W O R KS B Y DAV I D A L L A N L O W

P RAC T I CA L G E O M ET RY AN D G RA P H IC S .

75 . 6d . ne t .

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TE XT B O O K O N P RAC T IC A L
-
S O LI D OR
D E S CRI PT I V E G E O M ET R Y . C w
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Par I t . Wi th 1 1 4 F i g u r e s , 23 .

P ar I I t . W i t h 6 4 F i gu r e s , 3s .

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d El ti i ty f M t i l
an Th
as c o a er a s, e o r y a nd e signD
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oo or n n e e r i n g S t u e nt s d .

W i t h 8 5 I ll t t i d 78 E 0 us r a o ns an 0 x e r c i se s 8 vo ,
.

A M A N UA L OF M AC H IN E D RA WING A N D
D E S IGN . By D AV I D A LL A N Lo w and
A LF R ED W I LL I A M B v rs Wi th O v 7 00 a . er

I ll t t i 8
us r a 7 6d o ns . vo , s. .

A N I N T R O D U C T I O N T O M AC H IN E D R A VV
I N G A N D D E S IG N W i t h 1 53 I ll t t i . us ra ons

d Di g m C w 8
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A PO C K ET B O O K F O R M E C H ANIC A L E NGI
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N E ER S . Fcp . 8 v o , 7s 6 d . .

THE D I AGRA AS R R
M ME U E A n I ns t r u m e n t .

A l rF
fo r M e as u r i ng t h e r e as o f I r r e g u a i g u r e s , a nd
p ll l d
s e c i a y us e fu for e t e r m i ni ng t h e M e an E ff e c t i e v
P r e s s u r e fr o m I ndi c at o r D i ag r am s fro m S t e am ,
h h ll
Ga s and o t e r E ngi ne s Wi t fu i ns t ruc t i o ns 1 5 . . .

I MP R O V E D D RA W ING A PP L IANC E S .

S t Sq e A dj t b l P t
-
t r S t Sq
u ar e s , us a e r o r ac o e -
uare s ,

T Sq P t
ee -
t S l t uar e s, r o rac o r s , ca e s , e c .

P a r /z m la r s wi ll be pp li ed /i on
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s en t on a .

L O N G M AN S , G R E E N, AN D c o .
,

L ON DON ,
N E W Y R K, O B O M B AY ,
AN D C A L C UT T A .
P R AC T I CA L G E O M E T RY
AN D G R A PH IC S

D AV ID AL LAN LO W O

( W H I T W O R T H S CH O L AR ) ,

PROFE SS O R O F E N G I N E E RI NG E A S T L O N D O N C O L L E G E
,

( UN I V E RS I T Y O F L O N DO N)

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A 11 n igzz t s r es e r wd
 P RE F ACE

AN en d eavou r has be en m ad e t o provi d e i n th is work a fai rly

compl e te c ou r s e o f i n s t r u c t i on i n pr a c t i c a l g e om e t r y for techn i ca l
s t ud e nt s-
. T he fi e ld c o v e r e d i s a v e ry w i d e o n e b u t by a d op t i n g a
,

c on ci s e s tyl e an d by e n d e a v ou r i n g t o m ak e t h e ill u s t r a t i o ns talk t he

“

w ork has be e n k e p t of re as on abl e s i z e .

A s pe ci al fe at u re has bee n m ade of t he i ll u t rati on s Th e s e a r e

s .

ve ry n u m e rou s an d th e y h ave be e n c a r e fully pl an ne d so th a t e v e n t he

,

m os t com pl i ca te d of t h e m s h ould be d is t i n c t a n d c l e a rly s h o w t he

cons t r u c t i on s u s e d n o t wi t h s ta n d i n g t h a t m os t of t h e m a r e com p a r a
,

t i v e ly s m all P i c to ri al proj e c t i ons h a v e b ee n fr e e ly u s e d i n d e a l i ng

.

w i th s ol i d ge om e t ry an d t h e s e i n m an y cas e s ar e j us t as u s e ful as
,

a ct u a l m od e l s i n i llu s t ra t i ng t h e r e l a t i v e pos i t i o n s of p o i n t s l i n e s a n d
, ,

pl ane s i n s p ace N e ve r th e l e s s te c h e rs ar e r e com m e n d e d t o pro v i d e

. a

mod e l s for c l as s u s e i n t ea ch i ng s o l i d geo me t ry an d t h e s t ud e n t s h o uld

,

a l so m a k e s m a ll c a rd bo a rd m od e l s fo r h i m s e l f i n s t udy i n m a n y of t h e
g
probl e m s e p e ci a lly i n t he e a rl i e r s t ages of hi s w ork
,
s .

T h e s t u d e n t c ann o t h0pe t o m a s te r t h e s ubj ec t of pra c t i c a l

geom e t ry u n l e s s h e w o rk s on t h e dra w i ng boa rd a l a rge n u mb e r of

e x ampl e s H e n c e a noth e r s pe c i a l fea t ur e of t hi s w ork i s th e l a rge
.
,

coll e c t i o n of e x e r ci s e s Th e s e e x e r ci ses h a v e bee n p r e p ar e d an d

.

se l e c t e d w i t h r ea t c are an d i t w i ll b e fou n d t h a t t h e y n ot on ly
g ,

provi d e am pl e prac t i ce for t he s t ud en t bu t i n m any cas es th ey am pl i fy

t he te x t . Ab o u t n i n e ty p e r c e n t of t h e e x e r ci s es ar e ori gi n al an d
.

t h e re m ai n d e r h av e b e e n s e l e c te d fr om t he e x am i n a t i on pa p e r s o f t he

Boa rd of Ed u c a ti on T o e con om i ze s p ace m an y of t he d ia gram s for

.

t he e x e r c i se s h a v e be e n pl a c e d on a s q u a r e d r o u nd I t s h ou ld
g .

s c ar c e ly b e n e c e s sa ry t o s ta t e t h a t i n r e pr odu ci n t h e s e d i ag ra m s t h e
g
s qu ar e d
gr ou n d n e e d n ot b e dr a w n b u,t by c o u n t i n
g t h e s q u a r e s t h e

26 08 3 1 .
v i P RE F A CE

v ar i ou s poi n ts and l i ne s m ay b e pl otte d fr om t wo ax e s at

t o on e a n ot h e r
.

G r ea t c r e d i t i s du e t o Mr J W .V B arr e tt for t h e ca r e
. .
,

a n d s k i ll wh i c h h e h as d i s pl ay e d i n m ak i n g t h e fi n i s h e d dr

t h e i ll us t r a ti on s fr om t he au t h or s pe n ci l dr aw i ngs an d s k e te
’

E AS T L ON DON C O LLE G E (U N I V ER S I T Y or N
L ONDO )
,

S ep t ember , 1 91 2 .
 CON T E N T S

I N TRO DUC TORY

TH E C I RC L E
C O N I C S ECT IO NS
T R A C I N G PA P ER PRO L E M S B

APP RO I M A T E SO L U TIONS T O SO M E UN S O LV ED PRO L E M S

X B

R O UL E TT E S A N D G I S S L SE TT E

V EC T OR G EO M E T R Y

G RA PH I C S TA T I C S
P L A N E Co O RD I N AT E G EO M T R Y
-
E

PERI OD I C MO T I ON
PRO J EC T I ON
PRO J EC T I O NS O F PO I NT S AND L I N E S
PR O J EC T I O NS O F SI MP L E SO L I D S I N SI M PL E P O S I T IO NS
C HAN G IN G T HE P L A N E S O F PRO J EC T IO N
P L A N ES O T HER T H A N T HE Co O RD I NA T E P LA N E S
-

S T RAI G H T L I N E A N D P L A N E
S EC T IO NS O F S O L I D S
TH E S P HERE G L I N DER AN D C ON E
,
E ,

S P EC IA L PRO J EC TIO NS O F P L ANE F IG URE S A N D SO L I D S

H O R I O N T A L PR O J EC T IO N
Z

P I C T OR IA L PRO J EC T IO N S
PERS P EC T I V E P R O J EC T I O N
C U RV ED S URF ACES A N D T A NG E N T P LA N ES
D E V E L O PM ENT S
H E L I CE S AND S CRE W S
I N T E R SECT I O N O F S URF ACES
P RO J EC TI O N O F S H ADO WS
X X V III.M I SCE LLANEO US PR O B L E M S I N S O LI D G EO M E TRY
APP E N D IX MATH E M ATI CA L T A B LES
,

I N DE x
 CH AP T E R I

INTRODUCT ORY

1 . Li n es .
—E
li d d e fi n e s a li ne a s th a t wh i c h h as l e ngth w i th ou t
uc

bre ad th A l i n e th e refor e i n t he s tr i c t m a t h e m t i c l s e n s e h s n o
.
”
, , a a a

mat e r i a l e x i s te n c e a n d t h e fi n e s t l in e th a t c a n b e dr a w n on p p e r ”
, a

i s on ly rou gh appro x i m at i on t o a m th e m t i c a l l i n e A s tr a ight li ne

a a a .

i s d e fi n e d by Eu cl i d as th at wh i c h l i e s e ve n ly b e t w e e n i t s e x tre m e
“

poi n t s A n i m po r tan t pr op e r ty of s t rai ght l i n es i s th at t wo s t r a i ght

.
”

li n e s c a n n o t c oi n c i d e at t wo p oi nt s w i th o ut c oi n c i d i n g lt oge th e r a .

Th i s pr op e r ty i s m d e u s e of i n t h e a p pl i c at i on s of a s tr i g ht e d g e
a a -

.
”

A l in e i s l s o d e fi n e d as t he locu s o p th tr ac e d by m ov i ng p oi n t
a r a a .

I f t h e d i r e c t i on of m ot i on of t h e po i n t i s c ons t a n t t h e l oc u s i s a s t r i gh t a

I n ge om e try wh e n t he te rm l i ne is u se d i t ge n e rally s t an d s for

s tr ai g i ne ht l
— —A i r
.

2 . The C i r cl e D e fi n i t i o n s . c c e l is a pl a ne fi gure c o n t ai n e d
by on e l i n e , wh i c h i s
ll e d t he ci rcu mf e r e nce ca ,

a n d i s s u ch th t all s trai gh t l i n e s dr w n
,
a a

from a ce rt ai n poi n t w i th i n t h e fi g ure t o

t h e c i r c u m fe r e n ce a r e e qu a l t o o n e n o th e r : a

a n d t h i s p oi n t i s c all e d t h e c e ntr e O f t h e
c i rc le .

T he m e an i ng s of t h e t e rm s r a di s di a u ,

me t c ho r d
er, a c s e ct or a n d s e gme nt of a
,
r , ,

c i rc l e r e g i v e n i n F i g 1
a . .

T he t e rm c i rc l e i s v e ry fr e qu e n tly
“

u s e d wh e n t h e c i r c u m fe r e n ce of t h e ci r c l e F IG 1
”

i m e an t
s Eu c l i d fo r e x m pl e S ta te s th t
.
,
a ,
a
. .

on e c i r c l e c n n o t c u t a n o t h e r a t m or e t h n t w o po i n t s
“
a a .

A tange nt t o a c i r c l e i s a s tr ai gh t l i n e wh i ch m e e t s t h e ci r c u m
'

fe r e n c e but be i n g p rodu c e d d oe s n ot c u t i t ( s e e als o Ar t 1 3 p

”
, , ,
.
, .

3 An gl e s . A p la ne a ngle i s t h e i n c l i n t ion o f t wo s tr i g ht
. a a

l i ne s t o on e no th e r wh i ch m ee t t oge t h e r b u t ar e n ot i n t h e s am e
a , ,

s t r ai ht l i n e
”
g .

Wh e n a s t r ight l i n e s tan d i n g on a n oth e r s trai gh t l i n e m k e s t h e

a a

adj c e n t a n l e s e qu l t o on e
a n th r c h of t h e n l e s i s c ll e d a a
g o e e a g a ,
a a

I f i t i s r e qu i r e d t o t e t wh e th e r t h e a n g l e B A C of
”
r ight angle . s a

s e t s qu r e wh i c h i s n om i n a lly a r i ht a n l e i s r e lly r i ht a n gl e
a
g g g a a
-

, , ,

B
a pply t h e s e t s qu are t o a s traigh t e dge D E a s s h ow n i n Fi g
- - ;

dr w t h e l i n e AB Ne xt t urn t h e e t qu re ov e r i n t o t he p OS l t l
a . s -
s a
'

A B C a n d dr w t h e l i n e A B I f AB c oi n
’ ' ' ’
a .

c i d e s w i t h AB t h e n t h e a n g l e B A C i s e qu l
,
a

t o t h e a n gl e B A C n d t h e r e fd r e by t he
'
,
a

d e fi ni ti on e c h i s a ri ght n gl e
a a .

A n a n gl e wh i c h i s l e s s th n r i g h t a n gl e a a

i s ca ll e d an a cu te a ngle nd n n g l e wh i h ,
a a a c

i s g r e a t e r th a n r i ght an gl e n d l e th an
a a ss

t wo r i gh t a n gle s i s c l l e d a n obtu s e a ngle a

F IG 2 .

I f t w o n gle s t oge t h e r m a k e u p r i ght . .

a a

a n gl e t h e y a e s a i d t o b e co mp le me nt a y a n d on e i s c a ll e d t h e c om
r r
p ,

me nt of t h e o th e r .

I f t wo an gl e s t ogeth e r m a k e up t wo r i gh t a n g l e s t h e y a r e s a i d
b e s upp le me nt ar y an d on e i s c a ll e d t h e s pp le m n t of t h e o th e r
,
u e .

I n m ea s ur i n g a n gl e s i n pr ac ti c a l ge om e try t h e u n i t an g l e
e n e ra lly t h e 1 90t h p r t o f r i g ht n le
g n
a d i s c ll e d d a T a a
g e
g e e a a r
-
.

l 6 0t h p a rt o f a d e gre e i s c ll e d
-
mi nu t a n d t he l 6 0t h p rt of a m i n u
a a e, -

i s c all e d 47 35 23 i s t o b e r e d 4 7 d e g r ee s 35 m i n t
° ’ ”
s e cond a . a
, u I

23 s e c on d s T h e s i n gl e a n d d oubl e
. c c e n t s wh i c h d e n o t e m i n u ! a

a n d s e con ds r e s p e c t i v e ly ar e al s o u s e d t o d e n o t e fe e t a n d i n c h ‘

r e s p e ct i ve ly b u t th i s d oubl e u s e of th e s e s y m bol s s e ld om c a u s e s
, a

c onf u s i on .

An g l e s ar e al s o m e as ur e d i n ci r cular me as ur e A O B ( Fi g 3) i s .
.

a n gl e n d AB i s
,
a n r c o f a c i r c l e wh os e c e n tr e i s O
a a .

T h e c i r c ul r m e s ur e of t h e an g l e A OB i t h e r t i o
a a s a

re a
0 For t w o ri ght a n g l es t h e l e n g t h of t h e
r di u s
.

a c i s m wh e r e
r ,
3 1 4 1 6 a n d t h e c i r c ul r m e ur e
7: , a as

of t w o r i gh t a n g l es i s th e r e fo r e e qu l t o Wh e n a r .

t he rc i e qu a l t o t h e r a d i u s t h e
a s n g l e i s t he u n i t a

a n l e i n c i r ul a r m e a s ur e cn d i s c a ll e d a d i a
g a n ra .

I f n i s t he n u m b e r of d e g r e e s i n an n g l e wh os e c i r c u l a r m a

n 0
i s 6 r a d i an s t h e n s i n c e e c h of th e s e i s t h e fr a c t i on a
180 ? ,
7

t he ngl e i s of t wo r i ght a n g l e s
a .

1 8 00
H enc e n 57 2 958 0 a n d 9
71
"
,

0 01 7 45n
'
.

t ru
T he i n s t men t m os ly c omm on

d
u se ur l d r
for m e as i n g a n g e s i n e g e e s
pr r t r p r t
is t he o t ac o , o r
i o n s of t w o fo m s
of wh h ic h w
ar e s o n i n Fi
g 4 T h e . .

an
gl e A OB op p r b
n t h e a th
e enea the
pr tr t r
o ac o i s se e n t o be T he
pr tr
o r
act o d b xw
m ay b e m a e of o ood, 1
5 1 6 54
v ry llul d rdb rd
.

i o , ce oi , or ca oa .
 I N T R O D U C T O RY 3

A s c a le o f chor ds is a con ve n i e n t i n s tru m e n t for m e as uri n g n gl e s a .

T h e w ay i n W hi ch
t h e s ca s l e i s c o n tru c te d i s s h o w n i n F i g 5 A DF i s . .

a r i ht a n g l e , a n d t h e a r c A CF i s de
g
s c r i b e d f r om t h e c e n tr e T he ar e D .

A CF i s s h o w n di vi d e d i n t o 1 8 e qu a l
t p t
p a r s , e a c h a r th e re fo re s ubt e n d s a t
D an a n l e of
g O n t h e s c a l e of

c h o rd s AB , l e n g h s a r e m a rk e d off t
fr om A e qu a l t o t h e c h o rd s o f t h e
a r c s o f t h e d i ffe r e n t a n l es F
g o r e x .

p
am l e , A E i s t h e c h ord of t h e a r e
w h i c h s ubt e n d s a n a n g l e A E of 40
°
D
at t h e c e n tr e ,
an d D
h i s l e n g th i s t “ A : 0 CHORDS
m a rk e d O ff o n AB by d e s c ri b i ng t h e
a r c EH f r o m t h e c e n tr e A I t w i ll
IG
.
g2 '

t t
b e fo u n d th a t h e l e n g h of t h e c h ord A C for 6 0 i s e qu a l t o t h e r ad i u s
°

of t he a r c A CF H e n c e i n u s i n g t h e s cal e of ch ord s t h e r ad i u s of t he
ar c i s m a d e e qu a l t o t h e d i s t a n c e b e tw e e n t h e o i n s m a rk e d 0 a n d 6 0 p t .

T h e s c a l e s h o w n i n F i g 5 on ly s h o w s t h e c h ord s fo r a n gl es wh i c h
.

tp
ar e m ul i l e s o f 5 up t o
°
but by m aki n g t h e s c al e l arge e n ou gh ,
S i n g l e d e r e e s , a n d e v e n fr a c t i on s of a d e r e e , m a b h w I t m ay
g g y e s o n .

t
a l s o b e e x e n d e d b e y on d Bu wh e n a n an gle i s g r e at e r th an 90 t °

p t
i t s s u p l e m e n , wh i c h w i ll b e l e s s h a n t
s h ould fir s t b e de e r m i n e d t .

I t s h ou ld b e n o t i c e d th a t t h e d i v i s i on s on t h e s c al e of c h ord s a r e

u s i ng t h e ord i n a ry 45 an d 6 0 s e t —
une qu l a .

s qu r e s s e p r t e ly a n d
° °
By a a a

toge th e r an gle s wh i c h a e m ul ti p l e s of 1 5 m y be con s tru t e d w i th

r
°
a c

r t c c ur y A n g le s m a l s o be m e ur e d n d c ons tru c te d by as a
g e a a c a .
y a

m a k i n g l i n e r m e as ur e m e n t s t k e n fr om t bl e s of t h e t ri gon om e tri c l
a a a a

r a t i o s of a n g l e s
—
.

tr c l t
4 T r i go n o m e i a R a i o s o f An g s
. l e T he a n g l e A i n t h e .

d i g ram s F i g 6 i c on tai n e d by t he l i n e s O P n d OX T he l i n e O P
a , .
,
s a .

FI G . 6 .

is upp os e d t o s t ar t fr om t h e p os i ti on O X an d s w e e p ou t t h e a n g l e A
s

by m ovi n g ro u n d 0 a c e n tr e i n t h e d i r e t i o n opp o i t e t o th t of t h e
s c s a

h an d o f a w a t h A n n g l e s o d e s r i b e d i
s c . a l le d p o i ti v a ngle c s ca a s e .

I f t h e m o t i on t k e s p l c e i n t h e opp o s i t e d i r e c t i on t h e a n g l e d e s c ri b e d
a a

i c ll d
s a n ga t i e a ng le
e a e v .

P N i s p e r p e n d i ul r t o O X P N i s p os i t i ve
c a wh e n t Is bo v e
.
I a
4 P RAC T I CAL G E O ME T R Y

OX a n d n e g i e
,
t v wh e n ai t i s b e l o w O X O N i s p os i t i v e wh e n .

i t
s o t h e r i g h t of O n d n e g t i v e wh e n i t i
,
s t
a o t h e l e ft o
a f O 0] .

a lw y po s i ti ve
a s .

T h e m os t i mp or t a n t t r i go n om e tr i l r t i os o f n a n gl e e t he 8 ca a a ar ,
1

t h e c s i ne t h e t ange nt an d t h e ot ng nt
o ,
T h e s i n e of t h e n g l e
,
c
4
a e .
a I

i
t he r t iao o f P N t o O P Th u s i n e A I f .P N i s h
s, l f of (
gg )
. a

th e n s i n e A I f PN 2 nd OP 3 th e n i ne A ,
a , ,
s

3
1
T h e oth e r i m p or t an t r at i os r e c os i n e A
1
a ,
8 ,

a n d c o a n ge n t tA
In dd i ti on t o t h e abov e t he foll ow i n g r ati os a r e al s o u s
a
0
1 15
9
co s e c a n t A — s e c an t A c ov e r s e d s i n e A
, 1 S i ne A
1 3

v e rs e d Si n e A l cos i n e A .

T h e n a m e s of th e s e r t i os r e a bbre v i at e d s fo ll o w s a S l n c os i
a a , ,

c ot c os e c s e c co v e r s a n d v e r s
, , , ,
.

T h e foll o w i n g r e s u l t s a r e Obv i o u s fr om t h e d e fi ni t i on s
1 1 1 l
c ot A t a n A 00 8 8 0 A s e e A
c ot A sin A
’
t n A
’ ’
a c os A

T h e c om pl e m e n t of A i s 90 A a n d t he s uppl e m e n t of A °
,

180
°
A .

T he foll ow i n g r e lat i on s b e t w e e n t he tri gon om e t r i c al r a ti os of

a n l e an d th o e of i t s c om p l e m e n t an d s u ppl e m e n t a r e e as i ly prov e d
s
g
s in
( 9 0 A ) c os A °
c os
( 9 0 A ) s in A .
°
.

t an ( 90 A ) c ot A °
c ot
( 90 A ) t n A.
°
a .

s in
( 1 8 0 A ) Sin A
°
c os ( 1 8 0 A ) c
. o s A
°
.

t n ( 18 0a A) t n A
°
c ot ( 1 8 0 A) a cot A .
°
.

I t m ay be n ot i c e d th a t t h e s i n e a n d c os i n e of a n a n gl e c n 11 a

be gr e at e r th an I but t h e t a ng e n t a n d c ot a n ge n t c a n h a ve
,

m ag n i tud es .

T h e probl e m of c on s t ru c t i ng a n a n gl e wh i c h h a s a gi ve n t ri g
me t ri ca l r a t i o e v i d e n tly r e s olv e s i t s e l f i n t o t h e S i m pl e on e o f
‘

s t r u c t i ng t h e r i g ht a n gl e d t r i an g l e O P N (Fi g 6 )h av i n g g i v e n t h e r
-
.

o f on e s i d e t o a n o th e r Bu t i n ge n e r al th e re ar e t wo a ngle s l e s s t
.

360 wh i c h h a ve a g i v e n tr i gon om e tri ca l r ati o

°

—
.

5 .A cc u r a c y i n D r a w i n g A good s e rv i c e abl e l i n e by
o rd i n a ry dr u ght s m an i s b ou t 0 005 i n c h w i d e bu t an e x
a a ,

dr u gh ts m an c an w ork w i th a l i n e of h al f th a t w i dth A g
a .

e x e r c i e for t h e s tud e n t i s t o t ry h o w m n y s e p r a te p ar a ll e l l i ne s
s a a

c a n dr w b e tw e e n t w o p r all e l l i n e s wh i c h a e 0 2 i n c h
a apart as s h r a ,

i n F i g 7 wh i c h i s t w i c e f ull s i z e fo r t h e s k e of c l e rn e s s
.
,
Wh e n a a .

l i ne s e dr w n a s c l os e as poss i bl e toge th e r but d i s ti n c tly s ep r att

ar a , a

w i ll b e fou n d th t t he d is ta n c e be t w e e n th e m i s ab out e qu l t o
a ,
a

w i dth of t he l in e s H e n c e if t he l i n e s a n d s p c e s e ab ou t 0 005 i
.
, a ar
°

w i d e th e re w i ll be bo u t 20 l i n es in a w i d th of 0 2 i n ch
,
a .

T he pr ob abl e e rr or i n m eas uri n g t he d i s ta n ce b e t w e en t wo p o

 I N T B O D U CT O R Y 5

on a s t r ai gh t l i ne m y be s s m all t h e th i ck n e s s of t he d i vi i on l i ne s a a as s
on t h e m e as uri n
g c l e or s y 0 005 i n c h
s a , a .

T h e e rro r i n t h e p os i ti on of t he p oi n t of i n t e r s e c t i on O of t w
e
o
st r ight l i n e s O A
a

an d O B (F i g .

wh e n t he e rr o r i n
t he l a t e r a l p os i
t i on of o n e of th e m “

is m, Is wh e re
a;
’
F ,G 7 F IG . 8 .

Si n 0

9 is t he a n g le b e t we e n t he li n e s . If a: 0 005 i n ch , 3 02 8 6 i n c h
wh e n 6 e 0 057 i n c h wh e n 0 and e 0029 i n c h wh e n
9
U s i ng a rad i u s of 1 0 i n ch e s an an gl e m y be c on s tru c t e d by , a

m a rk i n g o ff t h e ch o rd from t bl e of c h o rd s w i th m i n i m u m p r ob ble a a a a

e rr o r o f f r om l l oth t o l 1 5t h o f a d e r e e
g
- -
.

G r e t a c c ur c y i n dr a w i n g c a n o n ly b e ob ta i n e d by e x e r c i s i n g
a a

g r e a t c r e an d by h av i ng t he b e s t i n s t rum e n t s k e p t i n t he b e s t p os s i bl e
a ,

con d i t i on .

E x e rci s e s I a
T o tes t accu r a cy i n dr a wi ng an d meas u r i n g

1 . tr i ght l i b ut 7 i h l g m rk p i t 0 r n nd M k
On a s a ne a o nc es on a a o n n ea o e e . ar
o ff t h f ll w i g l
e
gth o th oi l i O
n A 1 20 i h AB 0 8 5 i h
en s on s ne : :
'
nc es , nc ,

B0 i h CD 1 5 5 i h nc d DEes , 0 95 i h ll m ur d i t h nc es , an nc , a e as e n e
sa m d ir ti
e l g t h li ec onM u t h l gth OE whi h h u ld b
a on e ne . e as re e en ,
c s o e
5 90 i h nc es .

2 T k tw n ty tri p
. a ef p p r b ut 2} i h e l g d n um b r th m 1 t 20
s s o a e a o nc es on ,
an e e o .

O n an dg f N 1 m rk fi l gth f 2 i h
e e o o O. dg f N 2 m k il
a o a en o nc es . n an e e o o. ar o
th l e
g th f
en r m N 1 O d og fr m N 3 m k ff
o t.h l g th
. f m N 2 n an e e o O . ar o e en ro o .
,

an d n t so N 20 o Th mp r
o o . . en co a e
th l e gt h n N en 20 wi th t h l o gth o. e en
on N 1 o . .

3 D w . tr i ght l i AB (F i g 9)
ra a s a ne .

an d m rk t w p i t A a d B o it o n s an on
2i nch p t D w B C m ki g t h
es a ar . ra a n e

gl AB C
,

an e M k BC 4 i h 2 a e nc es

l g Dr w CD m ki g t h
on . a gl ,
a n e an e
B CD M k CD CA Dr w a e . a
D E p r ll l t AB M k D E 4 i h
a a e o . a e nc es
l g Dr w E F m ki g t h
on . a gl , a n e an e
DE F M k EF CA L t a e . e
DE t BC t O
cu A i r l wi th tr a . c c e c en e

0 d r d i u O B h u ld p
an a thr gh
s S o as s ou

th p i t D F C E
e o n s d A Al t h
, , , , an . so e
ch r d f t h r B D D F F C CE
o s o e a cs , , , ,

an d EA h ld h b 2 i h s ou eac e nc es
l g
on .

4 O . tr i ght l i AB (F i g 1 0)
n a s a F IG 9 ne . . .

2 i h l g
nc es tru t on q ui l t r l c on s c an e a e a

t i g l AB C i g t h 60 t q u r P r du t h
r an e
J
us n f th tr n gl
e
°
se -
s a e . o ce e o 1s ia e as

h w T h ugh t h l r p t t l d r w p r ll l
,

i f t h i AB C t th a a a e s o e
S o n g ro g e an u a o n s o e r an e
l
.

op p i t
os i d f mei g t
s h t i esg l D E F U
or i g t h 3 0 d
n 90 g f t he r an e . s n e
°
an
°
an es o e

se t qu
-
s d w li n thr ugh D E n d F t f rm t h h x g n D E B E EL
ar e , ra es o , ,
a ,
o o e e a o as
s P RAC TI CAL G E O ME T R Y
s h w J i F A E B nd D C I f th li
o n . o n , , a . ese n es ar e pr du d th y h uld
o ce ,
e S o
thr ugh t h p i t H L d K r p ti v l y
o e o n s , , an es ec e Co m pl t t h fi gur by d
e e e e r av
ir l
.
,

th e c hw c e s as S o n .

5 Dr w t w l i. OA O A ah o nes , ,
e ac
10 i h l g d t i i ng
nc es on , an c on a n an
an gl AO A f e M u u o e as re ac c
ra et ly n d t t t h di t
a p t s a e e s an c e a ar
o f A A Wh t h u ld b t h x t
, . a S o e e e ac
di t s AA ? St t
an c e
y p i l a e an s ec a
pr uti y m y h v t k t
eca on s ou a a e a en o
e ns ur ur y i y ur
e tru
ac c ac n o c on s o
ti on .
[ ] R E
6 T k fr m t h
. t bl t h
a e o e a es e
c h rd d t g t f
o an C tru t an en o ons c

gl f 22 b y u i g t h v lu °
an an e o s n e a e
o f th h d d e d gl f
c or ,
an a s ec on an e o
22 b y u i g t h t g t
°
F m s n e an en . ro

e ac h f th glo d t rm i t h e s e an es e e ne e
i
S ns o f d mp th m an co ar e e e an

o f th tw v lu wi th t h t u
e o a es e r e
v lu f i
a e o s ns

7 By id . f y ur pr t tr a o o o r ac o ,

an d wi th ut u i g t h t b l fi do s n e a es , n
t h v lu f
e a e o
F IG . 10 .

sin
° °
23 t an 23 co s

N ow tk t th tru v lu f t h i n t g t d i fr m t h t l
a e ou e e a es o e s e, an en ,
an cos n e o e a
a dd th m d l ul t t h p r t g rr r i y ur fi t w r
e ,
an ca c [ a e e e cen a e e o n o rs an s e . B E .

8 I w rk i g th i q u t i
. n m pl y d i m l l f 5 i h t 1 un i t
o n s es on e o a ec a s ca e o ,
nc o .

Dr w i r ul ra r diu 1 0 u i t
a tr 0 M rk
c c h rd AB f
a ar e , a s n s , c en e . a a c o o

ar c u i t l g d dr w t h di i OA OB M u t h
n s on gl AO IE ,
an a e ra , . e as re e an e

d gre e es .

Fr m B dr w p rp n d i ul r B M
o CA d t A dr w
a a e e c a on , an a a a
m t O B pr du d i n N
ee M ur r f ll y B M AN d t h
o ce AB ( . e as e ca e u ,
an e ar e on
a b v u it
o e l ) d l ul t t h i n d t n g t f t h gl
n sca e d th
an g ca c a e e s ne a a en o e an e , an e an

ra di an s .

G iv t h rr t n w r f t h d gr
e e in t n g nt nd r d i n
co ec a s e s or e e e es , s e, a e ,
a a a s,
n um b r b i n g t k e sd i r tly fr m e a en ec o
t h t ble a es .

9 O th b
. AB F i g 1 1 )
n e as e .

c on stru t t h p lyg AB D E F tc e o on o
t h di me i giv Th n m
e n s on s en . e ea
s ur t h i d A F d t h n gl 0
e e s e an e a es
an d p ( .

[T h n w r bt ie d by l a s e s o a ne ca
c ul ti n a AF 2 65 i h
o
°
are nc es,
an d (
°
0 84 p 72 n
AB 4 DE 2
6 . T e r m s u s ed
S me
B C=3 E F =
2 5
M o de r n
G e om e t r y
°

in .

t 9
S tr ai gh l i n e s wh i c h p a s s C D = 22 °

t hrou gh a p oi n a r e s ai d t o A t
b e concu r r en t P o i n t s wh i c h . F IG 1 1 . .

li e o n a s tra i g h l i n e a r e sa i d t
t o b e colli ne a r P o i n t s wh i c h li e on t he c i r cu m fe r e n c e of a c i r c l e
.

s a i d t o b e c o ncgcli c A s tr ai gh l i ne dra w n ac r os s a s y s t e m of li . t
i s c a ll e d a tr an s c e r s a l .

t
T h e thr e e s ra i g ht l i n e s wh i c h j oi n t h e an gul a r oi n t s of a t r i p
a n d t h e m i ddl e p o i n s o f t h e o ppo s i e s i d es a r e c a ll e d t h e t t
 I N T R O DU C T O RY 7

t he t r i a n gl e , poi n t at wh i c h t he m e d i an s i nte rs e c t i s call e d t he

an d t he
c e n t oi d o f t h e t r i n g l e
r a .

T h e thr e e p e rp e d i c ul a r s dr a w n from t h e a n ul a r p oi n ts o f
n g a
t r I n g le t o t h e o pp os te
a i d e s m e e t t a p oi n t call e d t h e o t hoce ntr e of
i s a r
t he t r ng l e a n d t h e t r i n l e for m e d by j oi n i n
ia t
a h f t f h
, g g e e e o t e pe r

p di c u l r s i s c a ll e d t h e p e da l t r i angle or o thoce nt i c tr i angle of t h e

e n a
, r r
o r i gi n a l t r i an l e
g .

I f a s trai g h t l i n e be b e draw n t o cu t t h e S i d e s A C an d AB of a
tr i an gl e A B C ( Fi g 1 2)at b a n d C r e s p e c t i ve ly o
.
,
s

th at t he n gl e A cb i s e qu l t o t h e an gle A O B
a a
,

th e n be w i th r e fe r e n c e t o AB n d A C i s s i d t o a a
be a ntip a r a ll l t o B C e An n t i p r ll e l be i s
. a a a

p ra ll e l t o t h e tan ge n t A D t o t h e ci r c u m s c ri bi n g
a

c i r c le at A T h e m i ddl e po i n ts of t h e an t i p ar ll e l s
.
a

t o o n e s i d e of a tri a n g l e li e o n tr ai ght l i n e a s

wh i ch p as s e s throu gh t h e op pos i te an gul r p oi n t o f a

t h e tr i n g l e an d th i s l i n e i s c ll e d
a s mme di a n a

of t h e tri n gl e
,

a T h e t hr e e s y m m e di n s of a
.
y F I G 12
a

a
. .

t ri n gl e i n te r e c t t a poi n t c l le d t he symme di a n p oi nt of t he tri n gl e

7 E q u a l i t y o f T W O T r i a n gl e s —
a s a a a .

. A tr i n gl e h s s i p rt s thr e e a a x a ,

S i d e s a n d thr e e n l e s a n d e x c e pt i n t wo c a s e s
g a , tri n gl e i s c om p le t e ly
, ,
a a

de t e r m i n e d wh e n thre e of i t s s i x p rt s a r e k n ow n A n oth e r w y of a . a

s tat i n t h e ab ov e i s th a t i f th e r e b e t wo tr i n l e s h v i n thr p rt in
g g g e e a a a s

t h e on e e qu a l r e s p e c ti v e ly t o t h e c orr e s p on d i n g p rt s i n t he o th e r th e n a , ,

e x ce pt i n t w o c s e s t h e t wo t r i a n l e s a r e e qu l i n e v e ry r e s p e c t T he
a
g, a .

d i ffe r e n t c as e s a e foll o ws r as

T wo t r i n gl e s a r e e qu l i n e v e ry re s p e c t wh e n
a a

thr d e s o f t he o n e a r e e qu a l t o t he t hr e e s i d e s of t he
( )
1 T h e ee s i
o th e r eac h t o e a ch
, .

T s i d e s a n d t h e i n c lud e d l e i n on e a r e e qu a l t o t wo s i d es
( )
2 w o n g a

a n d t h e i n c lud e d a n g l e i n t h e o th e r e a c h t o e c h , a .

n g l es n d t h e S i d e a dj c e n t t o th e m i n on e a r e e qu a l t o
( )
3 T w o a a a

t w o a n gl e s a n d t h e s i d e dj ce n t t o th e m i n t h e o th e r e c h t o e c h
a a ,
a a .

n g l e s a n d t h e s i d e o ppo s i te t o on e of th e m i n o n e a e
( )
4 T w o a r

e q u a l t o t w o a n g l e s a n d t h e s i d e oppo s i t e t o o n e of th e m i n t h e o th e r ,

e a c h t o e a c h t h e e qu a l s i d e
,
be i n g opp os i t e t o e qu a l an gl e s
s .

Th es e four c as e s a e i llu s tr t e d i n F i g 1 3 t he c orre sp on d i ng

r a .

e qu a l p a r t s i n t h e t wo tr i an g l es h a v e s i m i l a r m a rk s on th e m .

F IG . 13 .

O f t h e t wo x ce pt i o n a l cas es m e n ti on e d b o ve on e i s th at i n wh i c h
e a ,

t h e t hr e e n g l e s of o n e t r i a n g l e ar e e qu l t o t h e t hr e e an gl e s o f t h e
a a

o th e r . I n t h i c as e t h e t w o t r i n gl e
s h v e t h e s m e s hap e bu t
,
a s a a ,

n o t n e ce s s a r i ly t h e am e s i T h e o th e r c a s e i s th a t i n wh i c h t w o
s z e.

s i d e s an d an a n l e o p p os i t e t o on e of t h e m i n o n e t r i n g l e a r e e qu a l t o a
g
8 P RAC T I CAL G E O ME T R Y

t wo si de s l e o p p o i t e t o o n e of th e m i n t h e ot h e r e a ch
a n d an a n s
g ,

e c h t h e e qu a l a n l e s b e i n
a O pp os i te t o e qu a l s i d e s I n th i s c as e t
, g g .

tr i an gl e s m y be e qu l bu t th e y r e n ot n e c e s s ari ly
a a ,
a

s i s s h o wn i n F i
so a
g 1 4 wh e r e A B C i s on e .
, 1

t r an g l e n d A B C t h o t h e r
i a 2 e .

8 T o b i s e c t t h e a n gl e b e t w e e n t w o
—
.

s t r a i gh t l i n e s Fi rs t le t t h e t wo S t r i ght l i n e s
.
, a

O A n d O B i n t e r s e c t at a p oi n t O wh i c h i s a cc e s s i
a

b le ( F i g Wi th 0 a s ce n tr e n d n y r d i u s
. a a a

d es c r i be r c t o c u t O A at C n d O B a t D W i t h c c
a s a .

d e s cr i b e i n t e rs e c t i n g rc s of e qu al r a d i i T h e s tr ai ght
a .

j oi n s O w i th t h e p oi n t of i n t e r s e c ti on of th e s e a r cs w i ll b i s e c t t
.

'

a n l e AO B
g .

A n i m p or t a n t p r op e r t y of t h e b i s e ct or of a n an gl e i s t h at t
pe rp e n d i c ul r s s u ch s F H an d FK dra wn fr om an y poi n t o n i t t o t
a , a ,

l i n e s c on tai ni ng t h e n gl e r e of e qu al l e n g th a a .

F IG . 15 . F IG . 16 .

Ne x t le t t h e g i ve n l i n es P G an d R S (F i g 1 6 )m e e a t a p oi n wh i c
, . t t
i s i n a c c e s s i bl e D
r a w an y s r a i gh l i n e MN t o c u t P Q a t M an d R
. t t
at N t
B i s e c t he a n g l e s P M N an d R N M by s tr ai gh t l i n e s wh i o
.

t
i n e r s e c t at L Thr ou gh M an d N dra w p e rpe n d i c ul a rs t o L M an
.

t
LN re s p e c i ve ly , a nd le t th e m m ee t a t T T h e s rai gh l i n e LT wi . t t
t
i f pr odu c e d m e e P Q a n d R S pr o du c e d at t h e s a m e p oi n t , a n d w i
b i s e c t t h e an gl e b e twe e n P O an d R S I t i s e as y t o s e e th a MT an . t
NT b i s e c t t he an gl e s N M Q an d M N S r e s p e c i ve ly , wh ic h s ugge s t t
a n o th e r w a
y o f dr awin g h e se l i n es t .

9 T o fi n d a p o i n o n a gi e n s ai gh
. t v tr t
t
l i n e s u c h h a t h e s u m o f i t s di s a n c e s t t
v
fr o m t w o gi e n p o i n s s h a ll b e t h e l e a s t t
p o s s i b l e L et LN —F i g 1 7 ) b e t h e g i v en .

t
s r a i g ht l i n e a n d A a n B t he t w o gi ve n po in s t .

T he g i v e n p oi n t s ar e o n t h e s a m e s i d e of LN .

D ra w A C D a t r i ght a n gl e s t o LN , c utt i n g LN
at 0 M ak e C D e qu a l t o A C J oi n B,
. . D
cu tt
i ng LN a t E E i s t h e poi n t re qu i re d .

IG
.

Joi n A E .
F 17 . .

p t
C om a r i n g t he r i a n gl e s A C E an d D OE , i t i s obv i ou s h a t A E t
e qu a l t o E H e nc e A E BED . B I f a ny o th e r oi n i n Ll D . p tF
10 P RAC T I CAL G E O ME T R Y
m ee t at A s t r ai ght l in e throug h P n d Q w i ll i f pro du ce d I
Q . a , ,

AB nd C D pr odu c e d at t h e sa m e p oi n t
1 2 G r a p h i c A r i th m e t i c —
a .

. T h e s olu t i on of o rd i n a ry a r i t h m e
.

pr obl em s by ge om e tr i c l c on s tru c t i ons i s of s om e i n te r e t wh e n

a s

s i de r e d a s a s e c t i on of p r c t i c l e om try bu t a hi ai t hm t i c
g e g pr a c a r e , ,
vs

re g rd e d a s a m e a n s t o n e n d i s i n ge n e ra l a p oo r s u b t i tu te for
a a , s

o rd i n ry m e t h o d by c lc ul t i o n
a T h e s ub j e c t of g r a ph i c a r i t h n
a a .

w i ll th e re fore b e t re te d s om e wh a t bri e fly h e r e
a .

R ep res e n ta ti on of nu mbe s by lin es I f t h e l i n e AB Fi g 20 ( a

r .
, .

ta k e n t o r e p r e s en t t h e n u m b e r one th e n a l i n e C D n t i m es t he le ,
I

of AB w i ll r e p r e s e n t t h e n u m b e r n Agai n i f A B r e p r e s e n t s .
,

n u m be r one t h e n u m b e r r e p r e s e n te d by t h e l in e E F w i l l b e t h e n u r
,

o f t i m es th t E F c on t ai n s ABa I n t h e a b ov e e x am pl es AB i s c a
.

t he u ni t .

O rd i n a ry dr a w i n g s c a l e s m ay b e u s e d i n m a rk i n g o ff or m e as u
l e n g th s wh i ch r e pr e s e n t n u m b e rs S cal e s wh i c h ar e d e ci mally di v .

a r e t h e m o s t c on v e n i e n t for th i s w o rk .

Addi ti on a nd s u btr a ct i on T o a dd a s e r i es o f n u m b e r s t oge t

.

D ra w a s t rai ght l i n e O X , F i g 20 ( b), of i n d e fi ni te l e n gth F i x up. .

u n i t, t h a t i s , d e ci d e wh a t l en g th s h a l l r e p r e s e n t t h e n u m be r
M a rk a d e fi n i t e p oi n t 0 on O X M ak e C A t h e fir s t n u n .

AB t h e s e con d n u m b e r , B C t h e th i rd n u m b e r, and s o on I .

O t o t h e l a s t p oi n t d e t e r m i n e d i n t h i s w ay w i ll be t h e a n ;
r e qu i r e d .

F r om o n e n u m b e r t o s ubtr c t n oth e r M k e O A Fi g 2 a a . a , .

m e as ur d t o t h e r i ght of 0 e qu l t o t h e firs t n u m b r
e M ke , a e . a

m e ur e d t o t h e lef t of A e qu l t o t h e e c on d n u m b e r wh i h i
as ,
a s c s

subtr c t e d from t h e fir s t Fr o m 0 t o B i t h e n w e r re qu i r e d
a . s a s

O B i t o t h e i ght of O t h e n s w e r i s p o i ti e
s r n d i f OB i s t
a s v a

l f t f O t h e ns we r i s n eg t i v
e o ,
a a e

T o fi n d t h e v lu e of u h n e xpr ess i ona a b e d

s c a as

wh e r e b d an d 6 r e pr e e n t n u m b e r m k e ( F i g 20 ( d)) OA
a, ,
c, ,
s s, a .

—+ d c

No t e th t i n ddi ng t he l e n g th s r e m e ur e d t o t h e r i ght wh i
a a a as ,

s ubt r a c ti ng th e y r e m e a s ur e d t o t h e l f t
a e .

P rop or t i on I n F i gs 21 n d 22 OX an d OY
. . r e t wo s t r
a ,
a

line s m ak i n g n y con v e n i e n t a ngl e w i th o n e

a n o th e r AB an d a .

a r e p a r l l e l l in e s m e e t i n g O X
a t A and C nd CY t B an d D a ,
a a .

t ri n gl e s A O B an d CO D ar e s i m ila r an d th e re fore O A OB C C
a ,
 I N TR O DU C TO RY 11

an d if an
y thr e e o f t h e t e rm s of th i s p rop or ti on ar e k n own t he figur e
c a n be dra w n an d t h e four th te r m fou n d .

I -

c — >I

F IG . 21 . F IG . 22 . FIG . 23 . FIG . 24 .

Ar i thme ti ca l, Ge ome t r i c a l , a nd H a r moni ca l me a ns o

f two nu mbe r s .

Le t M a n d N b e t w o n u m b e r s O n a s tra i g ht l i n e AB ( F i g 23)
. .

m ake A O M a n d OB N B is e c t AB a t C W i th c e n tr e C a n d . .

r a d i u s CA de s c r i be t he s e m i c i rcl e A D B D r a w O D a t r i gh t a n gl e s t o .

AB J oi n C D D ra w O E at ri ght an gle s t o C D T h e n
. . .

CB a r i t h m e t i c a l m e a n of M a n d N M N
%( ),
OD g e o m e t ri c la m e an of M an d N a /M X N,
2M N
DE h ar m on i c m e a n o f M a n d N
O D t h e g eo m e t r i ca l m e an of M a n d N is
M
a ls o
f N
c al el d a me an p r o
, ,

or t i ona l be t w e e n M a n d N / M N th en C D X N,
M
2
p I f C D N . x ,

M u ltip li c a ti on F
I n i gs 21 an d 22, s i n ce O A O B
. . C C OD , i t
t t
foll ow s h a O A OD O B X 00 M a k e O B e qu al t o t h e u n i , th e n
. t
0A X CD 1 X 00 00 H e n c e t h e c on s r u c ti on for fi n d i ng t h e
. t
t
produ c of t wo n u m b e rs M ak e O A on e of t h e n u m b e r s , O D t h e
.

t
o h e r n u m b e r, a n d O B t he uni t
J oi n AB , an d draw DC p a rall e l
.

t o BA, th e n O C i s t h e a n s w e r .

I f t h e g i v e n n u m be r s a r e l a rge , i t i s b e t e r t o fir s d i v i de th e m by t t
s om e o w e r of 1 0 s o a s t o a v o i d u s i n g a v e ry s m a ll u n i F or e x a m pl e , t .

le t i t e r e qu i r e d t o fi n d 48 5 X 36 3 T ak i n g t h e uni t as 1 i n ch fi n d
.
.

p
t h e r odu c a: of t a n d 3 6 3, th e n 48 5 x 36 3 48 5 X x 1 0, 000
Af t e r t h e v a lu e of a; h as be e n fo u n d , 1 0, 000a; i s fou n d by
sim l p y c h an i n
g g t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e d e c i m a l p oi n t .

D i vi s i on In . F
i gs 21 a n d 22, s i n ce O A O B
.
C C C D , I t foll o w s
O A _ OC 00 0A
t t
h a OB M k
a e O B t h e u n 1 t th e n 0 A H e n c e
OD
' ,
CD 1
t t
t h e c o n s ru c i o n for fi n d i n g t h e qu o i e n of on e n u m b e r d i v i d e d by t t
a no th e r M k
a e 00 t he i d v i d e n d O D t h e d i v i s o r ,
a n d O B t h e
.
,

uni t .J oi n C D , a n d dr a w BA p a r a ll e l t o D C ,
th e n O A i s t h e a n s w er .

S qu a r e r oot I n F i g 23, O D
.
2
.
O A O , th r
B e e fo r e O D

4 / 0A OB H e n c e i f OB
.
i s m a d e e qu l t o t h e u n i t O D V 6 1 a ,
4 .

v u
I f t h e gi e n n m e i sb r l a r g e o n e i t i s ab e t t e r t o m k e O B n a

1
t i m e s t h e u n i t an d O A 5 o f t h e g e
,
v n n u m b e r wh e r e n I s i c on
,
a

v e ni en t wh l u
o e n m e b r x
F or e a m e t o pl .
fi n d t h e s qu r e r oo t ,
o f 4 8 a ,
12 P RAC T I CAL G E O ME T R Y

m ak e O B = 10 t i me s t he u ni t and CA 48 t i mes t he u ni t , th

If a hyp ote nu s e of a r i gh t an gl e d t r i an g l e ( Fi g 24)

be t he -

wh ic h b a n d e ar e t he s i d e s th e n a —b th e r e for e a 4/ b ,
‘
2
0
2
,
2

lso 0 a b t h e re for e e / bi
I

a
2 2
N G G
g
,

I nv lu ti on T h e v alu e s of a m ay b e ob t a i n e d
2 ” 4
o . a e tc , ,
a , .
,

m ul ti p l i c a t i on a s a lre a dy e xpl ai n e d F or .

°
61 a X a z b, an d a
3
a
2

T h e fo ll ow i n g c on s ru c t i on i s , h o w e ve r , t
s om e i m e st m or e c on v e n i e n t ra w t w o . D
a x e s X OX l a n d Y O Y a t r i g ht
1 (
F i g 25) .

a n l e s t o on e a n o h e r
g M a k e O A tt h e .

t
u n i , a n d 0A 1 a , t he
g i v en n u m be r J oi n .

A I A a n d dra w A I A2 at r i gh a n gl e s t o A I A t .

The n O A 2 ( 1 2
.

D
ra w A Q A3 a t r igh an gl e s t o A I AZ t .

Th en C A 3 z : a
D
ra w A 3 A4 at r ig h a ngl e s t o A 2A t
Th e n OA , a , a n d s o on
4
.

I f A A 1 b e dr a wn a t r i gh a n gl e s t o
'
t F I G“ 25
AA a n d A I A 2 b e draw n a t ri ght an gl e s
’ ’ °

1 l l
to a n d s o on , h e n OA 1 '
, OA 2
'
t a a
OA 3
E
.
3
an d s o on .

13 . D e fi n i ti on s re a l ti n g to Cu r ve s .
—
Tg e nt an a nd

If a s
g tr
h t l i ai
n e P Q ( g F i 2 6 ) c u t s a c urv e t s. P a n d a t t wo p oi n

n d i f t h e s t r a i h t l i n e h e t ur n e d a b ou t t h e p oi n t
a
g
P s o a s t o c a u e t h e p oi n t Q t o appr oac h n e a r e r
s

a n d n e a r e r t o P t h e n t h e ul t i m a te po s i t i on of t h e
,

s tr a i ght l i n e i s t h e t a nge n t t o t h e c urv e a t P .

T h e nor ma l t o t h e c urv e a t P i s a s t rai g ht l i n e

throu gh P at r i gh t an g l e s t o t he t an ge n t t o t he
c urv e a t P .

A good prac ti c al m e th od of dra w i n g a t an ge n t F G 26 I “ .

t o a c urv e fr om n e xt e r n a l p oi n t T ( Fi g 26 )m ay
a .

be gi v e n h e r e P l ce a s t r i gh t e d ge on t h e p p e r an d adj u s t i t u
. a a -
a

t h e e d ge p s s e s t hr ou gh T a n d t ou c h e s t h e c urv e th e n dr a w t h e t n ge
a ,
a

Th i s m e th od w ou ld n ot be r e c ogn i z e d by t h e m ath e m ati ci an bu t a ,

pr c ti c a l m e th od i t i s as goo d s a ny
a
P
a

o th e r a n d m u c h s im p l e r
, T he ex ct . a

p oi n t of c on t c t m u s t be obt i n e d bya a

s om e o t h e r c on s tr u c t i o n d e p e n d i n g o n

t h e n a t ur e of t h e c urv e .

Ci rcle of Cur va tu r e I f a c i r cl e b e .

draw n thro u gh thre e p oi n t s Q P an d , ,

F G 27
R i n c urv e A P B (Fi g
a an d i f t h e .
I

p oi n t s Q n d R b e m o ve d s o a s t o a ppro c h n e a r e r an d n e a r e r t o
a a

th e n i n t h e l i m i t t h e c i r c l e b e c om e t he ci r cle of cur va tu r e of t h e on s

A P B at P T h e ce n tr e of t h e c i r c l e of c urva t ur e w i ll e v i d e n t ly li e
.
 I N T RO D U CT O R Y 13

r
t he n o ma t o t h el cu rve at P . T he c e n tr e o f t he c i r c l e of rvat u r e i s
cu
ca ll e d t he ce nt e f cu va t e r o r ur ,
a n d t he r a d i u s o f t h e c i r c l e of c urv a t u r e
i s c all e d t h e r a di u s of c u va tu r r e.

E volu te a nd I nvolu t e T h e l o c u s of t h e c e n t re of c urvat u r e of a

.

c urv e i s c a ll e d t h e e volu te o f t h e c urv e .

A c urv e h as on ly on e e volu t e .

T h e l o c u s of a p oi n t on a s trai gh t l i n e
wh i c h r oll s wi th out s l i d i n g on a c urv e i s
c a ll e d a n i n volu te of t h e c urv e A c u rve .

h a s a ny n u m be r o f i n v olu te s .

I n F i g 28 , A B C i s a c urve a n d a bc
.

i s i t s e v olu t e Agai n, a bc i s a c urve an d

.

A B C i s a n i n v o lut e o f a bc T h e c urve s .

P Q R an d S T U a r e a l s o i n v olu t e s of
a bc .
FIG 28 . .

A c urve i s t he e v ol u te of e ach of i t s i n volu te s , an d a cu rv e i s an

i n vo lu te of i t s e vo l u t e .

T h e n o r m a l s t o a c u rv e a r e t a n ge n ts t o i t s e v olu te , an d t h e t an e n t s
g
t o a c urv e a r e n o r m a l s t o i t s i n volu t e s .

