
−
π
i
−
3iπ
e i −2, 2 cos ± i sin , 2 cos ± i sin ii 2e 5 , 2e 5 , 2e π , 2e 5 , 2e 5
5 5 5 5
±
π
i
±
2 iπ 1 3
2i 3 ,e 3 , e 0 or 1, −1, ± ±
2
e i
2
1 1
3 a 2 2i, 2 2i b 3, ± i 3 c d 1 + 3i , − i
2 3
2 iπ 4 iπ 6 iπ 2iπ 4iπ 6iπ π π 9 iπ 3iπ 7iπ
− − − − −
4 e
0
,e 7 ,e 7 ,e 7 ,e 7 ,e 7 ,e 7 5 e 10 2e 2 , 2e 10 , 2e 10 , 2e 10
6 Student’s own response 7 Student’s own response
1 1
8 a (4cos5 x + 5sin5 x )e 4 + c x
b (3sin7 x − 7cos7 x )e 3 + c x
41 58
1 1
c − (2sin 4 x + 4cos 4 x )e 2x
+c d (3sin3 x − 4cos3 x )e 4x
+c
20 25
Exercise 3
1 a 2i sin2θ b 2cos 4θ c 2 cos 5θ
1 6 1 1 5 1 1 4 1
2 a z + 6 b z 5
c z + 4
2 z 2i z 2 z
4
3 1
e 1 z 3 + 1
i
d z 3
2 z 2 z
3
3 a 32cos6θ − 48cos4θ + 18co 2 θ − b 8cos 4θ − 8cos2θ + 1 c 8cos3θ 4cosθ
4 a 3sinθ 4sin3θ b 16sin5θ − 20sin3θ + 5sinθ
c −64sin6θ + 80sin4θ − 24sin2 θ + 1 d 16sin 4θ − 12sin2θ + 1
3 1 1 3 1 5 5 1 5 3
5 a sinθ sin3θ b cos3θ + cosθ c cos5θ + cos3θ + cos θ d sin5θ − sin3θ + sin θ
4 4 4 4 16 16 8 16 16 8
6 Student’s own response 7 Student’s own response
460 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p464.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
Review exercise
5 5 1 3 1 21 7 3 1
1 (−1 + i ), (1 − i ) 2 −3 − i − + i − + i − − i
2 2 2 2 4 10 10 2 2
1 10 1 1 3 15 5
3 z + 2 + 10 4 cos6θ + cos 4θ + cos2θ +
4 z 32 16 32 16
Practice examination questions
π π
17iπ 17π 7π 31π
1 a i 2e 3 , 2 e 4 ii 1024e b − −
12 36 36 36
π
2 3 a i sin5θ = 5cos4θ , sinθ − 10cos2 θ , sin3 θ + sin5 θ ii Student’s own response
10
2π 3π 4π
b c Student’s own response
5 5 5
2π
4π 2π 8π
4 a 8e 3 b i ii 3 3 c Student’s own response
9 9 9
5 a i Student’s own response ii w 2, w 3, w 4 , w5 , w6
6 i Student’s own response ii sin3θ = 3cos2 , sinθ − sin3θ
5 9
b i Student’s own response ii tan π tan π
12 12
21Polar Coordinates
Exercise 1
1 a π
(3, ) b (2, 2π ) c O
4 3 π
3
3 2 2π
3 3
π
4
O
O π)
(3,
3
d O e O π
4
2
4
(2, 3π )
2
(4,
π)
4
2 a x2 + y2 = 16 b x=3 c y=7 d x2 + y2 = ax + a x 2 + y 2 e y2 = 4 − 4x
r 2 cos2θ r 2 sin2θ
3 a r=3 b r2 sin 2θ = 32 c + =1 d r = 6 cosθ e r2 = cos2θ
9 16
Exercise 2
1 a b c
O
4
O
O 3
Answer 461
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p465.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
d e
O a
2
O 1
x
2 a b c
O O
O 5
d e
2π a
O
O 4
3 4 a Student’s own response b 32 3
O
Exercise 3
7π 3 a 2 π a2 π a2 π a2
1 2a b c
48 8 8 16
3
π a2 17 2
4 5 5 + cos 1 −
4 2 3
3π
5 a r2 = sin4 θ b i ii
8
π 5π 7π 3π
6 1, , 1, , 4 3 7
6 6 3 4
462 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p466.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
Review exercise
1 x2 + y2 + ax = a x 2 + y 2 2 r2 + 8r sinθ = 16
3 a Student’s own response b r = (1 − rcosθ) 2 2
4a b 153π
Practice examination questions
13 16 + 24 x − 7 x 2 π
1 2 y2 = 3 r = 12 sinθ 16 cosθ 4 ln2
3 16 2
8π
5 a 11π b i 4 3 ii +4 3
6 a y2 = 4 4x b 2 3
π 1 3 3
7 a x2 + y2 = 2y b i 3, ii Since 2 1, A is further away from the pole than B iii π
3 2 4
8 a i x2 + y2 = 2(x y) ii centre (1, 1) radius (2)
b i 16.5π ii Student’s own response iii 14.5π
22The Calculus of Inverse Trigonometrical Functions
Exercise 1
π π 5π π π
1 a b c d e f 18.4°
6 6 6 4 4
2 a y b y c y
π
π π
π 2 2
2
10 5 0 5 10 x 10 5 0 5 10 x
10 5 0 5 10 x
π π
π 2 2
2
3
π 4 Student’s own response
10
Exercise 2
5 3 2 2x 1 x2
1 a b c d e
1 25 x 2 1 + 9x 2 1 2x2 1 x4 1 + 3x 2 + x 4
1620(tan 1 5 x )3 6(sin 1 2 x )2
f g
1 + 25 x 2 1 4x2
x x 1 2x 1 x
2 a sin 1 + c b sin 1 + c c sin 1 + c d tan 1 + c
2 3 2 5 3 3
1 x 1 5x
e tan 1 + c f tan 1 + c
4 4 15 3
π
3 a π b π c π d e π
2 8 2 6 3 5
4 a 0.0505 b 0.0444 c 0.615 d 0.0741 e 0.841 f 0.0207
1 14
5 sin −1
4 25
Answer 463
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p467.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
Review exercise
12 1 −1 3 x 1 4x + c
b 6(sin 2 x )
