Contents:

• Groups • Permutation Groups

Definition and Definition and Notation
Cycle Notation
Examples Properties of Permutations
Elementary Properties
• Finite Groups; Subgroups
Terminology and
Notation
Subgroup Tests
Examples of Subgroups
• Cyclic Groups
• Properties of Cyclic
Groups
Classifications of
Subgroups of
Cyclic Groups
 Definition of a Group
A Group G is a collection of elements
together with a binary operation* which
satisfies the following properties:

Closure
Associativity
Identity
Inverses

* A binary operation is a function on G

which assigns an element of G to each
ordered pair of elements in G. For
example, multiplication and addition are
binary operations.
rubic cube permutation group
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation_group
 Classification of Groups

Groups may be Finite or Infinite;

that is, they may contain a finite
number of elements,
or an infinite number of elements.

Also, groups may be

Commutative or
Non-Commutative,
that is, the commutative property
may or may not apply to all
elements of the group.
Commutative groups are also
called Abelian groups.
Examples of Groups
Examples of Groups:
Infinite, Abelian:
The Integers under Addition (Z, +)
The Rational Numbers without 0 under multiplication (Q*, X)
Infinite, Non-Abelian:
The General Linear Groups (GL,n), the nonsingular nxn matrices
under matrix multiplication
Finite, Abelian:
The Integers Mod n under Modular Addition (Zn , +)
Finite, Non-Abelian:
The Dihedral Groups Dn the permutations on a regular n-sided
figure under function composition.
The Permutation Groups Sn, the one to one and onto functions
from a set to itself under function composition.

euler totient graph

http://www.123exp-math.com/t/01704079357/
 Properties of a Group:
Closure
“If we combine any two elements in the group under the binary
operation, the result is always another element in the group.” -- Geoff
“Not necessarily another element of the group!” -- Joni
Example:
The Integers under Addition, (Z, +)
1 and 2 are elements of Z,
1+2 = 3, also an element of Z

Non-Examples:
The Odd Integers are not closed under
Addition. For example, 3 and 5 are odd
integers, but 3+5 = 8 and 8 is not an odd
integer.
The Integers lack inverses under
Multiplication, as do the Rational numbers
(because of 0.) However, if we remove 0 from
the Rational numbers, we obtain an infinite
closed group under multiplication.
"members only"
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.html?curid=12686
870
 Properties of a Group: Associativity

The Associative Property, familiar from

ordinary arithmetic on real numbers,
states that (ab)c = a(bc). This may be
extended to as many elements as
necessary.

For example:
In Integers,
a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c.
Caution:
In Matrix Multiplication, The Commutative Property, also familiar
from ordinary arithmetic on real numbers,
(A*B)*C=A*(B*C).
does not generally apply to all groups!
In function composition, Only Abelian groups are commutative.
f*(g*h) = (f*g)*h.
This may take some “getting-used-to,” at first!
This is a property of all groups. associative loop
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebraic_structures
 Properties of a Group: Identity

The Identity Property, familiar from

ordinary arithmetic on real numbers,
states that, for all elements a in G,
a+e = e+a = a.

For example,

in Integers, a+0 = 0+a = a.

In (Q*, X), a*1 = 1*a = a.
The Identity is Unique!
In Matrix Multiplication, A*I = I*A = A.

This is a property of all groups. There is only one identity

element in any group.

|1 0| = I This property is used in

proofs.
|0 1|
 Properties of a Group:
Inverses
The inverse of an element, combined with that element, gives the
identity.

Inverses are unique. That is, each element has exactly

one inverse, and no two distinct elements have the same inverse.
The uniqueness of inverses is used in proofs.

For example...
In (Z,+), the inverse of x is -x.
In (Q*, X), the inverse of x is 1/x.
In (Zn, +), the inverse of x is n-x.
In abstract algebra, the inverse of an element a is usually written a-1.