E nve lop e .I f a c urve m o v e s i n a

d e fi n i te m ann e r t he c urv e wh i c h i t
a l way s tou c h e s i s t h e e nve lo e of t h e
p
m o vi n g c urv e F i g 29 s h ow s t h e e n
. .

v e lo e o f a c i r c l e wh i c h m o v e s s o t h a t
p
i t s c e n tr e t r a c e s t h e c urv e A B C .

T h e e v olu te of a c urv e i s a l s o t h e
e n v e l ope of t h e n o r m a l t o t he c urv e
F I G 29
.

Cu sp . I f t wo br an ch e s B A a n d
C A of a c urv e (Fi g 30)te rm i n a t e a t a p oi n t A on a c om m on t an ge n t
.

A D , t h e t e r m i n a tin g p oi n t A i s c all e d a
c us
p . Th e r e ar e t w o k i n d s o f c u s p s ; i n

t h e fir s t k i n d t h e br an c h e s of t h e c urve a r e
on opp os i te s i d e s of t h e c om m on t an ge n t ,

a n d i n t h e s e c o n d k i n d t h e t w o br a n c h es of

t h e c u r v e a r e o n t h e s a m e s i d e o f t h e c om F IG 30
m on t an ge n t
. .

N ode or M u lt ip le P oi nt A p oi n t throu gh wh i c h t wo or m or e
.

br a n c h e s of a curv e p as s i s c alle d a ‘

n ode o r mu ltip le p oi nt T h e n ode .

s hown s a do u ble
at
( ) g
a , Fi 3 1 ,
i .

oi n t , a n d t h e n od e s h ow n a t b
p ( ) i s

a tr i le
p p oi n t A .t t h e n od e
( )
a t w o

ta n ge n ts c an b e dra w n t o t h e c ur v e .

A t t he n od e (b) thr e e ta n ge n ts c an
b e dra w n t o t h e c urv e
F
.

31
P oi nt of I nfl e x i on I f t he t an ge n t
' “

t o a c urv e a t a p oi n t a l s o c u t s o r c ros s e s t h e c u rv e at th at p oi n t ( Fl g .

th e n t h e p oi n t i s a p oi nt of i nflect i on .

As ymp to t es Wh e n a c urve ap proach e s n e ar e r an d n eare r t o a

.
 A C T I CA L G E O ME T R Y
14 P
R
s trai gh t l in e bu t n e ve r a c t u lly m e e ts t he l i n e h o we ve r fa r t he l i n e
,
a

c urv e b e c on t i n u e d t h e l i n e n d c urv e e s id to ,
a ar a

b e a symp tot i c an d t h e l i n e i s c a ll e d a n as ymp tote

,

t o t h e c ur e v .

Curve s wh i c h a ppr o ac h n e ar e r n d n e re r a a
F IG 32
t o on e an o th e r bu t n e v e r c t u lly m e e t h o w e v e r
‘ . .

a a

fa r t h e y ar e c on t i n u e d ar e s ai d t o be a y m pt o t i c a n d e a c h c urv e i s s ,

a sy m p t o t e t o t h e oth e r .

S i mi la Cu r ves T wo c urves P Q an d P Q ( Fi g
r . a r e s ai d t o , I 1 .

s i mi la r wh e n an r d i u v e c t o rs (o
y s a r

r d ii )O P O Q i n t h e on e dra wn from
a , ,

a fix e d p oi n t O b e r t h e s a m e r t i o t o ,
a a

o n e a n oth e r t h a t r d i u s v e c t o r s O P a l l,

O Q dr a w n fr om
l 1 fix e d p oi n t 0 an d a 1,

i n c lud i n g t h e s am e an gl e 9 b e ar t o ,

on e a n ot h e r .

I f i n a dd i t i on t o fulfill i n g t h e
,

a b o v e c on d i t i on s O P a n d O Q r e F , 33
a
IG
p a ra ll e l t o O P n d r e s p e c ti v e ly
. .

l 1
a ,

th e n t h e c urve s a e s ai d t o b e i mi lar an d s i mi lar ly s i t ua t e d

r s , .

T h e fix e d poi n t s O an d 0 ar e c al le d e n t e of s i mi la i ty nd w 1 c r s r ,
a

th e s e c en t r e s c oi n ci d e t h e p oi n t i s c all e d ce ntr of s imi li tude of t h e t a e

c urv e s .

All con i cs h av i ng t he s am e e c c en t r i ci ty ar e s i m i l ar curv e s .

E x e rci s e s l b

Dr w Fi g 34 ful l i z t t h d i m i
1 . a . s e o e e n s on s Dr w a a s trai ght
bi ti g t h
sec gl b tw
n AB d CD e an e e e en an ,

an d th ugh t h p i t P d Q dr w
ro e o n s an a

s tr i ght li
a u r t wi th AB d CD I
n e s c on c r en an
wi th ut u i g t h p i t f
o urr
s n e o n o c on c e n ce .

2 Fr m t h p i t P n d Q ( F i g 34)
a
. o
dr w t w tr i ght li t m t t h l i
o s a
l '
e o n s

nes o
a
ee on e
.

ne
p i ng th ugh A d t h m i ddl p i t f
as s ro
I 7 an e e o n o
.

CD d b q u ll y i
an li d t th t l i
e e a nc ne o a ne .

3 If l i 33 i n h l g pr t
. a ne c es on re esen s

26 wh t d
,
li a i h l g poe s a ne nc es on re re

sen t d wh t i t h u i t I f l i 1
,
an a s e n a ne 16
9

in h c l g pr t l awh t i t h u i t
es on re e s en s t
,
a s e n
4 W rk t h f ll wi g x r i
. o t ki g e o o n e e c ses , a n
f orth u it i n h e nli 3 i h e ac c as e a ne nc F I G 34 .

l ngo
1 g+ 2t ( ) 2 4 + os
—a r e 2 i s
- - '
-
c .

b) 1 5 (n ew s a
‘

5 . h l g t pr t t h r f q u r f 1 i h i
T aki n g a i n e 1 } i n c e s l on o re es en e a ea o a s a e o nc S .

dtr l wh h h ll r pr t t h r f
e e m i ne a ine ic s a t ngl 25i h l g e es en e a ea o a rec a e 1 nc es on a

5 i h r d
nc b oa .

6A l . h l g d B i li 23 i h l g D t rm i
i s a i n e 1 3 in c e s on ,
an s a ne 5
nc es on . e e ne
l wh h w ll r pr t
i ne ic i e pr d u t f A n d B t h u i t b i g l i 1 } i l
e s en t he o c o a ,
e n e n a ne nc
l g on .

7 A i li 2 i h l g B i l i 1 i h l g d C i l i
. s a ne i
7
16 n c es on ,
s a ne 1
5. nc es on ,
an s a ne r

l n g I f A pr t t h pr du t f B d d r w l i whi h wi ll r p r
o . re e se n s e o c o an a a ne c e ese
t h pr d u t f A
e d C o c o an .
 I N T R O D U C T O RY 15

8. F d l pr t v lu
i n a i n e r e e s e n i n g t h e o m e of a r e c an g u a s o i t l r l d wh dim n i ose e s on s
h
ar e 3 i n c e s x i nc e s x h
in c e s Un i inc h . t h .

u t
9 T h e n i be i n g a i n e 1 i n c l
on g , fi n d a i n e t o r ehle s en l pr t t h ub f e c e o
tr ht l h l g p tiv ly
.

1 0 M an d N ar e s ai g
.
in es i n c e s an d 1 5 i n c e s h on res ec e .

M N
F d l r pr
i n a in e e e s en i ng
M X N
t
’ the ni be i n g 1 n c u t I h .

20
11 . Dr w li
a n es r pr
e e sen ti n g A/ 1 5 an d
J T5
' U ni t inc h .

12 . F i d li
n a ne to re pr esen t T
3
wh en a:z :2J 2 J 3. t
Un i on e i n c h .

13 . A B C
,
li
, ,
an d D ar e n es 3g i n c h es, 23
,
in c h es , 29 h
, i n c e s , an d 1 12
; i nc
h es

x B A u t
l g r p t v ly
on es
C x D
ec i e . If C, fi n d t h e ni .

ii i if
2 2

14 U i g . u i t l gt h
s n as n a en of 1 inc h ,
l
fi n d a i ne t o re pr ese n t ?
“
 CHAP T ER I I

T HE CI RCLE

14 . P o r
p e i erts o f t h e C i r cl e —S i m p l e P r o b l e m s :

m A B C D f i l ( F i 3 5 ) t h l A O B
( )
1 I n a s e
g e n t o a c r c e .
g e a n g e

c e nt r e i s d ou b le o
f t h e a n g l e A B D a t t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e.

( )2 A ngle s A B D a n d A O B i n t h e s a m e s e
gm e n t o
f a c i r c le
( F 1

a r e e q ua l t o o ne a not he r .

( )
3 T h e a n g le i n a s e m i c i r c l e i s a r i
g h t a n
g l e . T h e c a rp e n t
c utt ing a e s m i c i r c u l a r gr o o v e i n a i p
e ce O f w o o d ,
m a k e s u s e 0

t t
prop e rty wh e n h e e s t s i t w i h a s qu ar e , as s h ow n I n F i g 36 . .

F IG . 35
. F IG . 36 . F IG . 37 .

( )
4 A i ght li ne whi c h bi s e cts a chor d a t r i ght a ngle s p as s e s th
s tr a

t he c e n t r e of t he c i r cle T h i s s u gge s ts a m e th o d of fi n d i n g t h e c e n t
.

a c i r c l e t o p a s s t hr ou gh t hr e e g i v e n p oi n t s or t o c i r c u m s c ri b e a

tr i an gl e .

T o de s cr i be a n a r c of a ci r cle t hr ough thr e e gi ve n p o i nts , A , B , a

whe n t he ce ntr e of t he ci r cle i s i na cces s i ble ( F i g W i th c e n t )
.

a n d C d e s c r i b e a r c s O H 3 a n d A SK J oi n AB a n d CB , a n d p r (
.

th e s e l i n e s t o m e e t t he ar cs at H an d K M a rk off s h o r t e qu al ar c
.

an d K 1 .T h e i n t e r s e c t i on P of t h e l i n e s A I , C 1 , i s a n oth e r p oi I
t h e ar e r e qu i r e d I n l i k e m a n n e r oth e r p oi n t s m ay b e fou n d , a
.

fai r c u r y e dra w n thr ou gh all of th e m i s t he a r e r e qu i r e d .

T he for e g oi n g c o n s tr u c t i on i s b a s e d on t h e fac t th a t t h e thr ee a

o f a t r i a n g l e ar e t og e t h e r e qu a l t o a n d th a t t h e a n l e s i n t h e
g
s e g m e n t o f a c i r c l e a r e e qu a l t o on e a n o th e r al s o th a t i n e qu a l 0

e qu a l a r c s s ub t e n d e qu a l a n gle s a t th e i r c e n tr e s T h e s t ud e n t s ]
.

h a ve n o d i ffi culty i n s h ow i n g th a t t h e c o n s tru c ti on m a k e s t h e
‘

A P C e qu a l t o t h e a ngl e A B C F or a n o th e r m e th o d s e e Art 59, 1

. .
18 P R A C TI C A L G E O ME T R Y

T h e s tra i gh t l i n e j oi n i n g H a n d K i s a t an ge n t t o b ot h t he gi v e n Cl
a n d H a n d K a r e t h e p oi n t s of c o n t a c t .

I f t h e c i r c l e s li e o ut s i d e of on e a n o th e r fo ur c om m on t ang e n t :
b e dr a w n t o th e m .

( )
6 T he a ng le AB C F i
( g t he.c hor d A B a nd t he t o

B C t o t he ci r c le a t B i s e q ua l t o t he a ngle A D B i n t he a lt <
s egme nt .

T o i ns cr i be i n a c i r cle AB D ( F i g 4 1 ) a t r i a ngle e qui a n g u la r

.

t r i a ngle E FH D ra w t h e t an ge n t K B C D r aw t he c ho rd AB , 111
. .

t h e a n g l e A B C e qu a l t o t h e a n gl e F D ra w t h e c h o rd D B , m ak i n
.

a n l e D B K e qu a l t o t h e a n l e H
g g J o i n A D T he t r i
. a n g l e A ] .

t h e tr i a n gl e r e qu i r e d .

FIG . 41 . FI G . 42 . F IG . 43 .

On g i a
v e n li ne A B ( g i s 4 2 a n d 4 3 ) t F
o de s c i be a s e me nt o a
.
g f r
w hi ch s ha ll c ont a i n a n a ng le e qu a l t o a gi ve n a ngle C a , . Dr w AD
l
t h e a ng e D A B e qu l a t o t he a ng e C a A O at ig l ang . Dr w r ht
AD . B
ise c t AB E at a EO a t i g. Dr w
ang e s t o ,
meet i r ht l AB
at O . tr
O i s t h e c e n e , a n d O A i s t h e a i s o f t h e c i c e of w h i r du r l
s egm en t AFB t
c on ai n s a n a n g e e a t o t he ang e C l qu l l .

I n a q u a dr i la t e r a l AB CD ( Fi g 4 4)i ns c r i be d
( )
7 .

i n a ci r cle t he opp os i t e a ngle s A B C a n d AD C a r e

t oge the r e q ua l t o t wo r i ght a ngle s Als o t he ot he r .

p air of op os i te a ngle s a r e t oge the r e u a l t o t wo

p q
r ight a ng les .

( )
8 I n F ig 44 .

KO X B D z A B x C D + A D >
< BC .

( )
9 A C a nd BD ar e an
y t wo c hor ds o f a c i r c le

i nte rs e ct i ng a t F AF CF : B F
. DF In .

F i g 4 4 t h e p oi n
. t F t
i s w i h i n t h e c i r c l e , bu i t m ay b e on t
l
c i rc e .

( )
1 0 E H i s a t a nge nt t o t he c i r c le A B CD F
( gi H b .

K l h c i r cle at K
p oi n t o
f c o nt a c t E L i s .a i ne c u t t i ng t e

T o dr a w a t a nge n t to a gi ve n a r e of a c i rc le , t hr ou gh a gi ve
wi t hou t u s i ng t he ce n tr e of t he ci r cle .

Fi g 4 5 . T h e g i v e n p oi n t P i s on t he g i ve n a r e A PB bu t
.
 T HE CI R C L E 19

ei th e r ofx t r e mi t i e s W i th c e n tr e P d e s c ri b e a r cs of
its e .
i rc l e t o a c
c u t t h e g i v e n ar c a t A nd B A l i n e throu gh P p ar alle l t o t he c h ord
a .

AB i s t h e t ang e n t r e u i r e d .

L e t C b e t h e m i dd 0 p oi n t of t h e c h o rd AB I f d i s t he di m e t e r . a

of t he c i r c l e of wh i c h P B i s n a e th e n PC (d P C
A ) A
a O x C E rE0 ,
2
:

T h e l e n gt h s of P B a n d P C m a b e
y
m e a s ur e d n d d fou n d by r i th m e t i c
a a .

FIG . 45 . FIG . 46 .

F i g 46 . . t
T h e g i v e n p oi n Q i s on t h e g i v e n ar e a n d n e a r on e of
i t s e xtre m i t i e s . D
r a w c h o rd s Q P a n d QB J oi n P B raw Q E . . D
m a k i n g t h e a n gl e P Q E e qu a l t o t h e a n g l e PB Q Q E i s t h e ta n ge n t .

r e qu i r e d .

F i g 47 . T h e gi v e n p oi n t S i s o ut s i de t h e g i ve n a r e
. r a w t he .
D
l i n e S A B c utt i n g t h e a r e a t A a n d
B . iFn d a l gth I s u ch th at
e n 5
l 2
S A S E ( s e e Ar
. 1 2, t . p .

W i th S a s c e n tr e an d r ad i u s e qu a FIG 47 l
t o l, d e s c r i b e a n ar c of a c i r c l e t o
c u t t h e g i v e n a r e at T A li n e S T i s t he an ge n t r e qu i r e d an d T i s
. t
p
t h e oi n t of c on t a c t .

t t
1 5 T o c o n s r u c a t i a n gl e h a i n g gi e n t h e b as e , t h e
. r v v
v r e t i c a l a n gl e , a n d t h e l e n g h o f t h e b i s e c o r o f t h e t
er i cal
'
t v t
an gl e .
—
F i rs t m e thod ( F i g
‘

O n AB t h e gi v e n ba s e d e s c r i b e a
.

F I G 48 . .
F I G 49 . .

se m
g en t r l A C B c o n t a i n i n g a n a n g l e e q u a l t o t h e gi v e n
of a ci c e
v rte i cal ngle a Fr om 0 t h e c e n tr e o f th i s c i r c l e dr w CF a t r ight
.
a

a n l e s t o AB
g n d pr o du c e i
a t t o m e e t t h e c i r l e at D O n a n y s tr g h t c .
ai

l i n e m k e cc e qu a l t o t h e gi ve n l e n g th of t h e b i s c t or of t h e v e rt ca l
a e i

an l e B i t t D r w h t r i ht n le s t o c
g n d m ke h a c a a e
g . s e c c g e e
a .
g a a

e qu l t h e c h o rd D B Wi th c e n t r e g n d r d i u gh d e c ri b n c of
a . a a s s e a ar

a c i rc l e t o c u t c c p r od u c e d a t d Wi th c e n tr e D n d r adi u s e qu l t o
.
a a
 O PR AC TI CAL G E O ME T RY

dc d e s c ri be a n a r c of a c i r c l e t o cu t t h e c i r c l e A C B at C J oi n A C .

BC A C B i s t h e tr i an gle r e qu i r e d
. .

t
T h e co n s tru c i o n for fi n d i n g t h e l e n g t h of D C i s b a s e d on t h e
th t a Do x DE D 15
2
.

S e co nd me t hod (F i g D e t e rm i n e t h e c i r l e A C B n d
. c a

p oi n t D as i n t h e fir s t s olu t ion T hr ou g h D dr w a s tr i ght li n e I . a a

c u tti n
g AB t Q M a k e Q P e qu l t o t h
a .
g i v e n l e n g t h of t h e b i e a e s

of t h e v e rt i l n gl e R e p t th i c on s tru c ti on s e v e r l t i m s s o
ca a . ea s a e 3

d e te r m i n e s u ffi ci n t n u m b r of p oi n ts on t h e l oc u s of P T h e i n
a e e .

se c t i on o f t h e l oc u of P n d t h e c i r c l e A CB d e t e r m i n e s t h e v er t e
s a

t h e r e qu i r e d t r i n gl e a .

Th i s e c on d m e th od i v e ry g ood i llu s t r t i on of t h e u e of a 10
s s a a s

I t i qu i c k e r n d pr ob a bly m or e a c c ur te n d c e r t i n ly m u h e a i e
s a a a a c s

d i s c o ve r .

1 6 T o fi n d t h e l o c u s o f a p oi n t w h i ch m o v e s s o t h a t
.

r a t i o o f i t s di s t an c e s fr o m t w o gi ve n p o i n t s s h a ll b e e q u a
v
a gi e n r a i o t — Let A nd B. a

v e n po in t
F
( g i 50 )
.b t h e t w o g i
e s,

a n d le t P b e o n e p os i t i o of t h e n

m o vi n g p oi n t o th t t h e r t i o s a a

o f A P t o B P i s e qu al t o g i v e n a

r t i o I n F i g 50 th i r t i o i
a . . s a s

2 1 .

Dr w P D b is e c ti n g t h e a n g l e
a A
A P B an d m e e t i n g AB a t D .

D r a w P D 1 b i s e c t i n g t h e a n gl e
b e t we e n A P pro du ce d an d B P .

B i s e c t D D1 at O A c i rc l e w i th .

c e n tr e 0 a n d r a d i u s C D w i ll be FIG 50 . .

t h e l oc u s r e qu ir e d .

D ra w BE p a ra ll e l t o P D t o m e e t A P prod u ce d at E D r a w .

par a ll e l t o P D , t o m e e t A P a t E , .

I t i s e a s y t o s h o w th a t P E PE, PB .

Al s o, A D D B A P P E , th e re fore A D D B A P P B ,
D i s a fixe d p oi n t .

A gai n , A D l D , B A P P E , , th e r e for e A D , D , B A P
a n d D , i s a fix e d p o i n t .

T h e a n gl e D P D 1 i s o bvi ou s ly a r i g h t a ng l e H e n ce a c i .

d e s c r i b e d o n D D, a s d iam e te r w i ll p as s thr ou g h P .

I f t h e fi g ur e b e r o t at e d a b o ut A D 1 a s an a x i s , t h e c i r c l e w i ll d e s c
t h e s ur fa c e o f a s ph e r e , a n d t h e s u r fa c e of th i s s p h e r e w i ll e v i de
b e t h e l o c u s o f a p oi n t m o v i n g i n s p a c e s o th a t t h e r a t i o o f i t s d i s t a .

f ro m t h e t wo fix e d p oi n t s A a n d B i s e qu a l t o a g i v e n r a t i o .

1 7 T h e I n s c r i b e d a n d E s c r i b e d C i r cl e s o f a T r i a n gl e
. .

i n s c r i b e d c i r c l e of a tr i a n g l e i s t h e o n e wh i c h to u c h e s e a ch o f t h e t l
s ides .A n e s c ri b e d c i r c l e t ou c h e s o n e s i d e a n d t h e oth e r t w o s
pr odu c e d T h e re ar e thr e e e s c ri be d c i rc l e s t o a t r i a n g l e T h e
. .

s t r u c t i o n s for dr a w i n g t h e i n s c r i b e d a n d e s c r i b e d c i r c l e s a r e b a s e (

t h e fa c t , th a t wh e n a c i r c l e t ou c he s e ac h o f t wo s t r ai gh t l in e s , i t s c e i
 THE C I RCLE 21

l ie s l t b
t h e i n e is e c i ng t h e an g e
on l be tw e e n th em . I n F i g 51 , O i s t h e
.

ce n tr
e of t h e i n s c i erb d r l
c i c e of t h e t r i an g l e A B C ,
an d O , i s t h e c e n e tr
o f on e o f t h e e s c i erb d r l
c i c es .

ll w
T he fo o i n g e s r ul t
s ar e n ot d i ffi c ul t to
prov e
1 ) T he s i des of t he t r i a ngle f o me d by r
j o i n ing the c e n t e s of r t he e s cr i be d ci r c les
p ass

t hr ough t he a ngu la r p oi nts o

f t h e o i gi n a l r
r
t i angle .

( )
2 T h e li ne oi ni ng t he ce n t e o
j f o ne o f he t r 51 FIG . ,

r
e s c i be d ci c le sr a nd t he o
pp os i te a n le o
g f he t
r
t r i a ngle p as s e s t hr ou gh t he c en t e of t he i ns cr i be d ci r cle a nd i s e
p p en
r

di cu la r t o t he li ne j oi ni ng t he ce ntr e s of t he o t he t wo es cr i be d c i r cles r .

( 3 ) e Rfe i rr
n g t o Fi
g 51 , A E . A F h alf t h e
p e r i me te r o
f t he
t r i a ngle AB C . h u
T i s s g ge s s t h e c on s t c i on for t h e s o tru t
i on of t h e lut
ll w
fo o i n g p r bl
o em .

Gi v e n t he p e i me t e r 1
r
a nd one a n le o
g f a t r i a n le , a ls o t he r a di us o
g f t he

i ns cr i be d c i c ler M k r l
t o c ons t u c t t he t r i a ngle a e t he an
g e E. A F F
( g i .

5 1 )e qu l a v l Dr w
t o t h e gi e n a n g e r l h v r du u l
a a ci c e
. a ing a a i s e
q a to
v r du
t h e gi e n t u h
a i s to o c AF h w ll
A E an d rb d T is i be t he i n s c i e
.

r l
c i c e of t h e r qu r d t r
e l
i e M k i ang e h qu l h l
a e A E a n d A F e ac
. e a to a f
v p r
t h e gi e n r Fr E
e imete F dr w p r p d ul r
om . an d a e en ic a s t o A E an d

r p t v ly
A F es e c i e t A r l w th
t o m ee at O, tr ci c e . i O , a s c e n e a n d O , E or
r d u w ll
O ,E a s a i s i rb d r l
be a n e s c i e tr l At t
c i c e of t h e i an g e an e n
g .

r l dr w w ll
B C t o t h e t wo c i c e s n o w pl t
a n tr l r qu r d
i c om e e t h e i ang e e i e
c —
.

cl
1 8 C i r e s i n C on t a t
. d r p r bl rl
Tu c on s i e i n g o e m s on c i c e s i n

t t w th
c on a c i th r
on e a n o pl
e t h u l d k pt w
t w o s i m e fa c s s o be e in V ie , v iz .

( )
1 t r r
e n two c i c le s t ou c h o ne a no t he t r
h i
e s tr a ght li n e whi c h o ins t he i
j
ce ntr e s or t ha t li n e p r odu c e d a s s e s t hr ou g h t he p oi n t of c on t a c t
p .

( )
2 M r r
e n t wo ci c les t ou ch o ne a not he t he di s t a n ce be t we e n t he i r c e ntr es

i s e qu a l to e i the r t he s u m or dif e r e nce of t he i r r a di i .

r r
T o d aw a ci cle of gi ve n r a di us to t o u ch t wo gi ve n ci r cles e e c ase s . Thr
ar e s o h w n in F
i gs 52, 53, an d 54
. an d ar e t h e ce n
. A B
e s of t h e gi e n tr v

FIG 52 . . FIG 53 FIG 54 . . . .

c i r cl e s AB or AB pr odu ce d c ut s t he gi ve n ci rc l e s at C an d F M ake
. .

C D a n d F E e ac h e qu l t o t h e g i v e n ra d i u s
a W i th ce n t e A n d r d i . r a a us

A D dr w t h e r c D O
a W i th c e n tr e B n d r a d i u s BE dra w t he ar e
a . a

T h p i me t f tri gl i t h m f it id
1
e er er o a an e s e su o s s es .
22 P RAC T I CAL G E OME T RY
EO, u t t i n g t h e form e r a r e t 0 J oi n O w i th A a n d B an d prod
c a .
,

th e s e l i n e s i f n e ce s ry t o m e e t t he gi ve n c i r c l e s t H n d K O i
sa a a . s

c e n t r e of t h e r e qu i re d c i r l e a n d H a n d K e t h e p o i n t s o f c on t c
c , ar a

1 9 T o dr a w a s e r i e s o f c i r cl e s t o t o u c h o n e an o t h e r a
t w o gi v e n l i n e s —
.

AB n d CD F
( g i. 5 5 ) a .

a r e t h e t wo
g i v e n l i nes D r w E F b i s e c ti n g . a ,

t h e n gl e b e t w e e n AB a n d C D
a Let E be .

t h e c e n t r e of o n e c i r c l e i t s r d i u s i s EA t he a ,

p e rp e n d i c ul r on AB fro m E D ra w H K
a .

p e r p e n d i c ul a r t o E F M k e K L e qu l t o E H . a a .

D r w L M p e rpe n di c ul r t o AB t o m e e t E F
a a

a t M M i s t h e c e n tr e n d ML i t h e r di u s
. a
FIG 55 s a
.

o f t h e n e xt c i r c l e
.

2 0 T o d r a w a c i r cl e t o p a s s t h r ou gh a gi v e n p o i n t a
t ou c h t w o gi v e n l i n e s —A R an d A C ( F i g
.

56 ) a e t h e t w o gi v e n l i n e s
r nd D i s t he a

g i v e n p oi n t D r w A
. E b i s e c t i n
g
a t h e a n g l e

B AC .J oi n A D T a k e a n y p o i n t F i n A E . .

D r w F H p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o AB W i th F as
a .

c e n tr e a n d F H s r d i u s d e s c ri b e a c i r cl e
a a .

T h i s c i r c l e w i ll t o u c h t h e l i n e s AB an d A C .

L e t thi s ci r cl e c u t A D t K Dr w DO a
FIG 56 . a

p r all e l t o R F m e e t i n g A E at
. .

a ,
I s t he

c e n tr e a n d C D t h e r a d i u s of t h e c i r c l e r e qu i r e d .

21 T o d r aw a c i r cl e t o t o u c h t w o gi v e n l i n e s a n d a gi i
c i r cl e —
.

A B a n d C D ( F i g 57 ) r e t h e g i v e n
.
H. a

l i n e s n d E F i s t h e gi v e n c i r c l e N b e i n g i t
a s

D r w H K n d L M p i lle l t o A B
, tD

c e n tr e . a a a a

a n d C D r es p e c t i v e ly an d t d i s t n ce s fr om ,
a a

th em e qu al t o t h e r d i u s EN of t h e gi ve n a

c i r cl e D r w by p re c e di n g p ro bl em a ci r cl e
. a , ,

t o p a s s thr o u g h N a n d t ou c h t h e l i n e H K ,
s

and L M 0 t h e c e n tr e of th i s c i r c l e i s t h e
.

L
c e n t r e of t h e c i r c l e r e qu i r e d an d C E i s i t s ,
F G 57
r di u s O E N b e i ng a s tr i ght li n e
a ,
a .
I “ '

2 2 T o d r a w a c i r cl e t o t o u c h a gi ve n l i n e an d 10
—
.

t h r o u gh t w o gi v p oi t s A B ( Fi g
e n n . .

58 ) i s t h e gi v e n l i n e a n d C a n d D e ,
ar

t h e gi v e n p oi n t s D r a w C D a n d pr odu c e
.

i t t o m e e t AB t E I f t h e r e qu i r e d c i r c l e
a .

tou ch e s AB at K th e n E K 2
ED ,
EC ,

o r E K m u s t b e a m e n p rop o rt i o n l t o a a

EC n d E D H e nc e t h e fo ll o wi n g c on
a .

s tru c t i on P ro du c e CE
. n d m a k e EF a

e qu a l t o E D O n CF d e s c ri b e
. sem i a

c i r cl e D r w EH p e rp e n di c ul r t o CF
. a
FIG 58
a

t o m e e t t h e e m i c i r c l e at H s M ak e E K .

e qu l t o EH
a D r w K O p e rp e n d i c ul r t o AB n d dr w L O b is e ct
. a a ,
a a ,

C D t r i gh t n g l e s t o m e e t K O a t O O i s t h e c e n tr e o f t he c i rc l e r e q u i
a a . i
 T HE C I RCLE 23

23 T dr a w a c i r cl e t o t o u c h a gi v e n c i r cl e an d a gi v e n
—
. o
l i n e at a gi v e n p o i n t i n i t A B C ( Fi g 59)i s t h e gi ve n c i r c l e , D E
. .

i s t h e g i v e n l i n e , a n d D t h e g i v e n p oi n t i n i t .

T hr ou g h F , t h e c e n tr e of t h e g i v e n c i r c l e , dr a w
F E pe rp e n d i c ul ar t o D E a n d p r o du ce i t t o
m e e t t h e ci r c l e a t C D ra w D O p e rp e n d i c ul a r
.

to D E . D r a w C D c u tti n g t h e ci r c l e a t B .

D ra w EB an d pro du ce i t t o m e e t D C at O .

O i s t h e c e n tr e a n d O D t h e r ad i u s of t h e c i rc l e E
r e qu i re d Th e r e a r e t wo s olu ti on s , t h e s e c on d
.

b e i n g ob tai n e d i n t h e s am e w ay by j oi ni n g A FIG 59
w i th D i n s te ad of j oi n i ng C w i th D
. .

2 4 T o d r aw a c i r cl e t o p as s t h r o u gh t w o g i v e n p o i n t s
—
.

a n d t o u c h a gi v e n c i r cl e A a n d B ( F i g 6 0)a r e t h e gi v e n p oi n t s .

a n d C D E i s t he g i v e n c i r c l e D ra w a c i r cl e .

CA B E t hrou gh A an d B , c utt i n g t he ci r c l e C D E
a t C an d E J oi n C E a n d pr o du c e i t t o m e e t
. .

AB pr odu c e d t F D r a w FD tou c h i n g t h e
a .
,

g i v e n c i r cl e t D aJ oi n H t h
. e c e n tr e o f t h e 1 ,

g i v e n c i rc le w i th ,
D n d pr odu c e i t t o mee t
,
a l
a l i n e b i s e c t i n g AB a t r i g h t n le s
g t O O i s a a .

t h e c e n tr e of t h e r e qu i r e d c i r l e Th e r e e t w o c . ar

s olu ti o n s .T h e s e c on d i s obt i n e d by dr w i n g a a

t h e o th e r t an ge n t t o t he gi v e n c i r c l e fr om F n d FIG 60 a . .

proce e d i n g as be for e .

Con s i d e r i n g s tr a i g h t l i n e t o b e a c i r c l e o f i n fi n i t e d i m e t e r t h e
a a ,

s t u d e n t s h ould e n d e a v o ur t o d e du c e fr o m t h e for e g oi n g s o lut i on t h e

c o n t ru c t i on for dr a w i n g a c i r c l e t o p
s s thr o u g h t wo gi ve n p oi n t s nd as a

to u c h a g i v e n l i n e .

2 5 T o dr a w t h e l o c u s o f t h e c e n t r e o f a c i r cl e w h i c h
t o u c h e s t w o gi v e n c i r cl e s — A n d B (Fig 6 1 ) r e t he ce n tre s of
.

a . a

t h e g i ve n c i r c l e s J oin AB c utti ng t h e c i r
.

cle s at C nd D
a B i s e c t C D at E M rk
. . a

o ff fr om E b o v e an d b e l o w i t on AB
,
a ,
a

n u m b e r of e qu l d i v i i on s a W i t h c e n tr e A s . s

an d B d e s c ri b e r c s of ci r c l e s throu g h th e s e
a

d i vi s i on s s s h o w n A f i r c urv e dr a w n
a .
’

throu gh t h e i n te r s ec ti on s of th e s e r c s s a a

s h ow n i s t h e l oc u s r e qu i r e d T h e urv e i s . c

a n hy pe rb o l wh os e foc i r e t h e p oi n t s A
a a FIG 6 1 . .

an d B .

r c le
T hi s locus m ay be u s e d i n s olv i ng p ble m s o n th e d r a w i n g f o a Ci ro

to tou ch two g ive n ci r c le s a n d t o f u lfi l s om e o t he r condi t i on .

Wh e n t h e gi ve n c i rc l e s a r e e xt e r n al t o th r , i F 6 1
0

o n e a n o e a s n i
g , .

four d i ffe r e n t loc i m ay b e dr a w n i n t h e m a n n e r d rb d b v ,

e s c i e a o e

b e ca u s e th e r e ar e fo ur o s i t i o n s of t h e o i n tE I p
f AB r du d ut o c e c s
p . p
t h e uppe r c i r c l e a ga i n i n an d t he low e r o F H , th t h
.

n e a
g a i n i n e n e

r e m ain i n g p o s i t i on s of t h e oi n t E a r e , t h e m i dd p e p
om t o f F H ,
t h e l
t
m i ddl e p oi n of F D , a n d t h e m i ddl e oi n of H C p t .
24 P R A C T I C A L G E O METRY

2 6 T o d r a w t h e l o c u s o f t h e c e n t r e o f a c i r cl e w
—
.

t ou c h e s a gi v e n l i n e a n d a gi v e n c i r c l e A B ( Fi g 6 2) i .

g i v e n li n e a n d C D E i s t h e
g i v e n c i r cl e , O

b e i n g i t s c e n tr e . T hr o u g h O dr a w O H
p e r p e n d i c ul ar t o AB m e e t i n g AB at H ,
.

an d t he i v n i r l at D B i t D H t F
g e c c e s e c. a .

M a rk off from F ab ov e an d b e l ow i t , on
O H , a n u m b e r of e qu a l d i vi s i on s Wi th .

c e n tr e 0 dr a w a r c s thr o u gh t h e d i vi s i on s
a b o v e F t o m e e t p ar a ll e l s t o AB thr o u h
FIG 62 . .

g
t h e c orr e s p on d i n g d i vi s i o n s b e l o w F , a s s h o w n A fai r c urve d
.

throu gh t h e i n t e rs e c t i on s of t h e a r c s an d p a r all e l s , a s s h o wn , i
l oc u s r e qu i re d T h e c urve i s a p ar ab ol a
. .

T hi s loc u s m ay be u s e d i n s olvi ng p r oble ms on t he dr a wi ng of a

t o t ou ch a g ive n ci r c le a nd a gi ve n s tr a ight li ne , a n d t o f u lfi l s o me
co ndi ti om

T wo d iffe r e n t l oci m ay b e dra w n i n t h e m a n n e r d e s c ri b e d a

b e cau s e th e r e ar e t wo p os i t i on s of t h e p oi n t F I f t he l i n e .

pr o du c e d c u t s t h e c i r cl e agai n a t K , t h e n t he s e con d p os i t i on of F
m i ddl e p oi n t of H K
—
.

2 7 P o l e a n d P o l ar
. I f t hro u gh a g i ve n p oi n t P ( Fi gs .

6 4) a n y s trai gh t l i n e b e dr a w n t o c u t a c i r c l e N Q R a t Q
t a n ge n ts t o t h e c i r c l e at Q a n d R w i ll i n t e rs e c t o n a fix e d s t rai
LN . C o n v e r s e ly , t h e c h o rd o f c on t a c t o f t a n g e n t s f rom a n y
L M , o u t s i d e t h e c i r c l e , w i ll p a s s t hr o u gh P T h i s fix e d l i n e
.

c a ll e d t h e ola r o f t h e p o i n t P w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c i r c l e , a n d t he
p
P i s c a ll e d t h e p ole o f t h e l i n e L M w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c i r c l e .

FIG . 63 . FIG . 64 .

L M w i ll b e fo u n d t o b e p e rp e n d i c ul ar t o OP , 0 b e i n g t h e c e n t :
t h e c i r c l e , a n d i f OP o r O P pr odu c e d c ut s L M a t T , a n d t h e c
—Q
at S, th e n O P X O T OS .

Wh e n t h e p ol e P i out s i d e t h e c i rcl e ( Fi g 6 4) t he p ol r i s
s . a

c h ord of c o n t t of t h e t n g e n t f r o m P t o t h e c i r c l e
ac a s .

I f h ord s Q R n d NK of a ci r l e m e e t (p r o du d i f n e c e s s ry )
c a c ce a 5

th e n t h e h ord s N Q n d KR w i ll i n te rs e c t on t h e pol r of P l c
c a a , a s

c h o rd sN R n d Q K w i l l i n t e r s e c t on t h e p ol r of P
a Th i s s u gge
a . s

c o n s tru c t i o n fo dr w i ng t h e pol ar of p oi n t P by u s i ng p e n ci l
r a a a
 26 P R A C T I C A L G E O METRY

a xi s of r l F v
t wo gi e n c i c e s ( i gs 6 7 a n d 68 a n d a i n a a i s e
) g . h v r du
t t r
t o P C t h e a n g e n f om P t o o n e o f t h e
g i e n c i c e s , e n i s c i v r l th th
w ll v r l
i c u t t h e gi e n c i c e s o r t hogona ll a n d i i n e s e c
y a t t w o f w ll t r t AB
p t L
oi n sM an d .

u v
[ T wo c d
r e s a r e s ai
‘
ou t e a c o e o r tho ona ll
g y e n t h th r wh

FIG . 67 . FIG . 68 .

t an
g e t
n s at t he p oi n t of in t e r s e c ti on of t he cu rv e s ar e at r i gh t m
to on e a n o th e r ] .

I f t h e r a d i ca l a x i s o f e c h p a i r of s y s t e m o f thr e e i v n Ci ] a
a
g e

b e dr w n i t w i ll b e fo u n d th t t h e t hre e r a d i c a l a x e s w i ll i n t e r s e
a ,
a t

a p oi n t wh i c h i s c ll e d t h e aa di ca l c e n t e of t he s y s t e mr r .

3 0 T o d r a w a c i r cl e t o t o u c h t w o gi v e n c i r cl e s a n d ]
.

t h r ou gh a gi v e n p o i n t A n d B ( F i g 69)a r e t h e c e n tr e s of
.
-

a .

g i v e n c i r cle s n d C i s t h e gi ve n
a

p oi n t T he l i n e p s s i n g throu g h A
. a

an d B c u ts t h e c i r c l e s t D E H a , , ,

a nd K s s h ow n
a Fi n d S on e of
.
,

t h e c e n t r e s of s i m i l i tud e of t h e

g i v e n c i rc le s
( Ar t D r aw a
.

c i r c l e t hr ou gh t h e p oi nt s D E a n d , ,

C or t hr ou g h t h e p o i n ts H K a n d
’

, , ,

C c u tti n g t h e l i n e CS pr odu ce d at
,

F D ra w a ci rc l e t o p s s throu gh
. a
F G 69 I
t h e p oi n t s C n d F a n d t o u c h o n e
. .

a ,

of t h e g i v e n c i r c l e s
( Ar t Th i s c i rcl e
( ce n t r e 0
.
) w i ll al s o t

t h e o t h e r g i ve n c i r cl e .

Th e r e m ay b e a s m an y as four s olu ti on s t o th i s probl e m t w < ,

e a c h c e n t r e o f s i m i l i t ud e I n u s i n g t h e o th e r c e n t r e of s i m i l i t ud e
.
,

t h e c on s t ru c t i o n i s t h e s a m e a s d e s c ri b e d b ov e e x c e p t th a t t h e p o
t
a ,

i s fo u n d a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i on of S C n d a c i r c l e thr ou gh H E M , a ,

o r t hr o u g h D K a n d C , .

Con s i d e r i n g a s tr a i ght l i n e t o be a c i r c l e of i n fi n i te d i a m e te r
s t ud e n t s h ould e n de vo ur t o d e du c e a fr o m t h e fo r e go i n g s olu t i on ,

c on s tru c t i on fo r dra w i n g a c i r c l e t o t ou c h gi v e n c i r c l e a n d a g a

l i ne an d a l s o pas s thr oug h a gi v e n poi n t .

 T HE C I RCLE 27

3 1 T o d r aw a c i r cl e t o t o u c h t h r e e gi v e n c i r cl e s
. Th e r e —
m ay be a s m a n y a s e i ght s olut i on s t o th i s pr obl e m O n e s olut i on i s .

s h o w n i n Fi g 70 A , B , an d C ar e t h e c e n tr e s of t he g i ve n ci r c l e s
. .
.

Le t r , r g , a n d r 3 b e th e i r ra d i i r e s p e c
,

t i v e ly , a n d le t r , b e t he r a d i u s wh i c h i s
n ot g r e a t e r t h a n r 2 o r W i th c e n t r e
B an d r adi u s e qu a l t o r 2 r 1 d e s c ri b e
t he ci rc le D E Wi th ce n t r e C a n d
.

ra d i u s e qu a l t o r 3 r , d e s c ri b e t h e c i r c l e
PPH . D ra w t h e c i rc l e A P L wh i c h
t o u c h e s t h e ci r c l e D E w i th i n t e rn a l con
ta c t , a n d t h e c i rc l e EP H w i th e x t e rn al
c o n ta c t a n d p a s s e s t hr ou h t h e p oi n t A C
g
( Ar t . O ,
t h e c e n tr e of th i s c i r c l e ,

i s t he c e n t r e of t h e r e qu i r e d c i r c l e , a n d
O N i s i t s ra d i u s T h e p oi n t s o f c on t a c t
w i th t he gi ve n c i r c l e s ar e M , K , a n d
.

FIG 70 . .

N T he con s t r u c ti on obv i ou s ly m ak es AM , P N , an d L K e qu al t o one

.

an o th e r .

A e con d s olu ti on i s obt i n e d i n t he m e w y by m k i n g t he ci r cl e

s a sa a a

A P L t o u c h t h e c i r c l e D E w i t h e x t e r n l c on t c t nd t he i r c l e EP H a a ,
a c

w i th i n t e rn l con t c t a a .

T wo lut i on s e ob t i n e d by m k i n g t h e r d i u s of t h e i rcl e D E
so ar a a a c

e qu l t o
a n d t h e r ad i u
r2 r, a f t h e i r c l e F P H qu l t s o c e a o r3 r
, .

T w o o lut i o n s se obt i n e d by m k i n
g art h e r d i u s of t h
a c i rc l D aE a e e

e qu l t o
a n d t he r di u
r2 of t h e
r ,, a i r l e F P H e qu l t o a s bu t c c a r3 r,

fo t h e e s olu t i on s t h e i r c l e A P L m u t h v e e i th e r i n te r n l or e xt e r n l
r s c s a a a

c on t c t w i th bo t h of t h e
a i rcl e D E n d FPH c s a .

T h e r e m i n i n g t wo olu ti o ns
a r e o bt i n e d i n t hes me w y a t he a sa a as

pre vi ou s t wo e x c e pt th t t h r d i i of t he ci r c l e s D E nd EP H e a e a a ar

r2 r nd , a
r e p e c t i ve ly
r3 r, s .

R e m e m b e r i n g th t s tr i ght l i n e i i rc l e of i n fi ni t e r d i u s t he
a a a s a c a ,

m e t h od i llu t r te d by F i g 7 0 m y b e e s i ly m od i fi e d to dr w
s a . ai r le t a a a c c o

tou ch gi v e n l i n e an d t wo gi ve n c i r cl e s or t w o gi v e n l i ne s n d rc l e
a ,
a a ci .

E x e rci s es 1 1

No t T he poi n ts of con tac t of ci r c les whi ch t ou c h on e an ot her , and the p ai n ts

e .

of con t ac t of ta n gen t s to ci r c le s , m u s t be s hown di s ti n c t ly

I h A l
.

1 AB C i s a
. tr l i an g e h AC inc es . B C z ; 1 nc ng e b
g
.
90 o
.

Dr w a r l wh h t u h
t h e ci c e ic A p
o c e s AC at thr u h B an d as s e s o g .

2Al h l du l w tr
i n e O A, 1 5 i n c e s on g , i s a r a i s o f a c i r c e h os e c en e i s 0 is .
AB
w th Dr w
.

l h l l
a i n e 2 2 i n c e s on g m ak i n g an a n g e of 1 20
°
i GA a t he Wt h .

tuh v rl A p
o c e s t h e gi e n c i c e a t thr u h B
an d as s e s o g .

tr ht l
3 O n a s ai g
. h l d t rl
i n e 3 5 i n c e s on g e s c r i b e a s e gm e n of a c i c e t o con ai n t
l w th ut u
an a n g e o f 1 50
0
i o tr rl
si ng t h e c en e of t h e c i c e .

l h d tr r tr l wh l
4 I n a c i r c e 3 i n c e s i n i am e e i n s c i b e a i an g e
.
os e an g e s ar e t o on e

th r
an o e as 2 3 4 .

Dr w
5 a rl '
h r du
an ar c o f a c i c e o f 6 i n c es h d a i s , t
h e c o r o f t h e a r e b e i n g 4
h l h d w l fir t
.

i n c e s on g T e n ra th e a r c o t w th
f a c i r c e c o n c e n r i c i t h e s a n d o f 7
d u w th ut u ut d
.

h
inc es r a i s i o tr
s i n g t h e c enr e T he t w o a c s a r e t o
.
s b e n t h e s am e

l tr
an g e a t t h e c om m o n c e n e .
28 P R A C T I C A L G E O ME T RY

6 0A an d C L a r e t wo s ai g
. tr ht A l li n e s n g e AO L OA 25i .

d fi t l th B
O L i s of i n e n i e e n g p t i s a oi n i n OA h F d
. OB 1 inc in a p< . .

i n CL s c u h th t a l r t tp
t h e an g e AP B i s t h e g e a e s l o s s ib e .

tr l
7 T h e c e n e s o f t wo c i r c e s ar e
. h p t r du
i n c e s a ar T h e a i s o f on e
du p t
.

h th r
i n c e s , an d t h e r a i s o f t h e o e i s 0 9 i n c h P i s on e o f t h e o i n s o f i n
rl r u r d dr w tr ht l
.

t i on o f t h e c i c e s I t i s eq i e . td a t wo s ai g i n e s AP B a n d 0:
h l tr
i n c e s on g , an d e m i n a e td rl by t h e c i c e s Q ddl
[H i n t I f is t he m i e Pt .

AP , an d R i s t h e m i ddl p t e th
oi n of B P , h l en QR i s a f o f AE ] .

8 Fr. om a p t oi n h d t t
2 2 i n c es tr rl
i s an fr o m t h e c e n e o f a c i c e o f Z
r du
a i s dr aw a s tr ht l ai g rl th t
i n e t o cu t t h e c i c e s o p rt w th
a the a of i t i in t he
h ll
s a be 1 inc hl on g .

9 T wo s ai g
. tr ht l l ud
in es i nc l D w
e a n an g e o f rl ra a c i c e 3 i n c]
d t r utt
i am e e , c l p t
i n g o n e o f t h e i n e s at h p rt
oi n s i n c e s a a , an d t h e o t
p t h p t
o i n s 2 3 i n c e s a ar .

t rl h p t
1 0 T h e c e n r e s o f t w o c i c e s a r e 3 i n c e s a ar
. r du T h e a i s o f on e .

h du th r
i n c , an d t h e r a i s o f t h e o e i s 1 4 i n c e s h Dr w ur a t h e fo c om m on t a .

to th l
e se c i r c es .

rl h
1 1 I n a ci c e 3 i n c es i n
. d t r dr w i am e e h rd d v d a a c o r i i i ng t h e ci c]
t
t wo s e gm e n s , on e o f wh h h ll t l
i c s a c on ai n an a n g e o f ll r In t he sm a e se
rl h d tr lr r r
i n s c r i b e a c i c e i n c i n i am e e , an d i n t h e a ge i n s c i be a c i c e wh i c ]rl
p thr u h
as s o g t r l l
t h e c e n r e o f t h e o i gi n a c i rc e .

1 2 AB C i s a
. tr l AB i an g e h 2 i nc e s .h BC 1 7 5 i nc e s CA 15 i . .

Dr w a d r d l th t
t h e i n s cr i b e an d e s c i b e c i r c e s o f l i s r i an g e .

13 D w . ra r
a s ecto rlof a c i c edu rl h A l
R a i s of c i c e , 2 i n c e s . n g e of .

th
In tr r rl
i s s e c o i n s c i be a ci c e .

. rl
1 4 I n a ci c e 4 i nc es in
.
h d t r d r w ht u l r l
i am e e a eig h eq a c i c es , e ac 4

tu l rl
o c h t h e or i gi n a c i c e an d t wo o f t h e o th er s .

15 D w . ra u l t r l tr l
an e q i a e a h d pl
i an g e o f 3 i n c e s s i e an d i n i t ac e
ul l
e q a c i r c e s , e ac h tuhon e d tr l
o c i n g on e s i e of t h e th i an g e an d t h e o e r t wo c
v t l l
1 6 T h e e r i c a an g e o f a
. tr l i an g e i slt tud its a ih e i s 1 5 i n c es , a
p erim e etr h
i s 6 7 5 inc es tru t Co n str l c the . i an g e .

17 AB .
(F i g 7 1 ) i s a n . arrlc o f a c ih c e du
o f 2 i n c es r a i s B C i s an ar .

rl h r du
c i c e of 1 7 5 i nc e s a i s r h l
T h e c e n t e s o f t e s e c i r c e s ar e
.

h p rt
i nc es a a rl
AD C i s an ar c o f a c i c e o f 0 6 25 i n c h
.

du w ht u h
ra i s h ic r AB
o c e s t h e a cs Dr wan d B C fi u a t h e g re .

A B CD .

18 Dr w t
. a a l A C AB
r i an g e B 3 i nch es BC . 25 .

i n ch e s CA . h
2 i nc esD w rl ra h du
a c i c e of 1 i n c
.

F ra i s to

tuh
o c d AB
t h e si e p thr u h
an d as s p t
o g t h e oi n C
1 G“ 7 ]
.

19 D w . ra r l h v t r tr h p t
t wo c i c e s a i n g h e i c e n e s 3 i n c e s a ar d T he i am e .

rl A h
on e c i c e ( )t o b e 2 i n c e s , a n d t h e d tr th B
i am e e o f t h e o e r ( ) t o b e 3 i
Dr w a a cli r c e h4 i n d
c e s tr t uh
i n i a m e e , trl A
o o c B
t h e c i c es a n d s o t ha
d
i n s i e , an d B ut d o si e C .

th l h
20 Wi i n a c i r c e 3 i n c e s i n i am e e
. d t r dr w th r a h an o e , 1 8 i n c e s i n di e
tuo c hi n g i t xt dr w th d r l
Ne . a a h d tr d fir t
i r c i c e , 1 i n c i n i am e e , i n s i e t h e s

o ut d d
s i e t h e s e c on , an d tuh th h dr w
o c i ng bo rl
T en p a a ci c e t o as s t l: .

t
t h e c e n r e o f t h e s e c ond rl tuh ci c e , o cfir t r l t t he sl c i c e i n e r n al y an d t h e ,

e xt r ll y
e na .
H 77
21 T h . ti n f h n d r i l i h wn i 7;
e s ec o o a a -
a s s o n
F ig 7 2 . Dr w thi fi gur t t h gi v n di m
. a s e o e e en
i
s on s , whi h r i m i lli m tr c a e Sh w t h
n e es . o e c on

t
s ruc ti b y whi h t h
on s tr f t h i r ul c e cen es o e c c ar

a r c s ar e d t rm i d d m rk t h j u ti
e e ne f an
2
2 a e nc on s o

th r
e a cs .
2 2 AB C i . t i gl AB 1 5 i h
s a r an e . nc es .

BC 14 i h CA 1 i
nc h C i th
es . t 1 nc . s e c en re

o f ir l
a c f 1 6 in h
c e o r di u D w t w i r l c es a s . ra o c c es

t t u h th i
o o c ir l nd p s thr ugh t h p i n t
s c c e a
FIG
as o e o s
72
A dB an .

2 3 Dr w t h l u
. f th
a n tr
e f oci r l wh i h t u ch
s o fix d i
e ce e o a c c e c o es a e c r
 THE C I R C LE 29

1 i nc h r di u n d p a thr ugh fix d p i t 2 i h di t nt fr m t h nt
s a as s e s o a e o n nc es s a o e ce re
of t h e fix d i r l e c c e.

24 AB 2 i . h l g i d i m t r f t h i r l ACB (Fi g
,
nc es on B DE i , s a a e e o e c c e s an
i l di u wh i h t u h
.

ar c o f f 4i h
a c rc e o th nc es r a s c o c es e
c i r l A CB
c e t B AE i t i ght
a gl t AB
. s a r an es o
Dr w t h fi g ACB D E d dd t h i l F whi h
.

a e ur e an a e c rc e c

t u h t h i r l ACB t h
o c es e c B DE nd t h
c e , e ar c a e
s tr i ght l i AE
a ne .

25 Dr w . i r l 25 i a h i di m t r d
a c c e nc es n a e e ,
an
t k p i t P t di t
a e a o n f i h f m it
a a s an c e o nc es ro s

t
c en r e F m P dr w t g t t t h i l
. ro d a a an en o e c rc e an
d t rm i t h x t p i t f t t u i g p i l
e e ne e e ac F
o n 73 o c on ac , s n a enc IG

an d tr i ght d g
s a ly -
e e on .

26 L M i . t i ght l i n f i d fi i t l gth A n d B
s a s ra t w p i t wh i h e o n e n e en ,
a ar e o o n s c
ar e 2i h p rt d
nc es a th m aid f LM T h p p d i ul r d i t
an a r e on e sa e s e o . e er en c a s an c e s

o fA d B fr m L M
an 1 i h d 1 5 i h r p ti v l y B i t h
o ar e t f nc an nc es es ec e . s e cen r e o a
c ir l c e o f i h d i u Dr w t h t w i r l whi h h v th i r ntr
nc ra s . LM a e o c c es c a e e ce e s on
p th ugh A d t u h t h i r l wh t i B
,

as s ro ,
an o c e c c e os e c e n r e s .