1 2
1a 2 a sin + c b tan−1
16 + 9 x 2 1 4x 2 3 4 20 5
1 8 1 1 2 ( x 2) 1 (2 x + 1)
3 tan 1
3 4 tan 1 4 5 2
sin 1
5 + c 6
2 24
tan 1
24
+c
12 20
Practice examination practice
1 a 9 2( x 12 b π 2 2 π
8 3
x 1
3 a b a= 1 b=−
1 x2 6 2
4 a x + tan 1 x b Student’s own response 5 a Student’s own response b Student’s own response
1+ x2
23Arc Length and Area of Surface of Revolution
Exercise 1
1 1 (31 31 8) 2 14 14 11 11 3 a p 1 + p 2 + a ln(p + 1 + p 2 ) 4 4a
27 9 2
Exercise 2
5π 23
1 12π (2 + 782 17 ) 2 8π (5 5 3 12π a
2 3
1) 4 61 412
5 3 5 6
Review exercise
13 7 1 1
1 2 5 + ln 3 A = π r 2; area of whole cone: A = π r 2 h + π r 2
4 3 3 3
Practice examination questions
1 Student’s own response 2 a Student’s own response b p=2
3 Student’s own response 4 a Student’s own response b k = 256π
15
24Hyperbolic Functions
Exercise 1
1 2 1 3 e8 1
1 a i (e + e 2
ii 3.76 b i (e e 3
ii 10.0 c i ii 0.999
2 2 e 8 + 1
2 2 e6 e 6
d i ii 0.2658 e i ii 0.0366 f i ii 0.99999
(e 2
+e 2
e 4
e 4 e6 + e 6
2 Student’s own response
3 a Student’s own response b Student’s own response c Student’s own response
3 3
4 a 0.540 b 0.693 c 0.457 5 2, and ln 2, ln 6 p=7
2 2
Exercise 2
1 a 2sin2x b 5cosh5x c 3sech2 3x d 45sinh 3x cosh43c 64s h38xcosh 8x
1 1 x 1
2 a cos h 3 x + c b sin h 4 x + c c 3cos h +c d ln(cos h 4 x ) + c
3 4 3 4
3 a cosec h2x b tanh x ( sechx) c 10cosec h10x
Exercise 3 1 x
5 3 2x x +1 1
1 a b sin h 1
2 c d e f
25 x 2 + 1 3x − 4 3x + 4 x 4 +1 ( x 1) x 1 x2
1 x 1 4x + c
2 a ln( x 2 − 4 + x ) + c b ln( 4 x 2 − 25 + 2 x ) + c c sin h 1 + c d sin h −1
2 3 4 5
464 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p468.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
3 a 0.881 b 1.32 c 0.76
1 1 2 2
4 a
5
( ln (10 + 4 6 − ln (5 + 21 b
3
ln ( 3 + 10 + ln
3 + 12
c ln 1 +
3
1 1 2 1 13 5
d ln ( 4 + 21 e ln 1 + f sin h −1
sin h −1
2 5 3 4 155
23
Review exercise
2 2
1 0.19 2 ln 1 3 a 112 cosh 3 7x sinh 7x b 36 sinh 2 6x cosh 6x
3
π 1 2 1 2 (1 + x
4 tan 1 5 sin h 1
40 10 5 2 7
Practice examination questions
ex
1 a b Student’s own response 2 a Student’s own response b 3 ln2; −2 ln2
4 + e2x
1
3 a y b Student’s own response c i Student’s own response ii ln2
2
1
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 x
4 a i Student’s own response ii Student’s own response iii Student’s own response
π
b i Student’s own response ii
6
25Dierential Equations of First and Second Order
Exercise 1
1
1 a x2 b x 2 +1 c d sec x e x2 1 f 23 x
x3
1 1 1 x2 c
2 y= x + ce 3x
3 y = − e2 x + ce5 x 4 y= + 5 y = x 3 + cx 2
3 9 3 3 x
4 4 2 2x 1 2x
6 y = 5 ( x 1 ln(x − 1) + c ( x 1 7 y sin x = e sin x e cos x + c
5 5
Exercise 2
3 7
x x
1 y = Ae(3 + 17) x
+ Be(3 17) x
2 y = Ae x + Be 2x
3 y = Ae 2 x + Be 2 4 y = Ae x + Be 3
5 x = Ae 8 + Be 6 x = Ae 7 + Be 4 7 y = (A + Bx) e 2x
8 y = (A + Bx) e 3 x
1
x 3 3
9 y=e 2
A cos x + B sin x 10 y = e 2x
(A cos 2x + B sin 2x)
2 2
11 x = Ae(3 + 2)
+ Be (3 2)
12 x = e 2
(A cos 2 3 t + B sin 2 3 t)
Exercise 3
7 5
x 12 76
1 y = Ae 8x
+ Be x 2x 2 y = Ae x + Be 3x
4e 2x
3 y = Ae x + Be 2 2x2 + x
4 5 25
76 1
10x 3 3
4 y = Ae x + Be 3 sin5 x cos5 x 5 x = Ae 5 + Be e
1469 1469 8
55 80 2
6 x = Ae 5 + Be 3 + cos2t sin2t 7 y = Ae 4 x + Be x + xe x
377 377 3
3
8 y = Ae x sin ( 2 x + Bex cos( 2 x + 2e4 x 9 y = Ae −3 x
sin x + Be −3 x
cos x + e −4 x
2
Answer 465
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p469.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
Review exercise
1 5 2 3x 3π 3
1 ye 7 x = (1 e 4 x ) 2 y= x e 3 x = (1 + t + 2t 2 )e 4 x = cos 4t sin 4t + t sin 4t
4 2 64 8
Practice examination questions
1 5 1 5
1 a p= q= b y = Ae 5x
+ sin x + cos x 2 a Student’s own response b y = x 2 ln x + c x 2
2 2 2 2
5 1
3 a a = 5, b = −2, c = −4 b y = 3e 4 x + 5 2 sin 2x 4 cos 2x 4 y= e x xe x
2 2
2 5 2