This is why (GL,n) and (SL, n) do not include singular matrices;

only nonsingular matrices have inverses.
In Zn, the modular integers, the group operation is understood to be
addition, because if n is not prime, multiplicative inverses do not
exist, or are not unique.
The U(n) groups are finite groups under modular multiplication.
 Abelian Groups
Abelian Groups are groups which have the
Commutative property, a*b=b*a for all a and b in G.

This is so familiar from ordinary arithmetic on Real

numbers, that students who are new to Abstract
Algebra must be careful not to assume that it
applies to the group on hand.
Neils Abel postage stamp http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neils_Abel
Abelian groups are named after Neils Abel, a
Norwegian mathematician.
Abelian groups may be recognized
by a diagonal symmetry in their
Cayley table (a table showing the
group elements and the results of
their composition under the group
binary operation.)

This symmetry may be used in

constructing a Cayley table, if we
know that the group is Abelian.
Cayley tables for Z4 and U8
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~joa/MAT313/hw-VIII---313.html
 Examples of Abelian Groups

Some examples of Abelian groups are:

 The Integers under Addition, (Z,+)

 The Non-Zero Rational Numbers under
Multiplication, (Q*, X)
 The Modular Integers under modular addition,
(Zn, +)
 The U-groups, under modular multiplication,
U(n) = {the set of integers less than or equal to n,
and relatively prime to n}
 All groups of order 4 are Abelian. There are only
two such groups: Z4 and U(4).

http://www.math.csusb.edu/faculty/susan/modular/modular.html
 Non-Abelian Groups
Some examples of Non-Abelian
groups are:

Dn, the transformations on a regular n-

sided figure under function composition
(GL,n), the non-singular square matrices
of order n under matrix multiplication
(SL,n), the square matrices of order n
with determinant = 1under matrix
multiplication

Sn, the permutation groups of degree

n under function composition
An, the even permutation groups of
degree n under function composition
subgroup lattice for s3
D3 knot reflections of a triangle http://www.mathhelpfor
http://www.answers.com/topic/di um.com/math-
http://www.math.utk.edu/
permutation group A4 hedral-group help/advanced-
~morwen/3d_pics/more_ algebra/22850-normal-
http://faculty.smcm.edu/sgoldstine/origami/displaytext.html d3.html
permutation group s5 subgroup.html
http://www.valdostamuseum.org/hamsmith/PDS3.html
 Finite Groups and
Subgroups, Terminology
At this time we are mainly concerned with finite groups, that is, groups with a
finite number of elements.

The order of a group, |G|, is the number of elements in the group. The order of a
group may be finite or infinite.

The order of an element, |a|, is the smallest positive integer n such that an = e.

The order of an element may likewise be finite or infinite.

Note: if |a|=2 then a=a-1. If |a|=1 then a=e.

A subgroup H of a group G is a subset of G together with the group operation,

such that H is also a group.

That is, H is closed under the operation, and includes inverses and identity.

(Note: H must use the same group operation as G. So Zn, the integers mod n, is
euler portrait
not a subgroup of Z, the integers, because the group operation is different.) http://www.math.o
hio-
state.edu/~sinnott/
ReadingClassics/h
omepage.html
 Cancellation and
Conjugation
In any group,

a*b=a*c implies that b=c and

c*a=b*a implies that c=b.

This is used in proofs.

To conjugate an element a by x
means to multiply thus:
xax-1 or x-1ax

While conjugating an element

may change its value, the order
|a| is preserved.

This is useful in proofs and in

solving matrix equations.

cancellation and conjugation

http://keelynet.com/indexfeb206.htm
 “Socks and Shoes” Property
When taking inverses of two or
more elements composed together,
the positions of the elements
reverse.

That is, (a*b)-1 = b-1*a-1. For more

elements, this generalizes to
(ab...yz)-1 = z-1y-1...b-1a-1.

In Abelian groups, it is also true

that (ab)-1 = a-1b-1 and (ab)n = anbn.
This also generalizes to more
elements.