2 7 T h p l r f p i t P wi th r p t t
. e o a i lo i
a h i di m t r i
o n es ec o a c rc e nc es n a e e s
a s tr i ght l i n t p rp di l r d i t
a e a f i
a h fr m i t
e tr D t rm i n
en cu a s an c e o nc o s cen e. e e e
t h p i ti n f t h p i t P u i g
e os o o p i l d t i ght dg nl y
e o n ,
s n a enc an s ra -
e e o .

2 8 Dr w thr . ir l a d fi d th tr f i m i li tud f h p i r T h
ee c c e s an n e cen es o s e o e ac a . en

s h w by u i g
o tr i ght d g th t t h l i j i i g y t w f t h i
s n a s a -
te f e a e ne o n n an o o e s x c en r e s o

s i m i l i tu d i th r p e e thr ugh thi rd thr ugh t h

e as s e s tr f t w f t h o a or o e c en es o o o e

c ir l c es .

2 9 AB C i . tri gl AB 3 i h s a BC 4 i han CA 35 i h e. nc es . nc es . nc es .

A B d C th
, , an tr f thr i r l wh r d ii
ar e e c en 1 i h i h
es o ee c c es os e a ar e nc ,
nc es,

an d2i h p ti v ly F i d t h r d i l t f t h thr i r l
nc es r es ec e d dr w
. n e a ca ce n re o e ee c c e s , an a

th i r l wh i h ut t h thr
e c c e i l
c rth g lly
c s e ee c rc es o o on a .

3 0 Dr w ll t h
. ir la wh i h t u h h f t h thr i r l gi v i t h
a e c c es c o c e ac o e ee c c es en n e

pr d i g x r i
ece n e e c se.
 C H AP T ER III

CONI O S ECT I ON S

3 2 T h e C on i c S e c t i o n s
. T h e c urve s k n o wn a s t h e —
s ec t i ons or coni cs a r e , t h e e lli s e , t h e h b l d t h
p yp e r o a , a n e
Th e y ar e pl an e c urv e s , an d th ey m ay b e d e fi n e d w i th r e fe r e m
pr op e r ti e s a s p l an e fi g ur e s , or th e y m ay b e d e fi n e d
t h e c on e of wh i c h th e y a r e p l an e s e c ti on s .

3 3 C o n i c s d e fi n e d w i t h o u t R e fe r e n c e t o t h e C
.

F (Fi g 7 4)i s a fixe d p oi n t an d K M a fix e d s trai gh t l i n e , an d i f

.

P m o v e i n t h e pl an e c on t a i n i n g F a n d K M in s u c h a
m a n n e r th a t t h e d i s t a n c e F P a lw ay s b e a r s t he s am e
r a t i o t o t h e p e rp e n d i c ul a r P M t o t h e fix e d l i n e , th e n
t h e c urv e tr a c e d ou t by t h e p oi n t P i s c a ll e d a coni c
s e c ti on o r coni c .

T h e fix e d p oi n t F i s c a ll e d t he f oc us , a n d t h e fix e d X
s t r a i g ht l i n e X M i s c a ll e d t h e di r e c t r i x of t h e c on i c
°
, .

A s tr a i ght l i n e t hr o u g h t h e foc u s a t r i ght a n g l e s

t o t h e d i r e c t ri x i s c a ll e d t h e a x is , a n d t h e p oi n t A
w h e r e t h e ax i s c u ts t h e c urv e i s c a ll e d t he ve r t ex of
t h e c on i c .

P b e i n g a n y p oi n t on t h e c ur ve , t he con s t an t r a t i o of FP t o
c all e d t h e e cce n t r i ci ty of t h e c o n i c .

Wh e n F P i s l e s s t h an P M t h e c on i c i s a n e llip s e .

Wh e n F P i s e qu al t o P M t h e c on i c i s a p ar abola .

Wh e n F P i s gre at e r t h a n P M t he c o ni c i s an hyp e rbola .

A c oni c th e r e for e n e l li p
is p r ab ol a o n hy p e rb ol ac cc
a se , a a ,
r a a

as t h e e c e n t r i c i ty i s l e
c th n e qu l t o o g e t e r th n u n i ty
ss a ,
a ,
r r a a .

3 4 T o c o n s t r u c t a C on i c h a vi n g gi v e n t h e F
—
.

Di re ri c t x a n d E ,
cc e n t r i c t
i y I n Fi g 7 5 F i s t he g iv e n. .
,

a n d K M t h e gi v e n d i r e t r i x T ke c p oi n t D n t h x i
. a d a o e a s , an

D E p r p n d i ul r t o X D n d of u h a l n g th t h t D E X D i s
e e c a ,
a s c e a

to t h e g i ve n e c e n tr i c i ty F c e x m pl . i f t h e e c e n tr i i ty i 2 3
or a e, c c s

m k e X D qu l t o 3 t
a e an
y c le nd m k
o a DsE e qua l t o 2 t
, o t h a a e a e

l
s ca e .J oi n XE D r w n y t r i g ht l i n e N n p r l l e l t o t h e
. a a s a a a

d i re tr i x K M u tt i n g XE t n W i th e n t r F n d r d i u s
c c a . c e a a

f i r l t o t nN n d nN p rodu e d t P
,

t o N de ri be rc
u sc a s o a c c e cu a c a a

P P r e p oi n t o n t h e r e q ui r ed c o n i c
,
a s I n l i ke m nne r ny n m . a a u
 c om e S E CT I O N S 31

po i n t s m ay be d e te rm i n e d a n d fai r c urv e draw n through th e m i s t h e

, a

c o n i c r e qu i r e d .

I t i s o bv i ou s t h a t t h e r a ti o of N u t o X N i s t h e s m e as t h e r a ti o a

of D E t o X D a n d t h e
,
r e fo r e t h e r t i o of FP t o P M i
a s t h e sa m e s t h e a

r ati o o f D E t o X D whi c h w as m ad e e qu al t o t h e gi ve n e c ce n tr i ci ty .

Th e l i n e XE w i ll t o u c h t h e con i c at poi n t R ob tai n ed by draw i na g

5

F R pe rpe n d i cul ar t o t h e a xi s t o m e e t XE at R .

FIG . 75 .

I n Fi g 7 5 t hr ee d i r t ff e e n c a s e s r e s h ao w n .I n t h e e ll i p s e t h e
,
p r b l t r i i ty i f
.

t h n c s o
e c e n t r i c i ty
h e c c e
c is 1 : J 3 i n t e o a a a e

ur se l : 1 d i t h e h
,
p e r b o l t h e
a e c c e trn i c i ty i s J 3 : 1 .
T h e se
co a n n y
e c en
c tr t
ici ie s m
,

k e t he a n g l e
a D X E e qu a l t o 3 0 f
°
r t oh e e l li p s e ,
4 5
°
f o r

t h p r bo l
e a a a n da, 6 0 f o r t
°
h e hy p e b o l r a .

bv u ly u ry dr w t h e l i n e XE i n t h e c a s e o f t h e
I t is o io s nn e c e s s t o a a
a t on c e
p a r b ol
a a T he r d i u s f oa r t h e a r e t hr o u g h P m a y b e t a k e n
i
.

r t h b t i t i i tru t i v e t o n o t i c e th a
t t h e c o n s
tru c
t o n
f o m X N i n i s a s e u c ,
s n s c

g i v en p p
a l i es to ll t h e c on i c s
a .

w th x i d
I f li n e FY n d FY b e dr w
s a ,
a n m k i n g a 4 5
°
i t h e a s a n
 P RAC T I CAL G E O METRY

m e e ti n g XE at Y an d Y th e n p e rpe n d i c u l r s from Y a n d Y t c ,, a
,
a x i s d e t e rm i n e t h e p oi n t s A n d A wh e re t h e c on i c c ut s t h e xi s a , a .

t h e c s e o f t h e p a r b ol a th e r e i s on ly o ne s u c h p oi n t o t o p ut
a a
,
r

a n ot h e r wa t h e p oi n t A for t h e p a r b o l a i s a t a n i n fi n i t e d i s t
y , , a

fr o m A .

I t w i ll b e s e e n th t t h e e ll i p s e i s c los e d c urv e w i th t wo v e r i
a a

a n d th a t t h e hyp e rb ol a h s t wo s e p a ra t e b r a n c h e s e a c h wi th i t s a

v e r te x .

I f A F m e s ur e d t o t h e l e ft of A b e m d e e qu l t o A F ai
, ,,
a
,,
a a ,

A X m e a s ure d t o t h e ri ght of A b e m a d e e qu l t o AX a n d i f X l!
, , ,
a , ,

dra w n p e r p e n d i c ul r t o t h e a xi s th e n t h e e ll i p s e m y b e c on s t r
a ,
a i

fr o m t he fo c u s F an d d i re c tri x K M b o t h t o t h e ri ght of t h e fi g u i
, , ,,

t he s m e w y s f ro m t h e foc u s F a n d d i r e c tr i x K M u i n g t h e
a a a ,
s

e c ce n tr i c i ty Al s o t h e hy p e rbol a m y be c on tru c t e d fr om t h e fo ol
. a s

an d d i r e ct ri x K M b oth t o t h e l e ft of t h e fi g ur e i n t he s m e w e
, ,, ,
a

fro m t h e fo c u s F n d d i r e c tri x K M u s i n g t h e s m e e c c e n tri c i ty

a ,
a .

R e fe rrin g t o Fi g 7 5 i t w i ll b e e e n th a t s t h e e c ce n tr i c i t y i n c r
.
,
s a e

o r d i m i n i s h e s t h e a n g l e D X E i n c r e as e s or d i m i n i s h e s n d t h e r e fo ,
a .

t he e c c e n t r i c i ty of t h e e ll i p s e i n c r e s e s n d a p pr o c h e s t o u n i t
y a a a

e ll i p s e a ppr o c h e s t o t h e p r a b ola n d a s t h e e c c e n tr i c i ty of t h e h
'

a a a
j ,

b ol a d i m i n i s h e s n d p pr o c h e s t o u n i ty t h e hy p e rb ol a a l s o pp ro
a a a a s

t o t h e p ar b o l aA p a r ab ol i s th e re for e t h e li m i t i n g form of an e l
a . a

o a n hyp e rb o l
r R e m e mb e r i n g th i s fac t m n y of t h e pr op e r ti e s 0
a. ,
a

p r ab ol m ay b e d e du c e d at o n ce from th o e of t h e e l l i p s e o hy p e r l
a a s r

F or e x am p le t h e t n ge n t t o n hy pe rb ol
,
a t n
y p oi n t P o n t h e c
a a a a

b i s e c t t h e an g l e b e tw e e n t h e foc a l d i s t n c e s FP n d F P N o w i
s a a , . i

p r b ol a t h e focu s F i s a t n i n fi n i te di s t n c e f om t he foc u
a a ,
a a r

th e re fo r e F P i s p r alle l t o t h e a xi s an d t h e t n ge n t t o pa rab ol
,
'

a ,
a a

a n y p oi n t P o n t h e c urve b i e c t s t h e a n gl e b e t w e e n t h e fo c l d i s t s a

F P n d t h e p e rpe n d i c u la r P M on t h e d i re c tri x
—
a .

3 5 C o n i c s d e fi n e d w i t h R e fe r e n c e t o t h e C o n e
. In l .

7 6 7 7 a n d 7 8 v la i s t h e p r oj e c ti on o f
, , ,
r i ght c i r c ul ar c on e on 1: a a

p rall e l t o i t s a x i s vs b e i n g t h e proj e c t i on of t h e x i s of t h e c on e
a ,
a .

e c h F i g x x r e pr e s e n t s
a .
, p l n e wh i c h c ut s t he c on e n d i s p e
a a a i

di cu l r t o t h e p l n e of pr oj e c t i o n
a a .

I f x c ut s v t a n d v u b e l o w t h e v e rt e x of t h e c on e ( Fi g 7 6 )
x ,
.

s e c t i on i s n e ll i p s e
a If c u t s v t ab o v e a n d v u b e l o w t h e v e
. a rr ,

s e c t i on i s a n hyp e rb ol a s p a r a ll e l t o vt F i
( g
Fi . t h e I f r i ( g . fa , .

t h e s e c t i o n i s a p r ab o l a a .

I n e a c h F i g t h e t ru e s h p e of t he s e c t i on i s s h ow n a n d i s ob t a
. a ,

b y t h e rul e s of s o l i d g e o m e try T h e a x i s XX of t h e tru e h a p e ol .

, s

s e c t i o n i s dr a w n p a r a ll e l t o a w an d n
y p oi n t P o n t he c u m n a

d e t e r m i n e d as fo ll o w s z— T hrou gh any p oi n t n w i th i n t h e p oj e c t i o r

t h e c o n e n d o n w dra w nN p e r p e n d i c ul r t o sew m e e t i n g XX
a r,
a t a , , a

T hr o u g h it dr w l i n e pe r p e n di c ul r t o vs an d t e rm in te d by vt am
a a a a

O n t h i s l i n e a s d i am e t e r d e s c r i b e a e m i c i r c l e T hr o u g h n dr s . av

p ra ll e l t o vs t o m e e t t h e s e m i c i rc l e at p O n t he l i n e nN m k e
a . a

e qu a l t o u P i a p o i n t on t h e tru e s h p e of t h e
s e c ti on a s
p . .

re pe ati ng th i s c on s t ru c ti on an y n u m b e r of p oi n t s m y be obt i a a
34 P RAC T I CAL G E O METRY

p oi n t a i s at an i n fini t e d i s t n ce fr om x ) H e n ce i f p e r p en di cu la
, a .

draw n fr om w an d t o XX t h e d i re c tr i ces K M an d K M 0 a,
, , ,

tru e s h ap e of t h e s e cti on ar e ob
t ai n e d .

T h e i n s c r i b e d s ph e r e s ou c h t he t
t
pl an e of s e c ion at t h e foci of t h e
s e c t i on , a n d t h e p
r oj e c i on s of th e s e t
t
p oi n s ar e at f an d f , H e n c e .

p e rp e n d i c ul a rs f r om f a n d f , t o a x ,

t
t o m e e XX , d e e r m i n e t h e foc i t F
an d F,
o f t h e ru e s h ap e of t h e t
t
s e c i on .

A r e fe re n c e t o t h e s k e c h s h ow n t
i n F i g 7 9 w i ll pe rh ap s m a k e t h e
.

m e an i n g of t h e for e goi n g s a t e t
t
m e n s a li tl e c l e ar e r t .

t
A s i n Ar 34, i t i s i n s ru c i v e . t t
t t
t o ob s e rv e h a t h e p a r a b ol a i s t h e
t
l i m i i n g form of an e ll i p s e or an
h y p e r b ola , as t h e pl an e of s e c t i on
F 1° 79

F
( g i s 7 6 an d 7 8
.
) is ur t
n e d r o u n d s o a s t o c om e n e a r e r a n d n e ar e i

t
p os i i on ( Fi g 7 7 )I n wh i ch i t i s p a rall e l t o vt Al s o , wh e n t h e h
. .

t t
b oli c s e c i on i s a k e n thr ou g h t h e v e r e x of t h e c on e , t h e hyp e t
t t
b ecom es t w o s r ai gh l i n e s , an d wh e n t h e l an e wh i c h gi ve s t h e c l p
t
s e c i on i s t
ur n e d rou n d s o as t o be p e rp e n d i c ul ar t o t h e a x i s 0
c on e t h e e ll i p s e b e c om e s a c i r c l e A gai n , i f t h e pl an e of t h e p ar :
.

t t
s e c i on b e m ov e d p a r a ll e l t o i s e l f n e a r e r a n d n e a r e r t o v t, t h e ult :

p
form of t h e a r ab o l a wi ll b e a s r ai g h l i n e S udy i n g i gs 7 tt t . t F .

t
a n d 7 8 s i ll f ur h e r, i t w i ll b e s e e n t h a wh e n t h e hyp e rb ol a be t t t
t
t w o is t r a i gh t l i n e s , t h e d i r ec r i c e s w i ll c oi n ci d e , a n d t h e fo c i
c o i n c i d e a t t h e p oi n t
wh e r e t h e a x i s of t h e c on i c c uts t h e d i re :

a n d wh e r e t h e t w o s tr ai g ht li n e s wh i c h fo r m t h e hyp e rb o l a i n e t
A gai n , wh e n t he p ar ab ola b e com e s a s r ai ght l i n e , h a l i n e w i ll it t t t
a xi s of t h e con i c , a n d t h e foc u s w i ll be o n t h e d i r e c tr i x La s ly , . t
t h e e ll i p s e b e c om e s a c i r c l e t h e fo ci w i l coi n ci d e a t t h e c e n r e 0 l t
c i r c l e , a n d t h e d i r e c tr i c e s w i ll m o v e off t o i n fi n i ty
—
.

t
3 6 A d d i i o n a l D e fi n i i o n s r e l a i n g t o C on i c s
. t A pe t .

di cu lar P N ( F i g 8 0)fr om a p oi n P on a c on i c t o t h e
. t
a x i s i s c a ll e d t h e or di n a t e of t h e p oi n t P , a n d if P N b e

pro du c e d t o cu t t he c on i c agai n a t P , t h e l i n e P P i s
’ ’

c a ll e d a dou ble or di n a t e of t h e c on i c .

R FB , t h e d oubl e ord i n a e hr ou gh t h e foc u s , i s c all e d

’
t t
t h e la tus r e ctu m of t h e c on i c .

I n t he e ll i p s e an d hyp e rbo l a t he p oi n w hi c h i s t
t
m i dw ay b e w e e n A a n d A , , t h e p oi n s wh e r e t h e c on i c t
t
c u s t h e a x i s , i s c a ll e d t h e c e n t r e o f t h e c on i c , a n d t h e
p
e ll i p s e a n d hy e rb ol a a r e c a ll e d ce ntr a l coni cs
FIG
.

t
A s r ai ght l i n e j oinin g t wo p oi n s on a c oni c i s call e d t .

a chor d of t h e c on i c .
 CO N I C S E CT I O N S 35

37 . G e n e r al P r o p e rt i e s o f ( Io n i c s —
Foll ow i ng from t h e
g e n e ral d e fi n i t i on of a c on i c
( Art t h e r e ar.e m a n y p r o p e r t i e s

p os s e s s e d by all c on i c s wh i ch m ay be d e mon s tr at ed A fe w of t he .

m o r e i m p o r ta n t of th e s e ge n e r a l p r op e rt i e s w i ll n ow b e gi v e n .

( 1 ) If a s tr a i ght li ne cu ts t he di r e ctr i x a t D and the coni c a t P a nd Q

F
( g i s . 8 1 a nd t hen, F

be i ng t he f ocu s , the s tr a i ght

li ne D F wi ll bi s ec t , e i t he r t he
e x t e r i o r o r t he i n t e r i o r a ng le

be twe en P F a nd Q F Only
.

i n t h e c a s e of t h e hyp e r
bo l a, an d on ly wh e n P a n d
Q ar e on d i ffe re n t bra n ch e s
o f t h e c urv e
( g
F i 8
. 2 ) i s it

t he i n te ri or a n le
g P F Q
wh i c h i s b i s e ct e d by DF .
FIG 8 1 FIG 8 2
I f t h e s t rai g h t l i n e F P
. . . .
'

b e dr a w n b i s e c t i n g t h e a n gl e P F Q ( Fi g 8 1 ) an d m e e t i n g t h e c on i c at
.

I , th e n t h e a n g l e D F P i s e v i d e n t ly a r i gh t an gl e , a n d if t he l i n e D P Q
” ’

b e t urn e d a b o u t D s o as t o m a k e P a n d Q a p pro a c h n ea r e r a n d n e a r e r
t o o n e a n oth e r , P w i ll a lw a y s li e b e tw e e n P a n d Q , an d i n t h e l i m i t
'

wh e n P a n d Q c oi n ci d e th ey w i ll c oi n ci d e a t P a n d a s t r ai gh t l i n e
'

thr ou gh D an d P w i ll b e a ta n ge n t t o t h e c oni c a t P H e n ce t he n e xt
’ '
.

g e n e r a l pr o p e rty o f c on i c s .

or ti on of a t a n e nt i nt e r ce t e d be t we e n i ts oi nt of contact
( )2 T h e
p g p p
a nd t he di r e c tr i x s u bt e nds a r i ght a ngle a t t he f oc us .

a n e nts a t t he e x t r e mi t i es o f oca l chor d i nt e r s e ct on t he

( )3 T g f a

di r ectr i x Th i s fo ll o w s a t on c e fr om
.

t h e pr e c e d i n g p r op e rty I t is evi
.

den t , c on v e rs e ly th a t if
, t a nge nts
be dr a wn to a c oni c f r om a p oi n t o n
the di r e c tr i x , t he c hor d of conta c t

p r
a s s e s t h ough t he f ocu s .

' '
a nd Q F Q
( ) f
4 I P FP F
( g i .

8 3)be two f oca l c hor ds , the s t a i ght

'
r
li ne s P Q a nd Q P i n t e r s e c t a t a
’

p oi n t on th e d i r e c tr i x ; a lso t h e

g
'
s t r a i ht li n e s P Q a nd Q P i nt e s e c t
’
r 88 FIG
at a
p r
oi nt on t he di ectr i x , a nd the

p or t i on o
f t h e di r
r e c t i x D D be twee n t he p oi nts of i n t e r s e c ti on
’
s u bt e nds

r i ht a n le a t t he
g g f o c u s . T h e a o e fo o b v s vell w ry
e as ily r f om t h e fir t p r p r ty
s o e g i en in v i s a ith rt
c le .

( )
5 T a n e n ts T P
g a nd T Q
( g
F i 8 4 )f
. r om a ny

oi nt T su bte nd e u a l a n le s a t t he f oc us F
p q g .

( )f
6 I t he n or m al at P
( g
F i 8 4
.
)m e e t t he a x i s a t

G , the r a ti o of F G t o F P i s e qu a l t o t he e cce nt i ci ty r
o
f t h e c on i c .

P G on F F
( )
7 P L ( g
F i . 8 4 ) t h e p jr o e c t i on o
f
i s e qu a l t o the s e mi lo tus r e ctu m
-
.
FIG . 84 .
36 P R A C TI CAL G E O METRY

( 8 ) T he locus of t he mi ddle
p oi nts o
f a s ys t e m o fp ar a lle l c hor ds

s tr a i ht li ne
g Th t r h t l
i s s ai g . i ne i s ca e ll d a di a me t e r of t h e c on i c ,
t h e p oi n t wh e r e a d i am e t e r c ut s t he con i c i s c all e d t h e ve r tex o i
d i a me te r .

( )
9 A ll di a me t e r s o
f a c e n t r a l c o n i c
p a s s t h r ou
g h t h e c e n t r e 0
)
coni c, a n d a ll di a me te r s o
f a
p a r a bo la a r e
p a r a l le l t o t h e a x i s .

( )
1 T a ng e nts a t t he e x tr e mi ti e s o
f ( g )
’
0 a c h o r d P P Fi 8 5 i n t e .

at a oi n t T on t he di a me t e r T W whi ch bi s e c ts t he
p
c hor d .

( )
1 1 T h e t a n e n t a t t he v er t e x o
g f a d i a me t e r i s

ar a lle l t o t he s s t e m of c hor ds bi s e cte d by t ha t

p y
di a me t e r .

( )’
1 2 T V W ( g
F i 8 5) b e i n
g a. di a m e t er , a nd T P

a nd T P be i n a n e n ts t o the coni c, E E , t he
’
g t g p o r t i o n
of t he t a nge n t a t V i nt e r ce t e d be twe e n T P a nd T P ,
’

p
i s bi s e c t e d a t V t he ve r t e x of t he di a me t e r F I G“ 8 5 °
.

. rt
3 8 Pr o p e i e s o f t h e P ar a b o l a A k n o wl e d g e of t h e follo
.
-

p r op e r t i e s of t h e p a rab o l a w i ll e na bl e t h e s tud e n t t o s olv e a c on s i de i

n u m b e r o f probl e m s .

e e nds of a f oca l c ho rd P P l
( )
1 I f f r o m t h ( g
F i 8 6 )p p e r e ndi m .

be dr a wn to t he di r e ct r i x KX KI , t he n KKl s u bt e nds a r i g ht a ngle a

ocu s F
f .

( )
2 T h e t an e n t P T
g ( g
F i 8 7 ) at a n y p. o i n t P b i s e c ts t h e c

be t we e n t he f oca l di s t an ce F P a nd t he p er p e ndi cu la r P K t o t he di r e t
F t
r om th i s i t fo ll o w s th a t h e t an g e n t i s e qu a lly i n c l i n e d t o t h e

t
d i s an c e of t h e p oi n t of c on t ac an d t he a xi s Al s o F T F P t .

FIG . 86 . FIG . 87 . FIG . 88 .

( ) f
3 I t he t a nge n t a t a n
yp oi n t P ( g
F i 8 7 ) m e e ts t he a x i s . at T
r
P N be the o di na t e of P , the n A T AN i s fo o s e a s i . Th ll w ly fror
pr d
e c e i n
gpr p rty t hu
o e s : F P P K X N BFTut . AF
th e re fore AT AN .

e r e ndi cu lar f r om t he
4 Y Fi
( ) ( g . the f f
oot o t he
p p f oc us F t

ta nge nt a t an
yp oi nt P , li e s on A Y t he t a nge nt a t the ve t e x r .

( )
5 P N 4A F 2
AN ( F i g .

( )
6 T a n e n ts P S
g P I S a t t he e nds of a f oca l
a nd c hor d P P l i nt .

a t r i ght a ng les a t a p oi n t S on t he di r e ctr i x

( g
Fi .
 C O NI C S E CTI O N S 37

D efi ni ti on I f P G ( F i g 8 7 )t h e n o m a a t P m e e s t h e a i s at G
. . r l t x
th en N ll d
G i s c a e t h e s u bnor m a l .

h e s u bnor m a l i s c ons t a n t a nd e u a l t o Z AF
( 7 T q Fo r , si n c e P T .

b t l
i s e c s t h e an g e F P K a n d P G i s e en ic a p r p d ul r
t o P T i t fo o s a ll w th t
b t
P G i s e c s t h e an g e F P L 1
l
e n c e , an g e F P G .
anHg e LP G l an
g e l l
F GP , th r
e e fo e F G rFP PK , an d
G FX NX
2A F N .

T he a ng les S F P a nd S F P
( )
8 1 ( F i g 8 8 ) s u bt e nde d a t t he
f ocu.s F by
ta nge n ts S P a nd S P 1 a r e e qu a l t o one an ot he r a nd t o t he a ngle L SP .

r i a ngle s
( )
9 T h e t F P S a nd FS P 1
( Fi g 8 8 ) a r e s i mi la r a nd .

( )
1 0 T h e foc u s ( gFi F8 9 ) a n d t h. e

t
p oi n t s of i n e r s e c t i on S1 , S 2, a n d S3 of thr e e
t
t an g e n s t o a p ar ab ol a li e on t h e s am e ci r c l e .

D efini ti on A s trai ght l i n e V U ( Fi g

. .

p
8 8 )dr a w n a r a ll e l t o t h e a x i s A thr ou gh F
an
y p o i nt V of a p a r a b ol a i s c a ll e d a

di a me t e r a n d t h e p oi n V i s c a ll e d t h e t
v e r t e x of t he di a m e t e r V U .

( ) ( g
1 1 S Fi t.h e
p oi n t o
f i n t e r

s e c ti on of t wo t a nge nt s S P a nd S P 1 , i s
e ui di s t a n t f r o m t he di a m e t e r s t hr ou gh t he
q
oi n ts of c on t ac t P a nd P 1
p .

FIG 8 9 . .

e di a me t e r S V U Fi g 8 8 t hr ou gh
( )
1 2 T h ( ) .

t he p oi n t of i nt e r s e c ti on of t a nge n ts S P a n d S P 1 bi s e c ts t he chor d of cont a ct

PP] . Als o S V V U, a n d P P l i s p a r a lle l t o t he t ange nt a t V .

A i a me te r bi s ec t s a ll c hor ds a r a lle l
( )
1 3 d p
to t he t ange n t a t i ts ve r t e x .

D efin i ti on T h e foc a l c h ord p a r a ll e l t o

.

t h e t a n ge n t a t t h e v e r e x o f a d i a m e t e r i s t
c a ll e d t h e
p a r a m e t e r o f th a d i am e er t t .

e p a r a me t e r of a ny di a m e t e r i s f ou r
( )
1 4 T h
ti mes t he f oc a l di s ta nce of t he ve r t e x of t ha t
di a me t e r .

FIG 90
e a r e a e nclos e d by t he p a r a bola A Q P
( )
1 5 T h
F
( g i . t h e or d i n a t e P N ,
a n d t h e a x i s A N ,
i s

two t hi r ds of t he a r e a of t he r e c t a ngle ANP L

-
.

I t fo ll o w s fr om t
h i s th a t t h e a r e a 0
t h e fi g ur e A Q P L i s o n e h i rd of t h e ar e a -
t
of t h e r e c t a n g l e A N P L .

3 9 T o d r aw t h e T an ge n t s t o a
.

P ar ab o l a fr o m a n e x e r n a l p o i n t t .

L e t A ( F i g 9 1 ) be t h e v e r e x a n d
. t F
t h e foc u s o f t h e p
a r a b o l a a n d le t S be
t h e e xt e r n a l oi n p t
fr om wh i c h t h e t a n
g e t
n s a r e t o b e dra w n .

J o i n S F a n d o n S F a s d i a m e e r d e s c ri b e t
a ci r cle D
r a w YY1 t h e t an ge n a t t h e
. t
tt
v e rt e x c u i ng t h e c i r c l e a t Y an d Y1 F I G 9 ]
.

1
P L i s KP pr d u d ( F i g
o ce .
38 P RA C T I C AL GE O MET RY
J oi n S t o Y an d Y , an d pr odu ce t h e m . T h ese ar e t he t an
g
r e qu i re d .

Y nd Y a vi d e n t ly t h e fe e t of t he p e rp e n d i c ul a rs fr om 1
, ar e e

S Y a n d S Y a n d t h e e a r e o n t h e t an ge n t a t t h e v e r t e x
, s H e n c< .

Ar t 38 (4)S Y a n d S Y r e t an ge nts from S

.
, a .

4 0 T o c o n s t r u c t a P a r a b o l a h av i n g gi v e n t h e V e r
t h e A x i s a n d a n o t h e r p o i n t o n t h e C u rv e —L e t A Fi g
.
,

, ( .

b e t he v e r te x AN t h e a x i s a n d P
'
, ,

a n o th e r p oi n t o n t h e p a r a b o l Th i s L a.

i s a pro bl e m o f v e ry fr e qu e n t oc c ur
r e n c e n d t h e foll o w i n g c on s t ru c t i on
a

i s t h e m os t c on v e n i e n t .

D r a w t h e o rd i n te P N a n d c omp l e te a

t he r e c t n g l e A N P L
a D i vi d e AL i n t o .

an c o n v e n i e n t n u m b er of e qu a l p r t s
y a ,

n d n u m b e r t h e p o i n t s of d i v i s i o n 1
a
FIG 92 ,

2 3 e t c f r om A t o L
. .

, , .
( I n F i g 9 2 . .
,

four e qu l p a rt s h a v e b e e n t a k e n ) D i vi d e L P i n t o t h e s m e n u n
a . a

o f e qu a l p r t s a n d n u m b e r t h e p oi n t s of d i v i s i o n
a , etc f .
,

L t o P F r o m t h e p oi n t s l 2 3 e t c o n AL dra w li n e s p ar ll e
.
‘

, , , . a

AN J oi n A t o t he p oin ts
. e t c on L P T he l i n e s h . . a
“

t h e s am e n u m b e r s t t h e i r e n d s i n t e r s e c t a t p oi n ts o n t h e p
a

b ol a .

Con i d e r o n e of t h e s e p oi n t s Q wh e r e A 3 c u t s t h e l i n e thr o
’
s , ,

3 p a ra ll e l t o AN D ra w QM n d 3 H p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o AN '
. a .

o rd i n a t e P N i s 5 o f t h e o rd i n a t e QM A a i n AN i s AH
3 g g o f .

AH i s g of AM Th e r e for e AN g X §AM 3 A M .
~

§
G
.

B u t [ Art 38 PN . 4A F AN ,
2

t h e re o r e
f 4 A F l fi A M an d
QM 4A F A i! g ,
2
‘

wh i ch s h ow s th at Q i s a p oi n t on t h e p ar ab ol a
—
.

4 1 D e fi n i t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o C e n t r a l (I o n i c s
. A ce n t ra l C t

c u t s t h e a x i s a t t wo p o i n t s A a n d A a n d t h e r e ar e t w o foc i F nd ,, a

Th e r e a r e a l s o t wo d i r e c tri c e s on e b e l on gi n g t o e ac h focu s , .

r e fe rr i n g t o t he focu s n d d i r e c tri x of a con i c i t i s u n d e rs too d t h a a

t h e con i c i s a c e n t r a l c on i c t h e foc u s an d di r ec t r i x b e l on g or c orr e s p

t h e o n e t o t h e o th e r .

I n a c e n t r a l c on i c th e l i n e AA t e rm i n a t e d by t h e t w o v e r t i c e ,
:

t h e c u rv e i s c ll e d t h e t a ns ve s e a i s
a r r x .

I n t h e e ll i p s e Fi g 93 t h e s t r a i gh t l i n e B CB dra wn t hr o u g h
,
.
, ,

c e n tr e a t r i gh t a n g l es t o A A a n d t e r m i n t e d by t h e c urve i s c a 1
a

t h e conj uga te a i s bu t m or e ge n e r ally t h e mi nor a i s

x n d t h e t r an s v x ,
a

a x i s i s ge n e r a lly c a ll e d t h e maj or a i s x .

I n t h e hyp e rb o l F i g 9 4 th e r e i s a l s o a conj uga t e a x i s B

a, .
,
'

p s s i n g thr ough t h e c e nt r e a t r i gh t n gl e s t o AA but i t d oe s

a a

m e e t t h e c urv e T h e l e n g th o f t he c on ju ga t e a xi s of t h e hyp e r b ol
"

o bt a i ne d b y t h e foll o w i n g c on s tr u c ti on Wi th c e n tr e A an d r a . <

e qu a l t o C F d e s c ri b e a n a r c of c i r c l e t o c u t t h e l i n e t h r ou gl a

p e rp e n d i cu l ar t o AA at B n d B Th e n BB i s t h e l e n g th of ,
a ,. ,

c on ju
g t e
a a x i T h e c onju ga t e a x i s of t h e hyp e rb ol a i s n ot n e c e s s a
s .
 CO N I C S E CT I O N S 39

a m i n or a x i s , as i t m ay b e ei th e r l e s s th an , e qu a l t o, or g r e at e r t h an
t
t h e r an s v e r s e ax 1 s .

FIG . 93 . FIG . 94 .

T he r l d e s c ri b e d w i th
ci c e t he t ran s v e r s e ax i s AA , as a di ame t e r i s
ca ll e d t he a u x i li a r
y ci r c el .

T h e c i r c l e d e s c r i b e d o n t h e m i n or a x i s of a n e ll i p s e as a d i am e e r t
l
i s s o m e t i m e s c a l e d t h e mi nor a u x i li a r y c ir c le .

I f a n hyp e rb o l a b e d e s c r i b e d h a v i n g B C B 1 for i t s r an s ve r s e ax i s , t
g t
a n d A CA , f or i t s c onj u a e a x i s , th i s hyp e rb o l a i s ca ll e d t h e con u a te
j g
hyp e r bola .

D t
i a m e e r s P C P1 an d Q CQ , a r e c a ll e d conj u ga te di a me ter s wh e n QQ ,
p
i s ar a ll e l t o t h e t a n ge n t s a t P a n d P , , or wh e n P P , i s p a r a ll e l t o t h e
t a n ge n t s a t Q an d Q 1 .

4 2 G e n e r al P r o p e t i e s o f C e n a l C o n i c s
. r tr
T h e e ll i p s e a n d .
-

hyp e rb ol a h a v e m a n y prop e rt i e s i n c om m o n , a n d th e r e ar e o h e r t
t
prop e r i e s pos s e s s e d by on e wh i ch wh e n s at e d i n a s l i gh ly m od i fi e d t t
for m ar e a l s o p os s e s s e d by t h e o th e r A n u mb e r of h e s e pr op e r i es
. t t
w i ll n o w be gi ve n .

e s u m o r di fe r e nc e of t he f oc a l di s ta nce s of a ny p oi n t P
( )
1 T h g
F
( g i s . 9 5 a n d 9 6 ) o n t he c u r ve i s e
q ual t o t h e t r a ns ve rs e a x i s , or

P F 1 P F, AA, I n t h e e ll i p s e i t i s t h e s um a n d i n t h e hyp e rb ola

.

i t i s t he dif e r e nce wh i c h m u s t b e t ak e n .

( )
2 T h e t a n e n t a n d nor ma l a t a ny p oi n t P
g ( g i s 9 5 an d 96
) F
on t he .

c urv e bis e c t t he a ngles be t we e n t he f oca l di s ta nces of the p oi nt I n t he .

t t
e ll i p s e i t i s t h e e x e r i o r a n g l e b e w e e n P F a n d P F , wh i c h i s b i s e c e d t
p
by t h e t an g e n t , wh i l e i n t h e hy e rbo l a i t i s t h e i n e ri o r an gl e be w e e n t t
th e s e l i n e s wh i c h i s b i s e c e d by t h e t an ge n t t .

( )
3 A c i r c le dr a wn t hr oug h a p oi n t P ( g i s 9 5 an d 9 6
) F
on t he .

cu rve a nd t he o ci F a n d F , cu ts the conj uga t e ax i s a t the p oi n ts t nd g,

f a
wher e t he t a nge nt a nd n or m a l t o t he cu r ve a t P cu t t ha t a x i s ( I n F i g 96 .
.

l t
t h e p oi n t g fa l s o u s i d e t h e l i m i s of t h e fi g ur e ) t .

( )
4 P e r e ndi cu la r s F Y a nd F , Y, ( i gs 9 5 a n d 96)on the t a nge nt a t
p F .

an oi n t P me e t t ha t t a n e nt on t he a u x i li a r y ci r cle , a nd B C, t he s e mi
yp g
o or t i ona l be t wee n t he m or B O
’2
F Y F , Y,
j
c on u g a t e a x i s , i s a
m p p
e an r . .

( )
5 T a n
g e n t s G P a n d OQ ( g i s 9 5 a n d 9 6 )F a r e . e
q u a lly i n c li n e d t o

t he f oca l di s t anc es OF a nd OF , of t he p oi nt 0 .
40 P RA CT I CAL G E O METRY

( )
6 T he locus of t he i nt e r s ect i on 0 F
( gi s . 95 an d 96 ) of p a r
t a ng e n ts P 0 a nd Q 0, whi ch a r e a t r i ght an le s t o one a n ot he r , i s a
g

ci rcle ll d
i s c a e t h e di r e c t or ci r cle I n e e m i ni ng t h e a i s t he
. d t r r du
si n
g ut t k
m s b e a e n i n t h e ca s e of t h e e i s e a n d t h e m i nu s s i gn i . ll p
ca s e hyp rb l
of t h e e o a I n t h e c as e of t h e
. e o la w e n B C hyp rb h
t he r d u dr t r r l
a i s of t h e i ec o c i c e i s e o , an d en B C i s g e a e z r wh r t r

FIG . 95 . FIG . 96 .

AC th e r e i s n o d i re c to r c i r cl e a n d n o p ai r s of tange n ts c an b e d
,

wh i c h ar e p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o o n e n oth e r a .

I n F i g 9 6 t h e t n ge n t s O P a n d O Q r e s h ow n t o u ch i n g di ll
. a a ]

br an ch es of t h e hy p e rb ol a bu t for c e r t ai n p os i ti on s of 0 th e y
,

t ou c h on e bran c h on ly .

( 7 I f t he t a ng e n t a t P m e e t t h t r a ns v e r s e a x i s a t Te F
( gi s 9 5 .

9 6 )a n d t he c onj uga t e a x i s a t t , a nd if N a nd n be the f e e t of t he p e

di cu la r s f r om P on t he tr ans ve r s e a nd conj uga te a x e s r esp e cti ve ly ,
2
CN C T A O , a n d O n Ct : B C
2
. .

AN A ,N : B C : AC
.
2
. .

an d C Q
( i g s 9F 3 a n d 94 .
) b e i n g c o n j u g a e s e m i d i a m e t
CA 2
CB 2
T h e p lu s s i gn i s a k e n for t h e e ll i p s e
. t
t h e m i nu s S i gn for t h e hyp e rb ol a .

( )
1 0 T h e ar e a of t he p a r a lle logr a m f or me d b
y t h e t a nge nts a

e nds of c on u a t e di a me t e r s i s e ua l t o t he r e c t a ngle c ont a i ne d bi

j g q
t r a ns ve r s e a nd conj uga t e a x es .

t
4 3 T o c o n s r u c t a C e n t al C o n i c h a i n g gi e n t h e r v v
—
.

a n d t h e T r a n s e s e Ax i s v r F and ,.
( g
i s 9 7 a n d 9 8 )F F
ar e .

g i v e n f oc i a n d AA , i s t h e
g i v e n r a n s v e r s e ax i s t
F o r t h e e ll i p s e .

an
y p o i t
n a i n AA , a n d for t h e h p e rb o l a t a k e a n
y y p o i n a in t
pr od u ce d W i h ce n r e s
. t t an d , F F
a n d ra d i u s e qu a l t o A a de s

a r cs of c i r c l e s t F
W i h c e n tr e s an d , an d r a d i u s e qu a l t o A ,a de s
. F
a r c s of c i r c l e s t o c u t t h e fo r m e r a r c s a t P , Q , P , a n d Q , P, Q, P .

t
Q , ar e p oi n s on t h e c on i c r e qu i re d , an d by a k i n g o t h e r p os i t i O I t
t
t h e p oi n a a n d r e p e a t i n g t h e a bo v e con s ru c i on an y n u m b e r of p t t
t
on t h e c on i c m ay b e d e e r m i n e d a n d a fa i r c u rv e dr a w n hr oug h 1 t
t
w i ll c om pl e e t h e c on s ru c t i on t .
42 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

On t h e s t r ai gh t e d g e of a s t ri p of p a pe r , F i g 1 00, m ark p oi nt .

m, a n d n, s u c h t h a t P n i s e qu a l t o t h e s e m i m aj o r a x i s , a n d P m i s e -

t o t h e s e m i m i n o r a x i s of t h e
-

e ll ip s e . th i s p ap e r t r m m e l
P lac e a

o n t h e p a p e r s o th t m i s o n t h e a e

m j o r a x i s a n d n i s o n t he m i n or
a

a x i s a dot m a d e on t h e p a p e r
, t a

P w i ll b e on t h e e ll i p s e By .

m o v i n g t h e t r am m e l i n t o n u m b e r a

of d i ffe r e n t p os i t i on s a s u ffi c i e n t

n u m b e r of po i n t s o n t h e e ll i p s e

m ay b e o b t ai n e d a n d a f i r c urve a
FIG 1 00
i s t h e n dra w n t hr o u g h th e m
.

R efe rri n g gai n t o Fi g 9 9 if m Pn b e dr a w n m k i ng t h e a

a .
, , ,
a

P n n e qu a l t o t h e a n g l e P nn t h e n P n w i ll b e e qu a l t o P u
, ,,
nd Pm
, ,
a ,

b e e qu l t o P m
a H e n c e t h e p oi n t s m a n d n o n t h e t r a m m e l m y b
. a

o p po s i t e s i d e s of P s s h o w n on t h e t r m m e l m P n
a Fi g 1 00 T h e 1a , ,, . . 3

fo rm o f t he tra m m e l s h ould b e u s e d wh e n t h e d i ffe re n ce b e t w e e n

m aj or a n d m i n or a x e s of t h e e ll i p s e i s s m a ll .

T h e t r am m e l m e t h o d o f dra w i n g a n e ll i p s e i s m os t c on v e n i e n t
k e e p s t he p ap e r fre e of c on s t ru c t i on l i nes oth e r th an t h e a xe s .

4 6 G i v e n a P a i r o f C o nj u ga t e D i a m e t e r s o f a n E ll i
—
.

t o fi n d t h e Ax e s L e t P CP , a n d Q C Q , ( F i g 1 01 ) b e t h e g .

c on j u ga t e d i am e t e r s D ra w P D .

p e r p e n d i c ul a r t o C Q M ake P H .

a n d P H , e a c h e qu a l t o C Q J oi n .

C H a n d OH , T h e m aj o r a x i s
.

A CA , b i s e c t s t h e a n gl e H CH , , a n d
t h e m i n o r a x i s B C B , i s of c o ur s e
p e rp en d i c ul ar t o A CA , J oi n P t o .

t he m i dd l e p o in t o f C H , c u t t i n g t h e
m aj or a x i s a t m an d t h e m i n o r a x i s
at n . P n i s t h e l e n g t h of t h e s e m i
FIG 1 01 . .

m aj or a x i s , a n d P m i s t h e l e n g t h of t h e s e m i m i n or a x i s -
.

4 7 T o c o n s t r u c t a n E ll i p s e h a v i n g gi v e n a P a i r
—
.

C o n j u ga t e D i a m e t e r s L e t P C P , an d Q C Q , (Fi g s 1 02 an d 1 0 .

t h e g i v e n c o n j u ga t e d i a m e t e r s .

F i rs t M e t hod Thr ou gh P ,
.

Q , P , , an d Q , ( Fi g 1 02) dr a w .

p ar al l e l s t o t h e gi ve n d i a m e t e r s
fo r m i n g t h e p a ra ll e l ogra m RT .

D i v i d e C P i n t o a n u m be r o f
e qu a l p a rt s , a n d di vi d e R P i n t o

t h e s a m e n u m b e r of e qu a l pa rt s .

J oi n Q t o 1 t he fir s t po i n t of
'

d i vi s i on on R P A l i n e j oi n i n g
.

Q, t o 1 t h e fir s t p oi n t O f d i V i s i o n FIG 1 02 . .

o n C P w i ll wh e n pr odu c e d ou t

Q l at a p oi n t on t h e e ll i ps e r e qu i re d
’
R ep e a ti ng th i s con s t r uc
.
 CO N I C S E C T I O N S 43

w i th t h e oth e r p oi n ts of d i vi s i on on R P n d C P oth e r po i n ts on t he r c a a
P Q r e o b t ai n e d I n l i k e m n n e r p oi n t s on t h e r c P
a .

Q r e ob t i n e d a a
, a a .

P oi n ts on t h e ot h e r h a l f of t h e e ll i p s e m b e f d b y t h e s am e a
y o u n
m e th od o r by a c on s t ru c t i on d e p e n d i n on t he f c t th t ll d i m e t e rs
,
g a a a a
a e bi s e cte d t th e c e n t re C or by m a k i n t th t h rd
r a
g u e o f t h e f a c a c , o s s

p r ll e l t o a di m e te r ar e b i s e c te d by i t s c o nju g te
a a a a .

S econd Me thod Fi n d t he x e s by t h e c on s tru c t i on d e s cr i be d i n t h e

. a

pre ce d i n g a r ti c l e an d th e n u s e a p ap e r tr m m e l s e xpl i n e d i n Art 45 a a a .

Thi d M e thod
.

r By a tri a n g ul a r t r am m e l F rom P Fi g 1 03 dra w

.
.
,
.
,
P m pe r p e n d i c ul r t o CQ F r om Q dra w Q D pe rpe n d i c ul ar t o CP an d
a .

m k e P n e qu a l t o Q D
a J oi n mn I f .
.

t h e tr i n g l e P mn b e dra w n on a
a

s t ri p o f p ap e r mn b e i n o n on e e d e
g g,

a n d P o n t h e o pp os i t e e d e a n d i f
g ,

th i s s tri p b e m ove d i n t o d iffe r e n t

p o i t i on s m b e i n g on Q Q an d n on
s , ,

P P t h e n P w i ll b e on t h e e ll i p s e
,, .

A s e con d p os i ti o n of t he t r m m e l a

i s h ow n t o t he r i g h t of t h e fi gu r e
s .

I n t e a d o f u s i n g a s t r i p of o rd i n ary
s

p pe r t h e po i n t s m n an d P m y
a
FIG 1 03
a
. .

, , ,

b e m rk e d on a p i e c e of t r a c i n g p a p e r a n e e dl e h ol e be i n g m d e i n
a
, a

t he t r a ci n g p ap e r at P thr ou h wh i h p Oi n t s on t h e e ll i p s e m b
g , y e c a

m rk e d by a s h a r p r ou n d p oi n te d p e n c i l
a

4 8 T h e E ll i p s e a s t h e P r oj e c t i on o f a C i r cl e —
-
.

. M a n y of .

t h e pr op e r t i e s o f t he e ll i p s e m any of t he c on s t r u c ti on s c on n e c t e d
w i t h i t m ay b e
re d i ly d e m on s t rate d
a

by con s i d e ri n g t h e
e ll i p s e a s t h e
p r oj e c
ti on of a c i r c l e A .

fe w of th e s e w i ll b e
c o n s i d e re d h e re i t ,

b e i n g as s u m e d th a t
t he tud e n t h as a l
s

r e dy s t ud i e d s om e
a

of t h e l te r c h pt e r s
a a

i n t h i s w o rk r e l ti n g a

t o pr oj e c t i on .

R e fe rri n g t o F i g .

1 04 ABA B i,
a , , s

c i r c l e ly i n i n h r i
g a o

z on t a l pl n e AA a , ,

a n d BB be i n g di a ,

m e t e r s at r i g h t a n FIG 1 04
l oth e r
. .

g e s t o o n e a n .

I m gi n e t h e c i c e
a r l ABA B r
to e o v lv e a b ou t AA a s a n
,
a x 1 s u n
,
t i l t s
,
I

p l n e i s i n c l i n e d t n a n gl e 0 t o t h e h ori z on t l n d le t i t th e n b e
a a a a ,
a

pr oj ec te d on t o t h e h ori z on ta l p l an e c o t
“

n a i n i n
g A A T h e p om t P o n
,.
44 P RA C T I C AL G EO M E T RY

t he r c l e i n i t s n e w p os i ti o n w i ll h a ve t h e poi n t p fo r i t s pl
ci a

p oi n t p b e i ng d e te rm i n e d by t h e c on s tru c ti on s h o wn Oth e r p oi . ;

t h e c i r c l e m y b e t r e t e d i n t h e s a m e w ay a n d ll p oi n t s s u cl
a a ,
a

b e i ng j oi n e d by a fai r c urve t h e e ll i p s e Ap A b i s d e te rm i n e d , , .

O n bb s d i am e te r d e s c r i be t he c i r c l e a ba b
,
a Th i s c i r c l e wi l , ,.

i t s c e n t r e t C t h e c e n t r e of t h e ot h e r c i r cl e N ow i m gi n e t he e
a , . a

wh i c h i s h or i zon t l t o r e v o l e ab ou t bb as a n a x i s u n ti l i t s pl
a ,
v ,
;

i n c l i n e d a t t h e a n g l e 0 t o t h e h o ri z on t a l a n d le t i t t h e n be p r o
o n t o t h e h o ri z on t a l pl a n e c on t a i ni n bb T h e p i nt o n t h e e ll i
g o
p ,.
i t s n e w p o s i ti on w i ll h v e t h e po i n t p for i t s pl n a nd it is e ,
a ,
a

s h o w t h a t t h e p oi n t i s on t h e c i r c l e a ba b l t h a t t h e po i n t s
p , a s o , ,,

an d C r e i n t h e s am e s t r ai h t l i n e
a I t w i ll b n t h t t h e
g e s e e a 1
.

ABA B an d a ba b ar e t he ux i l i ary c i r c l e s of t h e e ll i ps e 1
, , , , a
5

a n d t h e t h e o ry of t h e c on s t ru c t i on i v e n i n Ar t 44 i s f u r t h
g .

pl ai n e d .

I t i s e as y t o e t a bl i s h t h e fo ll ow i ng th eo r e m i n p r oj e c t i
s

T he pr oj e cti on of t he t a nge nt t o a c urve a t a ny p oi n t i s t he t a ng

t he p r oj e c ti on f
o t he cu r ve a t t he p r oj e c t i on of t he
p oint .

R e fe rr i n g agai n t o Fi g 1 04 T P i s t t . ci rc l e A l
,
a an e n
g t o t he

at P n d wh e n t h e c i r c l e i s tur n e d a b o ut AA a s a n
,
a x i s am ,
a

e c t e d i n t o t h e e ll i p s e a s a lr e ady d e s c ri b e d t h e po i n t T wh i c h
j ,

th t ax i s i s s t at i on a ry an d th e r e fore T p wi ll e vi d e n tly be t h e t
a a

t o t h e e ll i p s e t p L e t Tp pr o du c e d m e e t BB a t t
a . Th e n w he , .

e ll i p s e i s tur n e d a b out BB a s an x i s a n d p roj e c t e d i n to t h e

, a

a ba b , a s a lr e a dy d e s c r i b e d
, t h e p oi n t t wh i c h i s on th a t a
,

s t a t i on a ry a n d t w i ll e v i d e n t ly b e t h e t a n ge n t t o t h e c i r c l e
p ,

at
p
A n ot h e r eo e m i n th ro e c i on pr j t
i c is easi o e wh h
i s as fo o ly p r v d ll
T he p r oj e c ti ons on a p la ne of t wo i n t e r s ec t i ng s tr a i ght li ne s will i n
oi nt whi c h i s the r o e c t i on o oi n t of i n t e r s ec t i on of t he or
at a
p p j f t h e
p
li ne s , and t he p oi n t of i n t e r s ecti on of the p r oj e ct i ons wi ll di vi de t h
j ec t i o ns i n t o s e g me nts whi c h a r e t o one a no t he r a s t he co r esp ondi ng s e g r
of t he or i gi n a l li nes .

Th bl pl d tr t v tr
i s e n a e s a s i m e e m on s a i on t o be gi e n of t he c on s
f ordr w a ll p h v
in g an e i s e v p r
a in
g g ju t
i e n a ai of c on g a e d i al

wh h b d r b d Art
i c h as e e n e s c i e i n llu t r t d by 47 an d i s a e . Fi g 1 02 . .

R rr e fe d t r
i n g t o Fi g 1 05, P P , a n d QQ , ar e t w o i a m e e s of a
.

at r ht ig l th r
a n g es t o on e a n o r l e up p d T he ci c e i s s os e
. t o be ly i
t he h r z t l pl
o i on a A qu r an e s h w a e R ST U i s s o
. n c i r cu m s c r i b i r

rl p t
c i c e, t h e t tb
oi n s of c on a c Q r du
e i n g P , Q , , P ,, an d T he a i s .

dvd d t
i i e u b r qu l p r t
i n o an y n m e of e th a thr a s, in i s c as e e e, 3

p t dvd d t
oi n s 1 a n d 2, a n d R P i s u b r qu
i i e i n o t h e s am e n m e of e al

p t
a t t he
’
oi n s 1 a n d l j p t
I f t h e i n e s oi n i n g Q , t o t h e o i n s 1
be pr du d o ce y h w t h t th y w ll t r t
i t i s e as t o s o a le j i i n e s e c t he i n e s
Q '
r p t v ly p t
’
t o 1 an d 2 e s e c i e at r l h w
oi n s o n t h e c i c e a s s o n .

r l w th
N ow i m a gin e t h e c i c e , i l t d w th
a ll t h e i n e s c onn e c e i
r v lv
e o ut
e ab o x MN an a i s pl tin it s l d a n e i n o an i n c i n e p os i t i m

le t apr j t wh l
o e c i on of t h eth d
o e be h rz t l
e n m a e on t h e o i on a p ls

h w
s o n qu r
T he s
. pr j t
a e R ST U t p r ll l r
o e c s i n o t he a a e og a m r s t
'
 C ON I C S E C T I O N S 45

t he r l proj e c t s i n t o an e ll i p s e wh i c h tou ch e s t h e s i d e s of t he
ci c e

p r ll e log ram at p q p an d q Al s o p p n d qq w i ll e vi d e n tly be

a a , ,, ,, .
, a
,
con u a te d i am e t e r s of t h e e ll i p s e L s tly t h e l i n e s throu gh Q an d Q
j g . a , ,
wh i c h i n te r s e c t on t he ci rc l e pr oj e c t i nto l i n es whi c h i n te rs e c t on t h e

FIG 1 05 .

e ll ip s e and d i vi d e cp an d rp i n t o thre e e qu al p ar ts He n ce t he con .

s t ru c t i o n fo r dr a w i n t h ll i p h v i n i v e n t w n ju t d i m t r
g e e s e g g o o
g e e s
—
a c e a a .