5 a a = − , b = −1, c = 2 b y = Ae 3x
+ Be x 2 x + 2 xe 3x
c y= e 3x
x + 2 xe 3x
3 3 3 3
6 a p = −2 b y = 6e x − 4e 2x
− 2 xe 2x
26Vectors and Three-Dimensional Coordinate Geometry
Exercise 1
1 2 2 3 4 1
1 a i 1:2: 2 ii , , b i 3: 4: 5 ii , ,
3 3 3 5 2 5 2 2
3 2 5 1 2 3
c i 3:2: 5 ii , , d i 1: 2: 3 ii , ,
38 38 38 14 14 14
2 a 28 b 29 c 137 d 15 e 0 f 255
Exercise 2
1 a 5i + 7j + 11k b 31i + 22j + k c 22i + 14j 16k d 32i + 23j − 10k
2
4 69
2 14 3 21 4 a 16 b
69
4
Exercise 3
2 2 2 2
1 a i r= 4 +t 5 ii r 4 × 5 =0
7 1 7 1
2 2 2 2
b i r= 5 +t 3 ii r 5 × 3 =0
4 7 4 7
3 9 28
2 a r. 5 = −13 b r. 7 = 47 c r. 17 = 41
4 2 18
3 a 3x + y + 7z = 4 b 2x + 4y + 3z = 8 c x + 5y + 3z + 7 = 0
4 a 68.5° b 43.2° c 28.0° d 48.5°
3
5 2
4
5 29.1° 6 0° 7 r
2 =2 2;2 2
5
1 2
5
27 32
y z 6
x 7 ; 7 10 9 6 −5 7
8 = 7 = 9 a 5 b i , ,
7 10 9 230 230 230 110 110 110
7
ii ey measure respectively the cosines of the angles that the line makes with the x, y and z-axes
1 6
c r − 3 × −5 = 0
5 7
466 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p470.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
3 1 2
10 a Student’s own responses b , , c 2i 5j + 3k
14 14 14
d 77.5° e (19, 3, 5) f 38
Exercise 4
1 No 2 73 3 177 4 21 58 68
Review exercise
6
9 1 2 6
1 2 3 r 3 = 14
5 2 41 41 41
5
3
26
4 8 8
4 49.9° 5 r = 26 ; 6 27
26 26
1
26
Practice examination questions
4 7 4 3 2 6
1 a , , or , ,
9 9 9 7 7 7
b e direction cosines are the cosines of the angles between the line and the coordinate axes.
4 12 3
2 a 4i + 12j 3k b i , ,
13 13 13
ii e cosines of the angles between the line and the coordinate axes. c a = i 2j + k
3 Student’s own response
1 3t + 5
4 a
± 5 b 3t 16 c i 77 ii ,
OA OB OC , never coplanar
4 3t 2
2
5 a i 2 ii 18 a b i 1.5 ii a = 18
1
16 0 1
6 a 16 b x y = −1 c 64 7 r = 8 +λ 5
0 11 7
8 a Student’s own response b Student’s own response c (1, 1, 3)
27Solution of Linear Equations
Exercise 1
13 22
1 x = 1, y = 3, z = −2 2 x= ,y= , z = −0 3 x = 2, y = −3, z = 1
5 5
Exercise 2
1 a 52 b 24
2 a Student’s own answer b q=3
3 a Student’s own answer b i 1 ii 0
Review exercise
2 47 −11 ± 3 41 5
1 x = ,y=− ,z=9 2 a= 3 k = ±4; b =
5 5 4 9
Practice examination questions
1 1
1 a x = 6, y = 1 , z = −2 b i a=1 ii b = −10
2 2
2 a a = 2, −5 b b=4
Answer 467
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p471.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
3 a a = −3 b b≠5 c linearly dependent since determinant is zero
4 a Student’s own response b i one solution b ii innitely many solutions iii no solutions
c i e single point of intersection of three planes. ii ree planes meet in a line (or form a sheaf ).
iii ree planes form a prism (or have three parallel lines of intersection; or have no common intersection).
28Matrix Algebra
Exercise 1
14 0 2 2 5 4
1 PQ = , QP = . Matrix multiplication is not commutative. 2
8 5 18 17 4 3
−20 4 −9 0 1 2 −21 −12 18
4 7 1
3 4 −5 1 −2 5 1 −1 −3 6 −17 −3 −19
1 2 141
11 2 5 2 3 5 5 −24 −11
Exercise 2
1 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0
12
1 0 1 0 2 Rotation about the y-axis of cos 1
3 0 2 0 ; 0 1 0 ; 0 2 0
13
0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 2
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
4 a 0 1 0 ; 1 0 0 b 1 0 0 ; c rotation of π about z-axis.
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
5 0 0 0 1 0
5 a 0 5 0 b 1 0 0
0 0 5 0 0 1
Exercise 3
1 M3 6M2 + 37 = 0 2 M3 3M2 +12M – 10 = 0 3 All points on the line z = 0, x = y are invariant.
1
4 a ±7 b Student’s own response c
1
1 2 2
6 Eigenvalues are 3, 9 and 3. Corresponding eigenvectors are 2 , 2 , 1 respectively.
2 1 2
Review exercise
−21 6 −3
1 6 1 1 1 ± 29
1 2 −5 3 −7 3 1,
16 2 3 33 2
9 12 6
0 0 1
3 ± 13
4 λ = 3; 5 0 1 0
2
1 0 0
1
Eigenvector associated with λ = 3 is −3
2
ere are no invariant points.