This is called the “socks and

shoes property” as a mnemonic,
because the inverse of putting on
one's socks and shoes, in that
order, is removing ones shoes and
socks, in that order. shoes and socks in the car
http://picasaweb.google.com/mp3873/PAD#5235584405081556594
shoes and socks
http://www.inkfinger.us/my_weblog/2007/04/index.html
 Subgroup Tests:
The One Step Subgroup Test
Suppose G is a group and H is a non-empty
subset of G. To apply this test:
If, whenever a and b are in H, Note that H is a non-

ab-1 is also in H, empty subset of G.

ab-1
then H is a subgroup of G. Show that for any two

elements
Or, in additive notation: a and b in H, a*b-1 is also
If, whenever a and b are in H, H in H.
a - b is also in H, Conclude that H is a
then H is a subgroup of G. subgroup of G.

Example: Show that the even integers are a subgroup

of the Integers.
Note that the even integers is not an empty set
because 2 is an even integer.
Let a and b be even integers.
Then a = 2j and b = 2k for some integers j and k.
a + (-b) = 2j + 2(-k) = 2(j-k) = an even integer
Thus a - b is an even integer
one step at a time by norby
Thus the even integers are a subgroup of the integers. http://www.flickr.com/photos/norby/37932
1413/
Subgroup Tests:
The Two Step Subgroup Test
Let G be a group and H a To Apply the Two Step
nonempty subset of G. If a●b is in Subgroup Test:
H whenever a and b are in H, and Note that H is nonempty

a-1 is in H whenever a is in H, then Show that H is closed with

H is a subgroup of G. respect to the group operation

Show that H is closed with

Example: show that 3Q*, the non-zero multiples of respect to inverses.

Conclude that H is a subgroup
3n where n is an integer, is a subgroup of Q*, the
non-zero rational numbers. of G.

3Q* is non-empty because 3 is an element of 3Q*.

For a, b in 3Q*, a=3i and b=3j where i, j are in Q*.
Then ab=3i3j=3(3ij), an element of 3Q* (closed)
For a in 3Q*, a=3j for j an element in Q*.
Then a-1=(j-1*3-1), an element of 3Q*. (inverses)
Therefore 3Q* is a subgroup of Q*.

http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Asia/Brunei/photo653317.htm
Subgroup Tests:
The Finite Subgroup Test

Let H be a nonempty To Use the Finite Subgroup Test:

finite subset of G. If H
If we know that H is finite and non-empty, all we
is closed under the need to do is show that H is closed under the
group operation, then group operation. Then we may conclude that H
H is a subgroup of G. is a subgroup of G.

Example: To Show that, in Dn, the rotations form a

subgroup of Dn:

Note that the set of rotations is non-empty because

R0 is a rotation.
Note that the composition of two rotations is always
a rotation.
Therefore, the rotations in Dn are a subgroup of Dn.

math cartoons from

http://www.math.kent.edu/~sather/ugcolloq.html
 Examples of Subgroups:
cyclic subgroups
Let G be a group, and a an element of G. For example:
Let <a> = {an , where n is an integer}, In R*, <2>, the powers of 2,
(that is, all powers of a.)
...Or, in additive notation,,,
form a subgroup of R*.
let <a>={na, where n is an integer}, In Z, <2>, the even numbers,
(that is, all multiples of a.) form a subgroup.
Then <a> is a subgroup of G. In Z8, the integers mod 8,
Note:
<2>={2,4,6,0}
In multiplicative notation, a0 = 1 is is a subgroup of Z8.
the identity; while 0a=0 is the identity in In D3, the dihedral group of
additive notation. order 6, <R120> = {R0, R120,
Thus <a> includes the identity. R240} is a subgroup of D3
Also note that the integers less than 0 are
included here, so <a> includes all inverses.

Each element generates its own cyclic subgroup.

subgroup image
http://marauder.millersville.edu/~bikenaga/abstractalgebra/subgroup/subgroup19.png
 Examples of Subgroups:
The Center of a Group Z(G)
The Center of a group, written Z(G),
is the subset of elements in G which
commute with all elements of G.

