Electric Propulsion System

Frequency Converters Principles

October 2007
 Agenda

Electro-magnetic Field

Electric Machines

Frequency converters Principles

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 Electro-magnetic Field

The magnetic force is one of the four fundamental forces of the

Universe (with gravitation, nuclear strong and nuclear weak forces).
The origin of the magnetic force is in the tiny electric currents, at
atomic level, of the spinning of electrons, thus it can be named the
electro-magnetic force.
At a natural stage it can be detected around naturally magnetic
materials, or at the level of the earth magnetic field (itself due to the
circulation of the magma, in the heart of the earth).
As a force it exerts an attraction or a repulsion on any material
subject to an electric current, such as another magnet, or any
electric circuit.
At our macroscopic level, in the natural stage, it is a small force
compared to gravitation. It can be detected with the magnetic needle
of a compass.
To obtain a stronger magnetic force we must use much greater
currents than those of the spinning of electrons.

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 Electro-magnetic Field

It is easy to obtain a « magnet » with

an electric circuit by simply
« stacking » the effects of a current B
circulating (rotating) into a series of
coils, wound together, in a common E
winding.
If the value of the current is constant, the
resulting magnetic field will be constant,
in space as well as in time.
The force itself can be represented in each point of the space by a vector, B,
called « induction », measured in Tesla

The magnetic field can be guided within

a magnetic circuit, composed of piled-up
magnetic steel sheets.
This is done in transformers and electric
machines.
Magnetic circuit

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 Electro-magnetic Field - Flux

As any force the induction is North

represented by a vector, it has an B
intensity, and a direction, it is oriented.
The orientation of the induction in each
point of the space, gives the orientation of
the field lines, the lines to which the
induction vector is tangent, in each point.
The intensity of the induction corresponds
to a strength of the magnetic field.
Because of its orientation and its strength,
the magnetic field going through a closed
circuit, or through a winding, can be seen
as a flow. South

In the same manner as a flow of water

going through a pipe.

The « flow » of the magnetic field is called the flux.

Its strength, or intensity, is measured in Weber.

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 Electro-magnetic Field

Magnetic to magnetic

Magnetic attraction between opposed poles : North and South
 This is the principle used in synchronous machines

Magnetic repulsion between poles of the same type : North/North or
South/South

Electric current Magnetic

Magnetic to electric field

An induced force is applied to any electric

circuit, with a current, submitted to a
magnetic field
 This is used in induction machines

A variation of its surrounding magnetic field will

induce a voltage in any electric circuit
 This is used in transformers and in machines, for generator mode
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 Electro-magnetic Field

If we have a variable current, in time, the magnetic field will also vary, in
time.
With a sinusoidal current, we obtain a sinusoidal variation of the induction

B
I B
I

t t

Série1 Série1

The magnetic field will vary in time, but not in space : the forces lines remain
in the same place, only the induction, the direction and intensity of the force,
will vary.
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 Electro-magnetic Field

Rotating magnetic field

Three fixed windings, positioned at 120 °
of each other, fed with a three-phase
sinusoidal current, will produce a
resulting rotating field

The three fields combine together to

result in a unique field, rotating in space !

This is what we do with the stators or The B vector, above, corresponds to the field of
both : a two-pole (rotating) magnet.
Therefore this illustrates a two-pole machine
- Synchronous machines
If we use more than three coils, six, or nine, etc,
- Asynchronous (induction) machines equally distributed on the stator circumference,
then we shall have a multi-pole machine

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 Frequency Converters Principles

Electro-magnetic Field

Electric Machines

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 Electric Machines

Stator
The stator is the same for a synchronous
or induction machine

Its active parts consist in :

An electric circuit :
Made of a number of coils, where the three-
phase stator current will circulate, creating the
stator rotating magnetic field
A magnetic circuit
Made by stacked magnetic steel sheets, which role is to guide the magnetic field
lines
One electric coil
Magnetic circuit

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 Electric Machines

Stator Winding the stator coils

For a two-pole machine, the simplest way is just to use three coils, as
explained before, to obtain the rotating field.