4 9 P r o p e rt i e s c h a r a c t e ri s t i c o f t h e H y p e r b o l a
. I t h as .

a lr e a dy b e e n poi n te d ou t th a t t h e hy p e rb o l h as t wo s e p ra te br n c h e s
a a a

a n d t h a t t h e r e i s a c onju a te hyp e rb l l o h avi n g t wo s e p r t e

g o a a s a a

bran c he s Al s o t h e t r n s ve rs e an d c onjug t e axe s of t he hype r b ola

. a a

e t h e c onju a t e a n d t ra n s v e rs e a x e s r e sp e c t i v e ly of t h e c onj u g at e
ar
g
hype rbol a .

R e fe rri n g t o Fi g 1 06 F an d F ar e t h e fo ci an d AA i s t he t rans
.
, , ,

ve r s e a xi s of t he hype rbo l a wh os e bran c h e s ar e Q an d Q BB i s t h e ,. ,

c on ju a t e a xi s a n d Q an d Q
g
'
a e t h e br n
'
,c hre s o f t h e c on ju g t e h y pe r
a a

b ol a . A con s tru ct i on h as a l r e dy b e e n gi ve n ( Art 41 p 38 ) for

a .
,
.

fi nd i n g t h e c onju g t e a xi an d t he foll o w i n g c on s tru c ti on w i ll e vi de n tly

a s,

g i v e t h e sa m e r e s ult W i th . ce n tr e C t h e m i ddl e ,
p o i n t of A A nd ,, a

r ad i u s C F d e c r i be a ci r c l e D r a w t h e t n ge n t t o t he hyp e rb ol t A
s . a a a

t o c u t th i s c i r c l e a t L a n d L Throu gh C dra w B CB t r i gh t n gle s

, .
,
a a

t o AA ,P a r ll e l s t o AA t hr ou g h L an d L w i l l u t B CE
. a ,
t B
,
c nd , a a

B t h e e x tr e mi t i es of t h e c onjugat e ax is T h e c i r c l e wh o e c e n tre i s
, .
s

C n d r a d i u s CF c u t s BB pr o du ce d at F a n d F t h e foci of t h e
' ’
a ,
,
c onju a te hype rbo l a
g .
46 P RA CT I CAL G E O METRY

T h e l i n e s CL d CL , pro du ce d b ot h w a y s a r e t he a sy mp tm
an

t h e hyp e rbo l a I t w i ll b e s e e n th a t t h e as y m p t o te s ar e t h e d i a g
.

of t h e r e c t an gl e fo rm e d by t h e t an e n t s a t t h e v e r ti c e s of t h e h
g
b o l a an d i t s c on ju ga te T h e as y m p tot e s ar e tang e n t s t o t he hyp e
.

a n d i t s c onj u ga t e a t a n i n fi n i t e di s t a n c e f r o m t h e c e n t r e C .

T h e fol l ow i n g p r op e r t i e s s h o uld be s p e ci a lly n ot e d

e rp e ndi cu la rs f r o m t he
( )
l P f oc i t o t he a s m t ot es a r e t a n e n ts t
y p g
or ot he r of t he a ux i li a ry c i r cle s R e fe rri n g t o Fi g 1 06, FD i s a p e
. . .

di c u la r t o t h e as y m pto t e CL a n d FD i s a tan gen t t o t h e a uxi

c i r c l e d e s c r i b e d o n AA, a s d i a m e t e r an d D i s t h e p oi n t o f c on

F D i s a p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o CL an d F D i s a ta n ge n t t o t h e a ux i
’ ' ' ’

c i r c l e d e s c r i b e d o n BB , a s d i a m e t e r a n d D i s t h e p o i n t of c on t a c t
'
.

c i r c les i nte rs e ct t he a s m tot e s a t

( )
2 T h e a u x ili a r
y y p p oi nt s 01 .

FIG . 1 06 . FIG . 1 07 .

di r e ct r i ces . D X ( Fi g . 1 06 ) i s d ir e ctr i x of t he h y p e rb ol a w
a

t r n s ve r s e
a a x i s i s AA ,
a n d D X i s a d i re ctr i x of t he c onj u
’ ’

hyp e rb ol a .

e p or t i on E H , (Fi g 107 )of a ta nge nt lyi ng be twe e n t he a s ;

( )
3 T h .

totes i s bis e c t e d a t t he p oi nt of conta ct P , a nd H E , i s e qua l to t he di a m

E OE , whi ch i s p ar a lle l to E H, .

t
Th i s s u gge s s a m e th od of draw i ng t he ange n t o t h e c urv e t t
t
p oi n P on i t D
ra w P M p a r all e l t o CL, t o m e e t CL at M h
. .

M H e q u al t o CM J oi n H P an d h i s w i ll b e t he an ge n r e qu i r e d
. t t t
oi n t P on t he c u rve 7 M
( )ff
4 I r o m an
y p ( g
F i 1 0 ) P a nd P i .

dr a wn p ar a lle l to t he a s y mp t otes , me e ti ng t he m a t M a nd N r esp ect i .

t he n t he p r odu ct P M P N i s cons t a nt . .

t t
Th is l a s pr op e r y m ay b e u s e d t o c on s ru c a n hyp e rb ol a v t t
t t t
t h e as y m p o e s a n d a p oi n on t h e c urv e ar e gi v e n a s foll o w s R e fe r .

t o Fi g 1 08 , CL an d CL , ar e t h e g i v e n a s ym p o e s a n d P i s a g
. t t
t
p oi n on t he hyp e rb ol a D
ra w P M an d P N p arall e l t o CL , a n d
.

t
r es p e c i ve ly an d pro d u c e P M an d P N b o h w ay s Thr ough C dr a t .

n u m b e r of r a d i a l l i n e s t o c u t P M a t p oi n t s 1 , 2, 3, e t c , a n d P 1 .

p oi n st et c P a ra ll e l s t o CL hr ou gh t h e po i n s 1 , 2, 3,
. t t
 C ON I C S E CT I ON S 47

w i ll i n te r s e c t p a rall e l s t o CL , thr ou gh etc r e s p e ct i ve ly at

s h ow
.

p o i n ts on t he hyp e rb ol a as n.

F I G 1 08
. .

5 0 T h e R e c t an gu lar H y p e rb ola
. .
—
Wh e n t h e t ra n s ve r s e an d

conj u a t e a x e s of a n hyp e rb ol a ar e e qu a l t h e as y m pt ot e s a r e a t r i h t
g g
a n l e s t o on e a n ot h e r , a n d t he hyp e rb ola i s t h e n s a i d t o b e e u i la t e r a l
g q
o r r e c t a ngu la r .

I n F i g 1 09, O X a n d C Y , at ri g h t an g l e s t o o n e an ot h e r , ar e t he
.

as y m p t o te s of a r e c t a n ul a r hy p e rb o l a an d P i s a po i n t on t h e cu rv e
g .

O t h e r po i n t s on t h e c urv e a r e
o b t ai n e d by t h e con s tru c ti on
a lr e a dy i v e n a n d i llu s t ra t ed b y
g
F i g 1 08
. . P M an d P N b e i n g
p a ra ll e l t o O X an d CY r e s p e c
t i v e ly , i t w i ll b e s e e n t h a t fo r t h e
r e c t an g ul a r hype rb ol a ( F i g 1 09) .

P M O N i s a r e c ta n g l e .

I f d i s t an c e s from O Y p a ra ll e l
t o O X r e pr e s e n t t o s c a l e t h e
volu m e v of a v e n w e i ght of a
°

g g
a s , a n d i f di t a n c e s f rom O X
F I G 1 09
' '

p a r a ll e l t o O Y r e p r e s e n t t o s c a l e t he c orr esp on d i n g pres s ur e p of t he

a s , t h e n if t h e s i e xp a n d e d o r c om pr e s s e d a n d t h e pr e s s ur e i s
g g a s

i n v e r s e ly as t h e v o lu m e t h e pr o du c t p v i s c on s t a n t an d t h e co ord i n a t e s
,
-

of p oi n t s on a r ec t an gul a r hyp e rbo l a wi ll s h ow t h e r e l a t i on b e t we e n

t h e pr e s s ur e an d v olu m e of t h e g as a s i t i s e xp an d e d or c om p r e s s e d .

T h e hyp e rb o l a i s th e n t h e exp a n si on cu r ve or t h e comp r es s i on cu r ve for

t h e g as
—
.

5 1 C e n tr e o f C u rv a t u r e o f a C o n i c
.
T h e foll ow i n g c on
s t r u c t i on i s a ppl i c a bl e for fi n d in t h e c e n tr e of c urv a t ur e of a n y con i c
g .
 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

P ( Fi
g 1 1 0)i s a p o i n on t h e c urve ,
. t
t h e fo c u s , F G t h e di r e c t i F
t he a x i s , a n d P G t h e n o r m a l t o t h e c urv e a t P r a w G H at . D
a n l es t o P G m e e t i n P F or P F pr o du c e d a t H
g g .

D ra w H S at r i ght an gl e s t o P H m e e i n g P G p r o t
du c e d at S S i s t h e c e n r e of c urva tur e of t h e
. t
c on i c a t P .

I n t h e c as e of t h e p a r ab ol a t h e p oi n H m ay b e t
t
o b a i n e d by m a k i n
g F H ,
on P F r o du c e d , e qu a l A p
t o PF .

T h e a b ov e c on s ru c i on fai l s wh e n t h e t t oi n t p
P i s a t A t h e v e r e x of t h e c on i c t
I t w i ll b e FIG 1 1 0 .

ob s e rv e d t t
h a as t h e oin t P a pr oac h e s n e ar e r p p
.

a n d n e ar e r t o A , t h e p oi n s G , H , an d S a ppr oac h n e ar e i t
n e a r e r t o o n e an o th e r a n d i n t h e l i m i th ey w i ll c oi n c i d e at a p oi t
t h e ax i s N o w i n t h e p a r ab o l a F H i s e qu a l t o P F ; h e n c e t h e
.

t
o f c urv a ur e of t he p ar a b o l a a t A, i t s ve r e x , i s on t h e axi s t
t
d i s an ce fr om A e qu a l t o 2A F .

I n t h e e ll i p s e an d hyp e rb ol a P F PF , F G F , G , an d W 1
c oi n c i d e s w i h t t
A , h i s b e c om e s A : A , F S F , S H e n cc F F .

t
foll ow i n g c on s ru c t i on for t h e c e n r e of c urv a tur e at A raw t . D
F
( g i s 1.1 1 an d 1 1 2 i n cl i n e d t o F ,F
) M a k e F , D e qu a l t o A , . F

FIG . 111 . FIG . 1 12 .

D E e qu l t o A F J oi n EF an d dr a w D S p arall e l
a .
, t o B E me et ir
a xi s t S S i s t h e p oi n t re qu i r e d
a . .

An oth e r c on s tru c ti on wh i ch gi ve s t h e c e n tr e of cu rvat u re

ce n tr l c on i c
a t an e xtr e m i ty a
L
o f t h e tr n s v e r s e x i s an d t
a a ,
a

t h e s m e t i m e g i ve s t h e e n tr e
a c

o f c urv tur e t a n e x t r e m i ty a a
A
o f t h e o nj u g t c x i s i s s h o wn a e a ,

i n F i g 1 1 3 a n d 1 14
s . .

R fe rr i n g t o t h e e ll i p s e
e

C A i h semi
( g
F i .1 1 3 ) s t e

m aj o r a x i s a n d C B i s t h e s e m i
m i nor ax i s Com pl e t e t h e .

r e c tan gl e A CBL J o i n AB .
F,G 1 1 3 F ,G 1 1 4
.
, , , ,

D r a w L S S a t r i gh t a n g l e s t o
’

A B t o cu t A C a t S a n d B C pr o d u c e d a t S
’
; th e n S a n d S
’
a

c e n tr es of c urv a t ur e o f t h e e ll i p s e at A an d B r e s p e c t i ve ly .
50 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

I f CP or
E2 P produ ce d cu ts t h e con i c at S an d LM at T
OP CT 08 .

If c o s h rd QR an d K N of a c on i c ( pr o du ce d i f n e ce s s a ry)i n ‘

at P , th
en t h e c h ord s Q K a n d N R pro du c e d i f n e c e s s a ry w i ll i n
( )
o n L M t he o p l a r of P Al s o t he c h ord s Q N a n d K R (pr od i
.

n e ce s s a ry
) w i l l i n t e r s e c t on L M t h e p ol a r of P Th i s s u gge s .

s i m pl e s t c on s tru c ti on for fi n d i n t h e p ol a r of a i v p i t P
g g e n o n .

FIG . 1 18 .

A m or e gen e ra l way of s tati n g t h e pr ec e d i ng pr op e r ty i s as

I f a q u a dr i l a t e ra l Q N R K b e i n s c r i b e d i n a c on i c t h e o p p os i t e s ,

d iag on al s w i ll ( pr o du ce d i f n e c e s s a ry )i n t e r s e c t
t h a t e ac h i s t h e p ol e of t h e l i ne j oi n i n g t h e o th e r t w o .

S i n c e t h e c i r c l e i s a p a r ti c ul r for m of a c on i c i t foll ow s
a

t h at h as b e e n s ai d a b ou t t h e p ol e an d p ol ar w i th re s pe c t t o a c
b e t ru e for t h e p ol e an d p ol a r w i t h r e s p e c t t o a c i r c l e T he .

s h ou ld t h e r efor e c om p a r e t h i s a r ti c l e w i t h Ar t 27 p 24 .
, . .

E x e rci s e s 1 1 1
1 . D w an llip
ra e se , a pr l
a ab o a , an d an hyp rb l in e o a as Fi g 7 5,. 31 p .

gi v EX 1 5 i h
en , nc es , e cce n tri i ty f l li p
c o
3 d e se , an t
e c c e n r i ci y t
bo l a
9

2 Il i ng t h
.

. urv
s e c es of t h pr
e di g x r i w rk
e ce n e e c se , o ou t on e ao
l wi g
o n

( )P i
a s a i t h t ng t s e a en at P, L
d i r tri x G
ec .

PG an d L F ar e
(b) P Q i s a 0 .

Dtr e e mi n e t h e l
vlp
en e o e of t h e
hv
a i n g t h e s am e foc u s an d d i r tri x
ec as t h e gi v e n c on i c .
]

t t by Art
ac . 37 ,
 C O N I C S E CT I O N S 51

4 Con s. c tru t F
i gs 7 6 , 7 7 , an d 7 8 , p 33, as expl d Art
ai n e in ll w
35, t o t h e fo o
. .

d
.

i n g i m e n s i on s
F or F i g 7 6 , e v rt l l
i ca an g e of c on e t vu
. va h 2 5 i nc es , w , 1 25 -

m o1 e s .

v rt l l
F or F i g 7 7 , e i ca an g e of c on e tva . cx h p ll l
1 i n c , x x, ar a e t o v t
v t l l h
.

F o r F i g 7 8 , e r i c a an g e o f c on e t vu
. va 1 i nc h , va , 0 7 5 inc
t t t AF tut h
.

T h e e c ce n r i c i y o f t h e c on i c be i n g t h e r a i o o f t o AX , c on s r c e ac
c on i c s e a a e prtl
y o n an o e th r p t
ar of t h e ppr
a e t d
by t h e m e h o o f Ar t 34 a n d
tr h t d t t t wh t r
.

Fig 7 5 . M ak e a a c i n g o f e ac c on i c o b ai n e i n h i s way an d e s
.
e he it
r
ag e e s i w th dtr d t
t h e c on i c e e m i n e as a s e c i on o f t h e c o n e
t l h
.

5 P T Q i s a r i an g e , P T
. i nc es , T Q h i n c e s , an d P Q 2 i n ch e s
p t h p r d ul r
.

R i s a oi n i n PT 1 i n c fr om P R F i s e p e n i c a t o P T , an d R F .

in c es h an d . F Q d
ar e o n t h e s am e si e of P T .

t t p t
P T i s a an ge n t o a c on i c , P b e i n g t h e o i n of c on ac t t F u i s t h e fo c s , an d .

Q i s an o e th r p t
oi n on t h e c urv F d
e in t he d t x
ir ec ri d w
an d ra t h e c on i c [Ar t .
. .

37 , 1 )an d
P FN Q ud ltrl
is a q a r i a e a l
T h e an g e s at F r t
an d N ar e l i gh an g e s PF .

h h Q p t
.

1 3 i nc e s , EN N Q
1 6 inc es P an d ar e wh h F
oi n s o n a c on i c o f ic .

u dr t
i s t h e fo c s an d F N t h e i e c i on o f t h e a i s x tut
Co n s r c t h e c o n i c . .

7 F u
i s t h e fo c s an d S i s an y
. fix d p t
e oi n x F
on t h e a i s o f a c on i c r om S a
p rp d ul r dr w p t
.

e en i c a is a n t o t he t
an ge n t at a oi n
Q
P on t h e c u r v e m e e t i n g F P at '

hw tu l dr w th t l u Q rl
.

S o by ac a a i ng a t h e oc s o f i s a ci c e .

8 A f l h rd f p r b l i 2 3 i h l g d i t i i l i d t 30 t
. oc a c o o a a a o a s nc es on an s nc ne a
°
o
t h d i r t ix
e T h m i d dl p i t f t h
ec r h d i t p rp di ul r di t
. e f e o n o e c or s a a e en c a s an c e o
12 i h fr m t h di r tri x Dr w th p r b l
nc es o e ec . a e a a o a .

9 AP . h rd f p r b l i 1 8 i h l g d i i li d t 50 t t h
,
a c o o a a a o a, s nc es on an s nc ne a
°
o e
a xi T h p i t A b i g t h v rt x f t h p r b l dr w t h u v
s . e o n e n e e e o e a a o a, a e c r e .

10 TP t g t t p b l fr m p i t T t h xi i i li d t 30
.
,
a an en o a ar a o a o a o n on e a s, s nc ne a
0

t th
o xi P i t h p i t f t t d T P i 3 i h l g D w m u h
e a s . s e o n o c o n ac , an s nc es on . ra as c

o f th p r b l e l i b tw t h v rt x d d ubl di t wh di t
a a o a as es e e en e e e an a o e or na e os e s an ce

fr m t h v rt x i 2 2 i
o eh e e s nc es .

11 C t u t tri gl F P Q F P 1 5 i h P Q 3 4 i h
. on s r c a d QF an e . nc e s, nc e s , an

26 i h Dr w p r b l wh f u i F d whi h p
nc es . athr ugh a a a o a os e oc s s an c as s e s o

P an d Q .

12 M k . r f l tr i g f t h p r b l f t h pr di g x i wi th ut
a e a ca e u ac n o e a a o a o e e ce n e erc se o

an y l i th r th
nes o t h rv ; th d t rm i n t h
e x i f u d d ian t i x f e cu e en e e e e a s, oc s , an rec r o

th e c urv b y tru ti e t h tr i g c on s c on s on e ac n .

1 3 Dr w . l i F S 1 3 i h l g d li S P m ki g t h gl F S P
a a ne nc es on an a ne a n e an e

SP i t g tt
s a p r b l f whi h F i t h f u d S p i t
an en o th a a a o a o c s e oc s an a o n on e

d i t ix F i d t h p i t f t t f t h t g t d d w t h p b l
r ec r n e o n o . c on ac o e an en an ra e ar a o a .

d ub l d i t f p b l i 3 6 i h l g A b i g t h
.

1 4 PNP .
,, a o e or na e o a ar a o a, s nc es on . e n e

v t x f th p r b l t h
er e o b u d d by t h
e u v P AP d t h d ubl rdi
a a o a, e ar e a o n e e c r e , an
e o e o

na et P N P i 4 8 qu r i h ,
D w t h urv P AP
s s a e nc es ra e c e ,.
t u t tri gl R S T ; R S
.

15 C on s r i h S T TR 2 6 i h
c a ST an e nc es , nc es.

d S R b th pr d u d t g t t prbl d T R i p r ll l t th r
.

an o o ce ar e an en s o a a a o a an s a a e o ei
, ,

c h d f t t T R t i t h f u Dr w t h p r b la
or o c o n ac c on a n s e oc s. a e a a o .

tri gl AB 2 2 i h B C 2 3 i h
.

1 6 AB C i . s a d CA 11 an h e . nc es , nc e s , an i nc es .

D i p i t i B C 0 9 i h fr m B Dr w t h p b l wh i h t u h B C t D
s a o n n nc o . a e ar a o a c o c es a

an d AB d AC pr d u d an o ce
rm l P G t p r b l t p i t P t h urv 1 9 h l g
.

17 Th . e no a o a a a o a a a o n on e c e is i nc es on ,

th p i t G b i g
e o n th xi T h p r m t r f t h di m t r th ugh P 4 8
e n on e a s . e a a e e o e a e e ro is

inc h l g C tru t t h p r b l
es on . on s c e a a o a .

18r r x ll p h
T h e m aj o an d m i n o a e s of an e i s e ar e 4 i n c e s an d 3 i n c e s on g
. h l
r p tv l
es e c i e ytut urv h tr
Co n s r c t e c el th d
b y t h e a.m m e m e o a n d fi
n d t h e foc i

r x ll p h l d t
1 9 T h e m aj o a i s o f an e i s e i s 3 5 i n c e s on g an d t h e i s an c e b e
.
e en tw
h D w
t h e foc i i s 2 5 i n c e sll pra t he e i se
l AB
.

t h
.

20 AB C i s a r i an g e 23 i n c e s B C 1 1 i n c h e s ,
an d C A 2 2
.
,

h Dr w ll p wh A B w hp t u
.

i nc e s an e i s e os e fo c i ar e an d an d hic as s s h r o gh C
a e
.
.

r x ll h l d t
2 1 T h e m i n o a i s of an e i p s e i s 2 2 i n c e s on g an d t h e i s an c e b e
.
ee n tw
52 P RA CT I C AL G E O ME T RY

t h e foc i i s 2 i n c h Dr w t h llip d es .tru t t h l u f t h a e e s e , an c on s c e oc s o e

p t
oi n s o f all t h e c h d thr ugh f u or s o on e oc s .

22 T h m j r . d mi
e r x f a o ll i p an 3 i h d2i l
no a es o an e se ar e nc es an nc
re s p ti v ly Dr w h l f f t h ll i p whi h l i
ec e . a a id a f th m j o e e se c e s on o n e s e o e a
D ivi d t h urv i t tw lv p t wh
e e c e h rd n o q u l d fre m t h pe ar s os e c o s ar e e a ,
an o e
d ivi i dr w m l t t h llip
s on a n or h rm l t p j t 05 i h ut
a s o e e s e , e ac no a o ro ec nc o s
e ll ip seL tly d w
. f i r urv th ugh t h
as ,
ra ut r xt m i ti f t h
a a c e ro e o e e re es o e no
23 T h di t . b tw
e th f i f
s an ce lli p i 2i h e At g t e en e oc o an e se s nc es . an en
e lli p i i li d t t h m j xi t
se s nc ne gl of 30 d ut th t xi p
e a or a s a a n an e o
°
an c s a a s i

a t ap i t 2 5 i h f m th
o n t f t h llip
nc es D w t h lli p
ro e c en r e o e e se . ra e e se .

24 S AB T i .
qu d i l t l T h gl t A d B
s a a i ght
r gla er a . e an es a an ar e r an es .

075 i h ABnc 3i ,
h d BT 2 25 i h nc Th p i t S e s , an dT nc es . e o n s an ar e
sa m id
e s f AB ST i
e o t g tt . lli p f whi h AB i t h m j s a an en o an e se o c s e a

C on s tru t t h lli p c e e se .

25 T w . j ug t d i m t r f
o c on llip a e 3i h d 35 i
a h e e s o an e s e ar e nc es an nc
an d th gl eb tw n th m i
an e Dr w t h lli p by h f t h
e ee e s a e e se e ac o
m th d de o i b d i A t 47 p 42
s e scr e n r .
, . .

26 CO i . tr i ght li k 2 i h l n g whi h r v lv b ut fix
s a s a n , nc es o ,
c e o es a o a

a t C P ON i
. th r tr i gh t li k 4 i h l g j i t d t i t m i ddl
s an o e s a n ,
nc es on ,
o n e a s e

t tho ut e o d f CO e r enN i tr i d t m v i
o t i ght li wh i l
. s c on s a ne o o e n a s ra ne c
th ugh C Dr w t h l i f t h m i ddl p i t f OP d ON d l t l
ro . a e oc o e e o n s o an an a so
o f P .

2 7 Dr w .
q u dri l t r l F P O Q
a a FP 32 i
a h gl P F Q
a e a 70 . nc e s , an e
FP O FQ 1 2 i h d PO 16 i h -

Dr w n ll p t nc e s , an nc es . a a e i se r

OP t P a d OQ t Q an d h vi g F f a f u ,
an a n or o n e oc s.

28 T h tr . v e xi f hyp b l i 2 i h l n g d t h 6
an s er se a s o an er o a s nc es o an e
b tw n t h f i i 2 7 i
e ee e h D w t h h yp b l
oc s nc es. ra e er o a .

2 9 T h tr . vr e d j ug t x f
an s hyp b l
e s e an 22 i h c on a e a es o an er o a ar e nc es

i h
nc l g p ti v ly D w t h hyp rb l d t h
es on res ec e j ug t h yp b l
. ra e e o a an e c on a e er o

30 T h f i f . h yp b l
e oc 23i oh p t O p i t th
an er o a ar e nc es a ar . ne o n on e 1

29 i h f m
nc es f u ro d 11 i h f m t h th r Dr w t h hyp
on e oc s an nc es ro e o e . a e er

3 1 T h di t . b tw
e th f i f s an c e hyp rb l i 2 9 i h e A
een e oc o an e o a s nc es .

t t h hy p b l i i
o e li d t t h t v r xi t 48 d ut th t
er o a s nc ne o e r an s e se a s a
°
an c s a a

p i t 0 6 i h fr m i t
o n nc tr D w t h h yp rb lo s cen e . ra e e o a .

3 2 T h tr . v r xi f hyp rb l i 2 i h l g A t g
e an s e se a s o an e o a s nc es on . an en

hyp b l i i l i d t 58 t t h tr v
er o a s nc ne xi d ut th t xi
a t °
o e an s er se a s an c s a a s a

08 i h fr m i t
nc tr Dr w t h hy p rb l
o s c en e . a e e o a .

33 PMM P i .
qu d i l t r l,
MM
, s2 5 in h
a th gl
a t M r a e a .
, c es, e an es a
ar e r i ght g l P M an 0 9 i n h P
es , M 1 2 i h P d P p i t c , , ,
nc es . an , a r e o n
h yp b l er f wh i h MM (pr d u d b th w y )i
o a o c di r t ix d Wh , o ce o a s s a ec r ,
an os e
t i i t y i 3 F i d t h f i n d d r w t h hy p b l
r c s . n e oc a a e er o a .

34 T h .
y m p t t f
e as h y p b l t r i ght
o es g l t o n t l
an er o a ar e a an es o on e a o
on e pi t o n th urv i 1 i h f m
on e h y m pt t C t u t t
c e s nc ro e ac as o e. on s r c

br h f t h urv b y t h m th d i llu tr t d by F i g 1 08 p 47
an c es o e c e e e o s a e .
, . .

35 O ubi f t f i t pr ur f 1 00 lb p q u i h
. ne c c oo o a r a a es s e o s . er s ar e nc e
u ti l i t v lum i 1 0 ubi f t T h l ti b tw n t h pr u p n d
n s o e s c c ee . e re a on e ee e e ss re a
v i gi v
s b y t h f rm u l p
en 1 00 C e tru t o a v . on s c
th xp i urv P u
e e an s o n c l 1i ht e . r ess r e sca e , nc o
20 lb p s qu r i
. er h ; v lu m
s l 1i h
a e nc o e s ca e , nc
t o 2 ub i f t
c Dr w t h t g t d n m l
c ee . a e an en an or a

t o th urv t t h p i t wh r t h v lum i
e c e a e o n e e e o e s

3 ub i f t
c c ee .

36 AB .d CD ( F i g 1 1 9) an tw tr i ght X . ar e o s a ,
li n es f u l i m i t d l gth
o n AB v lv wi th e en . re o es
u i f m gul r v l i ty b ut t h
n or an a tr P e oc a o e cen e ,

an d CD v lv wi th t h m
re o g l r
es e sa e an u a ve

l ity b t i
oc ,
th u pp i t d i r ti
n b ut e o os e ec on , a o

th e tr Q P Q 2 5 i h
c en e . 0 i th FIG 1 1 9 nc es . s e . .

m i ddl p i t f P Q
e o n X OX d YO Y
o tw .
,
an ,
ar e o

l i n t ri ght angl t n n th r t h gl P OX b i ng
es a es o o T h i n i ti l p
e a o e ,
e an e e e a l
 C O N I C S E CT I O N S 53

AB
of an d p r ll l t X OX S h w by tu l d wi g th t t h l u f t h
CD ar e a a e o , . o ac a ra n a e oc s o e
pi to n f i t
o ti f AB d CD i
n er sec on o t gul r hyp b l f whi h X OX
an s a r e c an a er o a o c
ym pt t d Q p i t o th urv ,
an d Y OY th , ar e dP e as o e s an an o n s n e c e .

3 7 Dr w t h
. m pl t
a v lut f
e co ll i p wh m j r d m i n r x
e e e o e o an e se os e a o an o a e s ar e
4i nc h d 2 75 i
e s an h l g p ti v ly nc es on r es ec e .

38 T h f . l di te f th v t x f
oc a p r b l i 03 i h D w th t p rt
s an c e o e er e o a a a o a s nc . ra a a
o f th v lut f t h p r b l whi h l i b tw t h v rt x d d ubl d i t
e e o e o e a a o a c es e e en e e e an a o e or na e
wh d i t
os e fr m t h v t x i 5 i
s an c e h
o e er e s nc es .

39 T h gl b tw th y m pt t f h yp b l i 60 d t h v rt x °
. e an e e e en e as o es o an er o a s an e e e
i
s a t di t
a f 1 i h f m th i r i t
s an c e o ti ncD w th t p t f t h v lut
ro e n er s e c on . ra a ar o e e o e
o f on e br h f t h hyp rb l whi h li b tw t h v rt x d d ubl d i
an c o e e o a c es e e en e e e an a o e or
na et wh di t os e fr m t h v t x i 5 i
s an c e h o e er e s nc es .

4 0 Dr w . lli p m j r xi 3 i h m i r xi 2 i h
a an e se , a o T k pi t
a s nc es , no a s nc es . a e a o n
P w i th i t h ll ip 0 8 i h f m t h
n e e se t C d ly i g nc li th ugh C
ro e cen r e an n on a ne ro

i li
nc ned t 30 t t h m j r xi T hr ugh P d w um b f h d f t h
a
°
o e a o a s. o ra a n er o c or s o e
e ll i p d t th i r xt m i t i
s e an a dr w t g t t t h llip
e e re F i d t h poi t f
es a an en s o e e se . n e n o
i nt r e sec ti f ch p i r f t g t d
on o ea wh th t h p i t thu bt i d
a o an en s an see e er e o n s s o a ne
ar e i n tr i ght li
on e s [B y p i r f t g t i m
a ne. t th t g t t th a a o an en s s e an e an en s a e
en d f h rd ) R p t t h
s o a c o . tru ti f e p i t Q ly i g n CP pr du d
ea e c on s c on or a o n n o o ce
h
.

CQ 2 2i nc es .
 CH AP TE R IV

T RACI NG P APE R P ROB LE MS

54 . Us e of T r a c i n g P a p e r i n P r a c t i c al G e o m e t r y
u e n tly dr a u h ts m e n h a v e t o m a k e m t r i l t ru t i on s
q g g e o e c a c o ns c

p li ca t e d dr a w i n gs i n o rd e r t o d e t e rm i n e s om e p oi n t , li n
a n d i n s u c h c as e s t h e f e w e r t h e c on s tru c t i o n l i n e s t h e

u s i n g a p i e c e o f tr a ci n g p ap e r i n t h e m a n n e r e xpl ai n e d i n
t h e d e s i r e d r e s ul t m ay be o b ta i n e d v e ry a c c ur a t e ly i n
w i th ou t m ak i n g an y c on s t ru c ti on l i n e s wh a te ve r o n t
p ap e r , an d s om e probl e m s can b e ea s i ly s olv e d by t h i s m e t h od
w ould b e i m p os s i bl e by o rd i n a ry g e om e tri c al m e t h od s , o r wh i c h
o th e rw i s e i n v olv e v e ry c om pl i c a t e d c on s tru c t i on s .

5 5 T o fi n d t h e L e n gt h o f a G i v e n C u rv ed L i n e
.

AB CD (Fi g 1 20)b e t h e gi v e n c urve d l i n e O n a p i e c e of t

. .

p a p e r T P dra w a s tra i ght l i n e 1 1 .

M a rk a p oi n t A on th i s l in e an d
pl ace t h e tr a c in g p ap e r on t h e
dra wi ng p ap e r s o th a t th i s p oi n t
c oi n c i d e s w i t h o n e e n d A of t h e

c urv e d l i n e t o b e m e a s ure d . P ut a
n e e dl e p oi n t t hr o u h t h e t r a c i n g
g
p ap e r a n d i n t o t h e d r a w i n g p a p e r
at A . N o w turn t h e tra c i n g p a p e r
r ou n d u n t i l t he l i n e 1 1 c ut s t h e
c urv e a t a p oi n t B n ot fa r f r om A . F m 1 20
, ,

R e mov e t h e n e e dl e p oi n t from A
t o B , t a k i n g c a r e th a t t h e t r a c i n g p ap e r d oe s n ot c h a n g e i t s pr
duri n g t h e op e rati on N e xt t ur n t h e tra c i n g p a p e r r o u n d u n l
.

l i n e on i t t a k e s u p t h e p os i t i on 2 2, c u t t i n g t h e c urve a t a p oi n t
fa r fr om B . T h e n e e dl e p oi n t m u s t t h e n b e m o v e d t o C a r
O p e r a t i on s c on t in u e d u n t i l a p oi n t on t h e s tr a i gh t l i n e c oi n c i d e

t h e l as t p oi n t on t h e c urv e . T h e l as t p oi n t obt a i n e d on t h e s t r a i gl
m u s t b e m a rk e d d i s t i n c tly . T h e d i s ta n c e b e t w e e n t h e fir s t a n
p oi n t s m a rk e d on t he s trai gh t l in e w i ll b e app r ox i m a t e ly e qu al
l e n g t h of t h e c urv e d l i n e T h e a pprox i m a ti on w i ll b e c l os e
.

s h o rt e r t h e s t e p s AB , B C , e t c Wh e n t h e c urve h as a l a rg e r
.

of c urv a t ur e t h e s t e p s s u c h a s AB a n d B C m ay b e l on ge r th a n

t h e r a d i u s of c urva tur e i s s m a ll e r I n F i g 1 20 t h e s t e p s , f
. .
 TRA CI N G P A P ER P R O BLEM S 55

sa k e of c l e arn e s s r e of gr e a t e r l e ngt h t h an w ould be a d op te d i n

,
a

pr c ti ce
a .

T h e for e goi n g m e th od i s e qu i v a l e n t t o s te pp i n off t he le n t h of

g g
t h e c urv e w i th t he d i v i d e r s bu t t h e t r ac i n p p r m th d h s t he
g e ,e o a a
a dv an t ge t h a t t h e l e n g t h s of t h e d i ffe r e n t s te p s m
a b m d t u i t
y e a e o s a

t h e v ar i t i on s of c urv t u r e wh e n t h e c urve i s n ot an r c of a c i r c l e
a a a .

I t i s obv i o u s t h t t h i s m e th od m ay a l s o b e u s e d t o m ark off a

a

por ti on of a gi v e n c urve d l i n e wh i c h s h a ll b e of a gi ve n l en gth

5 6 T o dr aw an I n v o l u t e o f 3 G i v e n C u rv e d L i n e —
.

.
Le t .

AB C D ( F i g 1 21 ) be t he gi v e n c urve d l i n e On a p i e ce of t raci ng
.
.

p pe r T P dr aw a s t r i gh t l i n e 1 1
a a .

M rk a p oi n t A on th i s l i n e Th i s
a .

p oi n t w i ll be c all e d t h e t r cin g p oi n t a .

P l a c e t h e t r a c i n g p p e r on t h e draw i n g
a

p pe r s o th a t t h e t raci ng poi n t coi n ci d e s

a

w i t h t he po i n t A on t h e c u rve fr om
wh i c h t h e i n volu te i s t o s ta rt P u t . a

n e e dl e p o i n t t hr ou g h t h e tr c i n g p p e r a a

a n d i n to t h e dra w i ng p ape r t A 4 a .

N o w tur n t h e t r c i n g p p e r r ou n d u n t i l
a a

t h e s tr i gh t l i n e 1 1 c u ts t h e c urv e t
a -
a

a p oi n t B n o t f r fr om A a R e m o ve .

t he n e e dl e p oi n t fr o m A t o B t ak i n g ,

c r e t h a t t h e t r c i n g p a p e r d oe s n ot
a a F m 1 21 “ ,

c h a n ge i t s p os i t i on dur i n g t h e O p e r a

t i on N e x t t ur n t h e t r aci n g p ap e r r ou n d u n t i l t he s tr ai gh t l i n e on
.

i t ta k es u p t h e p os i t i on 2 2 t ou chi ng t h e cu rve at B , n d w i th ,
a a

s h a rp r ou n d p oi n t e d p e n c i l m k e a m a rk on t h e dr aw i n g p p e r
-
a a

t hrou gh t h e n e e dl e h ol e at t he tra ci n g p oi n t I f th e s e op e r ti on s be . a

c on t i n u ed a n u m b e r of p oi n t s a r e ob t a i n e d a n d a f i r c urv e dr a w n
,
a

throu gh t h e m w i ll b e an pprox i m t i on t o t h e i n volut e r e qui re d a a .

T h e a p pr ox i m a ti on w i ll b e c l os e r t h e s h or te r t h e s te p s AB B C e t c , , .

5 7 T o d r a w a S t r a i gh t L i n e t o p as s t h r o u gh a G i v e n
.

P o i n t a n d ou t t w o G i v e n L i n e s s o t h at t h e P o rt i on i n t e r
c e p t e d b e tw e e n t h e m s h a l l h av e a
G i v e n L e n gt h L e t AB a n d A C (F i g
.
-
.

1 22)b e t h e g i v e n l i n e s n d D t h e gi v e n a

p oi n t On a p i e c e of tr a ci ng p p e r T P
.
'

dr w a s t rai ght l i n e E F n d m rk t wo
a ,
a a

po i n t s H an d K on thi s l i n e s uc h th at
H K i s e qu a l to t h e gi ve n l e n gt h M ov e .

t h e tr a ci n g p p e r i n to a n u mb e r of di f
a

fe r on t p os i t i on s on t h e dr a w i n g p ap e r t h e ,

p o i n t K b e i n g o n t h e l i n e A C an d t h e
l i n e E F p as s i n g t hrou gh D A p os i t i on F I G 1 22
. . .

w i ll qu i ckly b e r e ac h e d i n wh i ch t h e p oi n t
H i s al s o on t h e l i n e AB N o w m k e a m ark on t he dr a wm g p ap e r
. a

at F a l i n e j oi n i n t h i s m a rk w i th D w i ll b e t h e l i n e r e qu i r e d
g
.

t d u
I n s ea of s i n g t a ci n gr p a pe r for th i s pr obl e m t h e
p o m t s H a n d ,
 6 P RA C T I CAL G E O ME T RY

K m y b e m rk e d on t h e s tr ai gh t e dge of s tri p of p ap e r
a a
c
a

s t ri p o f p a p e r m a
y t h e n b e m e v e d on t h e dr a w i n g p a p e r u n t i l p o a

i s fou n d w h e r e H a n d K li e on e on AB a n d t h e o t h e r o n A C , .

o rd i n ry dra w i n
a
g s c a l e m ay b e u s e d i n t h e s am e w a y .

5 8 T o d r aw t h e P a t h t r a c e d b y o n e A n gu l a r P o i i
.

a G i v e n T r i an gl e w h i l e t h e o t h e r An gu l a r P o i n t s 11
o n e o n e a ch o f t w o G i ve n
—
L i n e s L e t A B C ( F i g 1 23) b e
. .

t he gi v e n t ri an gl e Let A b e t h e .

t ra c i n g p oi n t an d le t B m ove on ,

t he g i v e n l i n e D E wh i l e C m o v e s
on t h e
g i v e n l i n e F H D r a w t h e .

tri an gl e A B C o n a p i e ce of t r ci ng a

p p e r T P M k e a s m all h ol e i n
a . a

t he t r a ci n g p p e r at A w i t h a a

n e e dl e . P l a ce t h e t r c i n g p ap e r a

o n t h e dr a w i n p ap e r s o th t B i s FIG 1 23
a
g . .

on D E a n d C o n F H W i th . a

s h a rp r o u n d
p o i n t e d p-
e n ci l m k e a m rk o n t h e dr a w i ng p ap e r t h i
a a

t h e n e e dl e h ol e i n t h e tr a c i n g p p e r t A Th i s w i ll be on e p oi a a .

t h e p at h r e q u i r e d By m ovi n g t he t r ci n g p ape r i n t o o th e r p os i
. a

o th e r p oi n t s m b e o bt a i n e d n d a fa i r c urv e K A L dr a w n t h i a
y a ,

th e m w i ll b e t h e r e q u i r e d p th a .

5 9 T o d r a w a n Ar c o f a C i r cl e t h r o u gh T h r e e G
—
. .

t
P o i n s w i h ou t t u sing t h e C e n t r e o f t h e C i r cl e Le t A
an d C
( g
F i 1 24 ) b.e t h e g i v en

p oi n ts . P l c e a p i e ce of a

t ra c i n g p ap e r T P on t h e dr w a

i ng p ap e r a n d dra w o n t h e
,

fo rm e r t w o s tr ai ght l i n e s A D
and A E p as s i n g thro u gh B
a n d C r e s p e c t i v e ly M ke . a
FIG 1 24 a

s m a ll h ol e i n t h e t r a c i n g p p e r
. .

a t A w i t h a n e e dl e M ov e t he t r aci ng p ap e r r ou n d i n to di fil
.

p os i t i on s s o th a t t h e l i n e s A D an d A E lw ay s p as s t hro u gh B a a

r e s p e c t i ve ly F or e ac h p os i ti on of t h e t ra cin g p ap e r m ak e a m m
.
b
t h e dr a w i n g p p e r w i th a s h r p r ou n d p o i n t e d p e n c i l t hr ou g h t h e
a a

a t A . A f i r c urve dr w n thr ou gh t h e poi n ts obt ai n e d i n t h i s

a a

w i ll b e t h e ar e r e qu i r e d Thi s con s t ru c t i on i s b as e d on t h e fac t

.

An oth e r for m of t h i s probl e m i s —

a ll n l e s i n t h e s am e s e m e n t of a c i r c l e r e of t h e s am e m a n i
a
g g g a

T o d e s c ri b e on a g i v e n l in e l
s e gm e n t of a c i r c l e wh i c h s h ll con t a i n a n a n l e e qu al t o a i v n
g a
g e z

6 0 T o dr aw a n y R ou l e tt e
. L e t A H E ( F i g 1 25) b e — .

d i re c ti n g l i n e or b as e , an d le t C D E b e t h e r olli n g c urve ( I n Fi g . .

t h e b a s e i s a s t r a i gh t l i n e , bu t i t m ay b e a n y c urv e d l i n e ; a n (
roll i n g c urve i s a c i r c l e , bu t i t m ay a l so b e any c u rve d l i n e ) T h e .

i s dr a w n o n t h e dr a w i n tgD p a p e r a n d t h e r oll i n g c urv e i s dr a w n

p i e c e of tr a c i ng p a pe r T h e t ra ci n g p oi n t P i s a l s o m a rk e d 01
.
58 P RA CT I C AL G E O ME T RY

t
I t m ay h app e n h a t t h e c orr e s p on d i n g p oi n s m e n i on e d a t t
t
a t p oi n s of g i adu a t i on on t h e l i n e s hr ou gh t he ol e I n t he t p .

t t
t he g ra du a i on s m u s b e m a d e fi n e r i n t h e n e i g hb ourh oo d s wh e n
a pp e a r t o b e r e q u i r e d I f t he c orr e s p on d i n g p oi n t s 1 e qu i r e d a
.

n ot a t p oi n s of
g r a t
du a i o n ,
i t m a y b e p o s t
s i bl e , w i h o ut fu r t h e t
d i v i s i on , t o jud ge by t h e ey e wh e t h e r t h e p oi n s wh e r e t h e t
l i n es cu t t h e s i d e s of t h e fir s gi ve n fi gur e ar e c or r e s Pl t
6 2 D r a w i n g S y m m e tri c al C u rv e s
.
— Wh e n u rv i a c e

m e t ri l b out n x i o ly t h p r t on n
ca a a a i d e of t h t x i
s n e a o e s a a s 11

con tr u t e d t h e p r t on t h e o th e r
s c ,
i d m y b e qu i c kly n d c m
a s e a a a

dra w n by m e an s of a p i e c e of tr a ci n g p ap e r as foll ow s o .

Re fe rri n g t o Fi g 1 27 t (a )1 s s h ow n on e h a l f of a c u rve w l
o O
.
,
a

s y m m e t r i c a l ab ou t t h e x i s Y Y A p i e ce of t r acin g p ap e r
a .

FIG . 1 27 . FIG . 1 28 .

pl ace d o ve r thi s fi gur e an d t he c urv e a n d t he a x i s Y Y ar e tr :

e nci l T h e t r a c i n g p p e r i s t h e n t ur n e d o v e r a n d pl a c e d a s s h
a
p .

a n d t h e c u rv e on t h e t r a c i n g p a p e r i s t r a c e d w i th t h e
( )
b p ew

w i ll t h e n b e fou n d t h t t h e s e c on d h l f of t h e c urve h s ap p e a
a a a

t h e dr a w i n g p a p e r i n p e n ci l t h e l e a d for t h i s c urv e h a v i n g
,

fr om t h e l e d wh i c h w a s pu t o n t h e tr ac i ng p a p e r wh e n i t w a s
a

p os i t i on Afte r r e m ov i n g t h e t r ac in g p ap e r t h e c urve
s h ould b e l i n e d i n t o m a k e i t m o r e d i s ti n c t .

Wh e n a c u rve i s s y m m e tr i cal ab ou t t w o a x e s at ri gh t a n gl e s
a n ot h e r on ly on e qu a r t e r of t h e c urve n ee d b e c on s t ru c t e d t h ,
e

thr e e qu ar te r s m y b e dra w n on e qu ar t e r at a t i m e by m e aI
a , ,

pi e c e of t ra ci ng p p e r as ju s t d e s cri b e d
a .

F i g 1 28 s h ow s t h e m e t h od a ppl i e d t o an e ll i p s e
. At ( 1) is .

o n e qu a r t e r of t h e e ll i p s e con s tru c t e d s ay by t h e t r am m e l m e t k , ,

pi e c e of t r a cin g p pe r T P i s pl ace d o ve r th i s an d on i t ar e t r a
a '

s e m i a x es a n d t h e c urv e ly i n g b e t w e e n th e m
-
Turn i n g t h e .

p pe r o ve r an d pl a ci n g i t as s h own a t ( 2) t h e s e c on d qu art e r
a

c urv e i s t r a n s fe rr e d t o t h e dr a w i n g p ap e r t h e l e a d co m i n g fr ,

firs t t raci n g Turn i ng t h e t raci n g p ape r ov e I g i n an d p l ci r

. a a a

s h o w n at
( )
3 t h e t h i rd qu a r te r of t h e c urve i s t r a n s fe rr e d t o t h q

i ng p a p e r t h e l e a d c om i n g fr om t h e s e con d t ra c i n g
,
T urn .
 T RA CI N G P A P ER P RO BLEM S 59

traci n g p pe r o v e r on ce m or e an d pl aci ng
a it as s h o wn at
( ) e
4 t h l as t
qu ar t e r of t he cu rve i s ob tai n e d .

E x e rci s e s IV

T he f ollowi ng exer ci ses ar e i n te nded t o be wor ked o ut by t he tr aci n g

p ap er m et hod

F i d t h i r um f r n f i r l 3 i n h i n d i m t r n d m p t h
1 . n e c c e e ce o a c c e c es a e e a co ar e e
r ult wi th th t g t by l ul ti
,

es a o ca c a on .

2 Th . id f figur AB C
e s es o r f ir l a R diu e f AB ar e i h a cs o c c es . a s o 2 nc es ,
r diu f B 0 2 i h
a s o d i u f CA 2} i h nc es , r aTh r tuh s o th r nc es . e a cs o c on e an o e
i p ir
n a t A Bs a d C F i d t h p ri m t r f t h fi gur AB C
, ,
an . n e e e e o e e .

3 Dr w t h i v l ut
. a f ir l 2 i
e n h i d i m t r Al d w t g t
o e o a c c e nc es n a e e . so ra a an en
t th
o i r l t m t t h i v l ut t h l gth f thi t g t b tw
e c c e o ee e n o t h i v lut
e, e en o s an en e e en e n o e
an d th p i t f e t t wi th t h i r l t b 5 i h
o n o c on ac Fi d l t h l gth f e c c e o e nc es . n a so e en o
t h i v l ut b tw
e n o th e t rti g p i n t n d t h p i t wh t h f m ti d
e ee n e s a n o a e o n er e e or e en on e
t g t m t it
an en ee s .

4 D w . llip m j r xi 2 i n h m i r xi
ra an e se , a o i h a d dr w t h t
s c es , no a s nc e s , an a a
i nv lut o f th ll i p whi h t rt fr m
e o e e xtr m i ty f t h m j r xi F i d
se c s a s o on e e e o e a o a s n
lli p
.

th e c i r um f r c f th e en c e o e e se .

5 AB C i .
q l t r l t i
u i s an e gl f 3 in h ida e D i p i t i AB 1 i h
a r an e o c es s e . s a o n n nc
fr m A
o Dr w thr u gh D tr i ght l i t t t h i d AC t E d t h i d
. a o a s a ne o cu e s e a ,
an e s e
CB p d u d t F u h th t E F
ro ce a 44 i ,h s c a nc es .

6 Dr w . lli p m j r xi 3 i h m i r xi 2 i h
a an e se , a o T k
a p i tP
s nc es, no a s nc es . a e a o n ,

2 in h c fr m es xtr m i ty f t h m i r xi
o on e e d 15i
e h f m o xt m i ty
e no a s , an nc es ro on e e re

o f t h m j r xie T hr u gh P d r w
a o a s .tr i ght l i t t t h lli p i t w p i t
o a a s a ne o cu e e se n o o n s
whi h h ll b 2 i h p rt
c s a e nc es a a .

7 K OX . d Y OY
'
tw an tr i ght l i n i t '
ti ng t 0 A gl X OY
ar e o s a es n e r se c a . n e
A tr i ght l i AB 3 i h l g m v wi th t h d A X OX d t h
s a ne ,
nc es on o es e en on
’
, an e

d B Y OY Dr w t h m pl t ur t d by p i t P i AB wh i h i 1 1;
’
en on . a e co e e c ve r ac e a o n n c s

inc h fr m A Dr w l t h ur tr d by t h m i ddl p i t f AB
es o . a a so e c ve ac e e e o n o .

8 AB C i .
q u i l t r l tr i
s an e g l f 3 i h i d
a e a T h t i g l anm v w ith
e o nc es s e . e r an e o es
0

th p i t A
e o n th i r um f r on f i r l 2% i
e c ch i di m t e ence o d th p m t a c c e nc es n a e e r , an e o

Bm v o e s on a d i m t r f th t i r l pr du d D w t h p th t d by t h
a e e o a c c e o ce . ra e a r ac e e

p i t 0 Dr w l t h p th tr d by t h m i ddl p i t f AB
o n . a a so e a ac e e e o n o .

t i ght li 8 i n h l g d i be t r l
0

9 O . n a s ra ne g m f ci es n t on ng es cr a se en o a c c e co a1 n 1

a n g l
an f we oi th ut u i n g t h tr f t h io l s e cen e o e c rc e .

1 0 O i th . n tr s d OP r di u f i l 2 i n h i di m et r Q
e ce e an a a s o a c rc e c es n a e . 1s a

p i t i n OP iT i h f m O d R i p i t i OP p du d d 1 g h f m
o n nc ro , an s a o n n ro ce ,
an 1n c es ro

0 . D w t h y l i d d ri b d by P l t h tr h i d d b d by Q d R
ra e c c o es c e ,
a so e oc o s e s cr l e an ,
as

th ir l
e c ll c e ro tr i ght li s on a s D w mu h f h u v a ne bt
.
d by ra as c o e ac c r e as 1 s o a1 n e

a l i ttl m r th n e o e v lut i f t h i l a on e r e o on o e c rc e.

1 1 T ki n g t h am lli g i l d t h m p i t Q d R
e sa e ro n th p
c r c e an e sa e o n s an as l n e re

di g x i d w t h pi y l i d d i b d b y P
.

ce n e er c s e , ra e d th e pct h
c o d e s cr e ,
an e e 1 r oc 01 s

d i b d by Q d R t h i l r ll
e s cr e an th ut i d f b
as e c rc e l 3m h m o s on e o s e o a as e Ci r c e c es

d i m t r ; d w l t h hyp y l i d d ri b d by P d t h h yp t h m d
o

a e e ra a so e oc c o es c e an e o r oc s
,

d i b d by Q d R t h i
e s cr e r l an r ll t h i as i d f t h e cm bc e l o s on e ns e o e sa e as e c 1r c e .

Dr w m u h f h urv i bt i n d by li t tl m th
a as c o e ac c e as s ol t n a e a e or e an on e r e vo u l o

o f t h r ll i g i le o n c rc e.

1 2 D w t h r l tt d i b d by xtr m i ty f t h m j f
0

ra e s cr e on e e e o e a or ax 1 s o an
e ou e e
h x h w h ll
.

e ll i p ( j
m
se xi 2i i a or a m in i
s, 1 2 i ) nc h i es , t h t d
or a
f s, nc es c ro s on e ou s 1 e o

an o th r llip (m j r i 3 i h m i n xi 2 i h e ) T h u l tt t t t
e e se a o ax s , nc es, or a s, nc s . e ro e e o s ar

fr mo xt m i ty f t h m i
on e e re xi f t h fix d ll p o e D w l n or th
a s o e e e l s e. ra a s o , on e

m fi gu l tt d i b d by xt mi ty f t h m m m m f t h ll
.

e ro
sa e th r e, e r ou e e e scr e on e e re o e or o

i n g lli p e whi l t h fir t ul tt i b i g d i b d
se e e s ro e e s e n escr e .