If G is Abelian, then Z(G)=G.

If G is non-Abelian, then Z(G) may

consist only of the identity, or it may
have other elements as well.

For example, Z(D4) = {R0, R180}.

The Center of a
Group is a
Subgroup of that
group. Subgroup lattice for D3
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/DihedralGroupD3.html
 Examples of Subgroups:
The Centralizer of an Element
C(a)
The Centralizer of an
element C(a):
For any element a in G,
the Centralizer of a,
written C(a)
is the set
of all elements of G
which commute with a.

In an Abelian group,
C(a) is the entire group.
In a non-Abelian group,
C(a) may consist only of
the identity, a, and a-1, For example, in D3,
or it may include other C(f) ={f, R0},
elements as well. while C(R0)=D3

For each element a in a group G,

C(a) = the centralizer of a is a subgroup of G.
subgroup image http://marauder.millersville.edu/~bikenaga/abstractalgebra/subgroup/subgroup19.png
 Cyclic Groups
A Cyclic Group is a group Examples:

which can be generated by (Z,.+) is generated by 1 or -1.

one of its elements. Zn, the integers mod n
under modular addition,
is generated by 1
That is, for some a in G,
or by any element k in Zn
G={an | n is an element of Z} which is relatively prime to n.
Or, in addition notation,
G={na |n is an element of Z}

This element a Non-Examples:

(which need not be unique) is called a Q* is not a cyclic group,
although it contains an infinite
generator of G.
number of cyclic subgroups.
U(8) is not a cyclic group.
Alternatively, we may write G=<a>. Dn is not a cyclic group
although it contains a cyclic
subgroup <R(360/n)>
http://www.math.csusb.edu/faculty/susan/modular/modular.html
 Properties of Cyclic Groups:

Criterion for ai = aj

For |a| = n, For example, in Z5,

ai = aj iff n divides (i-j) 2x4 = 7x4 = 3 because
(alternatively, if i=j mod n.) 2=7 mod 5

Or, in additive notation, For example...

ia = ja iff i=j mod n. in Z10, |2|=5 and
<2>={2,4,6,8,0}
Corollaries:
1. |a|=|<a>| that is,
the order of an element is
equal to the order of the
cyclic group generated by
that element.
Caution: This is why it is an error to say, that the order of
an element is the power that you need to raise the
2. If ak=e then the order of element to, to get e.
a divides k. A correct statement is, the order of an element is the
math cartoons from smallest positive power you need to raise the element to,
http://www.math.kent.edu/~sather/ugcolloq.html to get e.
 Properties of Cyclic Groups

For |a|=n, k
<a >=<agcd(n,k)>
k n
and |a |= /gcd(n,k)
In words, this reads as: For example ...
If the order of a is n, In Z30, let a=1. Then |a|=30.
then the cyclic group Since Z30 uses modular addition, a26 is
generated by a to the k power the same as 26. What is the order of 26?
is the same as
the cyclic group generated by Since gcd (26,30)=2, and gcd(2,30)=2, it
a to the power of follows that |26|= |2| = gcd(2,30)=15.
the greatest common divisor
of n and k. Thus we expect that <26>=<2>,
Also, the order of a to the k power and, in fact, this is {0,2,4,6,8...24,26,28}.
is equal to
the order of a So we see that |<2>|=|<26>|
divided by =30/gcd(2,30) = 30/2 = 15.
the greatest common divisor of
k and the order of a.