In this case the coils will be distributed

as shown on this figure

We can represent the coils on a cut and flattened

stator, seen from above

In order to obtain a better distribution

of the field, each coil will be made by
a number of parallel coils, distributed
in several slots and connected
together
Example with three
parallel coils per
phase

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 Electric Machines

Rotor Synchronous machine

The rotor of a synchronous machine consists in magnets, each with two poles,
North and South

The number of poles at rotor side

must be the same as the number
of poles at stator side
S
N
Here we have a four-pole
machine (or two pairs of poles)

The coiled rotor poles (magnets)

N must be fed by DC current.
S
This is done by the « exciter » and
excitation circuit (rotating diodes)

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 Electric Machines

Rotor Induction (asynchronous) machine

The rotor of an induction machine consists in an electric circuit, generally

made of a simple « squirrel cage », embedded in a magnetic circuit

When submitted to the variable stator magnetic field, the

rotor electric circuit will generate induced rotor currents
We will explain the functioning later on

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 Electric Machines – Synchronous Motor

Synchronous Motor Principles

The rotating stator field causes the rotor

poles to follow its rotation, at same
speed, simply by magnetic attraction
between opposite poles

If there is no resisting torque on the

shaft (no load), the poles will be in front
of each other (north facing south)

If there is a resisting torque on the shaft (load to be driven), there will be

an angle between the axis of the rotor poles and the axis of the stator
poles, but stator field and rotor will remain at the same speed

The maximum possible torque corresponds to about 90° an gle between

stator poles axis and rotor pole axis. If the load increases beyond this
limit the motor will drop out and stop

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 Electric Machines – Synchronous Motor

Torque – Internal angle Characteristics

Motor mode T Generator mode

150 %
At excitation 100 %
50 %

-180° -90° 90° 180° δ

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 Electric Machines – Induction Motor

Induction Motor Principles

The stator of an induction motor is the same as that of a synchronous

motor, with the same rotating stator field
But the principle to drive the rotor is different

The rotor is a simple squirrel cage with bars

short-circuited at each end by a ring

The variation of the stator field, due to its rotation, will induce a current to
circulate in the rotor circuit (in the rotor bars)

Each rotor bar, having a current, and submitted to a magnetic field, will
be subjected to a force, perpendicular to the bar axis. The result will be
an « induced » torque applied to the rotor cage

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 Electric Machines – Induction Motor

If there were no resisting torque on the shaft (no load at all), the induced
torque would start the rotation of the rotor and bring it to the same speed
as that of the stator rotating field.

If there is a resisting torque on the shaft (load to be driven), it will slow

down the rotor, and there will be a speed difference between stator field
and rotor, a slippage

The heavier the load, the bigger the slippage

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 Electric Machines – Induction Motor

Let us first illustrate the principles of synchronous and induction

machines with two animations

Synchronous Motor
Induction Motor

And now let us review some features of the induction motor, and its use
with variable speed drives.

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 Electric Machines – Induction Motor

Torque – Speed Characteristics T At variable F & constant U/F

Rated curve
Constant torque at
At constant voltage & frequency different speeds

T
Motor mode Generator mode

N
Fr / Fs

Frotor / Fstator (p.u)

0 1
At variable F & decreasing U/F
T
Rated curve

Decreasing torque

Fr / Fs
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 Electric Machines – Mechanical reminders

Every electric machine is reversible, which means it can work either

in motor mode or in generator mode

Generator mode
The machine receives mechanical energy from a prime mover, diesel
engine or turbine, connected to its rotor, and converts it into electrical
energy delivered to an electrical network connected to its stator
Motor mode
The machine receives electrical energy from the network, and converts it
into mechanical energy available at the shaft of its rotor, to drive a load

Every electric machine can rotate in both directions clockwise, counter-

clockwise

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 Electric Machines – Mechanical reminders

The two mechanical parameters to be controlled in the use of a machine are :

Torque (m.N)
Speed (rpm or Rd/s)

The mechanical power is the product :

P (W) = Torque (m.N) X Speed (Rd/s)

The convention for a motor is to note :

Motor mode : P>0 P=T.N
Generator mode : P<0 P=T.N

Every electric machine can work in the four quadrants of a torque /

speed diagram

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 Electric Machines – Mechanical reminders

torque (mN)
TM TM
TR
T TR
Generator N N
Motor

N
TM TM
speed (rpm)
TR TR
N N

Motor Generator

TM Motor torque
TR Resisting torque
N Shaft speed

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 Electric Machines

How to control the speed of the synchronous or induction motor ?