1 3 AB i . tr i ght li 3 i h l g B C i
s a s a ne f l wh nc tr
es on . s an ar c o a Cl l c e
'
os e c e n e
60 P RA CT I C AL G E O METRY

AB d 2% in h f m B d wh
is in an c h d i 4 i h l g AC 1
es ro ,
an os e c or s nc es on .

r l f 3i h
of a ci c e od i u whnc tr i
es rath t i d f AC whi h i
s os e c e n e s on a s e o c s

r B Dr w t h l rg t p i bl q ui l t l tri gl wh i h h i t
f om . a e a es os s e e a er a an e c as s
p t
oi n s , h f t h i d f t h fi gu AB C
o n e on e a c o e s es o e re .

AB CD i
14 .
q u d ri l tsr laAB 2§ i h a B C 1 g i
a e a h . nc es , nc es ,
h DA 2 i h
inc es , d AC 2; i
nc h I
es ,thi q u d i l t r l i
an nc es . n s a r a e a n.
squ ar e .
 CH AP TER V

APPROX I MAT E N
S OLUT I O S T O SOME U NSOLV E D PROB LE MS

6 3 R e c ti fi c t
. a i on c u l a r Ar c s
of Ci r e a —
T h r ti
o of t h e c i r
.

c u m fe r e n ce of a c i r c l e t o i t s d i a m e t e r c a n n o t b e e x p r e s s e d e x ac tl , i n
y
o t h e r w ord s t h e t w o a r e i n c om m e n s ur a bl e T he s y m b ol 7: i s alway s
.

u s e d t o d e n o t e t he rati o of t he c i r c u m fe re n ce t o t he di am e t e r a n d i t s
a ppr ox i m a t e v a l u e i s 31 4 1 6 o r n e a rly

T h e be s t g e om e tr i c a l c ons t ru c t i on s h i th e r to g i v e n for fi n d i n g
a p pr ox i m a t e ly t he l e n g t h o f a c i r c ul a r a r c , o r for m a rk i n g off a n a r c

of g i v e n l e n g th , a r e th os e du e t o R a n k i n e , an d a r e a s fo ll o w s
1

T o dr a w a s t r a i g ht li ne app r ox i m a t e ly e u a l t o a gi ve n ci r cu la r
( )
a q
a r c AB F J o i n BA a n d pr odu c e o D m ak i n A D
( g i . i t t g

FIG . 1 29 . FIG . 1 30 .

%A B .
W i th c e n tr e D an d r ad i u s D B d e s c r ib e t h e ar c B C cu t t i n g
t an g e n t A C t o t he a r c a t A C h tr gh t
i l
“

at C t he A i s t e.
s n e a I

r e qu i re d .

rr r v r
T he e o a i e s as t h e fo ur t h p o w e r o f t h e n g l e A O B wh e r e aO ,

i s t h e c e n t r e of t h e c i r c l e of wh i c h AB i s a n a r c Wh e n t h e a n gl e .

A OB i s A C i s l es s t h an t h e a c AB by b ut £
a o r of t h e l e n g th 1 1 00

of t he ar c .

o ma r k of i l
ve n ci r c e a n a r c AB r ox i ma t e ly e qu a l to
( )
b T on a
g pp
a
at A ,
a gi ve n le ngt h
( g
F i D r w t ng t a a a en A C t o t he CI r c le

W t h
.
.

k
an d m a e A C e a qu l t o t h e gi ve n l e n gth M k A D EA
e .
O a Z . i

tr D
cen e an d a i r d u s D C d s c ri b e t h e
e CB t o c u t t h e
ar c C r l e t B i c a .

AB i s t h e ar c e i r qu r e d .

1
A M an u a l of M achi ner y an d Mi llwor k .
62 P RA CT I C AL G E O METRY

T h e e r r or i n (b)a s a f ra c t i on of t h e i ve n l e n h i s t h e S ELII N
g g t
a , a n d foll o w s t h e sa m e la w
( ) .

I f i n F i g 1 29 t h e a n g l e A OB i s g r e a e r h an o n e ri ht a n
.

g g t t
t
l es s h an t w o ri ght a n gl e s t h e l e n g h of on e h al f of t h e ar c ABt
t
b e d e e r m i n e d by t h e c o n s tru c t i on a n d t h e r e s ult d oubl e d .

a n gl e A O B i s
g r e a t
e r th a n t w o r i h
g a n
g l e s t h e l e n
g h o f otn e
q t
t
o f t h e a r c AB s h ould b e d e e r m i n e d by t h e c on s ru c i on a n d t h e t t
qu adru p l e d .

t
I f i n F i g 1 30, A C i s g r e a t e r h an on e a n d a h alf t i m e s t h e
.

O A t h e a r c e qu a l t o o n e h a l f of A C s h o uld b e d e e r m i n e d l t
t
con s ru c t i on a n d th i s ar e s h ould th e n b e d oubl e d If A C is g .

t t t
h an hr e e i m e s C A t h e a r e e qu a l t o on e qu a r e r of A C s h oi t
t t t
d e e r m i n e d by t h e c on s ru c i on an d th i s a r c s h o uld th e n b e qu a d ]
t
T h e c on s ru c t i o n i n ( b)foll o w s e a s i ly fr om th a i n a , fo r
( ) t
t
c on s ru c t i on i n F i
g 1 29 b e . p
e rfo r m e d a n d CD b e j oi n e d
( g
F i
a n d t h e an l e C DB b e b i s e c e d by
g t D
E m e e t i n g A C at E , a c i r c l

F I G 1 31
. . FIG . 1 32 .

cen tre E an r ad i u s E C w i ll pas s throu gh B S i n c e CD D B

d .

an d s i nce D E b i s e c ts t h e angl e CDE i t foll ows (Eu c l i d V I ,

CE : 3A E or A E i A C .

ll w
T h e fo o i n g s i g l ht
m o i ca i on of dfi t R
an i ne s
’
s c on s r k fir t t
( v
a )g i e s a m o e a r
o ima e ppr x
es t r ult
,
and i s t o be e fe e , es
p pr rr d
wh e n t h e a ng e A O B i s g e a el r t r th
an I n s e a of m a i n t d k
equ l h l
a to a f t he c o h rd AB k
ma e i t e a qu l
t o t he c o of h h rd A F
arcAB ( g
F i 1 3 2) an d
. o ce e pr
as ed b r
fo e .

F or t h e c a s e e e t h e an wh rg l
e A O B i s 90 t he e
°
o i n R a] rr r
c on s t ru t
c i on i s a o b ut
1 in 17 0 wh l
i e i n t h e m o i e c on s t r u c t i dfi d
e rr r
o y b
i s on l a o 1 i n 2300 ut .

6 4 T o dr a w a S r a i gh
. t t L
i n e w h os e en g h sh a L t
t l c
a p p r o x i m a e y e q u a l t o t h e C i r u m fe r e n e o f a G i e n C c v
—D r w a a s ai
g tr i n e oht l
se enwh
g l th h ll
s a b e a o i m a e e q p pr x t ly
a qu rt r
a e of t h e c i c m fe e n c e r u r by dfi
t h e m o i c a i o n of an i n e t R k
st ru t xpl
c i on e ain e i n t he d pr d
e ce in g a rt l
i c e ; a i ne fo im es l ur t
l th w ll
eng i b e t h e i ne e i e l r qu r d .

ll
T h e fo o w i n g c on s tru t
c i o n gi e n v byt he a e T F l t Mr . . H .

1
Con s t r u cti ve Geo met r y f P lan e
o p 267
Cu r ves , . .
 A P P R O X I MAT E S O LU T I O N S 63

g i v
es a e c os e a v ry l
o i m a i on ppr x t . O ( g
F i 1 33) i s t h e c e n r e an d
. t
A OB a d t r
i am e e o f t h e g i e n c i v r cl e D . r a w t h e t an ge n t A C a n d
ma e AC ek a to ee qu l
i m es thr t AB D . ra w a r ad i u s O D m aki ng t h e ’

FIG . 1 33 .

l
an g e B OD D r w D E t r i gh t n gl e s t o AB m e e t i n g t h e
a a a

l atte r t E a J oi n E C T he l e n gt h of E C i v ry n e rly e qu l t o
. . s e a a

t he i r c u m fe r e n c e of t h e c i r c l e
c EC i l i ttl e l on g r th n t h e tru . s a e a e

c i r c u m fe r e n c e t h e e rr or b e i n g , b ou t 1 i n a

6 5 T o d r aw a S tr a i gh t L i n e w h o s e L e n gt h s h a ll r e p r e
—
.

s e n t ap p r ox i m a t e l y t h e V a l u e o f T h e c i r c u m fe r e n e of n . c a

c i r c le of r d i u i s 2 r an d th e r e fo r e
a s r qu rt e r of t he ci r c um fe r en ce i s
7r ,
a a

32 . If r 2 th e n qu ar te r of t h e ci r c u m fe r e n c e i s e qu l t o
,
a a r .

2
H e n c e i f a qu ar te r of a c i rc l e b e dr wn w i th r d i u 2 t h e l e n gth a a s ,

of t h e c w i ll b e e qu l t o
ar n d thi l e n gth m y b e d te r m i n e d b y
a a s a e

o n e of t h e c on t ru t i o n s of Ar t 6 3 s I n s t d of t k i n g
c qu rt e r of
. . ea a a a

a c i r c l e w i th r d i u s 2 a e tor wh os e n gl e i s 60 n d r di u s 3
a a ,
s c a
0
a a r:

m y b e u s e d or g e n e r lly a s e c t r wh os e n gl e n d r dius
o
a ,
a i n o a s ,
a a

139 m y b e ta k e n n d t h e l e n gt h of i t s ar c w i ll b e e qu l t o
2
)

a a a 7r .
,
n

T h e c i r u m fe r e n c e of
c c i r c l e wh o e r d i u s i s 0 5 i s e qu l t o
a nd s a a 71 a

m y t h e r e for e b e f u n d by t h e con s tru ct i on gi ve n i n t h e l t t e r p art

‘

7: a o a

of Art 6 4 by m k i n g r
.
,
qu l t o 0 5 a e a .

6 6 T o fi n d t h e S i d e o f a S q u a r e W h os e Ar e a s h a ll b e
‘

—
.

a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t o t h a t o f a G i v e n C i r cl e So lvi n g th i s

pr obl e m i s k n ow n s qu ri n g t h e i rcl e O i t h e c e n t r e n d AB
”
“
as a c . s a

a d i m t e r of t h e g i v e n i r c l
a e c e .

Fi t M th d ( Fi g
rs e D r w A C t r i gh t an gl s t o AB n d
o . a a e a

FIG . 1 34 . FIG . 1 35.

e qu a l t o A O D r aw B C c u tt i n g t h e c i r c l e a t D J oi n B D
.
. . B D is
t h e l i ne r e qu r
i e d rr
T he e o r i n th i s c o.
n s tru c t i on i s t h t B D a 1s t oo
64 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

l on g by an am o un t e qu al t o O 01 6 4r ,
'

wh e re r i s t he ra d i u s
c i r cl e .

S econd M e thod (Fi g P r odu c e AB t o E , a n d m a k e B

.

t o t hr e e t i m e s B O Wi th c e n tr e A an d ra d i u s A O d e s c r i b e
.

CC . W i t h c en t r e E an d r a d i u s EA d e s c ri b e t h e a r c A C t o
fo r m e r a r c a t C D r a w CE c ut ti n g t h e c i r cl e a t D J oi n B 1
. .

i s t h e l i n e r e qu i r e d T h e e rr o r i n t hi s c on s t ru c ti on i s th a t B I
.

s h or t by a n a m ou n t e qu a l t o 0 0007 r , wh e r e r i s t h e r a d i u s
'

ci rcle .

6 7 T o d r a w a S t r a i gh t L i n e W h os e L e n gt h s h a l l
.

s e n t ap p ro x i m a t e l y t h e V alu e of t h e S qu ar e R oo t
T h e a r e a o f a c i r c l e wh os e r a d i u s i s r i s 7r r , a n d i f s i s t h e S i
2

s qu a r e wh os e a r e a i s e qu a l t o t h a t of t h e c i r c l e , th e n 8 2

s r J If r 1 , th e n 8 J r , an d t h i s m ay b e fou n d by
t h e c o n s tru c t i o n s i n t h e p r e c e d i n g a rt i c l e .

6 8 T o fi n d t h e S i d e o f a S q u a r e w h o s e Ar e a s i
—
. .

a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t o t h a t o f a G i v e n E ll i p s e Ii c
a r e t h e s e m i a x e s of a n e ll i p s e i t s a r e a i s n a b
-
I f r i s t h e r ad i
c i r c l e e qu a l i n a r e a t o t h e e ll i p se , t h e n vr r
2
n a b, o r r
2
a b, 3

a m e an p r op ort i on a l b e tw e e n a a n d b a n d m ay b e fo u n d a s

1 2, p 1 1 . T h e s i d e of a s qu a r e wh os e a r e a i s a pp r o x i m a te ];
.

t o th a t of t h e c i r c l e m ay th e n b e fou n d by t h e c on s t ru o
Art 6 6 . .

6 9 T o i n s c ri b e i n a G i v e n C i r cl e a R e gu l a r P 1
—
.

h avi n g a G i v e n N u m b e r o f S i de s A R ( Fi g 1 36 )i s a di .

an d O t h e c e n t r e of t h e g i v e n c i r c l e Wi th .

c e n t r e A a n d r a d i u s AB d e s c r i b e t h e ar c

BC . W i th c e n t r e B a n d r a d i u s BA de
s c r i b e t h e ar c A C c u t t i n g t h e fo r m e r a r c

at C . D i vi d e t h e d i am e t e r AB i n t o as
m a n y e qu a l p a r t s a s t h e r e a r e s i d e s i n t h e
p oly gon D i s t h e s econd p oi n t of d i v i s i on
.

fr o m A D r a w C D an d pr o du ce i t t o c u t
.

t h e ci r c l e a t E T h e c h o rd A E i s on e
.

s ide of t h e p o ly gon , a n d t h e o t h e r s a r e

o b t ai n e d by s t e pp i n g t h e c h ord A E r ou n d

t he ci rc l e .

T h e ab o ve c on s tru c t i o n i s e x a c t for a n
e qu i l a t e r a l tr i an g l e , a s qu a r e , a n d a h e x a g o n .

F o r a p e n t a gon t h e c e n tr a l a n gl e A O B i s F m 1 36 , .

t oo s m a ll , a n d wh e n t h e c h o rd A E i s s t op p e d
rou n d from A fi v e t i m e s , t h e l as t p oi n t w i l l fall s h ort of A
a m ou n t wh i c h s ub te n d s a t 0 a n a n g l e of n e a rly a qu a rt e r of a

F or a h e pt agon t h e ce n t r a l a n gl e A C E i s t o o l a rg e , a n d wl
c h o rd A E i s s t e pp e d r o u n d fr o m A s e v e n t i m e s , t h e l a s t p o i

be b e y o n d A by a n a m o u n t wh i c h s u b t e n d s at 0 a n a n gl e of
m or e th a n fi v e e i g hth s of a d e g r e e
-
.
 CH AP TER V I

ROULE T T ES A N D GLI SSET T ES

7 0 R ou l e t t e s
. Wh en on e c urve r oll s w i th ou t s l i d i ng on
.
-

c urv e a n
y,
p o i n t c on n e c t e d w i th t h e fir s t c urv e d e s c r i b e s o n t i

of t h e e co n ds c urv e c ll e d a r ou le tt e
a T h e c urve wh i c h r o ll s i
a .

t h e r lli ng c ve o r ge ne r a ti ng cu rve
o ur n d t h e c urv e o n wh i c h i t ,
a

c ll e d t h e di e c t i ng c u v e o r ba s e
a r T h e d i r e c t i n g c urv e i s g
r . 4

as s u m e d t o b e fix e d a n d i s s o m e t i m e s c ll e d t h e fi e d cur ve
,
a x .

Wh e n t h e r olli n g an d d i re ct i ng c urve s a r e ci r c l e s t he
b e c om e s cycloi da l c e a ur v .

7 1 G e n e r a l C o n s t r u c t i o n for D r a w i n g a R o u l e tt
.

b e s t pr c t i ca l m e th o d of dr w i n g n y r o ul e tt e i s t h e tr ac i n g
a a a

t ra n s p r e n t t e m p l e t m e th od wh i c h i s d e s c ri b e d i n Art 60 p
a .
,
.

T h e fo ll o wi ng i s a g e n e r a l c on s tru c t i o n w h i c h m y b e 1 a

dra w i n g an y r oul e tt e AB C D (Fi g 1 37 )i s t h e b s e A bcd i s t he

. . a ,

c ur v e a n d P i s t h e tr a c i n g p oi n t
,
T ke , a

a n u m b e r of p oi n t s b c d e t c o n t he , , ,
.

roll i n g c urv e an d d e t e r m i n e p oi n t s
B C D e t c o n t h e b s e s u c h t h t t he
, , , . a a

ar cs AB B C C D e t c r e e qu l t o
, , ,
. a a

the r c s Ab bc cd e t c r e s p e c t i v e ly
a , , ,
. .

I f t h e p oi n t s r e s u ffi c i e n tly n e r t o
a a

on e n o th e r t h e
a r cs m y b e s s u m e d a a a

e qu a l t o t h e i r c h o rd s D r a w t an g e n t s .

t o t h e b s e a t B C D e t c an d t n
a , , ,
. a

g e n t s t o t h e r oll i n g c urv e t b c d a , ,

et c . Fr om P dra w P m p e rp e n d i c ul r a

t o t h e t nge n t a t b a On t h e t n g e n t . a

at B m k e BM a bm a n d dr w M P ,
a l

p e rpe n d i c ul ar t o B M a n d e qu al t o P m .

P w i ll b e t h e pos i t i on of P wh e n t he
I F g 1 37 l , ,

roll in g c urve tou ch e s t h e b s e at B a ,

a n d w i ll t h e r e fo r e b e p oi n t i n t h e r oul e tte d e s cri b e d by P

a .

m an n e r o th e r p oi n t s m ay b e d e t e r m i n e d .

7 2 G e n e r al C o n s t r u c t i o n fo r t h e C e n t r e o f C u r
—
.

o f a R ou e l tt e Thr e e c as e s ar e i llu s tr te d i n Fi gs 1 38 1
. a .
,

1 40 . T h e d e s c r i p ti o n wh i c h foll o w s pp l i e t o e ac h a s .

0 i s t h e c e n tre of c urva t ure of t h e b s e l i n e A Q B a t Q

1
a .
 R O ULE T TE S AN D G L I S S ET T E S 67

is a n a r c of a ci r c l e th e n 01 i s t h e c e n t r e of t h e c i rc l e an d i f A B i s
, Q
a s trai ght l i n e (Fi g . th e n 01 i s at a n i n fi n i t e d i s tan c e fr om Q
s t r i g ht l i n e thr o u h Q a t r i ht a n l e s t o A
a a
g g g QB ) .

FIG . 1 38 . FIG . 1 39 . FIG . 1 40 .

O 2 i s t h e c e n tr e o f c urv a t ur e o f t h e ro ll i n c urve C D a t
g Q Q (If .

C Q D i s a n a r c of a c i r c l e , th e n O2 i s t h e c e n t r e o f t h e c i r c l e
P i s t h e p os i t i on of t h e tr a c in p oin t wh e n t h e r o ll i n
) .

g g c urv e is in
t h e p os i t i o n s h o w n .

J oin P Q D ra w QR at ri ght an gl e s t o P Q t o m e e t P OZ or P O2
.

pr odu c e d a t R J oi n R 0, an d produ ce i t i f n e c e s s a ry t o m e e t
.

P Q or P Q pr odu ce d a t S S i s t h e ce n t re of c urva tur e of t h e r oul e tt e

.

at P .

Wh e n P , Q , , an d Q ar e i n a s t rai gh t l i n e t he ab ove con s tru c ti on

fa i l s t h i s c as e Q 01 X Q OZ X PQ
. In ,
SQ __ t he plu s s i gn b e i ng
PQ Q OI P 02 i “

Q 02
t ak e n wh e n O 1 a nd O2 ar e on o p os i te s i d e s of Q , an d t he m i n u s p
s i n be i n t k wh O d O n t h s a m e s i d e of Q PQ
g g a e n e n , a n 2 a r e o e .

P O 2 i Q OQ .

t t
I f AB i s a s r ai gh l i n e h e n Q O l i s i n fi n i t e an d t
(402 x P Q

P O2
“ -

I
Q O, x I Q
I f P0, Q O, , then so
Q O. i P Q
73 T h e C y cl o i d
. .
—
T he c y c l oi d i s t h e c urve d e s c ri bed by a poi n t
on t he c i rc u m f e r e n c e of a c i r c l e wh i c h r o ll s on a s tr ai ht l i n e , t h e
g
g t
c i r c l e a n d s r a i ht l i n e r e m a i n i n
g i n t h e s a m e pl an e T h e o rdi n a ry .

g t
e om e r i ca l c o ns tru c t i on for dra w i n
g t h e c y c l oi d i s s h o w n i n F i g 14 1 . .

t p
mo e i s t h e s r a i g ht l i n e u on wh i c h t h e c i r c l e P bo q r o ll s an d P i s t h e
' ' '

t
poin wh i ch d e s c ri b e s t h e cy c loi d Pbo q i s t he r oll in g c i r c l e i n i t s
'
.

’
t
m i ddle p o s i t i on , t h e d i a m e e r P O o b e i n g a t ri ght an gl e s t o mo e
’ '
. .

M’ a k e o e e qu a l t o h alf t h e c i r c u m fe re n c e of t he r oll i n g c i r c l e
' ’ ‘

i vi d e . D
o e i n t o a n u m be r of e qu a l p a rts a t a pr r bly x , but for
' ' ’ ’
, b , c , e t c ( e fe a s i .
68 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY

t he k e of a c le r e r fi g ure c c i n F i g 1 41 h as b e e n d i v i d e d
sa a .

e qu a l p rt s ) D i vi de t h e s e m ic i rc l e P b i nt o t h e s am n 1
a .
’
o e

e qu l p rt s
a t a b 0 et c
a Thr ou gh O dra w O E p a ra ll e l t o o
a , , , .
’
e

b c e t c dr a w p e rp e n d i c ul a rs t o o e t o m e e t O E t A B
' ' ' ' ' '
a, , , . a ,

“l i t h c e n tr e s A d e s c r i b e a r cs of c i rc l e s t ou c l
' '
C
’
-
B etc , , , .

a n d thr o u g h a b 0 e t c dr a w p a r a ll e l s t o c c t o ou t th e s e
' '
, , , .

A B C e t c s s h o w n T h e p oi n t s A B C e t c ar e p oi n t
, , , . a .
, , , .

h l f of t h e cy c l oi d tr ce d by t he p oi nt P a s t h e c ir c l e P bo m e
a a
'

a r e v o lut i on t o t h e r i gh t P oi n t s o n t h e o t h e r h l f of t h . a c

m ay b e o b t ai n e d i n a s i mi l a r m n n e r o r s i n c e t h e c urv e a , ,

m e tr i c a l b ou t P o t he p a r t t o t h e l e ft of P 0 m ay b e copi e d
' ’
a

p rt t o t h e r igh t
a .

I f f rom a p oi n t (1 on t h e c i r c l e P bo q l i n e b e dra w n p z ’
a

t h e b s e l i n e mo t o m e e t t h e c y c l oi d t Q th e n QR p a r a ll e
’
a a

t h e n o r m a l a n d QT p a ra ll e l t o gP I s t h e t an ge n t t o t h e c y c l

FIG . 1 41 .

A ga i n i f P T b e dra w n p ar all e l t o mo t o m e e t a t T t he ta ng e
,
'

c y c l oi d a t Q t h e l e n g th of t h e a r c P Q of t h e c y c l o i d w i ll b e
,

l e ng th of t h e t n ge n t QT or tw i c e t h e l e n g th o f t h e c
'

a .

H e n c e t h e t ot a l l e n gt h of t he cy c l oi d i s fo ur t i m e s t h e d i am e i
r oll i n g c i rc le .

I f QR b e pr odu c e d t o S a n d RS i s m ad e e qu a l t o QR t h e ]
c e n tr e f c urv t ur e of t h e c y c l oi d t Q
o a T h e lo c u s o f S i s t h a .

of t h e c y c l oi d I f t he r o ll i n g c i rc l e be dr w n b e l o w t h e l
. a

mo n d t o u c h i n g th t l i n e t R i t I s o bv i ou s th t th i s c i r c l e
'
a a a a

thr ou gh S Al o i f t h e roll i n g c i r c l e b e dr w n b ov e t he b as e
. s a a

t ou ch i n g i t t R th i s c i r c l e w i ll p s s throu gh Q an d s i n c e t
a a

R S i s e qu l t o t h e c h ord QR t h e r c R S m u s t be e qu l t o t i t
a a a l

B t t h e r c Q R i s e qu l t o mR a n d m o i s e q u l t o h a l f t h
'
u a a , a i

fe r n c e o f t h e r o ll i n g c i r c l e t h e r e for e i f RU i s a di a m e t
e ,
c

c i r c l e R SU t h e e qu a l t o Ro H e n c e i f a li ne UL '
rc S U i , a s .

r ll e l t o mo an d t h e c i r c l e R S U b e m a d e t o r o ll on t hi
'

p a a
 R O ULET T E S AN D G L I S S E T T ES 69

p oi n t S w i l l d e s c r i be a cy c l oi d e qu al t o t he or i gi n a l cy cl oi d T h e .

e v olut e of a c y l o i d i s th e r e for e
c n e qu l c c l o i d a a
y
7 4 T h e T r o ch oi d —
.

.
Wh e n i r c l e r ol l o n
. t r i gh t l i n e n d
a c s a s a a

r e m i n s i n t h e s m e p l n e a p oi n t i n t h e p l n e of t h e c i r l e c on
a a a , a -

c ,
n e c t e d t o t h e c i r c l e but n o t o n i t s c i r c u m fe r e n c e d es c r i b
e s a t r och i d , o .

I f t he d e s c r i b i n g p oi n t i s o ut s i d e t h e r oll i n i r l t h t r h i d is
g c e e o c o c
c ll e d a s up er i or t o choi d
a I f t h e d e s c r i b i n g p oi n t i s i n s i d e t h e r oll i n
r
g
.

c i r c l e t h e t r oc h i d i s c ll e d a n i n e i or t o hoi d A u p r r t r h d
o
f a s e i o r
o c o i r c .

i s a l s o c ll e d a cu t a t e cy cloid a n d a n i n fe r i o r t r o c h o i d i s
a r l s o c ll e d a a a
r ola t e c cloi d
p y .

t t
T h e g e o me r i c a l c on s ru c t i o n fo r fin d i n g p o i n s on a r o c h oi d i s t t
s i m i la r t o th a t a lre a dy
g i v e n fo r t h e c y c oi d a n d i s s h o w n i n F i
g 1 42 l . .

mo m i s t h e b as e l i n e
’ ’
P i s t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e d e s c r i b i n
.

g oi n wh en it p t
i s furth e s t fr om t h e ba s e l i n e a n d O i s t h e c o rr e s p on d i n
g o s i i on of p t

FIG . 1 42 .

tr
t he c e n e o f t h e o i n g c i c le r ll c m is ma e e r a to . a f t he ci c m
’ ’
d qu l h l ru
r r ll r l p t ’ ’
fe e n c e of t h e o i n g c i c e T h e oi n s a , b , c , e t c an d
’
.
’
,
’ ’
, C , etc . A B .

ar e d t r
e e mi n e d a s fo r t h e c c oi
y l d .

W thi ce n tr r du
e O a n d a i s OP d rb r l
e s c i e a c i c e , an d dvd h l
i i e t he a f
of thi s ci c er l wh hic i s t o t he i g r ht t
of O P i n o a s m a n y qu l p rt
e a a s as
' ’
c m is d v d d t Th d t r
i i e in o . p t
i s e e m i n e s t h e oi n s a , b, 0, e t c T hr u h o g a , b, c , .

et c dr w p r l
. a a a lle s t o t h e b las e i n e an d w th tr A B
i ce n es
’ ’ ’
, C , r du
e t c an d a i s .

e qu l
a t o OP d rb r r l
e s c i e a c s of c i c e s t o c u t thes e p r ll l
a a e s at A B , ,
C,
e t c as s o
. h wn A B
, .
, C , e t c a r e p toi n s o n t h e ha lf o f t h e
. tr h d o c oi

d e s c r i be d by t h e p oi n t P s t h e r o l li n g c i r l e m k e s h lf r e vo lut i on
a c a a a

t o t h e r i g ht P oi n t s on t h e o t h e r h a l f of t h e t ro c h oi d m y b e obt ai n e d
.
a

in a si m i l r m aan n e r o i n c e t h e c urv
,
e i s
r, s s y m m e tr i c l abou t OP t he a ,

p rt t o t h e le f t of O P m y b c opi e d fr om t h e p rt t o t he ri ght
a a e a .

I f f r om a p oi n t g o n t h e c i r le q li n e b dr w n p ar l le l t o t h e
c a e a a

b e l i n e t o m e e t t he t r o c h oi d t Q t h e n QR p r l le l t o go i s t h e
’
as a a a
,
70 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

no rm al a n d QT p e rp e n d i c ul r t o QR i s t he t an g e nt t o t he
a

at Q .

D ra w R V p e rp e n d i c ul r t o t h e b as e l i n e t o m e e t t he
a

t hrou gh 0 t o t he b a s e l i n e a t V V i s t h e p os i ti on of t he e
.

t h e r o ll i n g c i r c l e wh e n t h e d e s c ri b i n g p o i n t i s a t Q .

T o fi nd S t h e c e n t r e of c urv t u r e o f t h e tr oc h oi d a t 1 a

RN p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o QR t o m e e t Q V prod u ce d t N a n a l

N S p e r p e n di c ul r t o t h e b s e l i n e t o m e e t QR p ro du ce d t S
a a -
a .

T h e e v o lut e of t h e t ro h o i d i s t h e l oc u s of t h e c e n tre of (3
c 1

S . T h e e v o lu te o f t h e s u p e ri or troc h o i d i s s h ow n i n F i g 1 4 .

e vo lut e of t h e i n fe r i o r tr o c h o i d i s p a r t ly on o n e s i d e a n d p r t ] a
,

o t h e r s i d e o f t h e c urv e n d t h e n or m a l s wh i c h h v e t h e l e s t
,
a a a

ti on t o t h e b s e l i ne e a y m p t ot es of t h e e vo lu te
a ar s
—
.

7 5 T h e E p i c y cl o i d
. Wh e n a c i r c l e r oll s o n t he c u t s
.

fix e d c i r cl e t h e t wo c i rc l e s b e i n g i n t h e s m e pl a n e p oi n
,
a ,
a

c i r c u m fe r e n c e of t h e r o ll i n g c i r c l e d e s c r i b e s a n e i cy clo i d
p .

T h e ord i n a ry g e om e tri c l c on s t ru c t i on fo r fi n d i n g p oi n t
a

e p i c y c l oi d i s s h o w n i n F i g 1 4 3 P i s t h e p os i t i on of t h e t r a c i
. . i

FIG . 1 43
.

wh e n i t i s fur th es t fr om t h e fixe d or ba s e c i rcl e 0 i s t he co rr e s ,

p o i ti on of t h e c e n t re of t h e r oll i n g ci r c l e n d o i s t h e corre s
s a
’

p oi n t of c on t c t of t h e r olli n g an d b as e c ir c l e s O i s t he c e n t )
a .
,

b s e c i rc l e M ak e t he ar c o m e qu l t o h alf t h e c i r c u m fe r e n c
a .
’
a

rolli n g c i r c l e J oi n o m a n d produ c e i t t o m e e t a t M t h e c i r cl e
.
l

0 c on c en t ri c w i th t h e b s e c i r c l e a D i v i d e t h e a r c OM i n t o
. a

o f e qu a l p a rt s
( p r e fe r bly s i o r e i gh t
a
) at A x B C e t c n d di
’
,
'
,
’
, . a

s e m i c i r c l e P co i n to t he s m e n u m b e r of e qu al p a r t s a t a
’
a
,
 R O ULET T E S AN D G LI SSET T E S 71

Wi th ce n t re 0 d e c r i b e a r cs of ci r c l e s thr ou gh a b 0 e t c an d w i th
s
, , , .

c e n tre A B C e t c n d r d i u s e qu l t o OP d e s c ri be r c s of c i r cl e s
’ ’ ’
s , , , . a a a a

t o c u t t h e fo r m e r r c s t A B C e t c s s h ow n A B C e t c r e
a a , , , . a .
, , . a
,

p oi n t s on t h e h al f of t h e e pi cy cl oi d d e cr i b e d by P s t h e r o l l i n g c i r cl e s a

r oll s from o t o m P oi n t o n t h e oth e r h l f of t he e p i cy cl oi d m y b e

’
. s a a

o bt i n e d i n
a s imil r m nner o a s i n c e t h e c urv e i
a a s y m m e t r i c l ab ou t
,
r, s a

O P t h e p rt t o t h e l e ft of O P m ay be c op i e d fr om t h e p a rt t o t h e
, ,
a ,

ri ght .

T he ce n t r e of c urv t ure of t h e e p i cy c l oi d a t an y p oi n t Q i s fou n d as

a

foll o w s D ra w t h e r oll i n g c i r c l e i n t he p os i ti on w h i ch i t oc cu p i e s
.

wh e n t h e tra c i n g poi n t i s at Q s s h o wn V i s t h e c e n t r e of t he a .

r oll i n g c i r c l e i n th i s p os i ti o n nd R i s i t s poi n t of con t c t w i th t h e a a

b s e c i r cl e J o i n Q V n d pr odu ce i t t o m e e t t h e r o l l i n g ci r c l e ag i n t
a . a a a

N J oi n O N J oi n Q R a n d p r odu ce i t t o m e e t O N t S Q R i s t he
.
, .
, a .

n o rm a l a n d S i s t h e c e n t r e o f c urv tur e o f t h e e p i cy c l oi d t Q a a .

QT a t r i g ht n g l e s t o QR i s t h e t a n ge n t t o t h e e p i c y c l o i d
a t Q a .

T h e l oc u s of S i s t h e e v olut e of t h e e p i cy c l oi d .

J o i n O R n d dr w S U p e r p e n d i c ul r t o Q S t o m e e t O R t U On
,
a a a , a .

UR a s d i am e te r d e s c ri b e t h e ci r c l e R S U n d w i th c e n t r e 0 a nd ,
a 1

r d i u s O U d e s c ri be a n oth e r ci rc l e I f t h e c ir cle R SU be m ad e t o r oll

a ,
.

o n t h e o u t s i d e of t h e c i r c l e wh os e c e n tr e i s 0 a n d r d iu s O U t h e 1
a , ,

p oi n t S w i l l d e s cri be n e pi cy c l oi d wh i h w i ll c oi n ci d e w i th t he
a c

e vo lu te of t h e o ri gi n l e p i c y c l oi d Th i e p i cy c l oi d wh i c h i s t h e e volu te
a . s

o f t h e o r i i n l e p i c y c l oi d i s s i m i l r t o i t T w o e p i y c l oi d s a e s i m i l r r a
g a a . c

wh e n t h e r t i o of t h e r d ii of th e i r r ol li n g ci r cl e s t o on e an oth e r i s t he
a a

sa m e s t h e r t i o of t h e r a d i i o f th e i r b a s e c i r c l e s
a a .

I t m ay b e poi n t e d ou t h e r e th t g i v e n e p i c y c l oi d on g i v e na a a

b s e c i r cl e m ay be d e s c ri be d by p oi n t on t h e c i r c u m fe re n c e f e i th e r
a a o

o f t wo d i ffe r e n t r oll i n g c i rc l es Re fe rri n g t o Fi g 1 44 A PB i s n . .

,
a

FIG . 1 44 .
FIG . 1 45 .

p y l d b r l LMN Th p y l d m b d b d
e i c c oi on t h e as e c i c e i s e i c c o
i y e e s c r I e .
a

by a p oi n t on t h e ci rc u m fe re n ce of t h e roll i n g c cle P Q N or by a lr

poi n t on t h e c i rc u mfe r e n ce of t h e r o ll i n g ci r c l e CP D T he thr e e .

ci r l e s ar e s c
c u h t h t t he d i am e t e r of t h e a b s e c i r l e s e qu l t o t h e a c 1 a

d i ffe r e n ce b e t w e e n t h e d i am e t e r s of t h e t wo r oll i n g ci r cl e s I t W 1 11 .
 2 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY

be o b s e rve d th at wh i l e bo t h roll i n g ci r c l e s r oll on t h e o u ts i d e

b as e ci r c l e t h e b as e ci r c l e i s i n s i d e t h e l a r g e r r oll i n g ci r c l e .

A n i n te r e s t i n g c s e of t h e e p i cy c l o i d i s th t i n wh i c h t h e
a a

c i r c l e i s e qu al t o t h e b a se c i r c l e T h i s i s s h o w n i n F i g 1 45
.
,
.

O LN i s t h e b a s e c i r c l e n d O QP t h e e p i c y c l oi d
a P MN i s t h e p .

o f t h e r oll i n
g c i r c l e wh e n t h e tr c i n g p oi n t P i
a furth e t from t h s s

c i rcl e . T h e t wo e n d s o f t h e e p i c y c l oi d m ee t a t O for mi n g a <

t h at poi n t .

I f a s t r ai ght l i n e OLQ b e dr a w n c u tti n g t he b as e c i r c l e a t

t h e e p i cy c l oi d a t Q th e n i t i s n ot d i ffi c ult t o pr o ve th t L Q i s e a .

O N t h e d i am e t e r o f t h e b s e c i r c l e a T h i pr op e rty s u gge s t s
. s a

m e t h o d of fi n d in g p oi n t s on t h i s p rt i c ul r fo r m of e p i cy c l oi d
a a .

for m of t h e e pi cy c l oi d i s k n o w n s t h e c a di oi d a I f t he
r ngl e . a

O Q m ak e s w i th O P b e d e n ot e d by 0th e n OQ = Q L + LO Q L + 0
or r d (1 c os 9)wh e r e r OQ n d d i s t h e d i am e te r of t h e
a

O LN . Th i s i s t h e p ol ar e qu t i on t o t h e c a rd i oi d
a .

T h e n orm a l t o t h e c urve a t Q m ay b e fo u n d by t h e c on s t 1
a lr e a dy i v e n o r m o r e s i m ply a s foll o w s Thr ou g h N dr aw
g .

p rall e l t o O Q t o m e e t t h e c i rc l e agai n at B QR i s t h e r e qu i r e d I
a ,. ,

T h e t an ge n t QT at Q i s of co ur e p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o Q R
—
s ,.

76 . T h e E p i t r o c h o i d Wh . e n a c i r c l e r oll s o n t h e ou t s i d

fi x e d c i r c l e t h e t wo c i r c l e s b e i n g i n t h s am e p l an e a p o i n t
,
e ,

p l an e of t h e r ol li n g c i r c l e c on n e c t e d t o i t bu t n ot on i t s c i r c u m i
,

d e s c r i b e s an ep i t ochoid T h e e pi tr oc h oi d i s c ll e d a s up e ri or ep i t
r . a

or a n i n er i o e i t r ocho i d a cc ord i n a s t h e d e s c r i b i n g p oi n t i s o u t
r
p g
i n si de ro ll i n g c i rc l e.

FIG . 146 .
74 P RA CT I C AL G E O METRY

T he c on s fi n d i ng S t h e ce n tr e of c urvatur e
tru c t i on for ,

hy pocy c l oi d a t ny p oi n t Q i s t h e s a m e s th a t lr e dy gi v e n
a ,
a a a

e p i c y c l oi d e x c e pt t h a t S i on O N p r o du c e d i n t e a d of o n O N
s , s ,
.

J oi n O R n d dr w S U p e rp e n d i c ul r t o Q 8 t o m e e t O R p r
,
a a a ,

a t U On UR s d i m e t e r d e s c ri b e t h e c i r c l e R S U n d w i th
. a a ,
a

O a n d r a d i u s O U d e s c r i b e an o th e r c i r c l e
, ,
I f t h c i rcle R SU b . e

t o r o ll o n t h e i n i d e of t h e c i r c l e wh os e c e n tr e i s O a n d r a d i u
s 1

t h e p oi n t S w i ll d e s c r i b e a hy po c y c l oi d Th i s hyp ocy c l oi d w h i cl .

e v olut e of t h e or i i n a l hyp oc y c l o i d i s s i m i l r t o i t a
g .

A g i ve n hy p oc y c l oi d o n g i ve n b s e c i r c l e m ay b e de s c ri be a a <

p oi n t on t h e c i rc u m fe r e n c e of e i th e r of t w o d i ffe re n t r oll i ng
R e fe rri n g t o F i g 1 48 A C B D .
,

is ab as e ci r c l e of wh i c h C O D
i s a d i am e te r T he hy po .

c y c l oi d A P B m a b e d e s c r i be d
y
by p oi n t on t h e c i r c u m fe re n c e
a

o f t h e c i r c l e C P o r by a p oi n t

on t h e c i r c u m fe r e n c e of t h e

c i rc l e D P T h e t hr e e c i r c l e s
.

a r e s u c h t h a t t h e d i a m e t e r of

t h e b a s e c i r c l e i s e qu a l t o t h e
s u m of t h e d i a m e t e r s of t h e

t w o r o ll i n g c i r cl e s .

Fi g 1 48 a l s o s h o w s t h e
.

v a ri at i on i n t h e for m an d s i z e
of t h e hyp o c y c l oi d a s t h e
d i am e t e r of t h e r oll i n g c i r cl e
i s alt e r e d .

A v e ry i m p ort an t ca s e of FIG 1 48 . .

t h e hyp ocy c l oi d i s t h a t i n
wh i c h t h e d i m e te r of t h e r oll in g ci rc l e i s e q ua l t o t h e r ad i u s
a

b a s e c i r c l e I n th i s c e t he hy p ocy c l oi d b e c om e s a s tr ai ght l i n
. as c

( gF i 1 48
.
) wh i c h i s a d i m e t e r of t h e b a s e c i rac l e .

7 8 T h e H y p o t r o c h oi d
. Wh e n a c i r cl e r oll s on t h e i n s i d
.
-

fix e d c i r c l e t h e t wo c i r c l e s b e i n g i n t h e s am e pl an e p oi n t
, .
,
a

pl an e of t h e r o ll i n g c i r c l e c on n e c te d t o i t bu t n ot on i t s 0 ,

fe r e n ce d e s c r i b e s a hyp o t r choi d T h e h y p otr oc h oi d i s c a ll e d a S t

o .

hyp ot ochoi d or an i nf er i o hyp otr ochoi d a c c ord i ng a s t h e d e s c

r r

p oi n t i s o u ts i d e o r i n s i d e t h e r oll i n g ci r c l e .

T h e g e om e tri cal c on s t ru c t i on for fi n d i n g p oi n t s on a hyp ot r

i s s h o wn i n F i g 1 49 . .

T h e con s t ru c t i on fo r fi n d i n g t h e ce n t r e of c urv a tur e a t a n y

i s s i m i l a r t o th a t for t h e e p i t r o c h oi d T h e p oi n t S corr e s po n d .

t h e p oi n t Q o n t h e i n fe r i o r hyp o tr o c h oi d ( F i g 1 4 9 fa ll s e n t s i
) . <

l ow e r li m i t of t he fig ur e .

A s p e c i l a n d i m p ort an t c s e of t he hy potr och oi d i s th a t i n

a a

t h e d i am e t e r of t h e r o ll i n g c i r c l e i s e qu a l t o t h e r d i u s of t h a c

ci rc l e I n th i s c s e t h e hy p ot ro c h o i d i s n e ll i p se
. a R e fe rr i n g t a .

1 50 A M LN i s t h e b s e c i r c l e wh os e c e n t r e i s O
, a nd A H O ,
a

i ni t i a l p os i t i on of t h e r oll i n g c i r c l e C i s t h e c e n t r e of t h e .
 R OULETTE S AN D G LI S S E T T ES 75

FIG . 1 19.

FIG 1 50. .

B i s a p oi n t i n A O an d D n d E a p t a r e o i n s i n A O pr du d
o c e .

th r p t r ll r l T h m t A d O r e
h i i i f t h i n
g c i c e e p o s a n
a
’

a o s a no e os on o e o .

t h d b
t h e i n i t i l p o s i t i o n o f t h e p oi n t s o n t h e r o ll g r l
i n i c
c e c e sc rI e
a s

tr
’
t lfe s ai g
‘

h t l i n e s A OL a n d M O N r e s p e c t i v e,ly A O La n d M O N b e i n g
 76 P R A CT I C AL G E O METRY

d i a m e te r s o f t h e b s e c i r c l e t r i g h t n g l e s t o o n e a n o t h e r T h e
a a a .

o f t h e r o ll i n g c i r c l e w i ll o bv i o u ly d e s c r i b e a c i r c l e wh os e c e n tr s '

a n d r ad i u s C C Wh e n t h e r o l lin g c i r c l e h a s m o ve d i n to t he p
. i

a ho t h e l i n e wh os e i n i t i l p o i t i on i s A C E w i ll n o w b e i n t h e a s
, p
ace ,
n d i f a b a d a n d a c b e m ad e e qu l t o AB A D
a , , nd f a , ,
a I

s ecti el
p y t
v h e p o i n t s b d n d e w i ll b e p o i n t s o n t h e h yp o t r o , ,
a

d e s cri b e d by t h e poi n t s wh os e i n i ti a l p os i t i on s r e B D a , , a

r e s p e ct i v e ly .

T h e c o n s tru c ti on for fi n d i n g t h e p oi n t s b d a n d e i s o bv i o u s , ,

s am e a s i n t h e tr a m m e l m e th o d fo r dr a w i n g n e ll i p s e de s c r i l a

Ar t 45 p 4 1
—
.
,
. .

7 9 T h e I n v o lu t e o f a C i r cl e
. T h e i nvol t e of a ci c le . u r

r oul e tt e d e s c r i be d by p oi n t on tra i gh t l i n e wh i c h r oll s on a a s a

c i rcle T h e i n v o lu t e of a c i r c l e s th e r e fo r e a s p e c i l c s e of t h 1 a a

be i n g t h e e pi cy c l oi d wh e n t he r oll i n g ci r cl e i s of i
.

c y c l oi d , ]

d i am e t e r .

T h e ge om e t ri c a l c on s t ru c t i o n for fi n d i n g p oi n t s on t h e i n v ol
s h ow n I n F i g o P i s a di a m e t e r of t h e c i r c l e
. D ra w t h e t a .

c m a n d m k e e m e qu l t o h l f a a a

t h e c i r c u m fe re n c e o f t h e c i r c l e .

D i v i d e t h e s e m i c i r c l e Pc o i n t o
a n u m b e r of e qu a l p a rt s sa y ,

six ,
at a b c e t c c on t i n u i n g
, , , .

t h e d i v i s i on s o n t o t h e o th e r
h al f of t h e c i r c l e i f n e c e s s ary ,

a n d d i vi d e c m i n t o t h e s am e

n um b e r of e qu a l p r t s at a

c on t i n u i n g t h e
' ’ ’
a ,
b c , et c .

d i v i s i o n s b e y on d m i f n e ce s sa ry .

At t he poi n ts a b 0 e t c dr w , , , . a

t n ge n ts a A bB c C e t c t o t h e
a , , , .

c i rc l e n d m k e d A bB 00 e t c
a a , , , .

e qu l t o c d
’ ’ ’
ob c c e t c r e s e c
a
p , , , .

t i e ly
v P A B C e t c ar e
.
, , , ,
.

p oi n t s on t h e i n v olu te w h i c h F m 1 51 , ,

s t a r ts t P a n d m y be c on
a a

t i n u e d t o a n y l e n g th A s t h e i n v ol u t e ge t s fur t h e r an d fu r t h e I
.

t h e c i r c l e t h e d i s t n c e b e t w e e n t he p oi n t as fo u n d by t h e
a b ov s a o

s tru c t i on g e t s gr e a t e r a n d g r e t e r bu t i n t e rm e d i ate p oi n t s In a ,

fo u n d by s ubd i v i d i n g a s s h o wn for t h e p oi n t s U a n d V .

T he n or m a l t o t h e i n v o lu t e a t n y p oi n t Q i s t h e t a n ge n t Q S
‘

c i rc l e n d S t h e p oi n t of c o n t a c t of th i s t a n ge n t a n d t h e c i rc l e
a

c e n tr e of c urv a tur e of t h e i n v o lut e a t Q T h e t n ge n t Q T 1 . a

i n v o lu t e a t Q i s p e r p e n d i c ul r t o Q S
—
a .

8 0 T h e C a t e n a r y a s a R o u l e tt e
.
T h e c urv e k n o w n :

c a t e n a r y w i ll b e I e fe r r e d t o h e r e s a r o ul e tt e s i n c e i t m y b e cl e s a a

b y t h e f o c u s of a p r b ol r o ll i n g o n a fix e d s t r i g ht l i n e a a a a .

R e fe rri n g t o Fi g 1 52 RAL i s t h e fixe d s t r ai ght l i n e n d .

, ,
a

i s t h e p os i t i on o f t h e p a ra b o l a wh e n i t s a x i s A Y i s p e r p e n d ic r
 R O ULETTE S AN D G LI SS E T T E S 77

RAL P i s . t h e fo c u s n d A t he ve r te x of t h e p r b ol a B A C Wh e n
a
a a .

t he p a r b ol a a h as r oll e d in to t he pos i tion bac t he fo cu s h as m ove d t o

FIG . 1 52
.

Q an d h a s tr a ce d t h e ar c P Q of t h e cat e n a ry R be i n g t h e p oi n t of
.

c o n t a c t o f t h e p a r a b o l a ba c a n d t h e s tr a i ht l i n e RAL , t h e s t ra i ht
g g
l i n e QR i s t h e n o rm a l a n d QT p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o QR i s t he t ange n t t o
t h e c a t e n a ry a t Q
—
.

8 1 E n v e l o p e R o u le t t e S
. T h e ro ul e tt e s s o fa r c on s i d e re d h a ve
.

b e e n c urv e s tra ce d by p oi n t s a n d th e s e m ay b e cal l e d p oi nt r ou le ttes .

I f t h e r oll i n g c urve
c a rri es w i th i t a
s tr a i h t or a c urv e d
g
l i n e t h e e n v e l op e of
t h e c a rr i e d l i n e i s
c a ll e d an e nv e lop e

r ou le tt e .

A n e x a m pl e of
an en ve l ope r ou
l e tte i s i llu s tr a te d
by Fi g 1 53 AB . .

i s a fix e d c i r c l e o n
t h e out s i d e of wh i c h
an o th e r c i r c l e of t h e

s a m e d i m e te r r o ll s
a .

T h e r olli n g c i rc l e
c a rr i e s a t a n ge n t ,

t he e n v e l op e of

w hi c h i s t o b e
dr wn Wh e n t h e
a .

rolli n g ci r c l e i s i n
i t s i n i t i al p os i t i on Fm , 1 53,

C D t h e c rr i e d t an
a

g e n t i s i n t h e p o s i t i on EF b e i n g th e n fur th e s t from t he b as e c I r c le .

T h e r oll i n g c i r c l e i n s u cce s s i ve pos i ti on s m ay b e dra wn as In

78 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

d e te r m i n i n g p oi n ts on an e p i cy cl oi d a n d t h e corr e s p on di n g p os i
t h e c a rr i e d t n ge n t c a n th e n b e
a dd e d I n F i g 1 53 t he
a . .

t an ge n t i s s h o w n i n th i r te e n p os i ti on s n u m b e r e d f ro m 0 t o 1 2 ,

c on s tr u c t i o n l i n e s for p os i t i on 4 o f t h e c a rr i e d t a n e n t r e com
g a

s h own . T h e f i r c urve w hi ch ' t ou c h e s t h e c a rri e d t an ge n t

a

s u c ce s s i v e p os i t i on s i s t h e e n v e lop e r o ul e t t e of t h a t t n ge n t a .

I t w i ll b e ob s e rv e d th a t t h i s r oul e tt e h s t w o c u p s By a s .

m t i c al n ly s i s i t c n b e s h o w n t h t t h e t n g e n t s t o t h e r o u l
a a a a a a

t h e c u s p s p as s t hr o u g h P a n d t o u c h a c i r c l e c on c e n t r i c w i th A
h avi n g r d i u s e qu a l t o on e t h i rd of t h e r d i u s of AB
a a -
a .

Wh e n t h e c a rr i e d l i n e i s n ot a s trai gh t l i n e o a ci rc l e or r

t h e b s e l i n e or t h e r o ll in g c urv e i s n ot a c i r c l e t h e tr a c in g
a ,

m e t h od s h ould b e u s e d S u c c e s s i v e p os i t i on s of t h e c a rr i e d li
.

th e n b e s t fou n d by pl ci n g p i e ce of c arb on i ze d p pe r b e t we
a a a

tr a ci n g p ap e r an d t h e dr w i n g p ap e r u n d e r t h e carri e d l i n e an d
a , ,

o v e r t h e l a tt e r w i th a h rd s h a r p p oi n t e d p e n c i l or a s t yl e
—
a -
.

8 2 G li s s e t t e s
. Wh e n a l in e i s m d e t o l i d e b e twe e n t w <
. a s

p oi n t s or b e t w e e n a fix e d p oi n t an d a fix e d l i n e or b e t w e e n t w r
, ,

l i n e s a p oi n t ca rr i e d by t h e s l i d i n g l i n e d e s c ri b e p oi nt gli s s e tt e
,
s a

e n v e l op e of t h e s l i d i n g l i n e o r of a l i n e c a rri e d b y i t i s a n e n

li e tte T h e l i n e s r e fe rr e d t o m a b e e i t h e r s tr i g h t o r c urve d a
g ss .
y .

Ex m pl e s of gli s s e t t e s a r e s h ow n i n F i gs 1 54 a n d 1 55 I
a . . .

1 54 O X a n d C Y a r e fix e d s t r a i g h t li n es a t r i gh t a n gl e s t o on e an

Fm . 1 54 . Fm . 1 55 .

AB t t t
i s a s r ai g h l i n e of d e fi n i e l e n g h wh i c h s l i d e s b e w e e n t t
’

a n d OY T he m i ddl e p oi n t Q of AB d e s c ri b e s a c i r c l e wh os e c
.

i s a t O a n d wh o s e r a d i u s i s e qu a l t o h al f t h e l e n th of AB
g .

p lp
oi n t P i n AB d e s c r i b e s a n e l i s e wh os e c e n t r e i s a t O a n d y
,

a x e s li e on O X a n d O Y T h e s e m i a x i s o n O X i s e u al t o B P
q
‘
-
.

t h e s e m i a x i s wh i c h i s on O Y i s e qu a l t o A P
-

.
 R O ULETTE S AN D G L I S S ETTE 79

T he e n v e l op e of AB i s a hyp ocy c l oi d d e s c r i b e d by a p oi n on t h e t
c i r c u m fe r e n c e of a c i r c l e , wh os e ra d i u s i s e qu a l t o a qu a r e r of AB
,
t
roll i n g i n s i d e a c i r c l e wh os e c e n r e i s at O an d wh os e r a d i u s i s e qu al t
t o AB a s s h o wn .