(Exercise: Try verbalizing a similar “You may have to do something like this in a
statement for additive notation!)
stressful situation” - Dr. Englund
 Properties of Cyclic Groups

For |a|=n, k
<a >=<agcd(n,k)>
and |ak|=n/gcd(n,k) Corollaries....
Corollary 1: When For example ...
In Z30, let a=1. Again, consider a2 and a26.
are cyclic subgroups
equal to one another? Since gcd (26,30)=2, and gcd(2,30)=2,
Let |a|=n. it follows that <|26|>= <|2|> =
gcd(2,30)=15.
Then <ai>=<aj> iff
gcd(n,i)=gcd(n,j) Thus we expect that <26>=<2>,
and, in fact, this is {0,2,4,6,8...24,26,28}.
So we see that |<2>|=|<26>|
=30/gcd(2,30) = 30/2 = 15.
This gives us an easy
way to specify the
On the other hand, <3> ≠<2>
generators of a group,
because gcd(30,3) = 3 while gcd (30,2)=2.
the generators of its
And in fact,
subgroups, and to tell
<3>={0,3,6...24,27} and |<3>|=30/3 = 10.
how these are related.
However, <3>=<9>. Do you see why?
 Properties of Cyclic Groups

For |a|=n, k
<a >=<agcd(n,k)>
and |ak|=n/gcd(n,k) Corollaries....
Corollary 2: Generators of For example ...
Cyclic Groups
In any cyclic group G=<a> In Z10, let a=1,
with order n, so that Z10 = <a>.
the generators are ak
for each k relatively prime to n. Other generators for Z10 are
ak for each k less than 10
This gives an easy way and relatively prime to 10.
to find all of the
generators So the other generators are
of a cyclic group. 3,7,and 9.

Corollary 3
specifies this for Zn , the integers mod n under modular addition.
Since any Zn is a cyclic group of order n, gauss stamp
http://webpages.math.luc.e
its generators would be the positive integers less than n du/~ajs/courses/322spring
2004/worksheets/ws5.html
and relatively prime to n.
 Properties of Cyclic Groups:

The Fundamental Theorem of

Cyclic Groups
Let G=<a> be a cyclic
For example
group of order n. Then ... consider Z10 = <1> with |1|=10.
Let a=1.
Every subgroup of Z10 is also cyclic.
1. Every subgroup of a The divisors of 10 are 1, 2, 5, and 10.
cyclic group is also cyclic.
For each of these divisors we have
2. The order of each exactly one subgroup of Z10, that is,
<1>, the group itself, with order 10/1=10
subgroup divides the <2>={0,2,4,6,8} with order 10/2 = 5
order of the group. <5>={0,5} with order 10/5 = 2
<10>={0} with order 10/10=1
3. For each divisor k of
n, there is exactly one The order of each of these subgroups is
a divisor of the order of the group, 10.
subgroup of order k, that
n/k
is, <a > So the generators of Z10 would be 1, and
the remaining elements: 3, 7, and 9.
symmetry 6 ceiling art
http://architecture-buildingconstruction.blogspot.com/2006_03_01_archive.html
 Properties of Cyclic Groups:

The Fundamental Theorem of

Cyclic Groups - Corollary
For example
Corollary -- consider Z10 = <1> with |1|=10.
Subgroups of Zn: Let a=1.
Every subgroup of Z10 is also cyclic.
For each The divisors of 10 are 1, 2, 5, and 10.

positive divisor k of n, For each of these divisors we have

exactly one subgroup of Z10, that is,
the set <n/k> <1>, the group itself, with order 10/1=10
<2>={0,2,4,6,8} with order 10/2 = 5
is the unique <5>={0,5} with order 10/5 = 2
subgroup of Zn <10>={0} with order 10/10=1

of order k. The order of each of these subgroups is

a divisor of the order of the group, 10.
These are the
So the generators of Z10 would be 1, and
only the remaining elements: 3, 7, and 9..
subgroups of Zn.
 Number of Elements of Each Order
in a Cyclic Group
Let G be a cyclic group of order n.
Then, if d is a positive divisor of n, then For example, consider Z12 ...
the number of elements of order d Z12 = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11}
is φ(d) where φ is the Euler Phi function
We have 1 element of order 2 = {6}
φ(d) is defined as the number of positive because φ(2)=1.
integers less than d
and relatively prime to d. We have 2 elements of order 3 = {4,8}
because φ(3)=2.
The first few values of φ(d) are:
d 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 We have 2 elements of order 4 = {3,9}
φ(d) 1 1 2 2 4 2 6 4 6 4 10 4 because φ(4)=2.