This is easy

The rotor shaft speed depends directly on the speed of the stator rotating
field, which in turn directly depends on the frequency of the current or
voltage applied to the stator circuit

We will apply a voltage or current of the desired frequency to the stator

circuit, to obtain the desired rotor speed
For a synchronous motor this frequency directly corresponds to the
rotor speed
For an induction motor we shall have to add a frequency correction
(∆F), to compensate for the slippage : Fstator = Frotor + ∆F

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 Electric Machines

Example :

For a synchronous motor, of nominal characteristics 720 rpm / 60 Hz :

If we need to run it at 30 % of its nominal speed, the corresponding stator
current will be a sine wave at 18 Hz = 30% x 60 Hz

For an induction motor, of nominal characteristics 585 rpm / 60 Hz, with

nominal slippage 2,5 % (at nominal torque) :
If we need to run it at 30 % of its nominal speed, still at nominal torque,
the corresponding stator current will be a sine wave at 18,45 Hz
18 Hz = 30% x 60 Hz
2,5 % x 18 Hz = 0,45 Hz

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 Electric Machines

How to control the torque of the synchronous or induction motor ?

This is more complicated …

r r
The torque of an electric machine is given by T = k φ ∧ I
r
vector product of : φr vector representing total flux, stator and rotor flux
I instant vector representing the three-phase stator currents
r r
Torque will be maximum when φ and I
are kept perpendicular to each other
r r
But φ and I are not independent, they are linked together

« Vector control » relates to the computation of equations linking the components

of these vectors, in adequately chosen axes, so that they can be controlled
separately

The components are linked through a matrix representing a model of the motor

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 Electric Machines

Torque and Speed relation

Torque and speed are linked together :

 Statically : you cannot reach the desired speed if you do
not produce a sufficient torque
 And dynamically : if the motor torque is greater than the
resisting torque (propeller torque), you will finally reach
the speed, but how long will this take ?

This is given by the relation : Shaft line inertia (kg.m²)

dω
Tm = T r + J Speed variation
dt acceleration /
Motor torque deceleration
(mN) Resisting torque (rd/s)
(propeller)

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 Electric Machines

Why bother so much about torque ?

In industry (metal, paper, etc): torque means tension in the product
 Quality of torque control (precision, dynamic response) means
quality of product
In propulsion (marine, trains, vehicles, etc): torque means dynamic response
 Quality of torque control means manoeuvrability

r r
The torque of an electric machine is given by T = k φ ∧ I
r
φ is the total flux, stator and rotor flux
This is why for a synchronous motor the control of the excitation is not enough
(rotor flux)
r r
Torque will be maximum when φ and I are kept perpendicular to each other

Vector control will deal not only with magnitude but also with phase, so that both
vectors will be kept perpendicular at all times, including transient periods

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 Frequency Converters Principles

Electro-magnetic Field

Electric Machines

Frequency Converters Principles

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 Frequency Converters Principles

There are many sorts of variable speed drives, for synchronous motors as well
as for induction motors

The constant evolution of technology, for power electronic devices and for
control devices, has rendered some solutions obsolete. So we will
concentrate only on the up-to-date, most efficient, solutions

We can distinguish two aspects :

 Power architecture
 Control architecture

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 Frequency Converters Principles

Power Architecture In motor mode

Network Bridge Machine Bridge

AC Network
DC Link
Propulsion R I
Transformer e n
c v
t e
i r M
f t
i e
e r
r

Basically we can define two families of drives

 Current fed inverters synchroconverter
 Voltage fed inverters pwm converter

We will revert to each subject separately

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 Frequency Converters Principles

Control Architecture

Control architecture relates to the computation of :

 Measurements
 Motor model parameters and variables
in order to achieve the required quality and performance for :
Speed control
Torque control

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 Frequency Converters Principles

Control Architecture
Speed Ref

N.B
Limited Torque Ref
Motor Ramps
Speed Ref + εN Motor
Speed
Control Loop model
- M.B
Mot. Freq.
meas. Torque Ref I
Speed meas. U

Selection
PLS M

Network frequency limitation

Network voltage limitation

Sequential limitation

Process limitation

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 Frequency Converters Principles