Practice examination questions
1 a x-axis b 127°
0 1 0 0 −1 0 −1 0 0
2 a i 1 0 0 ii 1 0 0 b i 0 1 0 ii reection in x = 0 (or y-z plane)
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
468 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p472.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
2
3 2 1
49 9 2
3 a i m= ii 1 2
9 49 3
2 2
1
3
b i det A = k 3 6k + 9 ii Student’s own response iii k = 4
3 4
4 a i λ = 1, ii m = (since λ = 1) iii Student’s own response
4 3
5 y = 0 and y = x; y = 0 is a line of invariant points since λ = 1
1 1
6 a 1, 2, 3 b 1 c i 4 ii 1 ; 8
0 0
1
7 a 1 b 3±2 2
0
29Vertical circular motion
Exercise 1
1 a 7.69 ms 1 b 6.66 ms 1
2 a i 85.3° ii 129.2° b 4.43
3 a i 6.29 ms 1 ii 4.76 ms 1 iii 2.38 ms 1
b i 96.2 N tension ii 45.3 N tension iii 5.62 N thrust
4 a 8.57 ms 1 b i 4.41 N ii 8.49 ms 2 5 Student’s own response
6 a U ≥ 2 ag b U ≥ 5ag 7 a 243 N b 155 N c 9.8 ms 2
Exercise 2
1 a Student’s own response b Student’s own response c 100.6°
1
2 48.2° 3 70.5° 4 ag (3 3 4)
2
5 a Students own response b 2 ga < u < 5 ga 6 0.6 m
Review exercise
1 a 10.8 ms 1 b 9.8 N tension 2 a 12.1 ms 1 b 29.4 N tension
1 1
3 a 142° b 3.40 ms 1 4 8ag 5 RA = mg (7 − 3 3 ), RB = mg (11 − 6 3 )
3 3
6 a 10.1 m b No friction or air resistance, car is a particle, track is perfect circle.
Practice examination questions
1 u2
1 a Student’s own response b 19.5° 2 a Student’s own response b cos α = + 2
3 ga
1
3 a 3.71 ms 1 b 61.1 N 4 a v= ag b 29:5
2
5 a Student’s own response b i u = 3 ag ii 3: 5
30Collisions in two dimensions
Exercise 1
1 ( 12i + 16j) Ns 2 (4.4i 0.4j) ms 1 3 4.5 s
4 6.77 Ns 5 5.80 Ns at 15° to horizontal 6 mu 3
1 2
7 (3.2i + 3.2j) ms 1
8 8j ms 1
9 5 i − 6 j ms−1
3 3
Answer 469
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p473.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
Exercise 2
1 11.4 ms 1 at 18.1° 2 2.7 J 3 5.35 ms 1, 24.2° above horizontal
4 a 0.155 b 4.96 ms 1 at 53.8° to line of centres
5 a ( 1.6i + 3j), (2.4i − 4j) b 5.4 J
6 a 63.4° b 0.25 7 0.5 8 3.28 ms 1 at 112° to original direction
Review exercise
1 ( 16i + 24j) Ns 2 (5i j) ms 1 3 4s 4 ( 2i + 2j) ms 1
5 7.63 ms at 24.8°
1
6 A: 2.47 ms at 54.2° to line of centres, B: 4.04 ms 1 along line of centres
1
7 A: 3.00 ms at 41.9° to line of centres, B: 3.87 ms 1 at 26.6° to line of centres
1
Practice examination questions
4mu
1 a 60° b
3
2 a ( 2i + 5j) b 67° c 6mi + 2mj d 3i + j
3 a Student’s own response b 3.25 ms 1
5
4 a Student’s own response b c 13i Ns
8
12
5 a 0.813 b Student’s own response c d Velocity parallel to cushion is unchanged.
5
31Projectiles launched onto inclined planes
Exercise 1
1 a 4.46 s b 218 m c 26.3°
2 a 11.3 s b 552 m c 31.5°
3 a 55° b 35°
4 7.81° or 62.2° to the plane 5 7.08° or 103° to the plane 6 Student’s own response
7 a Student’s own response b i 0.0601U ii 0.0517U2
2U sinθ 2U 2 sinθ cos(θ α ) U 2 sin2 θ
8 a b c
g cosα g cos2 α 2 g cos2 α
Exercise 2
1 a 21.7 m b 23.1 m 2 a 76.7 m b 81.6 m
1
3 64.3 m 4
g
5 a Leaves plane at 34.7°, so moves higher up. b In limiting case e = 1, it bounces vertically.
6 a Student’s own response b 8.40 m
7 a Student’s own response b Student’s own response c 3 1
Review exercise
1 a 7.22 s b 132 m c 45.1 m d 63.8 m
2 a 327 m b 30°
3 Leaves plane at 22.7°, so B is higher up. 4 R = 0.0765u2, θ = 19.5° 5 Student’s own response.
Practice examination questions
1 a Student’s own response b 15.08 ms 1, 6.427 ms 1 c 15.4 ms 1
2U sinθ
2 a i ii Student’s own response b 1:e
g cosα
u 2 sin2 θ 2u sinθ
3 a b i ii Student’s own response iii Student’s own response
2 g cosα g cosα
4 a 3.32, 10 b Angle to vertical is 102.5°; 102.5° > 90° so second strike lower down than A
5 a No change, smooth contact. b 2 gh sin θ , e 2 gh cos θ c Student’s own response
470 Answer
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p474.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
32Elastic strings and springs
Exercise 1
1 a 0.5 b 2 c 24 d 4.5
2 2.87 m 3 a 200 Nm 1 b 1.1 m 4 50 N, 0.25 m
5 0.84 m, 100 Nm 1 6 1.655 m, 0.745 m 7 30.4 cm 8 2.23 m
mgl
9 0.170 m 10 2.99 m, 1.01 m 11 d =
2λ
Exercise 2
1
1 a 4J b 2 ms 1 2 a 7.67 ms 1 b 4 m
6
3 AB = 6.46 m, AC = 4.54 m 4 3.26 ms 1 5 24 J
8
6 a 2 m b 5.45 J c 12.3 J d 1.66 ms 1 e 0.5 m
11
7 a 216 J b 7.02 m c 1.48 m 8 a 0.395 m b 3.45 ms 1
9 Student’s own response
Review exercise
1 1.41 m 2 AB = 1.91 m, BC = 1.09 m 3 AP = 1.76 m, PB = 1.24 m
4 37.5 J 5 30 J 6 a 1.1 m b 0.6 m c 0.2 m above A
Practice examination questions
1 a Student’s own response b i 4.11 ii 5.98 ms 2
2 a 9.80 ms 1 b i 96 11µ g ii 0.0668
3 a Student’s own response b i 0.2 m ii 44.1 J iii 0.0167 m
4 a 0.792 m b Student’s own response c i Student’s own response ii 0.584
5 a 0.2 m b Student’s own response c i Student’s own response ii 0.04
33Application of dierential equations
Exercise 1
1
1 a v = 3t 2t2 b v = t − ln(t + 1) c v = −6 cos 3t
2
1 3(2e 6 1) 60e 6
2 a v= t + 16 b v = 3(e 0.5
+ 1) c v= d v=
2 2e 6 + 1 5e 6 + 1
5(3e + 1)
3 a v= b v approaches maximum 2.5 ms 1
2
gt
4 a v = 10(1 − e 10 ) b v approaches a terminal velocity of 10 ms 1
2 g + 20 10 π v
5 a t = 4ln b 2.81 s 6 a t= − tan 1 b Student’s own response
2 g + v 7 4 7
Exercise 2
v 3 22e 6x
+5 x x 24
1 a v3 = 3x + 64 b x = 6 − v − 3ln c v2 = d v 2 = 8ln e v2 =
3 3 12 2x
2 kd
4 4(e 1)
2
2 Student’s own response 3 x=
2 k mu d 2
4e 2 1
2g + v
5 a x = 80 − 4v + 8 g ln b 24.9 m
2 g + 20
98
6 a x = 5ln 2 b Student’s own response
v + 49
Answer 471
file:///private/tmp/i18nAFurtherMathWithMechanics/p475.svgz 1/1
5/28/2020
Review exercise
1
1 a v = 1.5t2 4t + 2 b v = 3 sin 2t + 5 2 a v3 = 6t + 27 b t = (e 3v − 1)
9
1 v2 + 5
3 a x = ln b v2 = 8 sin x + 4 4 a Student’s own response b 59.5 m
2 5
5 a 27.4 ms 1 b 190.5 m
Practice examination questions
1 2s