In non-cyclic groups, if d is a divisor of And 2 elements of order 6 = {2,10}

the order of the group, then because φ(6)=2
the number of elements of order d is
a multiple of φ(d),

euler totient graph euler totient equation

http://www.123exp-math.com/t/01704079357/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_formulae_involving_%CF%80
 Permutation Groups –
Definition
Definitions
So in a Permutation on set A,
the range and the domain of the
function are both the set A.
A Permutation of a set A
is a function
from A to A
which is both one to one
and onto

Recall from earlier work:

A function from set A to set B
is a rule which assigns
to each element of A (the domain)
exactly one element of B (the range)
One to one means f(a)=f(b)
implies that a=b.
Onto means every element of B is the
image of least one element of A under f.
rubic cube permutation group
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation_group
Permutation Groups –
Definitions
Definitions:
A Permutation Group of a set A
is a set of Permutations on A which form
a group under function composition.
That is, the elements are functions
from A to A
which are both one to one
and onto, and the binary operation is
function composition,

Recall from earlier work:

A group has elements which include
identity and inverses, and an operation
which is associative and closed.

So here, the elements are functions and

the operation is function composition,
which is always associative (although not
usually commutative.)

This may take some “getting used to”,

because in most of the groups we have
seen so far, the elements are values and
the operation is a function.
 Permutation Groups -- Discussion

So in a Permutation Group, we need

functions and their inverses; also we
need an identity function.

Recall from earlier work that

a function has an inverse
if and only if
it is one to one and onto.

Since functions are group elements,

we expect that
a function composed with its inverse
will result in the identity function, as
indeed it does.

At this time we are mainly

concerned with permutations on a
finite set, so we can build closure
into the function definitions.
 Permutation Groups –
Notations
Notations
In other areas such as algebra and
calculus, functions are defined on
infinite sets and often written as
algebraic formulas.

However, in this context we usually

define a function explicitly, by listing
an element of the domain along side
its corresponding function value.

There are two ways this is commonly

done: grid notation (due to Euler)
and cycle notation (due to Cauchy).

math cartoons from

http://www.math.kent.edu/~sather/ugcolloq.html
 Permutation Groups –
Notations
Example, D4, the symmetries of a Square
Consider D4, the symmetry group of a Or, in cycle notation we can write:
square. We can represent this group as R90 = (1 2 3 4)
a permutation group in grid notation as and
follows. Fh= (1 2)(3 4)

Number the four corners of the square:

1,2,3,4 as shown. 3 2
Then we can represent a 90 o
counterclockwise rotation as:

R90 = 1 2 3 4
2341
and a reflection across the horizontal
axis as:

Fh= 1 2 3 4 4 1
2143
 Permutation Groups –
Definitions and Notation
S3 and Sn
Let S3 be the group of all one to one
functions from the set {1, 2, 3} to itself.
This is the same as saying, all
arrangements or permutations of these
three elements.

Recall from previous work that the

number of permutations on a set of
n elements is n! So the number of
elements in S3 is 3! or 6.

In general, Sn is the set of all

permutations on a set of size n, and
the order of Sn is n!
subgroup lattice for s3
http://www.mathhelpforum.com/math-help/advanced-algebra/22850-normal-
subgroup.html
Cauchy Cycle Notation
Disjoint Cycles Commute
Order of a Permutation
Cycle notation, introduced by Cauchy,
has many advantages over grid notation.

In general, the product of cycles does

not commute. However, we can write
any permutation as a cycle or a product
of disjoint cycles, that is, each element of
the set appears in at most one cycle.

Written in this form,

disjoint cycles commute.

Also when we write a permutation in this

form,
the order of the permutation
(that is, the smallest number of times we
need to repeat that permutation to obtain
the identity permutation) is
the least common multiple
of the lengths of the cycles.
 Decomposition into two-cycles
Cycle 

Always even or always odd

Identity is always even

Notation
Any permutation may also be written or
“decomposed” as a product of two-cycles.
This product would usually not be disjoint,
and it need not be unique.