Control Architecture
We can distinguish between two control methods, applicable to both current and
voltage fed inverters, to both synchronous and induction motors :
 Scalar control : only the magnitude of vector variables is controlled
 Vector control : magnitude and phase are controlled
The difference is to be found in the motor model and computation method.
Voltage (or current) and frequency are the two control variables.
But both torque and flux depend on voltage (or current) and frequency.
And moreover torque also depends on flux. So torque and flux cannot be
controlled separately with scalar methods.
The result of scalar methods is poor dynamic response and poor torque control
(with the exception of « Direct Torque Control », of which we will talk later on)

But Flux Vector Control will de-couple, and separately control, torque and flux.
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 Frequency Converters Principles

Basic principles
r r
The torque of an electric machine is given by T = k φ ∧ I
r
vector product of : φr vector representing total flux, stator and rotor flux
I instant vector representing the three-phase stator currents
r r
But φ and I are not independent, they are linked together !
r r
When we touch I … we also touch φ !!
r
The principle is then to « break » I into two components : Im and Ia

which we can control independently

Im is the magnetising component, which will control the flux

Ia is the active component, which will control the torque

This will require a lot of calculations, to be done at each scanning period, but it
is now possible with modern digital micro-controllers
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 Frequency Converters Principles

Instant current vector

For a synchronous motor
r
I is the rotating vector, sum of the
three instantaneous stator
currents Iu(t)

Iw(t)
I(t)

Iv(t)

Iu(t)
For an induction motor IW(t) IV(t)

Two instant current vectors :

 One for stator currents
 One for rotor currents

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  Frequency Converters Principles

Basic principles … some more details

The three-phase machine (synchronous or induction), is first mathematically

transformed into a two-phase equivalent machine

Iu(t)

Iβ(t)

IW(t) IV(t)
Iα(t)

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 Frequency Converters Principles

We can still have the rotating field with the two-phase machine
(only the equations are different)

Iβ(t)

Iα(t)

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 Frequency Converters Principles

This transformation is applied to the instant current vector, Is, which is then
expressed in the fixed reference axes α,β
This new instant current vector is further expressed in a new reference axes
m,a, rotating with the flux

a Is
m

Ia Im
α

The components of the instant current vector, in this rotating system of axes …

Are the magnetising and active components we were looking for !

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 Frequency Converters Principles

We can now take a closer look inside the vector control architecture
Synchronous motor case
Speed Ref Torque
Control Ø
Torque Ref Motor Firing angles
Ia Iα N.B
computation
+ Control Loop m,a 2 ph Ref I Dynamic
-
Iβ Model
Ref Im Im α,β 3 ph
Control Loop Meas I Firing angles
M.B
Meas U computation
Flux
U
Control

Meas Ia Instant vector I

m,a 2 ph
I
Meas Im 3 ph computation
α,β
M

Speed Meas. Ø Flux

Ref Im = f(N) Iex
(computation) computation
Speed Ref Firing angles
Excit.
computation

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 Frequency Converters Principles

Let us now take a look into the vector control for the induction motor

The same principle will apply :

 Transforming the three-phase machine into a two-phase equivalent
machine
We have two instant current vectors, one for stator, one for rotor
But :
 If we choose the rotating reference system (m,a) linked to the rotor flux
Then only the stator current vector will intervene in the motor’s equations

Also, of course, the motor dynamic model will be different

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 Frequency Converters Principles

A closer look inside the vector control architecture Induction motor case

Speed Ref Torque Ø rotor

Control
Ø stator Motor
Torque Ref Firing angles
Ia Iα N.B
Control Loop m,a 2 ph Dynamic computation
+ Ref I
-
Iβ Model
Ref Im Im α,β 3 ph
Control Loop Meas I Firing angles
M.B
Ø Meas U computation
Flux M / (1+ pTr)
rotor U
Control
Meas Ia Stator I
m,a 2 ph Instant vector
Meas Im I
α,β 3 ph
computation M

Ø stator Stator Flux

Speed Meas.
Ref Im = f(N) (computation) computation

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 Frequency Converters Principles

This concludes with our presentation

of the principles of frequency converters

Further detailed presentations are available for :

Synchro-Converters PWM Converters

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 This concludes our presentation

Thank you for your attention

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