2 a Student’s own response b v = 0.5(1 + e 10
) c 0.230 s
3 a Student’s own response b v = 5 + 2e 1.96
1 g
4 a Student’s own response b 1 g c ln , 0.626 m
2 4 g 4v 2
5 a Student’s own response b 1.82 s
34Simple harmonic motion
Exercise 1
λx λ
1 x = −7 x 2 a x = −32 x b x = −32 x 3 x=− , SHM with ω 2 =
ml ml
4 a 0.196 m b x = −50 x c a ≤ 1 (string doesn’t go slack)
Exercise 2
2π
1 a 2π s b 1m c x = sin 3t 2 a s b 10 ms 1 c x = 2 cos 5t
3 5
2π π 2π
3 a s , 1.5 ms 1
b s , 3 ms 1 4 s , 3 ms 1
3 3 5
5 a 9.42 ms 1 b i 8.16 ms 1 ii 8.89 ms 1 c i 0.0275 s ii 0.0942 s
m 2m m 2m
6 a 2π b 2π c 2π d 2π
2k k 3k 3k
2
7 a 2 m b student’s own response c 0.998 s
3
Exercise 3
1 2.84 s 2 0.556% 3 24.5 min 4 a 3.48 s b 1.08 ms 1
5 a 3.97 m b 5.51° 6 20.4 N
Review exercise
1 x = − kx 2 a 4π s b 0.8 m c x = 0.8 sin 0.5t
m
π π
3 a 1.42 s b 0.221 ms 1 4 a x = −400 x , SHM with ω = 20, period = s b 1 ms 1 c s
10 30
Practice examination questions
1 a Student’s own response b 7.5 ms 2
π
2 a Student’s own response b i A= , ω = 4.43 ii 0.0174 ms 1
400
5 5
3 a Student’s own response b ms 1
2
4 a 19.6 Nm 1 b i Student’s own response ii SHM with ω = 7
iii Student’s own response iv 0.7 ms 1
2π
5 a Student’s own response b x = −25 x , SHM with ω = 5 c s
5
d 0.433 ms−1 e x = 0.1 cos 5t
472 Answer
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Index
A impulse and momentum 182–6 nth roots of unity 239–42
acceleration impulse and momentum in two proof when n is a negative integer 235
acceleration as a function of displacement dimensions 382–4 proof when n is a positive integer 234–5
422–3 multiple collisions 193–5, 195 simple application to complex numbers
acceleration as a function of time 419 principle of conservation of linear 235–9
acceleration as a function of velocity momentum 186–8 trigonometric identities 245–52
419–22 column matrices 69 dependent events 106–8
radial components 378 column vectors 158 derivatives 58
tangential components 378 complementary function 312–18 determinants 347
amplitude of motion 429, 435 complex conjugates 21–2, 24–5 determinant of a matrix 71–2, 80, 81
angular displacement 434 complex numbers 20–1 determinant of the product of two
anticommutative rule 324 addition and subtraction 22–3, 31 matrices 71, 80
approach speed 398 Argand diagram 25–6, 31–2 meaning of the determinant in linear
arc length 282, 286–7 calculating with complex numbers 22–5 transformation 72
area of surface of revolution 285–6 Cartesian form 26, 32 simultaneous linear equations 349–51
Cartesian form 282–3 complex conjugates 21–2, 24 vectors 322–3
parametric form 283–4 complex roots 20 dierential equations 99–101, 101, 102, 306,
areas connection between Cartesian form and 318
area of a triangle and parallelogram 327–9 polar form 26–8 rst-order linear equations 306–8
area of sector of curve 262–6, 267 De Moivre’s theorem 235–9 second-order dierential equations
area of surface of revolution 285–6 division 24, 31 308–17
transformations 358–61 equations involving complex conjugates using complementary function and
Argand diagram 25–8, 31–2 24–5 particular integral to solve rst order
argument 26 exponential form of a complex number equation 318
modulus 26 242–5 dimensionless quantities 175
asymptotes 3–5, 16 loci in the complex plane 28–31, 32 dimensions 174–5, 179–80
curves with no vertical asymptotes 8–9 multiplication 23, 31 dimensional consistency 176–7
curves with two vertical asymptotes 6–7 multiplying one complex number by nding a formula 177–9
auxiliary equations 308–12 another 243 direction 158–9
necessary conditions 22 discontinuous functions 2
B nth roots of unity 239–42 discrete uniform distribution 116, 125–6
Bayes’ eorem 104, 109–12, 112 polar form of complex numbers 26, 32 probability generating functions 135
Bernoulli distribution 137 simplifying integrals 243–4 probability model and probability
binomial distribution 137–9 compound quantities 174–5 distribution 117–20
boundary conditions 307, 309 conditional probabilities 106 displacement 159, 160
congruence 259 acceleration as a function of displacement
C conic sections (conics) 2, 11–12, 16–17 422–3
calculus 58 ellipses 12–13 angular displacement 434
gradient of a tangent to a curve 58–60, 65 hyperbolas 14–15 simple harmonic motion (SHM) 427
improper integrals 63–5 parabolas 12 distance 160
rates of change 60–3 rectangular hyperbolas 15–16
Cartesian coordinates 256, 266, 267 conjugate pairs 201, 205 E
connection between polar and Cartesian convergence 45, 220–1 eigenvectors and eigenvalues 362, 368
coordinates 257–8 coplanar vectors 340–1 nding eigenvectors and eigenvalues
Cartesian form 26, 32 cosine curves 49–51, 55 363–7
arc length 282–3 covariance 149–50, 154–5 elastic impact 188
connection between Cartesian form and cross product 324 both objects can move 190–3
polar form 26–8 cubic equations 198–9, 204 Newton’s experimental law of restitution
equation of a plane 331–3 curves 189, 195
characteristic equations 363 area of sector of curve 262–6, 267 oblique collision between moving object
circles 259 cosine curves 49–51, 55 and xed object 385–6
circular motion with non-uniform speed curves with no vertical asymptotes 8–9 oblique collision between two moving
370–1 curves with two vertical asymptotes 6–7 objects 386–8
leaving the circular path 375–8 gradient of a tangent to a curve 58–60, 65 one of the objects is xed 189
motion in a vertical circle 371–5 polar curves 259–62, 267 elastic limit 405
closest-approach course 166–7 sine curves 51–2, 55 elastic potential energy (EPE) 409–14
setting a closest-approach course 169–70 tangent curves 52–3, 55 elastic strings 404–8
coalescence 187–8, 195 Hooke’s law 405–6, 414
coecient of restitution 389, 398 D work done in stretching a string 409