I n Fi g 1 55, P a n d Q ar e fix e d p oi n s
.
AB C i s a tri an gle wh os e t .

s i d e s AB a n d A C , o r th e s e s i d e s rodu ce d, a l way s p a s s thr ou gh P an d p

Q r e s pe c ti ve ly T h e l ocu s of A i s obv i ou s ly a c i rc l e P Q E A Le t AB C
.
.

b e o n e p os i t i on o f t h e r i an g l e r a w A ara ll e l t o B C t o m e e t t h et . D Dp
c i r cl e P Q E A at S i n c e t h e a n gl e D
AQ i s e qu a l t o t h e an gl e ACB
. D
t he a r c D
EQ i s of c on s an l e n g th a n d i s a fix e d po i n t T he t t D .

e n v e l o e g l i s s e t e of B C or B C produ c e d i s a c i r c l e w
p t h os e ce ntr e i s D
a n d wh os e r ad i u s i s e qu a l t o t h e
pe r e n d i c ul a r d i s an c e of A fr om B C p t .

t
T h e r i an gl e i s s h o wn i n hr e e d iffe r e n
p o s i i on s t t t .

E x e rc i s e s V I

1Dr w t h ur tr d by p m t t h i r um f r n f i l 2 i h
. a e c ve ac e a o on e c c e e ce o a c rc e nc es
i d
n t r t h i r l r ll
i am e e asfix d tr i ght l i e c d m k c e r v luti
o s on a e s a n e an a e s on e e o on
Dr w l t h v lut f t h ur
.

a a so e e o e o e c ve .

2 AB C i
.
q u i l t r l tri gl s f 3 i
an h i d P i t h m i ddl p i t
e a e a an e o nc es s e . s e e o n
o f AB PQ i . ir l 2 i h i d i m t r ut i d t h tri gl d t u hi g
s a c c e nc es n a e e o s e e an e an o c n
AB t P Dr w t h p th tr d by t h p i t P
a . a the i r um fa f th ac e e o n on e c c er ence o e
c ir l
c e as t h l tt r r ll r u n d t h tri
e agl eD w l t h v lut f t h p th
o s o e an e . ra a so e e o e o e a
o f P .

3 A ir l P Q 1 8 i
. c h i di m t r t u h
c e , tr i ght li P R t P T h
nc es n a e e ,
o c es a s a ne a e
l gth f P R i qu l t t h i r um f r i l PQ Th
.

en o s e f th a oi l ll wi th
e c c e en c e o e c rc e . e c rc e r o s
un i f rm v l i ty t h tr i ght li fr m P t R whi l t h tr i gh t li tur
o e oc on e s a ne o o e e s a ne ns
wi th u i f rm v l i ty b ut P thr ugh
n o gl
e oc f Th a g l r m ti
o f o a n an e o e an u a o on o
t h li
e i i thne m d i r ti n
s n th gul r m t i
e sa f the i l D w th
ec o as e an a o on o e c rc e . ra e
c u v tr d by p i t t h i r um f r
r e ac e a f th i l t h i i ti l p i ti
o n on f e c c e en c e o e c rc e, e n a os on o
t h tr i g p i t b i g P
e ac n o n e n .

4 A i l 3 i
. h i d i m t r r ll
c rc e tr i ght l i
nc esP d Q n tw a e e o s on a s a ne . an ar e o

p i t r i d by t h ir l P i 2 i h
o n s ca r e d Q i 1 i h fr m O t h
e c c e. t f s nc e s an s nc o , e cen r e o
th ir l
e c d O P
c e , an d Q i th m tr i gh t li Dr w t h t h i d
an ar e n e sa e s a ne . a e r oc o s
tr d by t h p i t P d Q Dr w l t h v lut f th tr h i d
, ,

ac e e o n s an . a a so e e o es o ese oc o s .

5 Dr w t h
. pi y l i d tr d by p i t t h i r um f
a e e c c o f i ls ac e a o n on e c c er en ce o a c rc e

2 i nc h i d i m t r whi h r ll
es n tha ut i d (1 ) f
e e i l 6 i h c i o s on e o s e, o a c rc e nc es n
d i m t r (2) f i r l 4 i h i di m t r d (3) f i r l 2 i h i
a e e ,
o a c c e nc es n a e e ,
an o a c c e nc es n
di m t
a Dr w l t h v lut f t h
e er . a pi y l i d a so e e o es o es e e c c o s .

6 Dr w t h
. pi y l i d t d b y p i t t h i r um f
a e e c c o f i l r ac e a o n on e c c er en c e o a c rc e

6 i nc h i d i m t r whi h r ll
es n tha ut i d f b e e ir l 4 i h c i o s on e o s e o a as e c c e nc es n
di m t t h b
a e er , i r l b i g i i d t h r ll i g i l
e as e c M k c e tr i g f thie n ns e e o n c rc e . a e a ac n o s

e pi y l i d d pply i t t t h pi y l i d (2) f t h p di g x i t h w th t
c c o an a o e e c c o o e r e ce n e erc se o s o a

th twe ur o c i d ti l v e s ar e en ca
lli g i r l d rri d p i t P n d Q i x i 4 d
.

7 T k th a e e ro n c c e an ca e o n s a as n e erc se an

dr w t h pi tr h i d tr d by P d Q wh n t h b i r l i 6 in h
.

a e e oc o s ac e i an e e as e c c e s c es n

di m t r Dr w l t h v lut f th pi tr h i d
a e e . a a so e e o es o es e e oc o s .

8 A r ll i g i r l 3 i
. o h i d i m t r ri
n c p i t P 24 i h fr m t
c e nc es n a e e c ar es a o n nc es o 1 s

ce n tr T hi
e . i l r ll th sut i d f b
c rc e i r l 2% i o h i di m t r
s on e o s e o a as e c c e nc es n a e e ,

i l b i g i i d t h r ll i g i l Dr w t h p i t h d tr d b y O

th b e as e c r c e e n ns e e o n c rc e . a e e r oc oI ac e

th p i t P
e o n Dr w l t h v lut f thi pi tr h i d
. a a so e e o e o s e oc o .

9 Dr w t h hyp y l i d tr
. a d b y p i t n t h i r um f r
e oc c of
_ l ac e a o n o e c c e en c e o a cIr c e

2i nch i d i m t r wh i h r ll
es n th i
a id e ef i l 6 i h in d m t
c o s on e ns e o a c rc e nc es 1a e er .

Dr w l t h v lut f th i hyp y l i d
a a so e e o e o s oc c o .
80 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

Dr w t h hyp y l i d tr d by p i t n t h i um f
10 . a e oc c o ac e a o n o e c rc e r e n ce
4 i h i d i m t r whi h r ll
nc es n th i
a id e e f ir l 6 i h i c o s on e ns e o a c c e nc es n
M k a tr i n g f thi h yp y l i d d pply i t t t h h yp y l i d f t l
e a ac o s oc c o an a o e oc c o o
i g x r i
n e t h w th t t h t w urv
e c se o s i d ti l
o a e o c e s ar e en ca .

11 A ll i g i r l 2 5 i h i d i m t r rri t w p i t P n d
. ro n c c e nc es n a e e ca es o o n s a
li e on tr i ght li n p i g thr ug h i t
a s a tr 0 OP 2 i h e as s n o s cen e . nc es ,
07 5 i h Dr w t h h yp tr h i d tr d by t h p i t P d Q
nc . a e o oc o s ac e e o n s an
c ir l b i g 9 i
c e h i d i m t r Dr w l t h v lut f th hy p
e n nc es n a e e . a a so e e o es o es e o
12 Th .m x r i 1 1 x pt th t t h b
e sa e as e ir l h e c se di m e ce a e as e c c e as a a i

th t f t h r lli g i r l
a o e o n c c e .

1 3 A i r l A (F i g
. c f di m t r E F
c e 33i n h r ll. t h li m o a e e c es , o s on e
u i f m v l i ty fr m l ft t i ght t rti g fr m E An th r i r l
n or e oc o e o r , s a n o . o e c c e
d i m t r i h l f th t f A r ll i n i d t h i r um f r
a e e s a a o ,
o s s e e c c e e n ce
o f A l wi t h un i f rm v l i ty b t fr m i ght t l ft
, a so o e oc ,
u o r o e ,

t rti g t E wh A b gi n t m v Ci r l B i i
s a n a en e s o o e . c e s n c on
t t wi th i r l A t F t t h m ti m th t F r h
ac c c e a a e sa e e a e ac es
t h li
e CD Dr w th u v d ri b d by t h
ne . a tr f e c r e es c e e ce n e o
th ir l B
e c c e .

1 4 AB 2 i n h . l g i di m t r f i r l B C
,
c es on ,
s: a a e e o a c c e .
,

4 i h l ng i t g t t t h i r l Dr w th t
nc es o ,
s a an en o e c c e . a a
i v l ut
n o f th i r l wh i h p
e o thr ugh t h p i t C
e c c e c as s e s o e o n .

1 5 Dr w t h r ul tt d
. a rib d by e xtr mi ty
o e e e sc e on e e e

o f t h m j r xi e f a o ll ip (m j r xi 2} i h
a s o an e se a o a s nc es ,
mi nor xi 1 2 i h ) whi h r ll
a s th ut i d f
nc es c o s on e o s e o
an o th r lli p ( m j r xi 3 i h m i r xi 2 i h )
e e se a o a s nc es , no a s nc es ,

th e u l tt t t t fr m
ro e e xtr m i ty f t h m i r
o s ar oFIG 1 on e e e o e no .

a xi f t h fix d ll i p
s o e Dr w l e th e m fi gu se . a a s o , on e sa e re,
t h r ul tt d
e o ri b d by n xtr m i ty f t h m i r xi f t h l
e e esc e o e e e o e no a s o e r
whi l t h fi r t r l tt i b i g d ri b d
e e s ou e e s e n esc e .

1 6 Dr w t h r ul tt d
. a i b d by e f u o f n lli p (m j
e e e s cr e on e oc s o a e se a o

inc h m i r xi 1 ?i h )whi l t h lli p

es , no a s ll tr i ght l i
nc es e e e se r o s on a s a ne .

17 A p r b l . f l di t a a f v rt x 1 2 i
o a, h r ll n tr i
oc a s an c e o e e nc es, o s o a s a
Dr w t h r ul tt tr d by t h f u f t h p r b l
a e o e e ac e e oc s o e a a o a .

1 8 AP B i . ir l 2 i h i d i m t r P OD i n i v l ut f t i
s a c c e nc es n a e e . s a n o e o
Dr w t h u v tr d by t h p i t P
a e c r e th i r um f r
ac e f th ir e o n on e c c e en ce o e c c

l tt r r ll
a e th o ut i d f t h i nv l ut P CD t h p i t P tu i g
s on e o s e o e o e , e o n re rn n
Dr w l t h v lut f t h p th f P
a a so e e o e o e a o .

1 9 A ir l 2 i h . i n d i m t r r ll
c c e th ut i d f fix d i r l
nc es a e e o s on e o s e o a e c c e
i n di m t r a D w t h nv l p r l tt f t g nt rri d by t h
e e . ra e e e o e ou e e o a an e ca e
c ir l c e .

t w fixe d tr i ght l i n t ri ght gl

' '
20 X OX . d Y OY an tar e o s a es a an es o on e

P QR i tr i ght l i n P Q Q R 1 5 i n h
s a s a T h li n P QR m v
e . c es . e e o es
is a lw y X OXa s on d R i lw y '
an s a a s

o n Y OY Dr w t h m pl t p th
’
. a e co e e a

tr d b y t h p i t P Dr w l
ac e e o n . a a so

th nv l p
e e g l i tt
e o f t h e m v i n g ss e e o e o
li n e .

21 S m . x r i 20 x pt
a e as e e c se e ce
th t t h
a gl b tw
e th
an fix d e e e en e e
li i 60 i n t d f
nes s
°
s ea o

22 AB C (F i g 1 57 i
. n q i . s a e u
l t l t i gl f 2 i
a er a r an id P i e o nc es s e . s
th e tr fc en ir l e f 05 i o h a c c e o nc
r diu Q i t h
a s. tr f i r l f s e c en e o a c c e o
1 i h r diu P Q 3 i h
nc a s Th . nc es . e
tri gl AB C m v
an e th t t h i d o es so FIG 1 57 a e s es . .

AB d AC th i d pr du d
an ,
or e se s es o ce ,

t u h t h i r l wh
o c e c t c es t P nd Q h wn D w t h e g]
os e c e n r e s ar e a a as s o . ra
th p i t A
e d th
o n v l p gli tt f t h i d B C f t h tri gl A ]
an e en e o e sse e o e s e o e an e
23 a (F i.
g 1 58 d 1 5 9) i m v i g v s ri
. b l t i n gl anT h i d s a o n a a e r a e. e s e:

an d b lw y p thr ugh t h fix d p i t A B d C r p tiv ly T

a a a s as s o e e o n s , ,
an es ec e . .
 C HAP TE R V I I

V E CT OR GEOMET R Y
8 3 S c a l ar s , V e c t or s a n d R o t o r s o r L o c o r s
. A 4 .
—
wh i c h m ay b e c om p l e t e ly s p e ci fi e d by s t a t i n g t h e k i n d of qu an
i t s m a gn i t ud e i s c a ll e d a s c a la r q ua n t i ty or s ca la r Thu s t h e v .

a b o dy i s a s c a l a r qu a n t i t y T h e wei ght of a b ody m ay b e , sa j .

o r 448 0 p o u n d s T h e a r e a of a pl a n e fi g ur e i s a s c a l a r q u an ti
.
‘

a re a m ay b e , s a y , 1 0 s qu a r e fe e t o r 1 440 s qu a re i n c h e s .

I n ge n e r a l t h e k i n d o f qu an t i ty re fe rr e d t o i s k n o wn fr om t
o f t h e u n i t u s e d i n s p e c if y i n g i t s m a g n i tud e Thu s i f a s cal a r .

i s 1 0 s qu a r e fe e t i t i s k n o w n t h a t t h e k i n d o f qu an t i ty i s a r e a .

T i m e , te m p e r a ture , v olu m e , a n d e ne rgy ar e a fe w oth e r e x a

s ca al r qu a n t i ti e s .

A s c l a r qu an ti ty i s n ot a s s oci ate d w i th an y d e fi n i te d i re
a

s p a ce but h s m a gn i t ud e o n ly
a .

A s c al r q ua nt i ty m y b e r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e l en gth of a
a a

l i n e dra w n t o s c ale s u ch l i n e be i n g dra w n an ywh e r e a n d

,

d i re cti on Thu s n a r e of 30 s qu ar e fe e t m ay be r e pr e s e m
. a a

l i ne 3 i n c h e s l on g I n t h i s cas e t h e s cal e w o uld b e 1

.

1 0 s qu r e fe e ta .

A qu an ti ty wh i ch wh i l e h v i n g m agn i tud e l ik e a sc l a r c
, a a

i s ls o a s s oc i t e d w i th a d e fi n i t e d i r e c t i on i s c ll e d
a a v e c t or
qu a a

ve c t o r . D i s pl ace m e n t v e l oc i ty cc e l e ra t ion n d for c e n

, ,
a
,
a a

q u
a n t i t i e s b e c a u s e th e y h a v e m ag n i t ud e n d d i re c t i on A a .

m e n t i s r e fe rr e d t o wh e n i t i s s t t e d th a t b ody i s m o v e d 1 0m i l a a

d i re c t i on from w e t t o e as t A v e l o ci ty i s r e fe rr e d t o wh en i t
s .

th a t b o dy i s m ovi n g at t h e r ate of 1 0 m i l e s an h our i n t h e

a 1

fr om n orth t o s o uth .

All v e ctor qu n t i ti es h ave m agn i t ud e n d d i r e c ti o n bu t t

a a

h a v e o th e r qu al i t i e s wh i c h d i s t i n g u i s h th e m fr om o n e n ot h e
. a

w i ll pr es e n tly b e e e n t h t th e r e r e i m p o r t an t prop os i ti on s
s a a

t o v e c t or s p a rt f rom qu l i t i e s o th e r th n m agn i tud e a n d

a a a 1

wh i c h th e y m y p os s e s s a .

A ve c t or m y b e r e pre s e n t e d by a s t rai gh t l i n e AB dra wn

a

in a d e fi n i t e di r e cti on T h e l e n g t h AB of t he l i n e r e p r os
.

m g n i tud e of t h e v e c t o r n d t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l i n e r e p r o
a a s

d i re ct i o n of t h e v e c t o r pr ovi d e d i t i s m ad e c l e r wh e th e r t he
,
a e

i s f r o m A t o B o r fr o m B t o A A l i n e e v i d e n t ly h t w o di . as

on e b e i n e x ac tly O pp os i t e t o t he o t h e r a n d t h e d i s t i n c t i on
g
 V E CT O R G E O ME T RY 83

th e m i s t h e s e ns e of t h e d i r e c ti on T he e n s e of t he d i r e cti on of . s a
v e c to r wh i h i r e p re e n te d by a l i n e i b e t h o wn b y n rr o w h e d
c s s s s s a a a
p lace d on t h e l i n e I f t h e l i n e wh i c h r e p re e n ts v tor i s l e tt e r e d
. s a ec

a t i t e x t r m i t i e s i t m i g ht b e g re e d t o pl c t h e l e tt e r s so th t i n
s e , a a e a
r e d i ng th e m i n t h e ord r i n wh i c h th e y oc ur i n t he l ph b e t t he
a e c a a

s e n s e of t he d i r e c t i o n w o uld b e gi v e n Fo x m p l e i f t he l e tte rs t . r e a a
t h e e x t r e m i t i e s of t h e l i n e e A n d B t h e n t h e s e n s e of t h e ar a

di r e c t i on w o ul d be f rom A t o B .

A qu n t i ty wh i h i n dd i t i on t o h v i n g m gn i tud e n d d i re c ti on
a c a a a a

l o h s p o i t i on i s ll d
a s a s r oto o l A r ot or o le e or i
ca e a r r oc or . r s
th e re for l ca li d vect r
e a A l e e or h s t he qu l i t i e of v e to r i n
o ze o . a a s a c

a dd i t i on t o i t s qu l i ty of h vi n g p o i ti on A for ce t in g t de fi i te
a a s . ac a a n
p oi n t of body i s n e x m pl e of loco A d i p l m e n t of b ody
a a a a r . s ace a

fr o m o n e d e fi n i t e p os i t ion t o n oth e r i s n o th e r e x m p le a a a .

It h b e e n e e n th t t h e v e c to r p rt f lo o m y b e re pr e s e n te d
as s a a o a c r a

by a tr i ght l i n e n d i n o rd e r th t th i s tr i ght l i n e m y l o
s a a a s a a a s

r e pr e s e n t t he l e e or ll th t i s n e ce ry i t o pl c e t he trai gh t l i n e
a a s sa s a s

i n t h e p r op e r p o i t i on s

Ab olu te p i ti on i n p ce c n n o t b e d e fi n e d n d t he p o i t i on f
s os s a a a s o a

p oi n t or l in c n o n ly b e fix e d i n r e l t i on t o o th e r p oi n t s o l i n s I n
e a a r e .

c on i d e ri n g p r o bl e m s o n loc or s i t
s i s o n ly n e c e ry t o k n ow th e i r ssa

r e la t i ve os i t i ons
p .

S i n ce v e c t or s h a v e di re c t i on bu t n ot p os i t i on , l i n e s wh i c h r e pre s e n t
ve c tor s m ay b e pl ac e d an ywh e re , pro vi d e d th at th ey h ave t he prop e r
d i r e c t i on s .

T h e foll ow i n g i s a c on v e n i e n t way of s p e c i fy in g a v e c t or Le t O X .

a fix e d d i r e c t i on of r e fe r e n c e , s a f r om w e s t t o e a s t , a n d
F
( g i 1. 6 0 )b e y
le t O A b e a v e c to r wh o s e s e n s e i s fr om O t o A a n d
wh os e m agn i tud e 0A i s e qu a l t o a A ls o le t t h e .

a n l e X OA , m e a s ur e d i n t h e a n t i c l o c kw i s e d i r e c t i o n ,
g
-

b e d e n o t e d by 0 Th e n i f t h e v e c t o r 0A i s r e fe rr e d
.

t o a s t h e v e c t o r A i t m ay b e s p e c i fi e d by t h e e qu a t i o n
A a An e xt e n s i on of t h i s m e th od t o locor s i s
.
F I G 1 60
d e s c ri be d i n Art 9 1 , p 9 1
. .

—
. . .

8 4 A d d i t i o n o f P a r a l l e l V e c t or s
. Le t A , B , 0, an d D
( g
Fi 1
. 6 1 ) b e p a r all e l v e c to r s , i t i s r e qu i re d t o fi n d a s i n gl e v e c to r

wh i c h i s t he s u m or r e s ulta n t of A, B , C an d D , .

D r a w a s trai g ht l i n e X , X pa ra l le l t o A , B , C, an d D T a k e a
——
.

poi n t 0 i n X ,X M a rk o ff .

on X , X a d i s t a n c e O a e qu a l Ar a 0 a
to A Ob s e rve t h a t as t h e
.

s e n s e o f A i s fr om l e f t t o r i ht
g
Br
C r
l

1
5
6 — — —
C d i s m ea s ur e d t o t h e ri g ht o f Dl R h b l

0 . M ak e a b e qu a l t o B , FIG 1 6 1 . .

m e as ur i n g t o t h e r i gh t o f a
be cau s e t h e s e n s e o f B i s from l e ft t o ri ght M a ke be e qu a l t o 0, .

m e as uri n g t o t h e l e f t of b b e c a u s e t h e s e n s e of C i s fr om r i gh t t o l e ft .

M a k e cd e q u a l t o D , m e as uri n g t o t h e ri ght of 0 b e c a u s e t h e se n s e of
D i s from l e ft t o r i g h t Th e n Cd i s a v e c t or wh i c h i s t h e s u m or
.
84 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

r e s ul tan t of t h e v e c to rs A B C an d D I f R i s t he re s ul ta i , , , .

v e c t o rs A B C a nd D th e n R A B C D
, , , , .

If v e c t or wh os e s e n s e i s from l e f t t o r ig h t i s s ai d t o
a .

t i ve th e n a v e cto r wh os e s e n s e i s fr om ri gh t t o l e f t w o uld
,

t o b e n e g at i ve Th e n t he r e s ul t of t h e a b o ve e x am p l e It
.

wr i tte n R A B C D O pp os i t e s i gn s r e pr e s e n t
.

s e n s es .

S ub t r a c t i on of p r ll l v e c tor s i s on v r te d i n t o dd i
a a e c e a
c h an i n
g g t h e s i g n s of t h e v e c t o r s t o b e s ub t r ted nd t i ac a
c e e di n
g dd i
ast i on in a .

I t s h o uld b e ob s e rv e d th a t i n t he a dd i t i on of v e c tor s t h e
wh ic h t h e y e t ak e n d oe s n o t
ar a ffe c t het r e s ul t . Fo r A B
85 A d di t i o n o f I n cl i n e d V e c t o r s
. T h e V e c t o r P ol .

Le t A , B , a n d C ( Fi g 1 62) b e thre e g i v e n v e c tors , i t is r e

q
.

fi n d a s i ngl e v e c t o r wh i c h i s t h e s u m o r r e
s u lt a n t of t h e v e c to r s A B , a n d C , .

T a k e a p oi n t 0 a n d dra w t he v e c t o r 0a
p a rall e l a n d e qu a l t o A T h e s e n s e of c d i s .

f r o m o t o a t h e s am e a s t h a t o f A T he .

v e c t o r A i s n ow r e p re s e n te d by oa F rom .

a dr a w t h e v e c t o r a b p a r a ll e l a n d e qu a l t o B .

T h e s e n s e of a b i s fr o m a t o b t h e s a m e a s
th a t of B T h e v e c t o r B i s n o w r e pr e s e n te d
.
F m 1 62 , .

by a b F r om b dr a w t he v e c t o r be p a r a ll e l
.

a n d e qu al t o C T h e s e n s e o f be i s fr om b t o c t h e s a m e a s
.

C . T h e v e c t o r C i s n ow r e p r e s e n t e d by bc J oi n c c, t h e n t h c .

c c wh os e s e nse i s f ro m 0 t o c i s t he s u m o r r e s ult a n t
ve c to r s A , B , a n d C T he p oly gon oa bc i s c a ll e d a ve c tor p olyg
.

T h e v e c t o r p olygo n i s of v e ry g re a t i m p ort an c e i n v e c t o r g
a n d i t h a s n u m e r o u s a p p l i c a t i on s i n m e c h an i c s .

I t w i ll b e u s e ful t o c on s i d e r t h e v e c t or p oly gon a s ap p li e c

d i s pl ace m e n t s , ( 2) t o v e l oc i t i e s , (3) t o a c c e l e r at i on s , a n d
for c e s .

u pp os e a m a n t o b e s t a n d i n o n t h e d e c k of a s h i p v
( )
1 S g
s ai l i n thr o u g h w a t e r wh i c h i s i t s e l f m ov i n g i n r e l a t i on t o t h
g
L e t t h e m a n w a lk a c r os s t h e d e c k al o n g a s tr a i ght l i n e wh o s e
a n d d i re c t i o n i n r e l at i on t o t h e s h i p a r e g i v e n by t h e v '

F L e t t h e v e c t or B r e p r e s e n t t h e d i r e c t i on a n d 1
( g i .

wh i c h t h e s h i p sa i l s t hrou gh t h e w a t e r i n t h e t im e th a t t
w a lk s t h e d i s t a n c e A L as tly le t t h e v e c tor C re p r e s e
.

d i r e c t io n a n d d i s t a nc e wh i c h t h e wa t e r m o ve s i n t h e s am e t i m e
L e t t h e v e c t o r p ol y go n oa bc (Fi g 1 6 2)b e dra w n WV h ile t
. .

i s w a lk i n g a lon g c d t h a t l i n e i s c a rr i e d p a r a ll e l t o i ts e l f by 1
i n to t h e pos i t i o n in b Con s e qu e n tly , n e g l e c ti n g for t h e m o m
'

m o t i on o f t h e w a t e r , t h e m a n tra v e l s a l o n g t h e i ma g i n a r y l i n e
t h e w a te r But wh i l e th i s i s h a ppe n i n g t h e i m ag in a ry li n
.

trav e ll i n g p a r a l l e l t o i ts e l f w i th t he w a t e r an d re ach e s t h e p o
wh e n t h e m a n h a s fi n i s h e d h i s w a lk T he a c tu a l di s p la ce m e m .
 V E CT O R G E O METRY 85

man i n re l at i on t o t he ea rth i s th e re for e r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e l i n e cc .

T h t a i s , c c i s t h e s u m or a s a ,
B, r e s ult n t of th e thr e e d i pl ce m e n t s A
a nd C .

( 2) v l ty d pl
S i nc e e o ci i s i s ac e m e n o r di s a n c e m o e i n n i ime t t v d u t t
ll w th t
i t fo o s ta i f t i s t he im e a en t h e m an i n a ing t he t k by w lk
d t A w ll l
i s an c e ,
t t i a s o b e t h e i m e of t h e i s la ce m e n B o f t he s i d p t hp
d pl
a n d of t h e t i s ace m e n C of t h e a e , an d i f e a c i s a ce m e n i s w t r h d pl t
d v d d by
i i e r ult t t he es s ar e t he s e e a e oc i i e s en c e t he v r l v l t H .

ab bc
v e oc il t es e t t t i ar
—
an
n d t h e p oly on oa bc m e s ur e d W th a
a

7 g
’ ’
, ,
a i

a s u i t bl e c l w i l l b e p oly gon of v e l o i t i s i n wh i h r e p r e e n t s
a s a e, a c e c ca s

t h e v e l o i ty o f t h e m n w lk i ng o n t h e s h i p b r p re n t t h ’
c a s a a e se s e
,

v e l o ity of t h h i p throu gh t h e w te r b r e p r n t t h e v e l i ty of
c e s a ,
e ese s oc

t h w te r o v r t h e e rth
e a nd e i t h e r e ult n t v e l oc i ty f t he m n
a , a ac s s a o a

o r hi v e l oc i ty i n r e l t i o n t o t he e rth
s a a .

( 3 ) L et
f d not e t h e u n i fo r m c c e l e r t i o n o u n ifo r m r t e o f a e a r a

i n c re e of t he v e l o i ty of a m ov i g b ody t h e n i n t i m e t t h e i n r e e
as c n , c as

i n v e l oc i ty i s f t If A B nd C
( F
.i g 1 6 2 ) r p r n t thr
, c ,
l r a . e ese e e a ce e a

t i on s i m ult n e ou s ly i m pre e d o n
s a b dy th e w i ll l s r e p r e e t ss a o se a o s n

thr e e orr e pon d i n g i n c r e s e i n v e l o i ty n d t h e r e ul t n t i n re as e i n

c s a s c a s a c

v e l oc i ty w i l l b e r e pr e e n t d by a n d 0 w i l l th e r e for e r p r e e n t t h es e s, a 0 e s

r e s ult n t e le r ti o n o b i s th e r e for e n cce l e r t i on p o ly gon

a ac c a . a c a a a .

A r t b dy u o m ov e w i t h u n i fo r m ly
( ) f
4 o c e c i n
g o n o ae i t t a ca s s a

i nc r e i n g v e l c i ty o
as c e l e r t i on
o nd t h e m
g n i tud
r ac f t h e cc l e t i n
a a a e o a e ra o

i pr op o rt i o n l t o t h e m gn i tud e o f t h e for e d t k pl e i n t h
~

s a a c an a es ac e

sa m d i r c t i o n as th t f t h e f r e H n e i f o bc (Fi g 1 6 2)i s
e e a o o c . e c a . an

a c c e l e r t i o n p ly g o n i t i
a l s o f r e p oly gon
o s a a o c .

I f R i t he u m o s r e ult n t of t h e v e c tor s A B n d C th e n
s r s a , , a ,

R A B C n d t h e o rd r i n wh i c h t h e v e c to rs a t k n in e ar e a e

p e rfor m i ng t h e u m m t i o n i i m m t e r i l Th t i i f R A B C
s a s a a . a s, ,

th e n a l o R B A C C A B T h
, s ,
dd i ti on i p . e a s er

fo rm e d by dr w i n g t h e v e c t or p ol ygo n t hr e s i d es of wh i c h
a re . e a

A B n d C an d t h e f urth or cl o i n g i d e i s R
, ,
a ,
o s s .

O b e rv e th t i f s a th n A + B + C R = 0 e .

wh i c h s h ow s th t i f t h e s e of R i s r e v e r s e d t h
a m of t h e fo r ns e e su u

v e c t rs A B C a n d R i z e r
o , , ,
s o .

Wh e n t h e s m f n um b e r of v e t or i z e ro t h e v ct or p olygon
u o a c s s e

c lo e s w i th u t t h e us e of
s o

a n o th e r v e c t or .

8 6 S u b t r a c t i on o f
V e c t o r s —A t (I)F i g 1 6 3
.

. ,

t hr e ve tors A B n d C
e c , , a

ar e gi v e n B n d C b e i n g
‘

, a
R =A B
qu l n d p ar l l e l but t h
~

e a a a e

s e n s e of C i

th t of B H e n e C
a
o pp o i t e

.
to
B
s

c
s
— .

If R : A
lut i on of R A h ow n m an d t h e S O lu a Il 0f
T he so C is s at
( )
R A B i s h o w n a t (n )
s .
86 P RA C T I C AL G E O M B TRY

T he rul e for s ubtr c t i o n i s e vi d e n tly c h n ge t h e s ign of t h

a
,
a

to be s ub tr c te d a n d th e n pr o c e e d s i n a dd i t i o n
a a
—
.

87 E x .a m p le A B C nd D
. r e f o ur
, v e c t o rs s p e
, , a a .

foll o w s A . 24 B C
6 00 , 20 m a n d D 21 th 9 , 1 8 00 ,
l

tud e s b e i n g i n i n c h e s I t .

i s r e qu i re d t o fi n d t h e v lu e
o f R = A + B C + D— S c
a
ale .

T h e m ag n i tude s a n d di r e c

t i on s o f , A B , C, a n d D
ar e s o h w r ht
n t o t he ig in
F ig 1 64
. k p t
. Ta e a oi n 0 .

D r w p r ll l
a oa u l
a a e an d e
q a

t o OA Fr . dr w om a a ab

p r ll l
a a e qu l
and e a t o OB ,
th qu l A B
e n ob i s e a to .

Fr om dr wI) p r ll l
a bc a a e

r v r d
t o OC e e se qu l an d e a
R A +B (
a?
-

t o C C, th qu
e n cc is e al t o
164
A B Fr Cdr w . om c a

cd p r ll l qu l
a a e an d e th a t o OD e n 0 01 i s e
, a to R qu l
A B C1
B w ll u d qu l
i b e fo n t o b e e a t o 07 9
l t ct
8 8 R e s o u i on of V e
. or s If .
—R
i s t h e s u m or e s an r ul t
u b r
n m e v r A B
of D
ec t o s , , C, ,
etc , en ,
.
,
th A B
C, ,
e t c , ar D .

v t r
t h e co mp on e nts of t h e ec o R T h e o e a i o n of
. p r t n in
g fi d
A B ,
D
, C, ,v ll d
e t c , a r e gi e n i s
. ca e t h e s u mm a ti on of of
c om os i t i o n o
p f v ec t v r
or s p r t
T h e
. c o n r k
e se o e a i on o f b e a i n

v t r t u b r p t ll d
'

ec o in o a n m e o f com on e n s i s ca e t h e r e s olu te
v e ct or . v d t th t
I t is e i en v v t r a a gi e nr lv d ec o m ay b e e so e i
u b r
n m e p t by
o f c o m on e n s tru t p lyc on s v
c in g a o
g o n on t h e g i e n

r ly wh
G e n e al v t r en a r lv d t
e c o h as t o b e p t eso e i n o c om o n e n s l
p t r qu r d
c o m on e n s a r e dr t
e wh h v
i e t h e i e c i on s o f i c a r e gi e n Lei .

( g
F i . 1 6 5 )v v t r
b e a
g i en ec o a n d le t O X a n d OY b e

v dr t
t w o gi e n r qu r d
i e c i on s ; i t i s e r lv i e to eso e R

t p t
i n o t w o c om o n e n s P a n d Q wh d r t h ll os e i e c i on s s a
be p r ll l
a a e r p t v ly
t o O X a n d OY e s e c i e hr u h T o
g .

a dr w a p r ll l
ac a a e thr h b dr w
t o OX a n d ou g a be
p r ll l
a a e t
t o OY t o m e e th a c at c,w ll e n a c a n d cb i
r qu r d
b e t he e p
i e t Q A
c om on e n s P a n d c om m on .

pr t
c as e i n th t
a c i ce i s h h a l
in w ic t h e a n g e X OY
r ht
i s a ig l
— t h k rv d l
an e
g .

89 . E x am p le T he . h w
ic cu e i ne s o n i n F
r pr
e t t v
e s e n s t h e s e c i o n of a w t r wh l t urb
an e o f a a e ee or in
r v l b ut
e o ve s a o A
an a xi s a t O w t r p j e t o f. a e i m i n
g e s on i

at A w t h v l ty i a e oc i th d fl t d
T he j e t i s en e ec e a n d flc

t hev l v
an e ea ing B wh l r v lv
i t at T he dr ee
. e o e s i n t he i e
rr w R
t he a o r du T he
. wh l A
a i s of t h e ee at i s r , an d t h .

v l ty
e oc i v
of A
t he a n e at r d i s cl wh T he a ius. of t h e et

i s r 2 a nd t h e l r v l ty in ea v e oc i B of t he an e at i s cg O .

c 72 r,.
 V E CT O R G E O METRY 87

Con s i d e r t h e w a t e r i n t h e j e t a t A w h e r e i t c om e s i n c on ta c t
w i th t h e v a n e T h i s w a te r i s b e ginn i n g t o s li de al on g t h e van e
.

w i th a v e l oci ty 8 i n a
di r e c ti on t a n g e n t i a l t o t h e
v an e at A T h i s w a t e r i s
.

als o c a rr i e d r oun d w i t h
t h e wh ee l w i t h a v e l oc i ty
cl i n t h e d i r e c t i on of t h e

t a n ge n t t o t h e wh e e l
c i r c l e a t A , a n d i n o rd e r

th a t th e re s h all b e n o
s h oc k t h e r e s ult an t of

th e s e t w o v e l oci t i es 3 a n d
c l s h o uld be r , Of t h e .

thre e v e l oci t i e s cl , cl , a n d
3 , i f on e b e k n o w n c om

le t e l a n d t h e d i r e c t i on s
p y
of t h e oth e r t w o a r e i v en , F m 1 66
g , .

th e i r m ag ni tud e s ar e
r e ad i ly fou n d Or i f t wo of t h e v e l oci t i e s b e k n o wn c ompl e t e ly , t he
.

m ag ni t ud e a n d d i r e c t i on of t h e o th e r i s r e a d i ly fou n d .

A s s u m e th a t t h e w a t e r s l i d e s a l on g t h e v an e w i th a con s tan t
v e l oci ty 8 r e l a ti ve ly t o t h e v an e an d c on s i d e r t h e w a t e r i n t he j e t a t
B Th i s w a t e r h a s a v e l oc i ty s i n t h e d i r e c t i on of t h e t an ge n t t o
.
'

t h e v a n e a t B an d a l s o a v e l o c i ty 02 i n t h e d i r e c ti o n o f t h e t an g e n t
t o t h e wh e e l c i r c l e a t B H e n c e B D or 112 t h e r e s ul ta nt or ab s olut e
.

v e l oci ty of t h e w a t e r at B i s t h e r e s ult an t of t h e v e l oci t i e s s a n d c2 .

D ra w B C pa ra ll e l an d e qu a l t o v, a n d j oi n C D t h e n C D i s t h e
v e c t or c h an ge v2 vl i n t h e ve l oci ty of t h e w at e r in p as s i n g ove r
t h e v an e .

T h e ac t u a l p a t h of a p a r ti c l e of w at e r i n p as s i n g t hr ou gh th e
wh ee l m ay b e fou n d a s foll o w s M a k e t h e a r c A E e qu a l t o a d e fi n i t e
.

fr a c t i on of 3 Wi th c e n tr e 0 a n d r a d i u s OE d e s cri b e t he ar c E F
.
.

M a k e t h e a r c E F e qu a l t o t h e s a m e fr a c t i on of c, t h e v e l oc i ty of
t h e wh e e l a t E , t h a t t h e a r c AE i s of 8 T h e n F i s a p oi n t i n t h e .

a c tu a l p at h A FK of a p ar ti cl e of w ate r w h i ch e n te r s t h e wh e e l
at A .

E x e rc i s e s V II
1 T hr v tr A B dO ti in h ri t pl
z o n al an e ar e d e fi ne d in t he
ll wi g t b l —
. ee ec o s , , ,.
an ,
ac ng a o
fo o nS l a e e e a so F i g 1 67
. .

V ec t or . M agni t u de .
Di r ect i on

E as tw rd a s.
thw rd n or a s of e a st .

1 12 °
thw d
n or ar s of e a s t .

A B 0 FIG . 1 67 .
88 P RA C T I CAL G E O ME T RY

T h e an g e s of l w th pr tr t r
an d 1 1 2 ar e t o be se t off i the o ac o , an
°

cop d
y i n g t h e i agr am .

Dt r ult t
e e rm i n e t h etr es A Ban u
o r ve c o suml C , s i n g a s c a e of Z
1 u t ni ur t ul t r u lt thu
M eas e an d ab a e t h e e spl t v
( om i n g t h e abo e t a
— v tr
. s s c e

T heor em wh t v r u
A e c o s u m i s t h e s am e i n s e q en c e t h e v e
—
a e e

add d e r th pr pl
V e i fy
. tu l r w
is ll w
i n c i e b y ac a d a i n g i n t h e fo o in g c as e E

2 T hr .pl v t r A B C giv n s f ll ws
ee c o an ar ec o s , ,
ar e e a o o

V ect or . M ag ni t ude . Di r ec t i on .

FIG . 16

In dfi
d i r ti t h v t r
e ni ng upp d t t ec on , e e c o s ar e s os e o ac o utw rd fr m a s o a

(F i g . d th gl anm u d ti l kwi e an es ar e e as re an -
c oc se fr m fix d I
o a e

Th gl
e s e an mu t b t ff wi th
es pr tr t r d t s e se o a o ac o an no co pi d fr m t h d
e o e

Fi d A B C d A B 0 M u rd t h r u l t
,

n d r an . e as re an e co e es s
f rm r q u i r d t
o e m pl t t h f r g i g t b l )
e o co e e e o e o n a e .

V ri fy b y d wi g th t A
e
(B C) A ra B C n a

l f i h t 10 u it
.

U se a s ca e o nc o n s.

3 Fi d t h v t r
. n m A B C D E h e ec o su ,
a vi ng v gi en A
B 16 0
0
0, 0 2 25 D 2 80 0 ,
0
an d E 5 35 the u t ni of m
be i n g 1 i n c h .

4 . F ur pl
o co an a rfr o ce s P, Q , R, an d S, ac ti n g at a p oi n t ,
ar e spe

r
t h e fo c e s b e i n g in o pu d
r ult t f th f r n s . Fi d
d p n the es an o e se o c es , an s e:

t h e for m T t oo Us e l f 1 i h t 10p u d
' a s ca e o nc o o n s .

5 A l . m ti v oc o gi A r pr t d by p i t i ppr hi g l
o e en ne e e sen e a o n s a o ac n a ev
i g 0 fr m t h
n o uth t p d f 1 5 m i le so a h ur (22 f t p
a s ee o d) es an o ee e r s e c on
v l i ty f A 22 i di r ti b i g m u d ti l kwi fr m
e oc o
90
0 s ,
ec on s e n e as re an -
c oc se o

A n eng i B i nepp r h i g fr m t h
s a oac i t v l i ty b i n g 44
n o
?
f e s e oc e
22
a ri v t g th r t C
r e o e e a .

( ) aS h w th i r p
o i t i e n d b f
os r t h on sll i i n on el 1 i m s e co e o e e co s o ,
sca e
f t M ee u th i r di t
. e as p rt d t h d i r ti fr m A t
re e s an c e a a an e ec on o o

( b) W h t i t h a r l t i v
s p d f et h t w
e a n gi e wh t
s h ee o e o e nes en e
ur occ s

6 An r pl i h d d d
ae o an e w t d i pr p ll d t 50 m i l 1
s ea e ue es ,
an s o e e a es
r l t v ly t
e a i e t d y wi d whi h i bl wi g t 20 mi l p h ur fr m t h
o a s ea n c s o n a es er o o
w t F i d t h tu l d i r ti
es . n e ac d p d f fl i ghta r g rd t h rth
ec o n an s ee o as e a s e ea .

I f t h pi l t wi h e t tr v l w tw r d i n wh t d i
o s es o ti m u t h p
a e es a ,
a rec on s e a
t r d wh t wi ll b h i p d t t h w t
s ee , an a e s s ee o e es

7 A hi p i
. s ili g tw rd t 1 0 m i l
s sa n h ur I t rri
e as a i
s a es an o . ca es an ns
for r di g t h pp r t v l i ty f t h wi d i b th m gn i tud d d
e c or n e a a en e oc o e n ,
n o a e an

( ) aI f t h w i d r g i
e t r d b y t
n h i tru me t i
s e e pp r t l y f 20 e ns en s a a en on e o 1

h u f m t h n rth t wh t i t h tu l wi d ? G i v t h
o r ro e o -
e as ,
a s e ac a n e e a
m il p h ur d d g n rth f t f t h q u rt r fr m W]
es er o an e r ees o o e as o e a e o
wi n d m co es .

( )
b I f w i d fa 1 5 m i l n p h our fr m t h n th t
es w r tuer ll y o o e or -
eas e e ac a

wh t pp r t wi d w u ld t h i trum n t n t h v l gi t r
a a a en n o e ns e o e e sse re s e

th i w r i m i l p h ur d d gr s n th f t b f r
s an s e n es er o an e ee or o e as as e o e

U l f 1 i h t 1 m i l p h ur
se a sca e o nc o e er o .
 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

13 .
Aj et o f wate r
h vi a ng a v l i ty V f 35 f t p
e oc dp I
o
30
0 ee er s e c on as

su i
c c e s s on f urv d v
o c e an es ( f
on ewh i h i g
oi v i F i g :
1 7 1 ) c s en n

v l i ty V
e oc o f 23 f t p 0
0 ee er d F i d V V t h l mt y f t h
s e con . n l ,
e ve o o e

t i v e ly t o t h e v n ; th t i
a e a s, fi nd nd i n t h v t r qu ti n
3 a a e ec o e a o

S
a
35 23 VI V ,

3 b e i n g t h e s e e a on g t h e an e , p d l v d t h d i r ti an a e ec on of the v an e at en t

wtr a e c o m i n g on an g e n i a y t t ll .

T h e wa e ea es t he tr l v
an e v wi th a

vl te o c i y r e a i e y t o t h e la e l tv l tt r f 6 o 3
1 1 0 .

F i d U ( n o) t h
n :
,
e c h n g f v l i ty th t
a e o e oc a

h urd
as o c c r e .

Th m m f t h w t r fl wi g p
e as s o e a e o n er

s e c ond b i g 25 25 x 322
e n
ca cl u l t m U t h m g i tud
a e d di ,
e a n e an rec

ti on f th o h g f m m tum p e c an e o o en er

s e c ond Fi d l t h p w r d v l p d
. n a so e o e e e o e ,

whi h i q l t t h
c s l r pr d u t e ua o e s ca a o c

m UV .

14 A j t f w t r p
. vr e o a e as s e s o e a suc

cess oi n f u v d v ( o f wh i hc i r e an e s on e o c s

sh w i Fig
o n t ri g t g ti lly
n . en e n an en a

wi th v l i ty V f 353 f t p
a e oc d I
o
0 0 ee e r s e co n ,

an d l vi g wi th
ea v l i ty V f 8 f tn a e oc ,
o
80
0 ee

p d
e r s e con T h v h v v l .i ty V e an e s a e a e oc

o f f
v f t p
o
o d d th p d f
ee er s e c o n ,
an e s ee s o

th e w t r l g th v a e i um d a on F G 172 e a n es s as s e I . .

t t
c on s an .

Fi d t h p d f t h v
n Fi d l d B t h d i r ti
e s f
ee o e an e . n a s o a an e ec on s o
a t tr en d xi t Th man c e m f th w t an fl wi g p de . e as s o e a er o n er s e co n
u itn 2 5 X 32 2
s d U d ti g t h tr h g fvl i an en o n e vec o c an e o e oc
w t r fi d m U t h m gn i tu d
a e ,
n d di ti f th h g fm m
,
e a e an rec on o e c an e o o e

s e c ond Fi n d l t h p w r d v l p d wh i h i qu l t t h
. a so l e o e e e o e ,
c s e a o e sca a
m UV .
 CH AP TER V III

A
GR PHI C ST AT I CS “

. l
9 0 C o p a n ar F o r c e s — U n l e s s oth e rw i e s tat e d wh en a s y s t em
. s

o f fo r c e s i c o n i d e r e d i t w i ll b e a
s s u m e d th a t t h e l i n e s of c ti on of ll
ss a a

t h e fo r c es a e i n t h e s m e p l a n e
r I n t h e g r e t m j o r i ty o f p r ob le m s
a . a a

i n s t t i c s w i th wh i c h e n gi n e e r s h v e t o d e l t h e for ce s ar e i n t he s m e
a a a a

pl n e
a .

T h e c om p os i t i on n d r e s o lu ti on of for c e s c t i n g at t h e s m e p oi n t
a a a

h av e b e e n c o n i d e re d i n Ch p t e r V I I s p rti c u l r c s e s of ve c to rs
s a a a a a

9 1 S p e c i fi c a t i o n o f F o r c e s i n a P l a n e —A for c e i s s p e c i fi e d
. .

wh e n i t s l i n e of ac t i on i t s e n s e n d i t m agn i tud e e k n ow n Le t
,
s ,
a s ar .

O X ( F i g 1 7 3)be a fix e d l i n e o ax i s i n t h e pl a n e i n w h i c h
. r for c e A a

a c t s a n d le t 0 b e a fix e d p oi n t i n OX
,
Le t t h e l i n e of c t i on of t h e
. a

fo r c e A c u t OX a t L n d le t a: d e n o t e t h e l e n gth of t h e i n t e r c e p t C L
,
a .

Le t a d e n ot e t he an g l e m e s ure d an ti c l oc kwi e wh i c h t he l i ne
,
a -
s ,

FIG . 173 .
FIG . 17 4 .

t
of a c i on of t h e fo r c e m a k es w i h O X ,
t h e f o c e t
r b g upp d e i n s o s e t o

ac t o u w t
a rd r
s f om L L as l t y le t a d.e n o t e t h e m a
g n i ud e o f t h e f o r c e t .

Th e n t h e for c e i s s p e c i fi e d b y g i vi n g at , a , a n d a .

t t t
A c on v e n i e n w ay o f s a i n g t h e qu an ti t i e s a , a , an d a l n s e c i '
p
fy i n g a for ce A i s , A = aa F or e x a m l
x
e ,
if.
t h e m a
g n l t p
u d e o f t h e

fo r c e A i s l 9 5 u n i s _ °
r t t
of fo ce , an d t h e i n e c e r x i s 0 7 u n i o f l e n pt
g th t
a n d t h e a n l e a i s 35 d e g r e e s , th e n A 4 9 5
g 350
.

Th i s m e h od o f s p e c i fy i n g a forc e fai l s w h e n t he l i n e of ac ti on of
t
t h e fo r ce i s p a r a ll e l t o O X , but th i s d i f fi ulty y
c m a b e o vr e c o m e b y
g i v i n
g t h e i n t e r c e p O M z :
;
3 o t x
n an a i s O Y a t r i
g ht a n g e s t o O X l .

if in
T o s h o w c l early th a t i t i s y a n d n ot a; th g v w h t y g p
.

a i s i e n e n s e c
92 P RA C T I C A L G E O METRY

t h e fo rc e , t he v lu e of y m ay b e p l c e d b ove i n s te a d of b
a a a i

l e ve l of t he valu e of a Thu s t h e for c e C ( Fi g 1 7 3)wh oa

. .

a c t i on i s p r ll e l t o OX w o uld b e g i v e n by t h e e qu t i on C
1!’
a a c a

us e o f t h e v a lu e o f y i n s te ad of t h e v a lu e o f x i s l s o d e si r t a a

t h e i n t e r c e pt a: i s l r g e b e c au s e t h e p o i n t L m y b e p r c t i c
a /
a a e

c e s s i bl e a l t h o u g h t h e l i n e o f a c t i on o f t h e f o r c e m a y b e at

c on v e n i e n t d i s t n c e fr om O a T h e fo r c e B ( F i g 1 7 3) w o uld i
. .

b e s p e c i fi e d by B bg y
.

T h e i n t e r c e p t x i s p os i ti v e wh e n i t i s t o t h e r i ght of 0 n a

t i ve wh e n t o t he l e ft Al s o t he i n te r c e p t y i s p os i ti ve w h
.
,

a b ove 0 a n d n e g ti ve wh e n b e l o w a .

A n u m b e r o f fo r c e s r e r e pr e s e n te d i n F i g 1 7 4 W i
a . .

dr a w i ng th e s e for c e s w o uld b e p e c i fi e d s foll ow s t he u n i t s a ,

be in g t h e p ou n d a nd t h e u n i t o f d i s t n c e t he i n c h
,
a .

92 . B O W S N o t a t i on
’
.
—
I a F i g 1 7 5 t h e d i a g r am ( m ) s h .

l i n e s o f a c t i o n of a n u m b e r of for c e s wh i c h ar e i n e qu i li br i u i
d i ag ram ( 71 )i s t he c orr e s p on d i n g
p ol y gon of for c e s I n on e s y s t e m .

o f l e tt e r i n g , e a c h fo r c e i s d e n o te d

by a s i n gl e l e t te r, a s P I n B ow s '
.

n o ta t i o n, e a c h fo r c e i s d e n ot e d by

t wo l e tte rs wh i c h r e pl ce d on
,
a a

o p p os i t e s i d e s o f t h e l i n e o f c t i on a

of t h e fo r ce i n d i ag r m and
( )
m a
FIG ,
175
t t h e n gul a r p o i n t s of t h e p o ly
. .

a a

o n i n d i g r am ( n n B o w s n o t at i on t h e fo r c e P i s r e fe r r e
)
’

g a I .

t h e for c e AB I n l i k e m n n e r t h e fo r c e Q i s r e fe rr e d t o a s t l
. a

BC . T h e d i gr a m (m) w h i c h s h o w s t he l i n e s of a c t i on o f t h
a ,
i

i s c all e d t he sp a ce di agr a m o r f a me di gr a m an d t h e d i ag r a ,

wh i c h s h o ws t h e po lygon of for ce s i s ca l le d t h e f o ce di agra m r

—
.

9 3 T h e F u n i c u l ar P o l y go n o r Li n k P o l y go n
. Le t l .

n d S ( F i g 1 7 6 )b e fou r fo r c e s ct i n o n a ri g i d b o dy but t h
’

a .
g ,
a ,

o f a c t i o n do n o t m e e t a t on e po i n t T h e for c e s P Q R a n .
, , ,

bal an c e d by a fi f t h for c e T wh ic h i s t pr e s e n t u n k n o w n D a .

p oly gon of fo r ce s a bcde th a t i s dr a w , p oly gon wh os e s i ,

a

p a r ll e l t o t h e l i n e s o f a c t i on of t h e fo r c e s n d of l e n gth s
a a

t h e m gn i t u d e s of t h e fo r c e s s i n t h e c a s e o f fo r c e s
a ctin
ga t a a

e a t h e c l o s i n g s i d e of t h e p o ly g o n w i ll r e pr e e n t i n m a n i t l s
g
d i re c ti on t h e fi fth for c e T I t n ow re m i ns t o fi n d a p oi n t i n
. a

of a c t i on o f t h e fo r ce T .

T a k e a n y p oi n t 0 n d j oi n i t t o a b c d an d e Tak e a ny
a , , , , .

i n t h e l i n e o f a c t i on of P a n d dr a w t h e l i n e 2B 3 p ra ll e l 1 a

m e e t t h e l i n e of a c t i on o f Q t 3 D r w 304 pa r l le l t o c c a . a a

t h e l i n e of a c t i on of R a t 4 D ra w 4D 5 p a r ll e l t o c d t o 11
. a

l in e of a c ti on of S at 5 D r w 5E l pa r ll e l t o ac t o m e . a a
94 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

An x am i n at i on o f Fi gs 1 7 6 an d 1 7 7 w i ll s h o w th a t t I
e .

rul e t o b e r e m e m b e r e d i n dr w i n g t h e l i n k p o lyg on i s th t a ,
a

o f th t p oly g o n h a s i t s e x t r e m i t i e s o n t h e l in e s of a c t i o n of t
a

for ce s a n d th at t h a t s i d e i s p a r l le l t o t h e l i n e wh i c h j oi n s t l
,
a

t h e p oi n t of i n t e r s e c ti o n of t h e l i n e s wh i c h r e pr e s e n t t h e e t s i

on t h e po ly g on of fo r c e s .

R e fe rr i n g t o Fi g 1 7 6 n d 1 7 7 i t m y b e n o te d t h at t l s . a ,
a

bran t of P a n d Q i s r e p re e n t e d i n m gn i tude an d di e c t i c s a r

a n d th a t t h e p o in t o f i n t rs e c t i on of t h e i d e s A n d C of e . s a

p olygon i s p oi n t i n t h e l i n e o f ac ti o n of th i s e qu i l i br n t
a a .

e qu i li br a n t of P Q an d R i s r e p r e s e n te d i n m ag n i tud e n d
, ,
a

by da n d t h e p o i nt of i n te r s e c ti on of t h e i d e s A n d D of
,
a s a

p oly gon i s a p oi n t i n t h e li n e of a c t i on of th i s e qu i l i br n t a .