However, if a permutation can be written as

an odd number of two-cycles, any other
decomposition of that permutation is also an
odd number of two cycles.

Similarly, if a permutation can be written as

an even number of two-cycles, any other
decomposition of that permutation is also an
even number of two cycles.

The identity permutation is always an

even number of two-cycles.

“I’m odd and I’ll always be odd!-- Joni This oddfellow is still odd even though he’s decomposed!
IOOF tombstone
http://farm1.static.flickr.com/203/485879582_fa65f4e4b1.jpg?v=0
 Cycle Definitions, Examples
Even Permutation
Notation Odd Permutation
Examples of decomposition into 2-
If a permutation can be cycles:
written as an odd number of
(12345) = (15)(14)(13)(12)
two cycles, we say it is an
(1234) = (14)(13)(12)
odd permutation.
(1234)(247)=(14)(13)(12)(27)(24)

If a permutation can be Notice that (12345) is a cycle of

length 5, and 5 is an odd number –
written as an even number of yet (12345) can be written as an
two cycles, we say it is an even number of two-cycles so it is
an even permutation.
even permutation.
However, (1234), a cycle of length 4
is an odd permutation because it
can be written as an odd number of
“A cycle of odd length is always even – two-cycles, even though 4 is an
now that's odd! “ -- Rus even number.
 The Alternating Groups
An of Degree n
For any n,
the set of even permutations in
Sn forms a group, and a
subgroup of Sn.
This is because the inverse of an
even permutation is always even,
the composition of even cycles is
always even, and the identity can
always be written as an even cycle.

This group is called An, the

alternating group of degree n. When
n ≠1, An is of order n!/2 Permutation group A5
http://www.math.metu.edu.tr/~berkman/466object.html

The Alternating groups are very Note that the set of odd
important in historical, theoretical, permutations do not form a
and applications contexts. group, because this set lacks
the identity permutation and
permutation group A4 lacks closure under
http://faculty.smcm.edu/sgoldstine/origami/display composition.
text.html
 Suggested Activities

Cycle Notation,
more practice

Cycle notation,
introduced by Cauchy,
has many advantages
over Euler's grid
notation, although some
people may require more
practice to perform
calculations quickly and
accurately in this
notation.

For practice, try verifying

the Cauchy table for A4
on page 105 of the text,
by multiplying out each
pair of elements and
showing that the product
is as stated in the table.
 Suggested Activities
Reinforcement of Knowledge
Base
Modern educational practices tend to
de-emphasize knowledge base in
favor of constructivist education
theory, which is thought to better
support higher order thinking.
However, for most people*, an
extensive knowledge base is
necessary for mastery of this subject.

Please see the textbook author

Gallian’s comments this matter, on
his website
http://www.d.umn.edu/~jgallian under
the heading “Advice for students for One who has the facts memorized
with understanding is comparable to
learning abstract algebra” a highly skilled worker who has the
proper tools on hand and knows how
*Sylvester notwithstanding, text pg 89 to use them, rather than having to
scrounge around and improvise with
Tools 3 www.istockphoto.com a stick or a rock!
tools and rocks www.dkimages.com
 Suggested Activities:
Reinforcement of Knowledge Base according to
individual learning style

Often students complain that memorizing facts

and definitions is excessively difficult, or that
knowledge obtained this way does not seem to
apply to testing or problem solving situations.

Complaints like this often result from failure to

adapt study habits to one's particular learning
style. For example, a visual learner may get by
with simply reading over text or notes, while an
aural learner may need to say lessons out loud or
even set them to music. A kinesthetic learner
often needs to re-write the lessons, make models,
demonstrate the information to others, etc.

Although kinesthetic methods are more demanding

in terms of time and energy, all learners benefit
from kinesthetic learning methods, because these
methods produce more robust memory traces in the
brain.