cofactors 355 De Moivre’s theorem 211, 234, 252–3 ellipses 12–13
collisions 182, 195, 389 exponential form of a complex number equation of a line 329, 343
elastic impact 188–93, 385–8 242–5 equation of a plane 329, 343
Index 473
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applying r.n = d form 333–6 series 228–30 linear interpolation 95, 96–7, 101
Cartesian form 331–3 when the integrand is innite 64–5, 228 linear relationships 404
distance of plane from origin 336 impulse 182–3, 195 linear transformations 72, 81
distance of plane from point 336–8 impulse of a variable force 183–6 meaning of the determinant in linear
r = a + λ(b a) + μ(c a) = (1 λ μ)a + inclined planes 393–400 transformation 72
λb + μc 330 line of greatest slope 393 linear translations 72
r = a + tb + sc 330 inconsistent equations 347–8, 351 linearly dependent equations 348
r.n = d 330 independent discrete random variables 153, lines
equations with innitely many solutions 155 invariant points and lines 78–80, 81,
348, 351 mean, covariance and variance 154–5 362–7, 368
Euler’s method 99–101, 101, 102 independent events 104–5 locus (loci) 2–3, 16
exhaustive events 109 independent quantities 174–5 half-line 29
exponential function 314–15 inequalities loci in the complex plane 28–31
extension 404, 406 solving inequalities involving rational perpendicular bisector 29
functions 9–11, 16 logarithms 87
F innite series 45–6, 47, 220–21 logarithmic form of inverse hyperbolic
nite series 215 integrals functions 295–8
summing by dierencing 216 improper integrals 63–5, 228–30
summing by partial fractions 215–16 particular integrals 312–18 M
rst-order linear equations 306 simplifying integrals 243–4 Maclaurin’s theorem 220, 221–2, 230
solving using an integrating factor 306–8 integrands 63, 64–5, 65 magnitude 158–9
using complementary function and integrating factors 306–8 mass 174
particular integral to solve 318 interception course 167–8 matrices 68, 80, 354
rst-principles 58 interval bisection 95–6, 101 addition and subtraction of matrices 69, 80
formulae 177–9, 180 invariant points and lines 78–80, 81, 361–2 determinant of a matrix 71–2, 80, 81
frequency 430, 435 eigenvectors and eigenvalues 362–7, 368 determinant of the product of two
inverse hyperbolic functions 294 matrices 71, 80
G dierentiation and integration 298–302 elements (entries) 68
general solutions 307, 347 logarithmic form of inverse hyperbolic identity matrix 74
general solutions for cosine curves 49–51, functions 295–8 invariant points and lines 361–7, 368
55 sketching inverse hyperbolic functions 294 inverse transformations and inverse
general solutions for sine curves 51–2, 55 inverse matrices 74–5, 80, 354 matrices 74–5
general solutions for tangent curves 52–3, nding the inverse of a 3x 3 matrix 355–6, multiplication of matrices by a scalar 69–71
55 367 multiplying matrices 70–1, 80
general solutions of trigonometric minor determinant 354–5 order of a matrix 68–9
equations 49–53 inverse transformations 74–5 representing linear transformations 72
geometric uniform distribution 116, 121, 126 inverse trigonometric functions 270–1, 279–80 transformations 356–61, 367–8
mean and variance 122–5 dierentiation and integration 273–9 transpose matrices 75, 81
probability generating functions 136 inverse cosine graphs 273 zero matrices 75, 80
probability model and probability inverse sine graphs 272 mean 122–5
distribution 121–2 inverse tangent graphs 272 mean of aX ± bY 148–9
sketching inverse trigonometric functions probability generating functions 132–4
H 271–3 method of dierences 45–6, 47
half-lines 29 modelling assumptions 372
Hooke’s law 405–6, 414 L modulus 26
horizontal asymptotes 4–5 length 174 modulus of elasticity 405
hyperbolas 14–15 limit of integration 63–4 momentum 182–3, 195
rectangular hyperbolas 15–16 nite and not nite 63, 65 bodies that coalesce 187–8, 195
hyperbolic functions 288–9, 303–4 limiting processes 227 principle of conservation of linear
dierentiation 292–3 linear combinations of discrete random momentum 186–8, 195
graphs of cosh x, sinhx and tanhx 289 variables 148, 155 mutually exclusive events 109
integration 293–4 independent discrete random variables
inverse hyperbolic functions 294–302, 304 153–5 N
solving equations involving hyperbolic mean of aX ± bY 148–9 natural length 404
functions 291 product-moment correlation coecient negative extension 406
standard hyperbolic identities 290 150–53 negative tension 406
variance of aX ± bY and the covariance of newton (N) 405
I X and Y 149–50 newton per metre (Nm ) 405
identity matrices 74 linear denominators 3–5 Newton-Raphson method 95, 97–9, 101
identity transformations 74 linear graphs 84, 90–1 Newton’s experimental law of restitution
imaginary numbers 20, 31 relationship between data 84–7 189, 195
imaginary parts 248 when power of x is unknown, or when x is normally distributed independent variables
improper integrals 63–5, 65 in the exponent 87–90 154
limit of integration 63–4, 228 when powers of x and y are known 85–6 nth roots of unity 239–42
474 Index
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O probability distributions 116 complex roots 20, 311
oblique impacts 382 discrete uniform distribution 116, 117–20, complex roots of polynomial equation
oblique collision between moving object 125–6 201–4
and xed object 385–6 geometric uniform distribution 116, products of roots 198
oblique collision between two moving 121–25, 126 real, dierent roots 309
objects 386–8 probability generating functions 130, 131, 144 real, equal roots 310
oscillation 426–9, 435 Bernoulli distribution 137 roots of cubic equations 198–9, 204
outcomes 108 binomial distribution 137–9 roots of polynomial equation of degree n