H v i n g s h o w n th at t h e l i n k p oly gon t og e t h e r w i th t h e p
a

fo r c e s m ay b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t he e qu i li b r n t o f n y s a a

fo r c e s i n pl a n e i t i s obvi o u s th at t he s m e c on s tru ct i on
a ,
a

d e t e m i n e t h e r e s ult n t of th t s y s te m of for c e s s i n c e t h e
r a a ,

a c t s a lon g t h e s m e l i n e n d h s t h e s a m e m gn i tud e as t h e e q
‘

a a a a

bu t ac t s i n t h e o p p os i te d i re c ti on o r h s t h e opp os i te s e n s e a .

A g i n r e fe rr i n g t o Fi g 1 7 6 n d 1 7 7 i t wi ll be o b e rv e d
a s . a ,
s

l e tte r s A B C D n d E o n t h e S p ac e d i g r m ar e s i tu a te
, , , ,
a a a s

s p c es b e tw e e n t h e fo r c e s P
a Q R S n d T n d t h e l e t t e rs , , , ,
a ,
a

S , n d T m y b e om i tt e d
a a n d t h e fo r c e s r e fe rr e d t o s AB a a ,

D E an d EA Al s o t h e s m e for ce s i n t h e fo rc e po l y
, . a ,

l e tt e r e d a b bc cd de an d a r e s p e c t i v e ly wh i c h i s Bo w
, , , ,
e ,
’
s

I t w i l l fur t h e r b e n o t i c e d th t t h e s i d e s A B C D a n d E oi a , , , ,

p oly gon r e p r l le l t o t he p ol ar l in e s oa ob 0c 0d a n d ac r e s
a a a , , , ,

of t h e for c e p oly g on
—
.

9 4 E am p e s
x . l T h e foll o w i n g t w o e x am pl e s i llu s t .

a ppl i c a t i o n of t h e l i n k p o ly go n t o t h e s o lu t i on of p r obl e m s

wh os e l i ne s of ac t i on ar e ei th e r p ar ll e l or do n ot ll m e e t t a a a

poi n t .

( )
1 U si n
g B o w s n o t a t i o n AB B C n d C D (
’
F i g 1 7 8 ) , , ,
a .

v e r ti c l fo rc e s c t in g on h or i z on t l b e m Th e s e for c e s a r e
a a a a a .

by t h e v e r ti ca l fo r ce s D E an d
EA wh os e m agn i tude s an d 7 23 th .

se n ses r e r e qu i r e d
a .

Si n ce t h e fo r ce s ar e a ll

p r all e l t h e p oly g on of fo r ce s
a ,

w i l l be s tr i gh t l i n e a bcdea
a a ,

t h e p os i t i o n of t h e p oi n t e be i n g
a s y e t u n k n own .

C h oo s e p ol e o an d j oi n oa a , ,

o b c c a nd c d
, ,
D r w OA OB . a , ,

O C n d O D p r l l e l t o c a ob
,
a a a FIG 1 7 8 , , . .

ac a n d 0d r e s p e c ti v e ly
,
s s h own a .

T he s e l i n e s OA O B O C n d O D w i ll for m four s i d e s o f
, , ,
a

p oly gon of w h ic h O E w i ll b e t h e c lo s in g s i d e D ra w c c p a r l . a

t o me e t ac at e T h i s c om pl e t e s t h e s o lut i on
. I t w i ll b e fo .
 G RA P H I C S TAT I CS 95

DE is lb a n d th at i t ac ts dow nw ard s Al s o EA i s 1 8 9 lb
. .
, .

and ac t s u p w a rd s .

LMN 7 d s t ru c tur e s u pp or t e d M N
( 2 ) ( F i g 1 9 ) i s a f a m e .
t a n d r a
,

MN be i n g h ori z on t l Th e re i s a v e rt i cal l oa d AB of 1 1 00 lb at L
a .
.

a n d a l o d B C of 1 520 lb
a .

a t t h e m i ddl e p oi n t of LN
a n d a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o LN .

T h e s uppo r ti ng fo r ce C D a t
N i s k n o w n t o be v e rti c l a ,

but i t s m g n i tud e i s u n a

k n ow n T h e s upp ort i n g
.

for c e D A a t M i s u n k n o w n
bo th a s r e g ard s m gni tud e a
‘
an d d i r e c t i on It i s re .

qu i re d t o c om pl e t e t h e de
te rm i n at i on o f t h e forc es
C D an d D A .

T h e t r i an g l e of for c e s F m 1 79 , ,

a bc d e t e r m i n e s t h e di e c r

t i on of t h e r e s ult n t of t he g i ve n for c e s AB a n d B C an d l i ne throu gh

a a

R t h e p oi n t of i n te r s e c ti on of AB n d B C p ara l le l t o a c i s t h e l in e of
,
a ,

a c t i o n o f th a t r e s ul t a n t R e pl ci n g AB an d B C by th e i r r e s ult an t
. a

th e re a r e n o w on ly thr ee e x te r n a l for ce s c t i n g on t h e fram e n d s a a a

th e y a r e n ot p a ra ll e l th e y m u s t m e e t t a po i n t whi c h i obvi ou ly a s s

t h e p o i n t S wh e r e t h e r e s ult an t o f AB a n d B C m e e t CD T hi s s .

d e te r m i n e s t he l i n e of a c ti on of D A wh i ch p a s e s thr ou gh M n d S s a .

T h e p o ly gon of fo r c e s bc d m ay n o w b e c om p l e t e d a I t w i ll b e fo u n d .
,

th t C D 1 38 0 lh D A 1 340 lh an d 6 t h e i n c l in at i on of D A t o
a .
, .
,

t h e h or i z on t a l i s 36 5 d e g r e e s .

Th i s e x m p le m y be w ork e d w i th ou t u s i n g t he p oi n t S as foll o w s
a a ,
.

A ft e r dr w i n g t h e s i d e s b a n d bc of t he for ce po lyg on c h oos e p ol e

a a a

o an d j i n oa
, o ob nd cc ,
Ne xt pr ocee d t o dr w t h e l i n k poly gon
,
a . a

s t a r t i ng t t he p oi nt M wh i c h i s t h e on ly p oi n t i n t h e l i n e of a c t i on o f
a

D A wh i c h i s k n ow n D r w M l ac ros s t h e s p c e A p r ll e l t o c a . a ,
a ,
a a .

D ra w 1 2 c ro s t h e s p ace B p r ll e l t o ob D ra w 2 3 ac r o s t h e
,
a s ,
a a .
,
s

s p ac e C p a r ll e l t o ac Th e n M 3 i s t h e c l os i ng l i n e of t h e l i n k
,
a .

po ly gon D r a w c d p r ll e l t o M 3 t o m e e t v e rt i c l throu gh c t d
. a a a a a

wh i c h i s t h e re m i n i n g n gul a r p oi n t of t h e fo rc e poly gon D A m y

a a . a

n o w b e dr w n p r ll e l t o da a a a .

9 5 T h e C e n t r e o f P a r a l le l F o r c e s
.
I f a s y s t e m of p ar ll e l .
-
a

fo r ce s c t s a t fix e d p o i n t s t h e r e ul ta n t w i ll ac t thr o u g h an o th e r fix e d
a ,
s

p oi n t c ll e d th c ntr e of the s ys te m T h i s c e n tr e i s i n de p e n d e n t of t h e
a e e .

d i r e c t i on of t h e for c e s s o l on g t he s e n s e of e c h i n re la ti on t o t h e as a

s e n s e of o n e of t h e fo r c e s i s u n lte r e d a .

I n Fi g 1 8 0 P Q R . nd S ,
r e p r a ll e l fo r c e s
, ,
cti n g
,
t t h e fix e d
a a a a a

p oi n t s A B C n d D r e p e c ti ve ly i n p l n e B y m e n s of t h e for c e
, , ,
a s a a .
a

a nd link o l
p yg o n s t h e l i n e o f c t i o n L X o f t h e r e s ult a n t i d e t e r m n e d
a s i .

Le t t h e d i re c ti o n of t h e fo r c s b e h a n g d o t h t th e y c t s h o wn e c e s a a a s

by P Q R a n d S T h e l i n e of c t i on M K of t h e r e s u lt n t
' ' ' '
1s a a
, , , .
 6 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY

d e te rm i n e d as b e for e T he p oi n t K wh e r e L K an d M K i n t
.
,

t h e c e n tr e o f t h e p a r a ll e l fo r c e s P Q R a n d S a c t i n g t 1 , , , a

po i n t s A B C n d D re s p e c t i ve ly I f t h e c o n s tru c t i on b e
, , ,
a .

w i t h t he fo r c e s c t i n g i n n y oth e r d i re c ti o n i t w i ll b e fou n d
a a ,

n e w r e s ult n t w i ll a c t thr ou g h t he s m e p o i n t K
a a .

I n Fi g 1 8 0 t he for c e s P Q R a n d S h a v e ll t h e am e s
‘
.
, , , ,
a s i

t h e r e for e P Q R a n d S m u s t h av e t h e s am e s e n s e
'
,
'
,
'
, Bu t i f '
. 1

FIG . 1 80 .

Q y w e re O p p os i te t o t h at of P t h e n t h e se ns e of Q v
'
of , sa ,
.

op p os i t e t o th a t of P
’
.

I n ap p ly i n g t h e a b o v e m e t h od t o t h e d e te r m i n a t i on of t h
o f a s y t e m of p a r a ll e l fo r c e s i t i s u s u a lly m os t c on v e n i e n t
s ,

t he t w o d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e f o r c e s t r i g ht a n g l e s t o o n e a n o th e r a
—
.

9 6 C n t r e s o f G r a vi t y o r C e n t o i
. e r d s T h e p r ti c l e s . a

n b ody i s m d e up e a t tr c t e d t o t h e e a rth b fo r c es w
a
y a ar
y a

prop or ti on l t o t h e m s s s of th e s e p ar t i c l e s F o r all p r c t i c l
a a e . a a

th e s e for c e s m y b e c on s i d e re d t o b e p ra ll e l a n d th e i r r e s ul
a a ,

p as s thr o u g h t h e c e n t re of th e s e p r ll e l fo rc e s I n th i a a . s

c e n tr e o f t h e p a r a l le l fo r c e s i s c a ll e d t h e c n tr e of g a v i ty o r e r

o f t h e b ody n d t h e d e te rm i n t i o n o f
,
a c e n tr e of g ra vi ty r e s o a a

fi n d in g t h e c e n t r e of a sy s te m o f p a r a ll e l for c e s .

T h e c e n tr e o f g ra v i ty o f a b ody m ay l s o b e d e fi ne d a

p oi n t fr o m wh i c h i f t h e b ody i s s u s pe n d e d i t w i ll bal a n c i

p os i t i o n .

Wh e n t h e t e r m c e n tre of gr v i ty i s appl i e d t o a l i ne t l a ,

s u ppo e d s t o be n i n d e fi n i t e ly th i n w i r e ;
a n d wh e n t h e a

g r a v i t y o f a ur f c e i s s p o k e ns o f t h e s ur f ce i s s upp os e d 1
a a

i n d e fi n i t e l y th i n s h e t of m a t e r i a l e .

T h e foll o w i n g r e s ul ts wh i c h r e n ot d i ffi c ul t t o pr ov e s l ,
a ,

n o te d

T h e ce n t r oi d of a s t r i ght l i n e i s a t i t s m i ddl e p o i n t a .

T he ce n tro i d of a t ri ng l e i s at t he i n t e r e c t i o n of i t s m e d i
a s

T h e c e n t roi d of a p ra ll e l o gr a m i s a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i ox a

d i agon al s .
98 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

d he c e nt r oi d of a s e c t or o O A C
To f i n t f a c i r c le L e t .B ( i
be t he s e c t or of a c i r c l e o f wh i c h 0 i s t h e c e n t r e D ra w O B .

a n gl e s t o t h e c h o rd A C D r a w B D a t r i gh t a n g l e s t o O B 3
.

B D e qu a l t o t h e a r c B C J oi n O D Fi n d a poi n t F I n O C
. .

O F 1s t w o t h i rd s of O C
-
D r a w EH p a ra ll e l t o O B t o m ee t C
.

D r a w H G p e r p e n d i c ul a r t o OB t o m e e t O B at G G i s t h e .

of t h e s e c t o r O A B C .

T o fi nd t he ce n tr oi d of a figu r e c onsi de r e d as p a r t of a noth

F r e qu e n tly t h e add i ti on of a s i m p le fi g ure t o a gi v e n c om p :
c om p l i c a te d o n e w i ll m a k e a s i m p l e fi g ur e .

F or e x am pl e t h e fi g ur e AB C D (Fi g 1 8 5) .

on ly r e qu i r e s t h e a dd i t i o n o f t h e tr i an g l e

O C D t o c on v e rt i t i n t o t h e s e c t o r of a
c i r c l e wh o s e c e n tr e i s O G , t h e c e n t r oi d
.

o f t h e s e c t o r OA B i s r e ad i ly fo u n d a n d

s o i s G 2 t h e c e n tr oi d of t h e t r i a n g l e OC D
'
.

L e t G b e t h e c e n t r oi d of t h e fi gur e
F I G 1 85
AB C D The n i f a t G, a n d G p a r a lle l
.
~

fo r c e s P an d Q be ap p l i e d , t h e m a gn i t ud e s of P a n d Q b e i n g
t i on a l t o t h e a r e a s of Q O D a n d AB C D , t h e c e n tr e of t h e s e p a r a l
w i ll b e at G , t h e c e n troi d of t h e s e c t or O A B .

H e n ce , i f p ar a ll e l for c e s P a n d R b e a pp l i e d at G2 a n d l
o os i te di r e cti o ns , t h e m a g n i t ud e s o f P a n d R be i n g r o or
pp p p
i

t h e a r e a s of C C D a n d O A B , t h e c e n tr e of th e s e p a r a ll e l fo r c e
a t G t h e ce n t r oi d of t h e fi g ur e AB C D .

T h e a re a of a s e c t or of a c i r c l e i s e qu a l t o h al f t h e p r o du l

ar c a n d t h e r a d i u s
—
.

9 7 C e n t r e o f P re s s u r e an d C e n t r e o f S t r e s s
. Ii
fi gur e be s ubj e c t e d t o fl u i d p r e s s ur e , t h e p o i n t i n t h e pl an
fi g ur e a t wh i c h t h e r e s ul ta n t o f t h e pr e s s ur e a c t s i s c all e d t
of r es s u r e I f t h e pl a n e fi ur e i s a s e c t i on of a b a r o r p
p .
g
s t ru c t u r e wh i c h i s s ubj e c t e d t o s tr e s s , t h e p oi n t i n t h e pl a n

s e c t i on a t wh i c h t h e r e s ul t a n t of t h e s t r e s s a c t s i s c a ll e d t h e

r
s t e ss .

I n wh a t foll o w s pr es s ur e w i ll b e t a k e n t o i n c lud e s t r f
“

I f t h e p r e s s ur e b e u n i for m o v e r t h e fi gur e , th e n t h e 4
pr e s s u r e c oi n ci d e s w i th t h e c e n tr oi d of t h e fi g ur e .

A ge n e r al con s tru c ti on for d e t e rm in i n g t h e c e n t re of p r

an
y pl a n e fi g ur e wh e n t h e pr e s s ur e v a r i e s u n i for m ly i n on e

i s i llu s tr a t e d by F i g 1 8 6 . AB C D i s a pl an e fi gur e s u pp os
.

v e rt i c al , an d AB an d C D a r e h ori zon t a l AA, i s t he a lt i t u c

.

fi g ur e , a n d t h e pre s s ure i s s up p os e d t o v a ry u n i form ly from as

'

r e pr e s e n t e d b y A P a t t h e l e ve l AB t o a n a m ou n t re pre s e n te d
a t t h e l e ve l C D .A P a n d A , Q a r e h o r i z on t a l .

J oi n Q P an d p rodu ce i t t o m e e t A , A a t O D ra w an y h .

SR M N t o c u t t h e g i ve n fi g ur e D ra w t he h ori zon tal OF ,

.

v e rti cal s MM , a n d N N, Thr ough K , t h e m i d dl e p o i n t of IV

.

t h e v e rt i c a l K F .J oi n F M , an d F N , c ut t i n g MN a t m an d a
co n s t r u c t i o n b e r e p e a t e d a t a s u fli c i e n t n u m be r of l e ve l s , a n d
 G RA P H I C S T AT I CS 99

co rre p on d i n g t o m b e j oi n e d l o all p oi n ts c orr e s p on di n g t o n

s , a s
, a
fi gur e a a Dm i s o bt i n e d n d t h e c e n troi d of th i s fi gure w i ll be t he
a a a

c e n t r e o f p r e s ur e o f t h e o r i gi n l fi gur e
s a .

T h e p r o of i s a s follo w s S u pp o s e th a t t h e l i n e MN i s t h e c e n t re
.

l i n e of ve y n rrow h or i zon t l s tr i p of t h e o ri gi n l fi gur e n d le t t he

a r a a a
, a

w i d th of th i s tr i p be de n t e d by w T h e m gn i t u de of t h e r e ul t n t
s o . a s a
p r e s s ur e on th i s tr i p i e qu a l t o MN x w RS an d i t w i l l ct at K
s s
, a ,

t h e m i ddl e p o i n t o f M N .

S i n c e S R M N i s p r ll e l t o Q A D C a a , ,

M ,N , mn OA , OR ,
an d, MN mn A ,Q R S,
th re fore
e ,
MN X RS m"
”
X A IQ’
an d Mw X RS z mn x w , Q ,

th t i s t he r e s u lt n t of t he pr ur e on t h e s tr i p of l e n g th mn w h e n
a ,
a e ss

s ubj e t e d t o
c p r e ure A Q w i ll h ve t h e s m m gn i tud e s t h
a ss , a a e a a e

r e ul tan t of t he pre ur e o n t h e tri p of l e ng th MN wh e n s ubj c t e d

s ss s e

to pre s ure RS n d i t w i ll c t t t h e s am e p oi n t K wh i c h i s l o
a s ,
a a a a s

t h e m i ddl e po i n t o f m u .

FIG 186 .
F I G 187. .

ll
I t fo o s w t h a t r
t he e s ul t a n t o f t h e pr e s s ur e o n t h e fi g u r e a a D m a

wh e n s ubj e c t e d t o u n i for pr ur m e sas e A Q w i ll b e t h e a m e as t h e

,
s

r e s ult n t of t h e v ry i n g p r e s ur e on
a a t h e o r g l gur
i i n s fi e B u t wh e n a .

t he p r e ss ur e on a pl ne fi g ur e i au n i fo r m t h e c e n tr e o f
s p r e s s ur e s t
,
1 a

tr
i t s c e n oi
,
d Th r r
e e fo e t h e c e n
.
t r o i d o f t h e fi g ur e a a D m a i s t h e

c e n tr e of p r e s ur e o f t h e o r i g i n l fi gur e
s a .

T h e fi gur e a a D ma i s c a ll e d m od u lus fig u r e o f t h e o
a rg l
i i n a

fi Oo u r e .

A c o m m o n a n d i m p o r a n r a c i c al c a s e t tp
i s h t
a i n t
c
h tt h e
gi v e n t
fi gure i s a r e c t an gl e a n d t h e r e s s ur e o n i t v r u
a i e s n i p
f o r ly
m m a

d i r e c t i on p a r all e l t o a s i d e of t h e r e c t a n gle .

I n F i g 1 8 7 , AB C
.
D
i s a r e c a n g l e o n wh ch i t h e pr e t
s s ur e v a
r i e s

u n ifor mly from n oth i n g a t A t o an amou n D I

‘
a t A ply g i n t h e
t
'

D .
p
1 00 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

co n s t ru c t i on ju s t pr o v e d t he s tud e n t w i ll h ve n o d i ffi c ulty i a

th t t h e m dulu s fi g ure for t h e r e t n gl AB C D i s t h e

a o c a e .

t r i n gle Q O D n d th t t h e c e n t r e of pr e s ur e fo t he r e c t n g l e
a a a s r a

is t C on t he ve r t i c l ce n tr e l i n e o f t h e r e c t n gle n d t
a , a a a a a

f r o m AB e qu l t o gH wh e r e H i s t h e h i g ht o f t h e e c t n g h
a -
e r a

t h e m gn i t ud e o f R t h e r e ul t n t of t h e pr
a ure on AB C D s a ess

t o t he re of t h e r e c t ng l e m u lti pl i e d by t he h l f of D T W ]
a a a a ,

i t h e i n t e n s i ty of t he pr e s ur e o t h e pr e ur e p e r u n i t
s e s r ss ar :

l e ve l C D .

I f t h e r e c t n gl e AB C D (Fi g 1 8 7 ) b e d i vi d e d i n t o t wo e
a . r

b y t h e l i n e E F th e n C t h e c e t r e of pr e s ur e o f t h e e t n g l
, , 2, n s r c a
b

is a t d i t n ce 2h from AB w h e r e h t h e h i g ht of th e
a s a
,
is e 1

A B FE n d t he ma n i tud e of P t h e r e ul t n t o f t h e pr s ur e 0 e s
, g a s a

i e qu l t o t h e r e o f ABEE m ul t i p l i e d b y t h h l f of E S
s a a a e a .

T h e c e n t r e of pr e ur e of t h r e c t ngle C D E F w i ll be ss e a a

c e n tr o i d o f t h e qu dri l at e ra l CD f n d t h e m gn i tud e of
a e a a

r e s ult n t of t h e pr s ur e on C D E F w i ll b e e qu l t o t h e re 0
a e s a a a

m ult i pl i e d by h l f t h e s u m o f D T a nd E S Q m y ho w a . a

d e t e r mi n d b oth s re g r d m g n i tud e n d p s i t i on by c or
e a a s a a o

it s t h e e qu i l i br n t o f t h e p r a ll e l fo r c e s P
a a n d R t he s e a a ,
i

b e in g op p o i te t o th t of P
9 8 M as o n r y D a m s —
s a .

. A m s o n ry dam i s w ll fo h old a a a r

t h e w t e r t t h e e n d of
a a n tur l r e e rv oi r a a a s .

O n e fo r m of d m s e c t i on i s s h o w n i n F i g 1 8 8 A V b e i n g v e r l
a .
,
a

T h e pr i n c i p l pr o bl e m c o n n e c t e d w i t h d m s
a e
( )
1 s a ar :

t e rm i n t i on of t h e li ne f es i t nce wh e n t h e r e s e rvoi r i s
a o r s a

e d e t e r m i n a t i n of t he l i n e of r e s i t n c e wh e n t h e l
( )
2 t h o s a

i s f u ll e d e t e r m i n t i on o f
nd ,
a
( )
3 t h a

t he s t r s e s t
es v a r i ou s h o r i zon t l
a a

s e c t i on s of t h e d m a .

R e voi r e mp ty Wh e n t h e r e s e r
es r .

v oi r i s e m p ty t h tr e s e s i n t h e d m e s s a

ar e th o e du e t o i t s
s w e i g h t R fe r . e

r i n g t o Fi g 1 8 8 C on i d r a p ort i on
. . s e

o f t h e d m ly i n a b e t w e e n t w o rt i l
g e c v a

c r os s e c t io n s on e f o t
s p rt t h n t h e o a a ,
e

w e i g h t of p r t of th i s b e tw e e n t wo
a a

h ori zon t l s e c t i on pl n es w i ll b e e qu l
a a a

r e i n s qu r e fe e t of t h e
'

t o t he a a, a ,

c r os s s e c t i on b e tw e e n t h e s e pl n e s a

m ul ti pl i e d by t h e w e i gh t o f a c ub i c
foot o f t h e m t e i l of t h e d m a r a a .

Le t h ori z on t l s e c t i on s B C E F a , ,

GH n d K L b e t ak n
,
a T he r e s ul t n t e . a

w o f t h e w e i ght of t h e t op po r t i n
,
o

A D LK c t s v e rt i c lly throu g h C t h
a a F m 1 88 , e , .

c e n tr oi d of A D L K w c u ts K L t .
, a

c wh i h i
, c t h e ce n tr e of pr e ur e o r c e n t r e of tr e s s for t h e I
s ss s

s ec t i on K L .
1 02 f f
P RAC T IC AL G E O ME T RY
°

L e t C be t h e m i ddl e p oi n t o f Le t X X , 2a , an d

di s ta n c e of S fr o m C b e x t h e n s t i ll
, ,
c on s i d e ri n g 1 foo t le n g t l
S 3qx
dam , g = an d
p
2a a

gt h en p g an d t h e re i s n o s t r es s at X . If a: i s gre a

3
t h e n p is gr e t e r t h n g a n d t h e re i s a t e n s i on i n t he d a a e

wh i c h s h o uld b e voi d e d a .

T h e m x i m u m c om pr e s s i v e s t r e s s p
a
g s h o uld n o t e x ec s

p e r qu sar e i n h c .

T h e a ve r ag e w e i g h t of m as on r y d m s i s a b out 1 50 lb p a .

foot .

E x e rci s e s V I I I a
1 T h h i z t l di t
. e orb tw th
on a xl f bi y l i 3 f t 6 1 s an c e e een e a es o a c c e s ee 1

i t w i ght i 28 1h
s e A um i g th t t h w i ght t h ddl i v rti l
s . ss n a e e on e sa e s e ca

p i t 9 i h i f t f t h r r xl
o n nc es n d th t
r on g r t r pr o ur t h e ea a e , an a a ea e ess e :

mu t s t b b r u ght
no ei th r wh l fi d b y
o fu i u l r p l yg
on e e ee ,
n a n c a o on , i

d i ti tly t h gr t t w i ght t h bi y l wi ll b r S l f w ight

s nc ,
e ea es e e c c e ea . ca e o e ,
1

inc h S l f l gt h lt h f ll i z
ca e o en u s e .

fu i u l r p l y g d t m i t h r u lt t f t h fi
.
,

2 U i g s n a n c a o on , e er ne e es an o e t

d
.

f r
o ce s g i v i F i g 1
en90 T h m ng i tu f t h . f r gi v . 1 e a n es o e o ce s ar e en

U se a f r l f 1 i h t 20 lb
o c e s ca e o nc o .

3 D t mi t h p r ll l f
e er newhi h t i g th ugh t h p i t
e a a e or c e s , c ,
ac n ro e o n s

ld l d
.

( g
F i . h u b s t h goi v f r T h m g
a an c e n i tu f t h e en o c es . e a es o e

gi v eni p u d n o n s .

ll IDS 70 34 0

FIG . 1 90 . FIG . 1 91 .

Inp re r odu c i n
g t he a bove di a gr ams ta ke t h e s m a ll s q ua r es as o f 05 t ?
. r
4 S i x fo c e s ar e gi e n i n F i g 1 92, t h e m agn i v
e s be i n g i n . tud pu do n s .

r u lt t
es an of e s e fo c e s th r .

5 F din t he res
. an o f t h e fo o i n g u lt t
e e gi e n fo c e s , ll w thr v r th t i a :

u
m e as r e r , 0, a n d a i n t h e e c o e q a i on . v tr ut
z
a
r
e 4 3 3
7 1 0 pu d o n s .

E m oy s c apl l es of inc ht o t
1 foo , a n d 1 i n c ht o 10 p u d o n s.
6 i e co
. Fv pl an a rf r o ces P, Q ,
R , S , T ar e gi vn e as f ll w
o o s

(T xpl i thi o e a n s
dfi i g fr
e n n a o ce Si
For ce . I n t e r ce p t . Di r e ct i on . M agn i t u de . p .

F i d t h r u lt
n e es

gi v y t m f f
en s s e o or
s ur i t i t r pt
e s n e ce ,

an d m g i tu d a n e .

Fi d l nd a s o an it
res t t fQ R an o , ,
z

m pl y li o a n e:

4 full i z d s e , an a

o f 5i h t 1 0 lb
nc o .
 G RAP H I C S T AT I CS 1 03

7 . Fi d t h r l t t f t h f
n gi ve e su an o e or c e s en i n F i g 1 7 4, p 91 T he in t e r ce pt s
d t h m g i tu d p d
.

h
. .

ar e in i nc e s anf th f e a n es o e or c e s ar e i n ou n s
D t mi q u ti
.

8 . e er d 0i th ne r ,
s , an
a n e e a on

R 1 6 5 l 4 1 0 1 62 205
J
2 0
“ “
0
o 0 0 4 33 0 1 40 0
43
F or c e u it 1 p u d
n ,
o n . L i n e ar n i , 1 i n c h u t .

9 Gi . v t h q u ti
en e e a on o f e q i i br i m o f fi v e ul u co pl an ar fo r c es

7 0
10 0
8 200 O 1 50 0 8 5003 1 50
0 90 1 3 05 3 27 0

fi nd r
r , s , an d 0 . T he u it n of fo c e i s t h e o p u d d t h u i t f l gth i t h
n an e n o en s e foo t
pl y li r l f 4 h t d f l f 1 i h t
.

Em o a nea sca e o inc t o 1 foo , an a or c e sca e o nc o 1 00

pu d
o n s .

1 0 Fi d t h n tr f gr vi ty
. n e ce e o a of a pi f wi r b t t t h f rm h w
e ce o e en o e o s o n at (a)
F i g 1 93
. .

In r ep r oduci ng t he a bove di agr am s ta ke t he s ma ll s qu ar es as o f 05 i nch s ide .

D t rm i t h
11 . tr i d f t h fi g r
e e ne ( )( )(d
e c en d f
( ) g 1 93
F i o s o e u es c , ,
e an . .

T h tri
12 .
g l AB C (eF i g 1 9 4 )i an d i g r m e h w i g t i t i t y f th . s a a a s o n e n en s o e ar

pr r e s s u e on a r t i i g w ll i t r pr ti g t h t t l p u P t t h m
e a n n a , s a ea r e es en n e o a ress re o e sa e

s ca el th t t h r f t h r a ti f t h
e a ea o e c os s s e c on o e
w ll r pr t t h w i ght W f t h w ll
a e e sen s e e o e a .

D t rm t h li
e e f
i ne ti f P n d W t h
e ne s o ac on o a ,
e

fac e AB f t h w ll b i g v rti lo e Fi d t h a e n e ca . n e

ce n tr f pr e our th b essf t h w ll th i e on e as e o e a ,
s

b i g t h p i t wh r t h r u l t
e n e o n t fP d e e e es an o an
Wi t t th b
n er s e c s e as e .

Al fi d t h so tr f pr un e th c en es o ess re on e

s ec ti D E d Fons , ,
an .

1 3 A ir l 4 i . h i di m t r i b
c c e nc es n a e e s su

j t d t pr ur whi h v ri u i f rml y
ac a o es s e c a es n o
fr m 1 0 p u d p
o q u ro i h n t s d f
er s a e nc a on e e n o

a di m t r t 5 p u d p
a e e
q u o i h t t
o h n s er s ar e nc a e

o th r d f th t d i m t r F i d t h
e en o a tr a e e . n e cen e

o f pr ur d t h m gn i tud f t h ult t
es s e an e a e o e r es an
p u ress re .

14 A il . ti i gi v i F i g 1 95
ra se c on s en n . .

Fi d t hn tr i d f th i
e cen ti T hr ugh
o o s sec on . o

th e tr i d dr w
cen li p r ll l t t h
o a a ne a a e o e

b tt m li
o o f th ti ; thi i t h
ne o utr l
e sec on s s e
“
ne a

a xi f th
s ti o T hi ti i ubj t d
e s ec on . s sec on s s ec e

to s tr whi h i rm l t t h
ess c ti s nod a o e sec on an

v i u i f rm ly fr m t h t p t t h b tt m
ar e s n o o FIG 1 94 e o o e o o , . .

b i gz
e n t th ut l xi wh r i t h g
er o a e ne ra a s e e c an es

S i gn F i d th t nf t f th p
e cen r es t i f t h t i b ov d b lw
s re ss o e or on s o e sec on a o e an e o

utr l xi I f t h tr l w r d t t o p qu
.

th t t h f t h i 4 e sec on i s ns er s ar e
e ne a a s g e s ess a e o e e e o

h wh t i t h tr t t h upp r d g dw t g tud
.

i
nc h t h m a
f t h
e e e e , an a ar e e a ni es o e
a s e s ess
res u lt t f t h t an s o th p ti f t h
e s r e ss es t b v d b l
on w t h e
e or on s o e s e c i on a o e an e o

ne utr l xi a a s
1 04 P RA CT I C AL G E O METRY

15 A ti f l rg d m i gi v i Fi g 1 96 T h t w
. se c on o a a e a s en n . . e o c u rv e c
'

pl tt d fr m t h v rti l li h w T h w i ght f t h m
o e o e e ry m ca ne s o n . e e o e as on co
d m i 1 25 lb p
a s ubi f t T h w i ght f t h w t r m y b t k
. er c c oo . e e o e a e a e a en a

per cu b i f t c oo .

D w t h li
ra f i t f ethi d m ( )wh t h
n es o rv i r i r e s s an c e or s a , a en e r es e o s e

( b)wh t h t en
p ur f f t h w t
e r i 1 0 f t b l
o w t h t
s p f t h d ac e o e a e
.
s ee e o e o o e ai

F I G 1 95 . . F I G 1 96. .

Dr w l t h m i ddl th i rd l i
a a so f th ti e
“
e nes o e sec on of t h e dam
d i gr m h wi g t h d i t i buti f t h v ti l tr
a a s s o n e s r on o e er ca s es s on t he lw t o es

sec ti wh t h r rv i i m pty d wh n t h r rv
on en e e se o r s e an e e ese oi r is full .

Li l y 10 f t t 1 i h
n e ar s c a e , s a ,
ee o nc .
[U . L . m

99 . M om e n t of for c e
a F or c e .
—
Th e m om e n t of a

p oi n t or a b ou t a n a x i s p e r p e n d i c u la r t o i t s l i n e of a ct i OJ
m e a s ure o f i t s tur n i n g p o w e r r ou n d th a t po i n t or a x i s T he I r .

o f t h e m om e n t (g e n e r a lly c a l l e d t h e m om e n t ) i s t h e p r odu t

m agn i tud e of t h e fo r c e a n d t h e p e rp e n d i c ul a r d i s t a n c e of i t s l i n e
fr o m t h e p oi n t o r a x i s F or e x am p l e , t h e m om e n t of t h e i.

Fi
( g 1 97
.
) a b o u t t h e p oi n t M i s e qu a l t o t h e m a n i tud e of
g
AB m ul t i p l i e d by M N , t h e p e r p e n d i c ul a r d i s t an c e of M f ron
AB I f t he u n i t of for ce i s t h e po u n d , a n d t h e u n i t of d i s ta l
.

i n c h , t h e n t h e u n i t of m o m e n t i s t h e i nch p ou nd or p ou nd i ncl -
-

u n i t s of m om e n t i n c om m on u s e a r e t h e f oot p ou nd o r p ou nd -

oot t on o r t on f oot, a n d t h e i nc h t on
f - - -

or t on i nch -
.

T h e c on s t ru c t i on s h ow n i n F i g .

1 97 i s a v e ry c on v e n i e n t o n e for M
d e t e r m i n i n g gr a p h i c a l l y t h e m om e n t
o f a f or c e a b out a p o i n t AB i s t h e .

l in e of a c t i on of t h e fo rce , a n d M i s H
t h e p oi n t T h e c on s tru c t i on i s a s
.

foll ow s D r a w a b p arall e l t o AB
.

a n d m a k e t h e l e n gth o f a b t o r e p r e

s en t t h e m ag ni tud e of t h e fo r ce FIG 1 97 . . .

T hr ou gh M dr a w a M b p a r a ll e l t o
' '

AB C h oos e a p ol e 0
. Joi n oa a n d ob T ak e any p oi n t . .
1 06 P RA C T I CAL G E O ME T RY

r e d i ly d e t e rm i ne d by i n s p e ct i on T o fi n d t h e m agn i t u d e of
a .

772
O N a t r i ght a n g l e s t o AB
,
Th e n m gn i t ud e of P 0 1? .
,
a
1

A n u n k n o w n fo r c e P h s m om e n t s m
( )
2 m an d m aa ,, 2, 3

p oi n t s O O nd O
,, ( g
,,Fi 1
a 99 ) r e s p e c3t i v e ly i t i s
. re
q
“

d e t e rm i ne t h e fo r ce P .

D r a w O M an d 0 M a t ri ght a ngl e s t o
, , 2 2 M ak e 0
to n c on ve n i e n t s c le a n d m ak e C M m t o t h
a
y a , e s ar ,, 2 2

C M a n d O M a r e o n t h e s a m e o r o n opp o i t e s i de s of
, , z 2 a s

a s m a n d m h a v e t h e s m e or o pp os i t e s i n s a J oi n M M nd 2 a
, 2
, g .
,

i t i f n e c e s ry t o c u t s a or pr odu c e d a t A Th e , . i

p o i n t i n t h e l i n e o f c t i o n of P I n l i k e m a n n e r t h e p o i n t B
a .

as s h o wn a n d AB t h e l i n e of a c t i on o f P i s d e t e r m in e d
,
T he .

m
P i s fou n d by i n s p e c ti on an d t h e m gn i t ud e of P i s e qu a l t o a
,
O 1

O N i s t he p e rp e n d i c ul a r fr om O on AB
, , .

1 00 R e s u l t a n t M o m e n t o f a S y s t e m o f F o r m
.

r e s ult an t m o m e n t of a s y s t e m of fo r c e s a b out a p oi n t i s e q u z

a l e br a i c a l s u m of t h e m o m e n t s of t h e s e p a r a t e fo r c e s a bo u t t h
g
a n d i t i s o bv i o u s th a t th i s s u m m u s t b e e qu a l t o t h e m om e ]

r e s ul t n t of t h e s y s te m bo ut t h e am e po i n t H e n c e t he g
a a s .

d e t e rm i n ti on of t h e r e s ult n t m om e n t of a s y s te m o f forc e s
a a

p o i n t r e s olv e s i n to c on tru c t in g t he r e s ulta n t of t h e s y s t e m

s ,

FIG . 200 . FIG . 201 .

d e t e rm i n ati on of t h e m om e n t of th i s re s ul tan t a bo u t t h e gi i

by t h e c on s t ru c t i on of t h e pr e ce d i n g a rt i c l e T h e t w o c on s .

m ay h o w e v e r b e c om b i n e d i n o n e a s s h o w n i n Fi gs 200
, , , .

AB B C an d C D ar e t hre e g iv e n for ce s nd M i s gi ve n p
, , ,
a a
 G RAP H I C S T AT I C S 1 07

is
"
r e qu i re d t o d e t e r m i n e t he re ult n t m om e n t of t h e gi ve n for c e s s a

a b ou t t h e g i v e n po i n t .

T he p oly g on bod i s t h e for c e p olyg o n

a a d t h e c lo i n g l i n e gi ve s a ,
s ,

t h e m ag n i t ud e n d d i r e c t i o n of t h e r s u lt n t o f t h e thr e e
a i v e n f o r
e a
g ce s .

A p ol e o i s t k e n t p e r p e n d i c u l r di t an c e oh from a d wh i c h i s
a a a a s
'

, a

s i m p l e m ult i p le o r s u b i n u lt i p le of t h e li n e r u n i t T h e l i n k p oly go n a .

o f t he fo r c e s w i t h re fe r e n c e t o t h e p o le o i n e x t dr w n n d t he s a ,
a

i n t e r s e t i o n of t h e c l o i n g s i d s O A n d O D d e t e r m i n e s
c s e po i n t n a a o

t he l i n e of a c t i o n of t h e r e s u lta n t fo r c e A D A l i n e thr ou gh M .

p r ll e l t o a d i n t e r e c t s t h e c lo i n g s i d e s OA n d OD o f t h e l i n k
a a s s a

p olygon a t a n d d T h e m om e n t r e qu i r e d i s e qu l t o a d
’
a
’
. h a
’ '
o .

T h e tr i n gl e o a d i s o bv i o u ly i m i l r t o t h e tr i a n gl e c d n d th e r e for e
' ' '
a s s a a ,
a ,

a s s h o wn i n t he pr e ce d i n g rt i c l e t h e m om e n t of A D b out M i s
a , a

e qu l t o a d
' ’
a oh .

I t m y b e o b e rv e d th a t t h e m om e n t of n y on e of t h e for ce s s ay
a s a ,

B C i s o b t i n e d by dr a w i n g t hr ou gh M
,
a p r ll e l t o B C t o i n t e rs e c t a a a

t he s i d e s o f t h e l i n k p oly g on wh i c h m e e t o n B C t b n d c ; b c
’ ' ' ’
oh a a

i s t h e m om e n t o f B C b o u t M
—
a .

1 01 P r i n
. c i p l e o f M o m e n t s Wh e n n u m b e r o f f o r c e s . c t i n
g a a

on ri gi d b o dy r e i n e qu i l i bri u m th e n t h e m o m e n t s of ll t h e for ces

a a ,
a

a b ou t a n y gi v e n x i s b e i n g t ak e n t he u m of t h e m om e n ts of th os e
a ,
s

for c e s wh i c h te n d to t ur n t he b ody i n on e d i re c t i on b ou t t h e xi s i s a a

e qu a l t o t h e s u m of t h e m o m e n t s of th o e for c e s wh i c h t e n d t o tur n s

t h e b ody i n t h e o p p os i t e d i r e c t i o n b out t he s am e x i s a a
—
.

1 02 C u p s o . l e A coup le c on s i t of t wo e qu l p r l le l for c e s
. s s a a a

a c t i n g i n o pp os i t e d i r e c t i on T h e a r m of c oupl e i s. t h e p e rp e n d i ul a r a s c

d i t n ce be t we e n t h e l i n e s of c t i on of t h e t wo for c e s T h e moment of
s a a .

a c oup le i s t h e pr odu c t of t h e m g n i tud e of on e of t h e fo r c e s a n d t he a

a r m of t h e c oup l e A cou p l e t e n d s t o c u s e a b ody u p on whi ch i t acts

. a

t o r ot te a .

A c oupl e c an n ot be b al n c e d by ny s i n gl e for c e a a .

T wo c o upl e s a c t i n g o n a b ody w i l l b l an c e on e a n oth e r wh e n ( 1 ) a

th e y a e i n t he m e pl n e o i n p r a l l e l p l n e s (2)th ey h ave e qu l
r sa a r a a ,
a

m om e n t s n d 3 th e i r d i re c t i ons of r ot t i on r e opp os i t e
( ),
a a a .

1 03 B e n d i n g M o m e n t a n d S h e a r i n g F o r c e D i a gr am s fo r
.

B e am s Wh e n h or i z on ta l be m i s c t e d o n by v e rt i cal force s o
.
-
a a a r

l o d s th e s e fo rc e s te n d t o b e n d t h e b e m a n d t he b e nd i ng ac t i on t
a ,
a ,
a

an
y tr a n s ve r s e e c t i on i s m
s e s ur e d by t h e l g e br i c l a s u m of t h e a a a

m om e n t s o f t he for c e s o n o n e s i d e o f t h e e c t i on ab ou t h or i z on t l s a a

a x i s i n th t s e c t i on a F o r e x m pl e t h e b a m s h o w n i n Fi g 202
. a ,
e e s . ar

ac t e d o n by fo r c e s P Q nd R to t h e r i g h
,
t o f
,
t
a h e t r a n s v e r s e s e c t i o n

X Y n d t h e be n d i n g m om e n t t X Y i s e q u a l t o
, a

E x u
a
— .

l b t d h r b
T h e oads o n a ea m a ls o e n t o s e t r v r ly a t h e e a m a n s e s e ,
a n d
h h r t tr v r
t e s e a i n g a c i on a t a n y t qu l
an s e s e r ul t t
s e c i o n i s e a t o t h e e s a n

of t hetr v r r t
a n s e s e fo c e s o n o n e s i de o x pl
f t h e s e c i o n F o r e a m e ,
t h e .

h r
s e a in
gt t b h w
a c i on a t t h e s e c i on X Y of t h e e a m s s o n i n Fi g 202 i s .

e qu l
a r ul t t
t o t he es ran
Q wh h
o f t h e fo ce s P , ,
a n d R i c a c t t o t h e

r ht
ig t th r u lt t
o f t he s e c i o n , a n d qu l
is e s Q
an is e a to P R .
1 08 P RA CT I C AL G E O METRY

T he dra w i ng of t h e b e n d i ng m om e n t d i g ram fo a b e m i s s i m p ly a r a

t h e p p l i c ti o n of t he c o n s tru c t i on e x p l i n e d i n Ar t 99
a a I n F i g 203
a . . .

i s s h o wn h or i zon t l c n t i l e ve r c rry i n g v e r ti ca l l oa d AB B C n d
a a a a s , ,
a

CD . a bcd i s t h e l i n e o f l o d s o r o l
p yg o n o f fo r a
c e s A ,
p o l e o i s c h o s e n .

s o th a t t h e p ol e d i s t an ce oh i s i m p le m ult i p l e o r s b m ult i p l e of t h e
a u -

l i n e a r u n i t T h e l i n k p oly gon a n i s th e n dr wn I t i s e y t o s h o w
.
’ ’
a . as ,

a s i n Ar t 1 00 th a t t h e be n d i n g m o m e n t t n y s e c t i o n X Y i s e qu l
.
, a a a

to a d l 1 oh th a t i,
t h e d e pt h of t h e l i n k p oly g on u n d e r t h e s e c t i o n
s,

m ul t i p l i e d by t h e p o l e d i s t n c e T h e d e pt h of t h e l i n k p o ly g on i s
a .

m e s ur e d b y t h e fo r c e s c al e a n d t h e p o l e di s t n c e by t h e l i n e r s c l e
a ,
a a a .

FIG . 202 . FIG . 203 .

t t
I t foll o w s h a , s i n c e t h e p o l e d i s t a n c e i s t h e s a m e for a ll p a rt s of t he
li n k p oly go n , t h e d e pth o f t h e l i n k p oly g on u n d e r a n y s e c t i on o f
t he b e a m i s a m e a s ur e of t h e b e n d i n g m o m e n on t he bea m at t
t t
th a s e c i on , t h e s c al e for m e as ur i n g t h e b e n d i n g m om e n t b e i n g fou n d
a s e xpl a i n e d i n Ar 99 t . .

t
T h e s h e a r i ng fo r c e d i ag r am i s c on s ru c t e d by dr a w i n g h or i z o n a l s t
p
a c r os s t h e s a c e s A , B , C, a n d D
a t t h e l e v e ls a , b, c , a n d d r e s p e c ti v e ly .

pt t
T h e d e h o f h i s d i ag r a m u n d e r a ny s e c t i o n of t h e b e am , m e a s ur e d
t
w i th t h e for c e s c a l e , gi v e s t h e v e r i ca l s h e ar i n g for ce o n t he b e a m a t
t t p
h a s e c t i on For e x am l e , at t h e s e c ti o n X Y t h e s h e a ri n g fo r c e i s
.

t h e r e s ult a n t
of t h e fo r c e s t o t h e r i g ht o f X Y , a n d i s e qu a l t o

An o th e r e x m pl e i s i ll u s tr te d by Fi g 204 H e re a b e am AB
a a . .

r e s ts on s upp or ts t A a n d C n d c rr i e s a d i s tr i but e d l o ad t he
a a a ,

i n te n s i t y of wh i c h a t i n t i s p r op or t i o n a l t o t h e h e i g ht o f t h e

b o v e AB apth a t po i n t T h e l o d d i g r m i s d i v i d e d
ny
p a

s h a d e d d i g r am a a . a a a
1 10 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T R Y

t he m i ddl e ve r ti c l l in e s of all t h e s p c e s b e tw e e n t he for c e s e x c e pt

a a

t h e e n d on e s a n d t h e tru e b e n d i n g m om e n t d i g r m i s o bt i n e d b y
, a a a

dr w i n g a f i r c urv e thr ou g h t he po i n t s thu s de t e r m i n e d an d

a a

c on t i n u i n g t h e c urv e t o t h e v e r t i c a l s thr ou h A n d B wh e r e t h e
g a

b e n d in g m om e n t s a r e z e r o
—
.

1 04 M om e n t o f I n e r t i a
. T h e s u m of t h e pr odu c t s of t h e m a s s .

of e c h e l e m e n t ry p rt of
a b o dy n d t h e s qu r e of i t s d i s t a n c e fr o m
a a a a a

a gi ve n x i i s c all e d t he mom nt f
a s e o

i ne r t i a o f t h e bo dy bo u t th a t a x i s a .

T hu s i f m m m e t c b e t h e m ass e s
, l , 2, 3, .
,

of t h e p a r t s of t h e b ody a n d r r , 1 , 2,

et c . b e t h e d i s t an c e s o f t h e s e p rt s
,
a

r e s pe c t i ve ly from t h e a x i s th e n t he ,

m om e n t of i n e rt i a 2
I m r
l l
2
2mr
2 2
mz r z m etc r
g g . .

T h e m o me nt of i ne r t i a of a n a r e a
a n d t h e mome n t of i n e r ti a of a li ne a r e

d e fi n e d i n a s i m i l a r m an n e r by s u b
s t i t u t i n g a r e a o r le ngt h fo r mass But 1, .

s i n c e a r e as a n d l i n e s h a v e n o i n e rt i a , F m 205 . ,

th e y h av e , s tr i c tly s p e a k i ng , n o m om e n t
of i n e r i a t .

T he mome n t of i ne r ti a of a f or ce a b o u a n a x i s p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e t
l i n e o f ac t i on of t h e fo r c e i s t h e pr odu c t of i t s m agn i tud e a n d t h e
s qu a r e of t h e d i s t an c e of i t s l i n e
t
of a c i on fr om t h e a x i s .

T h e g ra h i c m e th o d of de p
t e r m i n i n g t h e m om e n t of i n e rt i a
of a pl a n e a r e a , o r of a s y s t e m
p
of a r a ll e l for c e s , w i ll b e u n d e r
t
s oo d fr om t h e t wo e x am l e s p
w ork e d ou t i n i gs 205 an d F .

206 .

h w
F i g 205 s o s t h e a . ppl
ica
t th d
i on o f t h e m e o t o n i n g fi d
t rt
t h e m o m e n of i n e i a of a fo c e r
AB b ut p t M
a o a oi n or a o b ut
an a is x t hr u h M
o g an d e
p p r en

di cu la r t o t h e pl
an e of t he
p ape r Throu gh M dr a w MY
.

p arall e l t o AB D ra w MN .

p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o AB Apply .

i n g t h e c on s t ru c t i on e xpl ai n e d

i n Ar t 59 a b x oh
' '
:
.
,

C h oo s e a po l e 0 t a d i t a n c e
'
a s

o h f r om a b wh i c h i s a s i m pl e
' ' ’ ’
,
F m 206 , .

m ult i p l e o r s ub m ult i pl e of t h e
l i n e ar u n i t F r om p oi n t n i n AB dr w n a p r ll e l t o
. a
"
a a a

p ra lle l t o o b Si n c e t he tr i an gl e a b n i s s i m i l a r t o
a
' '
.
" ”
 G RAP H I C S TAT I CS 1 11

it fo ll ow s h th t
M N, an d
a h e r e fo r e
a
"
h
”
o
' '
h a
' ’
t
6673 X o h X MN But Th e re
u " ,
X 0h
' '
Cl b X a h X 0 h = AB X M N .

fo r e a h
" ” ' '
o h X oh AB MN 2
m o m e n o f i n e r i a o f AB a b ou t t t
M a b n a n d a b n a r e l i n k o y gon s , of wh i c h t h e firs t d e t e rm i n e s
.
’ ’ ’ ” ” ”
p l
t he m om e n t
AB x MN , an d t he s e con d d e t e rm i n e s t he m om e n t of
th i s m o m e n t, n a m e ly , (AB MN ) MN T he l e n gt h s a b an d a b ' ' " "
.

t
m u s t b e m e a s ur e d wi h t h e fo r ce s cal e , a n d t he l e n h s oh an d o h w i th
g
' '
t
t h e l i n e a r s c al e .

p
F i g 206 s h o w s t he a pl i c a i on of t h e m e h od t o t he d e e rm i n a t i on
. t t t
of t h e m om e nt
g t
o f i n e r i a of t h e s h a d e d fi ur e a bo ut a n a x i s a a i n
' ”

t h e p lan e of t h e fi gur e T h e a r e a i s d i vi d e d i n t o p a ra ll e l s tr i s , an d
. p
p a r a ll e l fo r c e s A B , B C, CD, E , an d E F ar e s up os e d t o a ct at t h e D p
t t
c e n re s o f g r a v i y of th e s e s tr i s , t h e m a g n i tud e s of t h e fo r c e s b e i n p g
t
pro po r i on a l t o t he a re as of t h e s ri s T h e s u m o f t h e m om e n s of t p . t
t h e s e for ce s ab out t h e gi ve n ax i s i s e qu al t o a f '
oh, a n d t h e s u m o f

th e i r m om e n t s of i n e rt i a i s e qu a l t o a ”
oh
’ '
oh T he l e n g h s af f
’
. t
a nd a
"
t
m u s b e m e as ur e d w i th t h e a r e a s c a l e a n d t he l e ngth s oh an d
' '
t
o h w i h t h e li n e a r s c a l e .

E xe rci s e s V IIIb

1; T pl r r
ee co hrQ
an a fo c e s P , , an d
R (F i g 207 )ac t on a i gi bo y ic is . r d d wh h
p l rtt ut
ca ab e o f o a i on a bo x t an a i s h r o g 0 at r i g an g e s t o t h e an e o f t h e uh ht l pl
r
fo c e s P Q 8 lh 1 0 lb , an d R Z 6 lb i n t h e r e s l an m o m e n o f
. ese F d . ut t t th
tud
. .
,

ut
for c e s abo Dtr 0 e e m i n e t h e m agn i
. e an d s e n se o f t h e fo ce S ic i ll r wh h w
pr v t r t t
e en d
t h e o a i o n o f t h e bo y .

AB
2 (F il v r wh
g 2 08 ) i s a e e . os e f c m i s at o c e s P an d ac t on t h e ul ru A Fr Q .

tt l v r ut
.

lvr hw
e e as s o n Q
P z 1 0 l h , an d
.
z: 1 5 lb R o a i on o f t h e e e ab o
. i t s fu l .

cru pr v t d
m is e en e r b y t h e fo c e R in t h e m agn i e of t h e fo c e R an d . F d tud r
dtr r t
e e m ine t he ul ru
e ac i on o f t h e f c m on t h e e e lvr .

FIG . 207 . FIG . 208 . FIG . 209 . FIG . 21 0 .

R ep r odu ce t he di agr am s t hr ee ti me s t hi s s i z e a n d t hen con s i der t h a t t he

a bove
r ep r odu ce d di a r a m s a r e dr awn to t h e s ca le of J f u ll s i z e
g ;
.

3 . b ar A td
( g
F i 2 AB
09 ) irs ac e o Q
n b y f o c e s P an d as s h o n P z 2 0 lb , w . .

A upl wh t hp u d l t
.

an dQ 25 lb co e os e m om e n i s 30 i n c o n s a s o ac s o n t h e b ar i n -

d l F d
.

pl
t h e s am e Q t
an e a s P a n d v w r t
an d e n s t o gi e c o c k i s e o a i on t o t h e bar in t .

dd t l r
t he a t wh h w ll pr du
i i o n a fo c e a c i n g on t h e b ar ic i o c e e q i i br i m ul u .