discrete uniform distribution 135 200–1, 205
P geometric distribution 136 sum of roots 198
parabolas 12 independent and identically distributed row matrices 69
parallelepipeds 339–40 random variables 141–3
parallelograms 327–9 mean and variance 132–4 S
parameters 384–5 sums of independent random variables scalar triple product 338–9, 343–4
partial sums 45 139–41 coplanar vectors 340–1
particular integrals 312–18 projectiles launched into inclined planes volume of a parallelepiped 339–40
particular solutions 307 392, 400 scalars
pencil of planes 348 bouncing projectiles 398–400 multiplication of matrices by a scalar
pendulums 433–5 nding the range of the projectile 393 69–71
period 430, 435 ring down the slope 395–6 second-order dierential equations 308
periodic time 435 greatest height 397–8 complementary function and particular
perpendicular bisectors 29 maximum range 394 integral 312–17
physical quantities 174–5 proof by induction 208–12, 217 solving using an auxiliary equation 308–12
polar coordinates 256, 266–7 De Moivre’s theorem 211 separation speed 398
area of sector of curve 262–6, 267 divisibility 212–15 sequences 210–11
connection between polar and Cartesian nite series 215–16 series 42
coordinates 257–8 sequences 210–11 convergence 45, 220–1
position of a point 256–8, 266 series 209–10 nding the limits of a series 227–8
sketching curves given in polar nding the sum of innite series using
coordinates 259–62, 267
Q dierences 45–6, 47
polar curves 259–62, 267 quadratic denominators 5–6 nite series 215–16
area of sector of curve 262–6, 267 quadratic equations 34, 39 improper integrals 228–30
loops 259 equations with roots that are a function of innite series 45–6, 47, 220–21
polynomial equations 94 existing roots 36–9, 39 Maclaurin’s theorem 211, 221–2, 230
complex roots of polynomial equation 201–4 roots 34–6, 39 method of dierences 45–6, 47
interval bisection 95–6, 101 quantities 174–77 power series 220, 222–8, 230–1
linear interpolation 95, 96–7, 101 proof by induction 209–10
Newton-Raphson method 95, 97–9, 101 R summation formulae 42–4
roots of polynomial equation of degree n range 5 sheaf of planes 348
200–1, 205 rates of change 60 simple harmonic motion (SHM) 426, 435
solutions 94–9, 101 connecting rates of change 61–3 oscillation 426–9, 435
step-by-step solution of dierential how change in one variable aects period and frequency 430
equations 99–101, 101, 102 another 60–1, 65 showing that a given situation produces
population parameters 384–5 rational functions 3 SHM 427–9
position 159, 160 curves with no vertical asymptotes 8–9 simple pendulum 433–5
position of a point 256–8, 266 curves with two vertical asymptotes 6–7 solving the SHM equation of motion
anticlockwise angle 256 sketching rational functions with linear 429–30
initial lines 256 denominator 3–5, 16 solving the SHM equation of motion
poles 256 sketching rational functions with summary 431–3
principal values 256 quadratic denominator 5–6, 16 simultaneous linear equations 346–7, 351–2
power series 220, 230–1 solving inequalities involving rational geometric interpretation of three
power series for (1 + x)n for rational functions 9–11, 16 equations in three unknowns 347–9
values of n 223 real coecients 31, 201, 205 using determinants to nd the number
power series for cos x 222 real numbers 20, 31 of solutions of three simultaneous
power series for ex 222–3 real parts 248 equations 349–51
power series for ln(1 + x) 223–4 rectangular hyperbolas 15–16 sine curves 51–2, 55
power series for more complicated relative velocity 165–6 speed 160–2
functions 224–6 closest approach 166–7 springs 404–8
power series for sin x 222 interception 167–8 work done in stretching a string 409
using power series 227–8 setting a closest-approach course 169–70 square matrices 69
principle of conservation of linear restitution 189, 195, 389, 398 stiness 405
momentum 186–8, 195 resultant velocity 162–4 summation formulae 42–4, 46
principle of conservation of mechanical revolution, area of surface 285–6 surface of revolution 285–6
energy 372 roots 34–6, 39, 204–5 symmetry 259
Index 475
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T expansions of cos nθ and sin nθ as powers coordinate geometry 329
tangents 259 of cos θ and sin θ 248–52 coplanar vectors 340–1
gradient of a tangent to a curve 58–60, 65 expressions for cosn θ and sinn θ in terms determinants 322–3
inverse tangent graphs 272 of coskθ and sinkθ 245–8 direction cosines 321–2
tangent curves 52–3, 55 direction ratios 321
time 174, 419 U equation of a line 329
transformations 68, 72–4, 356–8 unique solutions 347, 351 equation of a plane 329–38
combining two transformations 73 unit cubes 357 nding magnitude and direction
common transformations 76–8 unit vectors 158 158–9
determinants and areas 358–61 multiplication of a vector by a scalar 125
enlargements 76 V position, displacement and distance 160
invariant points and lines 78–80, 81, variable forces 408–9, 418, 424 scalar triple product and its applications
362–7, 368 acceleration as a function of displacement 338–42
inverse transformations and inverse 422–3 vector product 324–9, 342–3
matrices 74–5 acceleration as a function of time 419 velocity and speed 160–2
reection in lines through the origin 76–7 acceleration as a function of velocity velocity 158, 170–1
rotations 76 419–22 acceleration as a function of velocity
shears 77 variables 60–1, 65 419–22
transpose matrices 75, 81 impulse of a variable force 183–6 position, displacement, distance, velocity
zero matrices 75, 80 independent and identically distributed and speed 159–62
tree diagrams 104, 112 random variables 141–3 relative velocity, closest approach and
branches 105 independent discrete random variables interception 165–70
conditional branches 106 153–5 resultant velocity 162–4
outcomes 108 linear combinations of discrete random vectors in component form 158–9
paths 105 variables 148–53, 155 vertical asymptotes 4–5
tree diagrams for dependent events 106–8 normally distributed independent curves with no vertical asymptotes 8–9
tree diagrams for independent events variables 154 curves with two vertical asymptotes 6–7
104–5 rates of change of connected variables vertical circular motion 370, 378
triangles 327–9 61–3 circular motion with non-uniform speed
trigonometric functions 48, 315 sums of independent random variables 370–5
general solutions for cosine curves 49–51, 139–41 leaving the circular path 375–8
55 variance 149–50, 154–5 volume of a parallelepiped 339–40
general solutions for sine curves 51–2, 55 geometric uniform distribution 122–5
general solutions for tangent curves 52–3, probability generating functions 132–4 W
55 vector product 324, 342–3 work and energy 408
general solutions of trigonometric area of a triangle and parallelogram 327–9 elastic potential energy (EPE) 409–14
equations 49–53 vector product in component form 325–7 work done by a variable force 408–9
periodic functions 49, 55 vector product is not commutative 324 work done in stretching a string 409
solving equations involving more vector product of parallel vectors is zero work-energy principle 408
complicated terms 53–4, 55 324
trigonometric powers such as sin2x and vector product of perpendicular vectors Z
trigonometric identities 54 324–5 zero matrices 75, 80
trigonometric identities 245 vectors 158, 320–1, 342 zero vector 324
476 Index
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International A Level
FURTHER eBook
MATHEMATICS Available
with Mechanics
Brian Gaulter, Mark Gaulter, Brian Jefferson and John Rayneau
The only textbook that fully supports the Oxford AQA International This textbook
AS & A Level Further Mathematics specication (9665) with the A2 covers AS,
Mechanics option, for rst teaching from September 2017. A2 Pure and
A2 Mechanics
■ Prepare for exam success with stretching practice, including
exam-style questions.
■ Build a strong foundation for university study with an
emphasis on pure mathematics.
■ Ensure thorough comprehensionwith model answers that
demonstrate exactly how problems are solved.
■ Encourage independent studywith review and summary sections.
■ Support students whodon’t speak English as a first
languagewith clear explanations and a step-by-step structure.
FM1 1.1 14
Constant Velocity in Given and , you can nd the magnitude and direction:
14
r = x 2 + y 2 and tan =
Two Dimensions
It is a good idea to sketch a diagram when nding because, for example,
(3 ) and ( ) would give the same value of tan
Introduction
If the pilot of a helicopter sets a course to meet up with a ship at sea, the
course will depend on the present position and velocity of the ship, and
Objectives
By the end of this chapter,
you should know how to:
Example 1
Express these vectors in component form.
Also available:
must allow for the speed and direction of the wind. is chapter shows how ▶ Use vectors
to represent
noitseuQ
to analyse situations like this, where an object can be aected by more than
one velocity. displacement and
velocity in two
dimensions.
Recap ▶ Find the resultant of
You will need to remember . . . two velocities.
▶ e sine rule and cosine rule for a triangleABC. ▶ Find the velocity of
▶ How to dierentiate in terms of one object relative to OA = 6cos 50° = 3.86 and AP = 6sin 50° = 4.60
▶ How to solve a quadratic equation by completing the square. another. 3.86
▶ A vector, written for example as or , has magnitude and direction. ▶ Use relative velocity OP = 3.86i + 4.60 j or 4.60
rewsnA
▶ e magnitude of is written | to nd an interception
OB = 15 cos 43° = 11.0 and BQ = 15 sin 43° = 10.2
1
▶ Vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction. or closest-approach
is parallel to , and | course. 11.0
▶ In the diagram, ; is ▶ Find how near to each
OQ = −11.0i − 10.2 j or 10.2
the resultant of and . other two moving
▶ Subtracting a vector is the same as objects will pass. Example 2
adding its negative:
Find the magnitude and direction of these vectors.
noitseuQ
Note
Note
14.1 Vectors in component form You can also use column
vector notation: . You should always make the
A vector with a magnitude of 1 is called aunit vector direction clear. You can mark
Vectors and are unit vectors in the and y-directions. the angle in a diagram, as in
e vector OP shown has an -component of 3 and a -component of 2. You this case, or you can state
can write it in component form in terms of and , or as a column vector the rotation from the positive
rewsnA
-direction (the answer to
OP = 3i + 2 j = part would then be given as
= 52 + 22 = 5.39 = ( −1)2 + (−2)2 = 2.24 116.6 ). In some questions
1 2 3
you will need to give the
Finding magnitude and direction tan θ = giving θ = 21.8° tanθ = 2 giving θ = 63.4° direction as a bearing.
Suppose that the vectorOP has magnitude , direction and components
and , as shown.
14.2 Position, displacement, distance,
Given and , you can resolve the vector into components:
velocity and speed
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ
You should already know from earlier studies that the position of an object, its
displacement and its velocity as it moves are all vector quantities.
158 Constant Velocity in Two Dimensions Constant Velocity in Two Dimensions 159
978-0-19-837599-9
How to get in touch: ISBN 978-0-19-837600-2
web www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk
email [email protected]
tel +44 (0)1536 452620
fax +44 (0)1865 313472 9 780198 376002
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