A tl vr
4 p l rtt
b e n e e AO B (F i g 21 0)i s c a ab e o f o a i on ab o a p i n at O T he ut .

r t
. .

lv tu d r
e e r i s at r e s t
n e Q
t h e a c i on o f t h e for c e s P , a n d R ,
an d t h e e a c i o n S of

F d tud
,

lvr
t h e p i n on t h e e e PQ 1 5 lh , an d . 20 lb i n t h e m agn i .
e an d s e n s e .

dtr
o f R an d e e m ine S
u AB D h d l tt r l w
.

Dr w
5 .a a s q ar e C o f 2 i n c e s s i e , t h e e e i ng be i n g i n t h e c oc k i s e
dr t A
i e c i on t th u h A
fo r c e P a c s
. pl ro g in the an e o f t h e s q a e P h as a c oc k ur . l
w t hp u d
i s e m om e n o f 1 1 i n c ut B o n s ab o t l a n d an an i c o c k
- i s e m om e n o f 1 9 -
w t
hp u d
i nc -
ut D D t
o n s abo re e r mi n e t h e fo c e P .

Q l t th u h A pl u
.

A th rno e for c e a s o ac s ro g in t he an e o f t h e s q ar e h as a Q .
112 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME TRY

l
c oc kwi m m n t f 24 i h p u d b ut B n d l kwi m m t f 8 i h
se o e o nc -
o n s a o a a c oc se o en o nc
p n d b ut C D t rm i t h f r Q
ou s a o . e e ne e o ce .

6 AB C i . t i gl AB 8 i h B 0 9 i h s a d CA 10 i
r an h e . nc es , nc es, an nc es
T h l tt ri g i l kw i A f r R ti g i t h pl f t h tri gl h
.

e e e n s c oc se . o ce ac n n e an e o e an e as a
l kwi m m t f 40 i h p u d b ut A
c oc se o ti l kwi m m t f 30
en o nc -
o n s a o an an -
c oc se o en o
h p u d b ut B d l kwi m m t f 1 2 i h p u d b ut 0
,

i
nc -
o n s a o , an a c oc se o en o nc -
o n s a o
D t rm i t h f r R u i g li
.

e e ne l f e o ce , s n a n e an s c a e o
7 AB C D i.
qu r f2i h i d l tt r d l kwis a s Af r P t l g a e o nc es s e, e e e c oc se o ce ac s a on
i d AB
.

th e s d th r f
e Q t l g t h d i g l AC T h r ult t
an an o e or c e ac s a on e a on a . e es an
m m
o t f t h f r P d Q b ut D i 1 0 4 i h p u d
en o e t i l kwi
o c es Th an a o s nc -
o n s , an -
c oc se e
r ult t m m t f P d Q b ut t h m i ddl p i t f B C i 25 5 i h p u d
.

es an o en o an a o e e o n o s nc -
o n s,
l kwi
c oc D t rm i t h f r P d Q
se . e e ne e o ces an .

8 Th . ti l v r (Fi g 21 1 ) rri fi l d
e c an h f 1 00 lb eh wn Dr w
e . ca es ve oa s e ac o . as s o a
d i g m m t d h r f r di gr m
.

th b e en n o en an s ea o ce a a s .

9 Th . ti l v r (F i g 21 2)i l d d h w t h e loads b ei ng i n ton Draw

e c an e e . s oa e as s o n, s
t h b ndi g m m t d h f r d i gr m
.

e e n o en an s ea r o ce a a s .

FIG . 21 1 . FIG . 21 2 . FIG . 21 3 . FIG . 21 4 .

. upp rt
1 0 T h e be am (F i g 21 3) es s o n s t p t o l dd
s 1 6 fe e a ar. an d i s oa e as r t
hw t
s o n , t h e lo ads b e i n g i n D w ‘

on s d ra t h r r
t h e b e n i n g m om e n an d s e a fo ce .

d r
i ag am s .

. t upp rt
1 1 T h e b e am (F i g 21 4) r es s o n s t p rt o l dd
s 1 0 fe e a a an d i s
. oa e as
hw l d
s o n , t he t D w
o a s b e in g i n on sd ra t h r r
t h e b e n i n g m om e n an d s e a fo c e .

d r
i ag a m s .

A
12 u lt fi r l t w ll
b e am i s b i
. pr t t r
m y i n o a a a t on e e n d an d j
o e c s 24 fe e f om t h e

th t w ll
f ac e o f a a th r r t r l up rt
T h e o e e n d e s s f e e y on a s . rr po T h e b e am c a i e s a .

u l d tr ut d l d
n i for m y is ib e oa t
o f 1 t on p e r foo p v d th t
run I t m ay b e ro e a t he .

r t upp rt th
e ac i on a t t h e s o hth
is t t ll d
r e e ei g s of t h e Dr w
o a oa on t h e b e a m a t he -
.

d t r d r
b e n i n g m om e n a n d s h e a for c e i ag am s .

A
13 . r t upp rt
b e am ( F ig 21 5) e s s o n s t p rt o l d A t
s 1 6 fe e a a
. T h e oa at i s 2 on s .

h
an d e ac th r l d
of t h e o e D w
oa s i s 1 t on d ra t h r r
t h e b en i n g m om e n an d s e a fo c e .

d i agr am s .

A14 t tl
log o f i m be r 24 fe e u r o ng an d of t fl t t ll
n i fo m c r o s s s e c i on oa s i n s i
p t d pl d l d
.

wtr a e . t r
On t h e t op of t h e le g a t o i n s 6 fe e f o m i t s e n s ar e ac e oa s o f
h D w
200 lb e ac rad t h r r d r
t h e b en i n g m om e n an d s e a fo c e i ag am s
. .

d
.

t th t
[ N o e a t h t r r
e b e n i n g m o m e n s a n d sh e a th fo c e s o n t h e log a r e o s e du e t o
v l d u r upw d w r pr u wh t t l
t h e gi e n o a s an d a n i fo m ar at e es s re ose o a i s 400 lb ] .

A
1 5 T h e be am .
( t r l
F i g 2 1 6 ) tl vr B hw
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 14 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

for e a c h j oi n t i s t h e r e fore a t ri a n gl e T h e t r i a n g l e of for c e s fo r t h e

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j oi n t 2 or for t h e j oi n t 3 c an n o t y e t be dr aw n , be c a u s e t h e m agn i tud e s

of a ll t h e fo r ce s a t t h e s e j o i n t s a r e as y e t u n k n o w n , bu t t h e tr i a n g l e

o f f or c e s for t h e j oi n t 1 m a y b e dra w n , a n d th i s i s s h o w n a t ( m ) .

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i s a l s o d e t e r m i n e d , a n d i t w i ll b e ob s e rv e d th a t t h e i n t e r n a l fo r ce s i n
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of e a c h of t h e thr e e i n t e r n a l fo r c e s , a n d a l s o t he m a gn i t ud e s a n d

s e n s e o f t h e e xt e r n a l for c e s B C a n d CA .
 G RAP H I C S TAT I C S 1 15

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l o d e d a t t h e j oi n ts s s h o wn t he l oa d s b e i n g i n pou n d s
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dr w oh p a r all e l t o t he c los i n g l i n e o f t h e l i n k poly gon t o m e e t t he

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po ly gon of for c e s a bhha i s c om p l e te d P r oce e d i n g t o t he j oi n t B CLKB .

t h e po ly gon o f fo r c e s bclhb i s c om pl e t e d P rocee d i n g fr om j o i n t t o .

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 G RA P H I C S TATI C S 1 19

wh i ch r e pr e s e n t t he ba r d en otes i n cre as e an d de n ote s

s.

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d i s p l ace m e n ts of t h e v ar i ou s j oi n ts m ay h owe ve r be d e te rmi ned as

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a t a d i s t an c e fr o m 0 e qu a l t o t h e l e n g th of BE m e as ur e d on t he di s
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Co n si d e r n e xt t h e j oi n t C C h a s a d ow n w a rd d i s p l a c e m e n t w h os e
.

v e r ti c l com po n e n t i s t h e v e r ti c al c om p on e n t of t h e d i s pl ce m en t of B
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1 20 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

B D is th r
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s o en s an d w i c h h is r pr
e t d by
ese n e cz dz T he o a o i on a
. t t l h rz t l
p
c om on e n tof t he d pl t
i s a ce m e n D of is e e fo e Odz dl d th r r .

p rp
e en ic d ul r
a t
t o Od1 m e e i n g t h e ‘
v rt e i ca o g d2 l thr u h
e e m ine s d t r
p t
d t h e n e w os i i on of D uas s m in th t
g r
a i t s o i g i na o s i i on w a s O lp t .

T he ang a ul r d fl t
e e c i on of a n y b a r i s m e a s e t he a io y l ur d by r t
wh r e e y i s t he r l t v d pl
e a i e t
i s ace m e n of t h e e n s a t ig ang e s t o d r ht l
l th
t h e b ar a n d l i s t h e e n g of t h e b ar F o r e a m e , c on s i e t h e bar
. x pl d r
BD . t d pl t
T h e c om pon e n of B s i s a ce m e n at i g
’
an g e s t o B D i s t l r ht
il l
o r d3d1 wh r
e e bd3 i s p r ll l
a a e t o O dl T h e c o m on e n o f D s i s p a c e
.
’
p t d l
m en t
at igr ht an
g l
e s to B D i s H
dd ]
e n c e dd 3 i s .t h e e a i e r l tv
d p
i s la c e m e n
d pl
i s acem e n
t
of

t
D an d B
of B D i s dd3 j B D
r ht
at ig l
—
—
a n g e s t o B D , a n d t h e an g

I f B D i s 1 4 fe e .
a

an d dd3 i s t
ul r
02 92
00 01 7 4 e e Wh th r
.

th is be tak e n
t he ci c a
as r ul r
ur
m e a s e , o r t h e s i n e , or t h e
t g t
a n e n of t h e a n
g e , t h e a n g e l l
b ei ng e v ry
s m al , t he an g e l l
ut
i s 6 m i n e s or 1 l 0t h of a -

d egr e e .

I n t h e for e go in g e x am l e p
on e m e m b e r A E F )
( g i 22 2 .

p
w a s s u p o s e d t o b e fix e d a n d
t o r e m a i n o f t h e s am e l e n g h t .

A n e x a m pl e w i ll n o w b e c on
s i de r e d i n wh i c h all t h e
m e m b e r s a r e d i s l ac e d F i g p . .
00 8 5
223 s h o w s a r oof ru s s A D F t
i n wh i c h t h e j oi n A i s fi x e d t
a n d t h e j oi n t F
i s fr e e t o
m ov e h ori z on t a lly T h e ru s s . t
s upp ort s d e a d l oa d s a n d i n

a dd i t i on a w i n d l o a d o n t h e

l e ft h an d s i d e Th e s e l oa d s
-
.

c au s e t
a l e r a i on s t in t he
l e n gth s of t h e b a rs wh i c h ar e
t
s a t e d on t h e l i n e s wh i c h r e

pr e s e n t h e m t .

A s s u m e i n t h e firs pl ace t
t h a t , s ay , t h e b a r C D r e
t
m ai n s v e r i c a l a n d h a C i s t t
fix e d i n po s i i on Ch oos e t .

a n o r i gi n 0 a n d a x e s X an d O
t
C Y a n d d e e rm i n e t he di s Fm , 223
,

p t
l ace m e n s of t h e v a ri ou s
j oi n t s , as i n t he pre vi ou s e xampl e, t h e o r i gi n a l p os i ti on of e a c h
1 22 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

N e x t n e gl e c t t h e l o d a on t he p art AC a n d c on s i d e r t h e l oad Q on
,

t he p r t B C
a T h i s l oa d . c us e r ea c t i on s 8
a an d T
2 at A an d B
2

r e s pe ct i ve ly a n d th e se ,

r ea c t i ons m y b e fo u n d a

i n t he s am e w ay as S,
an d T , w e re fo u n d .

Wh e n b ot h l o d s P a

an d Q act i t i s e vi d e n t
,

th at t h e r e ac ti on a t A
w i ll b e t h e r e s ul t an t o f
S, an d S2 , t he r e a nd

t
a c i on a t B w ll i be t h e
r ult t T
es an of , an d T 2 .

t
T h e r e a c i on o f t h e
p r AB
a t p rt
on t h e a CB
at B w ll i r
b e t h e fo c e
h h w ll b l
w ic i a an c e t h e

r Q
fo ce r t
an d t h e e ac io n

at r t
C , a n d t h e e ac i o n
of t h e p rt a CB o n t h e
p r t AB
a B w ll
at i r wh h w ll b l
b e t h e fo ce r
ic i a a n ce t h e fo c e P an d

r
t h e e a c t i on a t A Th r t w ll
e s e t wo ur qu l
e a c i on s
. i , of c o s e , b e e a an d

o pp os i t e .

Wh tr
en t h e y tr l b t v r t l
u s s i s s mm e tr l
i ca a ou a e i ca c e n e i n e , an d i s
y
s m me tr lly l d d
i ca r t
oa e , t h e B w ll h rz t l
e a c i on s a t i be o i on a , a n d t h e

l t r t A ll
i n e of a c i on o f t h e e a c i on a t l j A w th
wi b e t h e i n e oi n i n g i t he
p toi n t r t l
of i n e s e c i o n of t h e t r ult t l d
i n e of a c i on of t h e e s an oa on t h e

h l t ru AB w th
a f ss i h rz t l l thr u h
t h e o i on a i n e o g

r t u d
t h e e ac i o n a t C i s fo n
lk
i n i e m ann e r .

T h e t wo p rt a s of a

t hr hee -
d r h
i n g e a c m ay b e
d r d
c on s i e e rd r
a s t w o gi e s

or t w o b l d d
e am s oa e oh

li q u e ly Wh
. th
en ese

b ld
e am s a r e s o i bu lt or i
u
p of pl t l
a e s a n d an g e s

t d
i ns ea b
of p
ei ng o en

br ce w ork t h e y e c ll e d
a ar a

a r che d r i bs .

An r ch e d r i b of a
a

t hr e e h i nge d r c h i s s h ow n
-
a

i n F i g 225 t h e j oi n t s
.
,

be i n g a t 1 a n d 4 T h i s . FIG 925 . ,

r i b c a rr i e s v e r t i c a l l oa d s
AB a n d B C T h e r e ac ti on s CO and C A at t h e j oi n ts m ay b e d ote r
.
a

m i n e d i n t h e m an n e r a lr e a dy e x pla e i n d a n d o a b c t h e p ly g
o o n
,
o f e xt r l
,
e n a

r
fo c e s m ay,
th en b e dr a w n I f t he l i n k p o ly g o n .
1 2 3 4 fo r t h e e x t e r n a l
fo r ce s b e dra wn s o a s t o p as s t hr ou gh h j ti 1 d 4 th p ly g
i
t e o n s a n s o o n
 G RA P H I C S TAT I C S 1 23

i s c all e d t h e li nea r a r ch fo r t h e r i b T h e s i d e s of t h e l i n e ar a r c h ar t h
.
e e
l i n e s o f ac t i on of t h e thru s t s wh i c h t h e r i b h a s t o s uppo rt T h e .

t g t
m agn i ud e s o f th e s e hru s t s a r e i v e n by oa ob a n d 00
, , I t w i ll be .

o b s e rv e d t t t t
h a e a c h of h e s e hru s s h a s a h o ri zon t a l c om on e n t wh os et p
m ag n i tud e i s g i v e n by oh, t h e e r e n d i c ul a r fr o m 0 on a bc p p .

C on s i d e r t h e n o r m a l s e c i on L M of t h e r i b t
L e t G b e t h e c e n r oi d .
t
of th i s s e c i o n t
T h e thru s t R o n L M h a s t h e m a n i tud e ob a nd
.

g
s i n c e R d oe s n ot p a s s thr o u h G th e r e i s a b e n d i n t
g g m om e n on t h e
r i b a t L M wh os e m a n i tud e i s R x G N wh e r e G N i
g s t he e r en
,
p p
di c u lar fr om G o n 2 3 D
r a w t h e v e rt i c al GE t o m e e 2 3 at E Com
. t .

p a r i n g t h e tr i an gl e s G N E an d ohb i t w i ll b e s ee n h a th e y ar e s i m i ar , t t l
a n d th a t
GE z G s ob z oh, or GN = R > < GN
t
.

Bu R G N is t h e b e n d i n g m om e n t a t t he s e c i on LM , th e re for e
x t
GE oh i s a l s o t h e b e n d i n
g m om e n t a t LM H e n c e t h e v e r i c al . t
p t
i n t e r ce t b e w ee n t h e l oc u s of G an d t h e l i n k oly o n 1 2 3 4 a t a n
g y p
poi n t on th a t l oc u s i s a m e as ure of t he b e n d i n g m om e n t a t th a p oi n t , t
since oh i s c o n s t a n t
T h e s h a d e d fi gur e i s th e r e for e t h e b e n d i n
.

g
t
m om e n d i a g ram for t h e r ib .

Le t 2 3 m e e ML pro du c e d a t t R e s olve R i n t o c om p on en s P F . t
a n d Q p e rp e n d i c ul a r a n d a r a ll e l r e s e c i v e l p
y t o LM I t i s e a s i ly p t .

s e e n th a t P GF x
R x G N th e re fo re t he b e n d i n g m om e n on t h e t
r i b a t G i s e qu a l t o P x G F .

t
I n a dd i i on t o t h e b e n d i n g m om e n on t h e r i b a t t h e s e c i on L M t t
th e r e i s a s h e a r fo rc e e qu al t o Q an d a n orm a l thru s t wh os e r e s ul an t t
p as s e s thr ou g h G an d i s e qu a l t o P

E x er ci s e s V I IIc

I n wOr ki/ng t he followi n g e x er ci s es on for ces i n fr amed s tr u ctu r es i t i s no t

s ufii ci en t t o dr a w t he
for ce di a gr am s T h e for ces s hou ld be s ca led ofi fr om t he
'

fo r ce di agr a m s a n d t he r e s u lts s ta ted on t he li n es of t he fr am e di a gr a m T he li n es

.

of t he
fr a m e di a gr a m whi c h r ep r e s en t bar s whi c h a r e i n comp r es s i on s h ou ld be
li n ed i n con s i der a bly t h i c ker t h a n t h e o t he r s aft er t he for ces ha ve been de ter m i ne d .

1 . A r
c an e fr am e i s s o n at (a )F i g 226 hw T h e e e r n a fo r c e s ar e , t h e loa
. . xt l d

FIG . 226 .

W of 2 ton s h iz t l f
,
the R d th r
or ti n t t h f t t p
on a or c e an e e ac o a e oo s e at th e lw
o er
end o f th p t eTh l w r
os d f t h p t i h m i ph r
. e o l d e en o e os s e s e i ca an t he r e ac t i on

th er e m y b
a um d t p t h r ug h t h
e as s et f t h ph t h
o as s o e c en r e o e s ere , e a x O

is of the
1 24 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

l w r l pi n g m m b r l p
o e s o wh pr du d thr ugh that p i t Dr w t h
e e a so as s e s , en o ce ,
o o n . a e

fr m d i gr m f ur ti m
a e a t h gi v
a oiz d th d t rm i t h r ti
es e en s t th e an en e e ne e eac on a e

f t t p
oo s e d th f r an i th b B C D dE
e o c es n m i g th t t h l d W
e ar s , , ,
an ,
as s u n a e oa

i hu g d i
s nt ly fr m t h j i t A d (2) um i g th t t h l d W i u p d d
r ec o e o n ,
an ,
as s n a e oa s s s en e

by h i whi h p
a c a n v r p ll y t A h w by t h d tt d li
c as s e s o e a u e a as s o n e o e nes .

[ N t th t wh
o e h i a p v r p u
en a c ll y t h a n u l t t f r
as s e s o t h x l e a e e r es an o c e on e a e

o f t h pu ll y i t h
e ult t f t w f r
e s e r es h qu l t t h t an o i i th
o hi o ce s e ac e a o e e n s on n e c a n

an d ti g l g t h tr i ght p t f t h h i whi h p
ac n a on e s a d fr m t h p ll y ]
ar s o e c a n c r oc e e o e u e .

2 A fr m i h w t (b)F i g 226 T h l d W i 5 t
c r an e a e s s o n a Dr w t h . . e oa s on s . a e

fr m d i g m thr t v z D t r l w ht
.

a e y a ra i m t h g
sai i
, ee m i t h bes e i g L en s e . e e ne e a an ce e

th t th r h ll b b di g th l w p rt f t h r p t
,

so a e e s ti
a e no en n ac on on e o er a o e c an e os .

D t rm i t h f
e e ne i t h v ri u m m b r
e or c e s f t h fr m
n e ( 1 )
a u m o i g th
s t t h e e s o e a e, as s n a e

l d W i ppli d d i r tly t t h p i t f t h j i b (2) um i g th t t h l d W i

oa s a e ec a e o n o e ,
as s n a e oa s

s u p d d by h i whi h p
s en e a c v r t w qu l pul l y
a n c h w by t h d tt d
as s e s o e o e a e s as s o n e o e

li nes [ S t t p r d
ee n o e i g x r i ] o ece n e e c se

3 A pr j t i g t u p h d i h w t ( )F i g 226
.

fo ec th f f
n r ss or e r oo o an O en s e s s o n a c . .

T h tru i l d d w l d p d Dr w r
.

e ss h s t h
oa e b i asg i s o n, t h f
e m oa s e n n o un s . a e a e

d i gr m y thr t i m t h gi v n i z
a a ,
sa ,
ee d th d t rm i t h f r i t h
es e e s e an en e e ne e o ces n e

v ri u m m b r
a o s e e s .

4 A p t r f tru i
en h wn t (d)F i g 226 T h t u i l d d
oo ss s s o a hw . . e r ss s oa e as s o n,
l d p u d Dr w r d thr t v z
.

t h e boai g i s e n t h n f m o in g m s .
i m a t h g i i e a e a ra ee es e en s e

an d th d t rm i t h f r i t h v i u m m b r
en e e ne e o ce s n e ar o s e e s .

5 T h .g i v fet ( g
F i 2 2 7
e n r oo) i l d d h
r us sw F i d .
d m ur t h s oa e as s o n . n an e as e e

FIG 227 . .

v rti l upp ti ng f r
e ca s or o ces a t A nd B a D t rm i n t h thru t i n h
. e e e e s e ac of t h e t wo
upp r h i z t l m m b
e or on a e er s f th ofr m wri ti g t he wr a e, n e an s e s on r
t h e ba s
th m lv e se es . [R 1 E -

6 A u b r f tru . i c r oo ss s s h own t ( )F i g 228 a T h trus i l d d

a . . e s s oa e as s hw o n,

FIG . 228 .

t he l d bi oa s e ng in o n s pu d . Dr w t he fr m d i
a a e agr am thr tim ee es t h e gi ven i z s e

an d th n d t e e e r m i n e t h e fo r in t h v i u m
ces e ar o s e m be s . r
 26 P RA CT I C AL G E O ME T RY

( oIa d fl ti
on e n t f D Fi d l t h
of gu l r d fl ti
t he f e ec on o . n a so e an a e ec on o
éI [ n] a
14 A r h t h f rm h w
. i F i g 232
c an e A l d W u th b r t
as e o s o n n . . oa ca se s e a s o
a lt r i l gth by t h m u t w i tt th r t h m i u i g d ti g h t
e n en e a o n s r en e e on , e n s s n eno n s or e n
i g n T h j i t A b i g fix d
. d t h j i t B b i g fr
e o n t m v h ri z t l l y
e n e an e o n e n ee o o e o on a
fi d t h d fl ti f D ur i t v rti l d h ri z t l m p t
,

n dm e e ec on o an e as e s e ca an o on a co on e n s

Wh t i t h
.

gu l r d fl t i tu l l gth i 1 00 ’
a f ths b CD i f i t
e an a e ec on o e ar s ac a en s
h
,

i nc es
15 F r t h w . ti g t h giv r f tru (F i g
o ces, no u ths o n , ac n on e en oo ss . ca se e

FIG . 231 . FIG . 232 . FIG . 233 .

b ar s t o lt r i l gth by t h m u t w i tt th r
a e n en th mi u i gn d ti g e a o n s r en e e on , e n s s eno n
sh rt i g I f t h d A i fix d d B i fr t m v h i z nt ll y fi d t h
o en n . e en s e ,
an s ee o o e or o a ,
n e

d i pl m t f B
s ac e en o .

Wh t i t h gu l r d ia pl m s t f t h
e an h i z t l b a CD i f i t tu l l gth
s ac e en o e or on a ar s ac a en

i 110 i
s h nc es

1 6 T h d i gr m (F i g 234) h w
. e ai m pl a f tru ti g w ll d . s o s a s e r oo ss , r es n on a s an

l d d h w t h p b i g 1 5 f t d t h i li ti f t h ft r
oa e as s o n, e s an e n ee an e nc na on o e ra e s

( ) F i d d
a m ur t h hnr i z t
an l thru t t h w
e as ll e e o on a s on e a s .

( )
b Dr w d i g m h w i ga t h thru t h
a ra i g f r s d b sd i g mo m t n e s , s e ar n o ce an en n o en
thr ugh ut t h l gth f
o o f t h r ft e M
en u t h m xi m u m v l u f
o on e o e a e rs . e as re e a a es o

th q u t i ti
ese an es .

FI G . 234 . FI G . 235 .

17 . A br
d r h hi g d t t h r w d t
ac e h pri gi g i l d d
a c ,
n e a e c o n an a e ac s n n , s oa e as
sh w i F i g 235 D t rm i t h h ri z t l thru t
o n n . th but m.t Fi d e e ne e o on a s on e a en s . n
th f r i
e ll t h m m b
o ces f th tru t Wh t i t h h ri g f r
n a e th e ers o e s c ur e . a s e s ea n o c e on e

pi t th
n a rw e c o n
18 A r h d i b i t h f rm f i r u l r
. n a c ACB i h i g d t
e h dA
r n e o o a c c a ar c , s n e a e ac en ,

B d t t h r w C T h p AB i 1 50 f t d t h ri 30 f t D w t h
,
an a e c o n . e s an s ee , an e se ee . ra e
curv f t h r h t e ol f ai h t 1 0 f te a c o a s ca e o nc o ee .

A l d f 10 t p v r t h r h C fi y ur tt ti t
oa o on s p i ti as s e s o e e a c . on ne o a en on o on e os on
on l y f thi l d th t f whi h i t h ri z t l d i t
o s oa fr m A i ,
50 f t a or c s o on a s an c e o s ee .

D t rm ie e d m ur t h h ri z t l thru t f t h r h i t
ne an Dr w
e as e e o on a s o e a c n on s . a a

d i g m f b di g m m t
a ra th oib d m ur t h m xi m um b d i g
en n o en on e r , an e as e e a en n
m m ti to f t D t rm i
en l n d m ur t h gr t t th u t d t h
on -
ee . e e ne a s o an e as e e ea e s r s an e
 G RAP H I C S TAT I CS 1 27

gr e at t h r i t h i b n d t t t h h ri z nt l d i t n fr m A f t h pl
es s ea n e r ,
a s a e e o o a s a c es o o e ac e s
wh r th e e ur e s e oc c .

1 9 T h f rm f . r h d i b i i r ul r
e o f 1 00 f t p n o
d 16 f t i an a c e r s a c c a ar c o ee s a an ee r se ,
th upp rt b i g t t h m l v l I t i h i g d t t h d d l d d wi th
e s o s e n a e sa e e e . s n e a e en s an oa e a
w i ght f 1 2 t
e t h ri z t l d i t
o f 30 f t fr m
on s a
d T h h ria o on a s an c e o ee o on e en e o
n t l thru t r h i k wn t b 1 2 5 t
.

zo f th
a s o e a c s no o e on s .

Dr w d i gr m f b di g m m t f t h
a a a h I di t t h pl
a o en n o en or e ar c n ca e e ac es
wh r t h h ri g f r th u t d b di g m m t
.

e e e s ea th i b h v th i r
n o ce, r s ,
an en n o en on e r a e e
m xi m um v l u
a d gi v th v lu a e s , an e ese a es .

20 A fl yi g buttr h t h f rm n d w i ght h w i n F i
n es s as e
g 236 It i o a e
.
b s o n . . s su

o s ton
-

7 0 55
- -
as so 7s 53 -
5

2" w”
Scale z on e to an awn .

FI G . 236 . FI G . 237 .

j oe t thru t P i n d i t d S h w t h li
to a s f th f r ti g r t h
as ca e . o e n es o e o ce s ac n ac o s s e
se v r l j i t S t t t h m gn i tud f t h f r
e a o n s . t h b d j i t BB
a e Ad pt e a e o e o c e on e e o n . o a
f r l f 4i h t 1 t
o ce s c a e o nc o on .

2 1 AB D C F i g 237
. pr n t t h ti f h l f r h T h p
, . f th ,
re ese s e s ec on o a a -
a c . e s an o e
h l f r h i 40 f t ri
a -
a c 20 f t thi k
s f k y t 6 f t thi k
ee ,
f se h ee ,
c ne ss o e -
s on e ee , c n e ss o ar c
i g t b utm
r n a t AB 9 f t
a en , , ee .

Th l d et h h lf r h
oa upp d
s on tr t d h w e a -
a c ar e s os e c on c e n a e as s o n .

T h d tt d r e bd d or pr t t h l i m i t f f t y d
e a cs t n thi d an ac e e sen e s o sa e ,
an ar e a o e -
r

of t h thi k e f th r h ri g fr m t h xtr d
c ness d i tr d
o p ti v l ye a c -
n o e e a os an n a os r e s ec e .

T h h ize t l thr t t t h r w i
or on a um d t b l g t h li dt d t h
us a e c o n s as s e o e a on e ne ,
an e

cu v f th u t i furth r um d t p th ugh t h p i t wh t h v ti l
r e o r s s e as s e o as s ro e o n e ere e er ca

th ugh t h butm t F A m t t h d tt d
ro e a D t rm i end d w th ee s e o e ar e ac . e e n e an ra e
cur f thru t b tw t h p i t d d by m n f fun i l r p lyg
ve o s e e en d e o n s an e, ea s o a cu a o on , an

gi v t h v l u
e f th h iz
e t l thru t t d
a e o e or on a s a .

S l f l gth 1 0 f t t
ca e o i h en s, ee o an nc .

S l f l d 10t n t
ca e o n i h oa s, o s o a nc .
 CH AP TER IX

PLANE CC ORDI
-
NAT E GE OMET R Y
1 10 C o o r di n a t e s o f a P o i n t
.
-
T h e p os i ti on of a p oi n t P i n a
. .
-

pl an e (t h e pl an e of t h e p ape r) m ay b e fix e d by gi vi n g i t s d i s tan ce s
a; a n d y f ro m t w o fix e d i n t e r s e c t i n
g s t r a i g h t l i n e s O X a n d O Y F
( g i s .

238 a n d t h e d i s t a n c e s a; an d y b e i n g m e as ur e d p ar a ll e l t o O X
a n d O Y r e s p e c t i v e ly a s s h o w n .

T h e fix e d l i n e s O X an d O Y a r e c a ll e d t h e a cr e s T h e a x es a r e of .

u n l i m i te d l e n g t h a n d e ac h e x t e n d s b oth w ay s from O T h e po i n t O .

wh e r e t h e a x e s i n t e r s e c t i s c all e d t h e ori gi n T h e d i s tan c e x i s ca ll e d

.

t h e a bs ci s s a a n d t h e d i s ta n c e y t h e or di n a t e of t h e p oi n t P a n d t h e s e ,

t w o d i s t a n ce s t oge t h e r ar e c a ll e d t h e co or di n a t e s o f t h e p oi n t P
-
A .

p oin t P wh os e cc ord i n a t e s ar e x an d y m ay be r e fe rr e d t o a s t h e
-

p oin t say .

FIG . 238 . FIG 239

. . FIG . 240 .

Wh en t he a xes a r e at ri ght an gl e s to th e r ( F i g 238 )

on e a n o . a: a n d
y ar e t he r ec t a n
g l c o or di na t e s of t h e
u ar -

,
a poi n t P n d wh e n t he
a n le
g
b e tw e e n t h e a x e s i s n ot a r i gh t a n gl e (Fi g 239)a: an d y a r e t h e obli que
.

co o r di na t es of t h e p oi n t P
-
.

T h e a b s ci s s a a: i s p os i t i v e or n e g a t i v e a cc ord i n
g a s t he

p oi n t P i s t o t h e r i gh t or l e ft r e s p e c t i ve ly of t h e a x i s O Y , a n d t he
o rd i n a t e y i s p o s i t i ve o r n e g a t i v e a c c o rd i n g a s t h e p oi n t P i s a b ove o r

be l o w t h e a xi s O X .

T h e p os i t i on of a p oi n t P i n a pl a n e ( t h e p l a n e of t h e p a p e r) m ay
b e fixe d i n t h e m an n e r i llu s tra t e d by F i g 240 O i s a fixe d p oi n t
. .

c a ll e d t h e ole , a n d O X i s a fix e d s tr a i gh t l i n e c a l l e d t h e i n i t i a l li ne ,
p
o r li ne of r ef e r e n ce T h e po i n t P i s j oi n e d t o O a n d t h e l i n e O P
.

wh os e l e n g t h i s r i s c a l le d t h e r a di u s vec tor T h e a n gl e 0 wh i c h O P .

m a k e s w i t h OX , m e a s ur e d f ro m O X i n t h e a n t i c l o c kw i s e d i r e c t i on i s -

c all e d t h e ve c tor i a l a ngle r a n d 0 a r e c a ll e d t h e p olar c o o rd i n a te s of

.
-
1 30 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

of fir s t d e gree i s tr i gh t l i n e an d s i n c e a s t r i gh t l i n e i s fix e d
t he a s a ,
a

by t w o p oi n t s i n i t t h e g r p h of s u ch n e qu a t i on m y b e dr wn as
,
a a a a

k n ow n F o r e x m pl e t k e t h e e qu a ti on —
s oon s t w o v lu e s of ac
a n d t h e t w o co rr e s p o n d i n g v lu e s o f y
a a e a ar

. a 2 ,
33
) a 9 0 P u t as .

0 th e n g 3 P u t a; 1 0 the n 3 9 P l ot t i n g t h e poi n ts 2
a; ,
) .
, .

3 and 10 y,
9 3 n d j o i n i n g th e m d e t e r m i n e s t h e
x ,
:
,
a

g r a p h o f t h e e qu t i on 2 3 g a 9 0 x .

I f a s tr i ght l i n e i s p ar l le l t o OX an d at a d i s t n c e b from i t
a a a ,

th e n for e v e ry p oi n t i n t he li n e 3) b n d th i s i s t h e e qu a t i on t o t h e ,
a ,

l i n e T h e d i s t an ce b i s p os i t i ve or n e g t i ve c c ord i n g s t h e l i n e i s
. a a a

FIG . 243 .

a b ov e o r b e l o w OX I f a s t rai gh t l i n e i s pa r ll e l t o OY an d t a
. a a

d i t an c e a fro m i t th e n for e v e ry p oi n t i n t h e l i n e a: a n d th i s i s
s , ,
a

t h e e qu ti on t o t h e l i n e
a T he d i s ta n ce i s p os i t i ve or n e ga t i ve
. a

c c o rd i n g s t h e l i n e i s t o t h e r i h t o r l e ft o f O Y
a
a
g .

F or p r obl e m s i n c o ord i n t e geo m e t ry -

s qu a r e d p a p e r
a w i ll b e
fo u n d v e ry c on v e n i e n t F i g 243 r e p re s e n t s a p i e ce of qu r e d p a pe r
. . s a

o n wh i c h r e dr w n e l e v e n
a t r a i gh t l i n e s n u m b e r e d 1 t o 1 1
a s .

T h e e qu t i o n s t o t h e l i n e s s h o wn i n Fi g 243 r e g i v e n be l o w n d
a . a a

t h e s t ud e n t s h ould c a r e fully s t u dy t h e s e c om p r i n g th e m w i t h th e i r ,
a

r ph T h u i t u s e d i s t h e l e n th of i d f t h m a ll s qu r e s

—7
g as e n g e o e s s a

—l 4
. .

1 -
y i 3 g .
=
% w , or 2g = w
4 g .
 P LANE C C O R D I N ATE G E O METRY 1 31
-

q —
=
,
y 9 x : 7, e r
——
.
a
s
.
y §
-

x 1 0 a: 1 0, or w + 10 = 0 .

y x 5, 11 y 7,
0
,
.
-
or
g + 7 = 0 .

0 ,
y or
g

Com p a r i n g t he l i n e s 1 , 2, an d 3 i t w i ll be s ee n th a t t h y
e ar e
p a ra ll e l , a n d wh e n th e i r e qu a t i ons ar e wri t te n i n t h e for m 3) ma: c,
t h e c oe ffi c i e n t of a: i s t h e s a m e fo r e a c h li n e Li n e 4 i s p e rp e n d i c ul a r
.

t o l i n e s 1 , 2, a n d 3, a n d t h e “
m for 4 i s t he r e c i pr o c a l of t h e “ m ”
”

fo r 1 , 2, a n d 3, w i t h t h e s i gn c h an ge d .

I f t h e u n i t s fo r a: a n d y a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e s am e l e n t h on t he
g
r a ph of t h e e qu a ti o n me: c , th e n m i s t he t a n e n t of 0 Fi s
g 3) g ( g .

241 a n d 242)t h e i n c l i n a t i on of AB t o t he a x i s of x 0 b e i n m ur d
, g e a s e
i n t h e a n ti c l oc kw is e d i r e c ti on
-

Bu t i n m an y pra c t i ca l p robl e m s i n
.

c o o rd i n a te g e o m e t ry t h e c o o r di n a te s a c an d r pr t d r t k d
g e i ff i
-

e s e n
-

e e n n s
of qu a n t i t i e s a n d e v e n w h e n th e y r e pr e s e n t t he s a m
e k i n d o f qu a n t i ty
t h e s c a l e s u s e d for m e as uri n g th e m on t h e r ap h s m a b d i ff r t
g y e e e n ,
a n d t h e s l op e o f t h e l i n e wh i c h i s t h e r a ph of t h e e qu a t i on y
g mw+ c ,
wh e r e m i s a de fi n i te n u m be r, m ay be ve ry d i ffe re n t in d i ffe r e n t c as e s
d e pe n d i n g o n t he s cal e s u s e d fo r m e as uri n g a; a n d y Th e s e re m ark s .

w i ll be be t te r un d e r s too d afte r s t udy i n g t he foll ow i n g t wo e xam p l e s

—
E X AM P LE 1 I n a c e r ta i n m a c h i n e for rai s i ng w e i ght s t he e ffor t
.
.

Q i n po u n d s , a t t he dri vi n g poi n t r e qu i re d t o rai s e a l oad W, i n

,

po u n d s , w as fou n d t o be gi v e n
b y t h e e qu at i o n Q 0 2W + 4
Q 0 2W+ 4
° ’

. = -

Si n c e Q i s m u c h s m a ll e r th an W
a m o r e s a t i s fa c t o ry r a p h of t he
g
e qu a t i on i s ob t a i n e d by u s i n g a
large r s ca l e for Q t h an fo r W .

F i g 244 s h o w s a gr a p h of t h e
.

e qu a t i o n w i th t h e s c a le for
Q fi v e TR
,

t i m e s th at fo r W O b s e rve th a t FO
.

t o fi nd m or
g? f rom t h e g r aph ,

P L m u s t b e m e a s ure d on t h e
e ffo r t s c a l e a n d C L o n t h e l oa d

sc a l e O n t he e ffort s c a l e PL
. 80
a nd o n t h e loa d s c a l e CL 400 .

Th e re for e C
PL
— 80
0 2 as i n
L 400
t h e e qu a t i o n gi v e n .

E X A MP LE 2 T h e h or s e po w e r , H , t v a ri e d
0

.
- -
of a s e am e n gi n e w as
by a lt e ri n g t h e i n i t i a l s te am pr e s s ure . T he we i gh t of s t e am , W n ,
i

po u n d s , u s e d by t h e e n gi n e
e r h o ur , wa s m e a s ure d a t
p
d iffe re n t p ow e rs a n d t h e
r e s ult s w e re as gi ve n i n
t h e t a bl e .

P l ot t i n g H h or i z on t a lly
1 32 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

t o a s c al e of 1 i n c h t o 20 h o rs e p ow e r, a n d W v e r i c al ly t o a s ca l e of
-
t
1 i n c h t o 500 po u n d s , t h e re s ul s a r e s h own by t he d o t s i n F i g 245 t . .

I t w i l l b e se e n h a t h e s e t t
t p
d o s a r e a p rox i m a e ly i n S t
t
a s ra i h
g lti t
n e , an d h a t t h e D
N

g t
s t i ai h l i n e pa ss i n t h i o u h
g g
U
O
P
t he p o i n s H t 0, W 50, N |
and H 40, W 6 50, 400 £
,

l i e s e v e n ly am on gs t h e UD t
,

do st . H e n c e t he r e l a
t
t i on b e w e e n W a n d H 5 200
i s gi v e n a ppr o x i m a e ly by t
an e qu a t i o n of t h e fo r m
0
5
W = m H c , w h e re c 50
PL 6 00
an d m
CL 40 FIG 245 . .

O b s e rv e th a t c a n d P L ar e
t t
m e a s ur e d o n t h e W s c a l e a n d h a CL i s m e as ur e d on t h e H s c al e .

t
Judg m e n i s r e qu i r e d i n c h oos i n g t h e s cal e s for a: an d g i n pl o t i n g t .

I n g e n e ra l t h e s c a l e s s h o uld b e s u c h th a t , i n t h e c as e of a s trai ght

l i n e , t h e li n e s h ould b e i n c l in e d t o t he a x i s of x at a n a n gl e ly i ng
b e t w e e n 30 a n d
0

t t
I n c o o rd i n a e ge om e ry wh e n t h e p a rt of a l i n e or a fi g ur e i s b e i n g
-

t t
d e a l w i h wh i c h i s at c on s i d e rabl e d i s t an ce s fr om t he ax es , a n e w p ai r
of a x e s m ay b e dr a w n n ea r e r t o t h e fi g ur e a n d pa r a ll e l t o t h e o r i g i n a l

a x e s wh i c h m a n o w b e o ff t h e p a p e r T h e n e w o r i i n w i ll h ow e v e r
y g .

n ot b e t h e z e r o p oi n t
for a: or y F o r e x am pl e .

i f t h e n e w a x i s of g i s 50 u n i s t o t h e r i g ht t
of t he ori i n al a x i s of y t h e n e w o ri gi n w i ll
g
t
r e pre s e n 50 on t he a xi s of x
—
.

11 2 T h e C i r cl e
. R e fe rri n g t o Fi g 246 ,
. .

t
C i s t h e ce n r e of a c i r c l e , t h e co or di n at m of -

C bei ng a an d b P i s a n y p oi n on t he cir
. t
c u m fe r e n c e o f t h e c i r c l e , t h e co o rd i n a e s o f P -
t
b e in g a: a n d y P M an d ON ar e t h e p e rpon
.

di c u lar s fr om P an d C on O X C L i s p a ra ll e l .

t o OX a nd m e e s P M a t Lt Le t C P , t h e r a d i u s
.
FIG 246 . .

of t h e c i r c l e , b e d e n o e d by r t .

t t
I n t h e r i g h an g l e d r i a n g l e C P L , C L 2
PL 2
CP 2

—— —
-
.

CL = NM = OM ON = x a,

PL PM Ls
— b, a n d C P z r
: .

— —
2
( w b) = r
2

2 2 2
2
w + y 2
2a w 2a y + a + b r = 0 .

Th i s i s t h e e qu a t i on t o t h e c i r c l e r m u s t a lw a y s be . p os i ti ve ,
b ut
a an d b m a
y b e e i t h e r p os i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e .

Con v e r s e ly t h e g ra ph of a n e qu a t i on of t h e for m
1 34 P RA CT I C AL G E O METRY

2 2

s e mi -
m in o r ax i s by b, t he n t he e q uat i on t o t he el l i ps e is
x
2 + —
2
2
2 2 2 2 2 a
or bx 2
a
y a b .

If a b then 90
2 2
31 : 7
2

, wh i c h i s t he e qu ati on t o t he ci c e r l
wh e n t he r
o i in i s at its tr e
—
ce n
g .

11 5 T h . e a e n o te t h e s e m i t r a n s v e r s e a x i s a n d
e H y p e r bo a l L t d . -

b t h e s e m i c onju ga te a x i s of a n hype rb ol a
-

Le t t he o ri gi n 0 be t a kep /
e c e n tr e of
at C
( g
F i 25 1 ) t h .

t h e hyp e rb ol a , a n d le t t he t r an s
v e r s e an d c onju ga te a x e s b e
t a k e n a s t h e a x e s of a: an d g
r e s pe c ti ve ly .

I f a; a n d y a r e t h e c o
o rd i n a t e s of a n y p oi n t P o n t h e

2 jg
23
hyp e rbo l a , th e n a

b a n d th i s i s
2 2 2 2 2
or b zc2
g ,
a a

t h e e qu a ti on t o t h e hyp e rb o l a .

I f x a n d y ar e t h e c o
o rd i n a t e s o i an
y p o i nt Q on

t h e c onj u ga te hyp e rb ol a , th e n F I G 251 . .

2
: {
5— 1 , or
2
b 2
a
2 2
b, an d this i s t he e q u a t i on t o the con
q a
2

jug a te hyp e rbol a

If b a, t he
.

hyp e rb ol a i s e qu i late ral or re c t an gul ar th e n x y a ,

2 — 2
z
2

fo r hype rbol a an d g a
t he a for t h e c onj u ga te hyp e rb o l T he 2 2
' 2
a .

r e c tan g ul a r hype r bol a an d i t s conju g te a r e i d e n ti ca l b u t d i ffe r e n tly a

s i tu te d
a I n t he r e c tan g ul a r hyp e rbol a t h e a s y m p tote s a r e a t ri ght
.

n l e s t o on e a n o th e r
a
g .

A n i m p or tan t e qu a t i on t o t h e hyp e rb o l a i s t h t ob t ai n ed b y ta k i n g a

t h e a s y m pt ot e s a s t h e x e s of a: a n d y a s s h ow n i n Fi gs 252 a n d 253 a .
,

wh i c h s h o w on e br n c h o n ly a

of t h e c urve C A t he s e m i .

t r n s ve r s e x i s b i s e c t s t h e
a a

a n l e X O Y a n d t h e c urv e i s
g
s y m m e t r i c al a bo u t OA p r o
du ce d I n F i g 252 t h e as y m p
. .

t t
o e s ar e o bl i qu e wh i l e i n F i g .

t
253 h e y a r e at r i ght a n gl e s
t o on e a n o h e r T h e hyp e r t .

F I G 253
b ol a i n Fi g 253 i s h e re for e . t F I G 252 .

re ct an g ul r a .

t t Wh e re t he
‘

F or Fi g . 252, my c on s an ,
a an d b ar e

s e mi a xe s a s
-
be for e .

I n Fi g 253, . a a n d cr
y con s an t t .

T he c urv e my : c on s t n t ( F i g a 253) i s an i m p or tan t on e In

2
.
.
 P LANE CO O R D I NAT E G E O ME T RY 1 35

t he fo m P V r t t t h c o ord i n t of th i curve gi ve t he r l ti on
c on s a n , e a es s e a
b t w ee
e t h pr e ur e n d v l u m of
n e
g ss wh e n i t e xap n d s o i s com o e a as a r
pre d i o th r m ll y th t i t c n t n t t e m p r tur e
sse s e a , a s, a o s a e a .

A i m p l c n t ru c ti on fo fi n d i n g n y n u mbe r f poi n t on t he
s e o s r a o s

c urve my c on t n t wh e n on e p oi n t i s gi ven i d e s cri be d in Ar t 50

s a s .
,

p 47
—Wh t e v e r b e t h e v lue of n i n t h e
.

1 1 6 T h e C u rv e y
. JFK a a

e qu t i on y if 0 the n y T h e r e fo re t h e c urv e wh o e
”
a a 0 a; , . s

e qu t i on i p s thr u h t h r i gi n"
a
y ? s
g o a as s e o e .

Le t n 1 th n 3 ) wh i c h i , t h e eq et i on t o s t r ai gh t li n e
a; s ua a .

Le t n 2 th e n 3 ) wh i c h i t h e e qu t i on t o
, p r b ol
a)
2
s a a a a a .

Wh e th r n i s p o i t i ve n e g ti v e i t qu r e i s lw y s p o i t i v th e r
e a s or a s s a a a s e, e

f re y i
o lw y p o i t i ve n d t h c urv l i e e n ti re ly b ove t he x i s of
s a a s s a e e s a a

a . Als i n ce j : J g t h e t w o v lu
o s a; of co rr p on di n g t o n y a es a
t es a

g i v e n v lu e of y
.
e n u m e r i c lly
a qu l bu t on e v lue i p o i ti ve n d
ar a e a ,
a s s a

t he o th r n e g t i v
a x i of y Al s o i t
s
e

.
T he
+ l y + 1
a

d i f
e

s
.

—
urve i th e r f r e y m m e tri c l b ou t t h e
: l y + 1 ,
c

z
s

, an
e o

zr
s

,
z
a a

Le t n 3 th e n g If i s p i ti v e
,
i p i t i ve xnd if
2
. i a: os a
“
s os ,
a cc s

n e g t i ve $ i
a ne
g t i v e H 2
e n c t
s h e i gn of ay i s t h e m
. e s th t of e s sa a a x,

a n d t h e c urv e l i e i n t h fir t n d th i rd qu dr n t s s
— If
1, y
e +1
— s

1 .
a a a . a; ,

To pl t
urv e y o fo r n y gi v e n v a lu e of n fir s t s e l e c t v a lu e s
t he c as
”
a ,

of a: n d c a l c ul t e t h e co rr e p o n d i n g v a lu e s of y an d t bul t e as h e re
a a s a a

s h o w n f or n 2 an d n 3 th e n pl o t , .

x I :

n 2, y +oi s
-

+ 0 64 + 1 44
-

+ 19 6

n z 3, y : : l 0 06 4
'

l 0 51 2
: :
°

£ 1 7 28 £ 2 7 44

F i g 254 . s h o ws t he c urv e s ( 1 ) y x,
( )g
2 $
2
,
an d
( )
3 y a
"
.

T h e c urv e 3 ) i s k n o w n a s t h e c u bi c p a r abola .

I n F i g 254, t h e s c a l e for g i s t h e s a m e a s h a t for x an d t h e ru e

. t t
for m s of t h e c urv e s a r e s h o w n I t w i l b e s e e n h a t wh e n n i s gre at e r . l t
than 1 g in c r e a s e s m o re ra i dly h an a} , a n d for c om arat i ve ly s m a l p t p l
v a lu e s o f a , y b e com e s v e ry l a rge wh e n n : 3 T o s h o w a s u fii ci e n t
'
.

am o n u t of t h e c urv e w th
i in a e r a s o n a bl e a r e a wh e n n i s g r e a t e r th a n

r ll
1 i t i s ge n e a y n e c e s s a ry t o m a k e t h e s c a le f o r y s m a ll e r th a
n th a t
for ao h
T is
. w l
i l al e t r t h e s h a e o f t h e c ur v e w i th o ut a lt e r p
i n g i ts

h
c a ra c e r t h
T is w i ll
. b e r e fe rr e d t o a
g a i n wh e n c o n s i d e r i n
g t h e c urv e

y 2 : b ib
"
.

d r
C on s i e i n g f ur h e r t he in u e n ce o f t
n o n th e fo r m o f t fl
h e c urv e

v d t th l v t t r w l h v p t l
o

y a , it i s e i en
"
a so o g n a s n i s a o s i i e i n e g e , g i a e

t he s a m e s i g n a s a: wh e n n i s o dd, a n d y w l i l lw y b p t v wh
a a s e o s i i e e n

t
n i s e v e n wh e h e r a: i s p os i t i v e o r n e g t v i C ll g
i t h urv h av m
a e a n e c e s
g .

n odd t h e odd cu ves a n d r th os e h a v i n g n e v e n t h e e ve n c u r v e s i t

t t
foll o w s h a a ll t h e odd c urv e s li e i n t h e fir t s a n d th rd qu dr t
i a a n s

wh i l e all t h e e v e n c urv e s li e i n t h e firs t a n d s e c o n d qu dr a a n s Al , s o

t .
1 36 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

all t he urve s p s s t hr ou gh t h e p oi nts

o dd c a 1, 1 )a n d 1,
th t thr o u gh t h e p oi n ts P n d R Fi g 254
a is a , .
,
a n d a ll t h e e v e n c urv e s

pas s thr ou gh t h e p oi n ts 1 1) ,

a nd 1 t h a t i s throu gh
,

t h e p oi n t s P a n d Q Fi g 254 ,
. .

I t w i ll be s e e n t h a t for g i v e n a

v lu e of y g r e t e r th a n + 1 as i t
a ,
a

i n c r e a s e s t h e c urv e m o v e s n e r e r a

t o t h e a x i s of y ; but fo r g i v e n a

va lu e o f 3 l e s s th a n i l t h e c u rv e
)
m o ve s furth e r fr om t h e a x i s of y
as n i n c re a s e s .

Ge n e ra l ly i n pr a c t i c a l pr obl e m s
o n ly po i t i v e v alu e s of a; an d y
s

h a v e t o b e c o n s i d e re d a n d th e s e ,

r e l t e t o t h e c urv e i n t h e firs t
a

qu dra nt
a .

Wh e n n i s p os i ti ve bu t n ot a
wh ol e n u m b e r v alu e s of y c o rr e ,

s pe n d i n t o s s u m e d v lu e s o f a : in a
g a

t h e e qu t i on g a r e fou n d by ”
a r
u s i n g l og ri th m s s fo ll o w s I f
a a .

y as th e n log y n log m F o r
”
.

e x m pl e t o pl o t t h e c urv e 3
12
90
a , ; ,

log y 1 3 log cc A s u m e v a lu e s . s

f or c a l c ul a t e
x, an d t abul ate s a
FIG 254
foll o w s .

log a: 03 01 0 04 7 7 1 06 021 06 990 0 7 78 2

log y z l 3 10g w
'
03 91 3 0 6 202 0 7 8 27 09 08 7 1 0117

T he c urve is s h o wn pl o tt e d i n F i g 255, . an d fo r c om p ria s on

c urve s 3
) x, an d y x
2
ar e a so l
s h ow n .

11 7 . T he Cu rve y bx Let "

.
-

y
’
z : w, ”
the n 1
3 bg
’
H e n ce i f t
. h e

cu rv eg b e p
'
o ez:
,
t h
so
”
e c e l tt d urv
g b y
’
bx
"
i b e o b ai n e w ll en t d by
lar gi n g ( or e r du
c i n g i f b i s a f a c i o n) r t
rd
t h e o i n a e s of t h e c t e g
’
x
"
b urv
tim es .is is e i en Th e v d tly qu v l t
i a en t o
dr w
a i n g t he c e y
’
x
"
i urv
ano e w th th r
l
s c a e fo r t h e o ina e s rd t
T h e fa c o b t r .
FIG 255 .

th r r ll d l t r
.

m ay e e fo e b e c a e a s c a e fa c o

s i n ce i t d
oe s n ot a e lt r
t he c a a c e of t h e h r t r c urve .
1 38 P RA C T I C AL G EO METRY
PL
fo u n d th at t he p o i n t s li e i n s tr ai gh t l i n e for wh i c h n
a
CL
PL be i ng m e a s ur e d o n t h e log y s c al e a n d CL o n t h e log
’
s c le a: a .

c = OO 04 7 7 . H e n ce log I) 0 47 7 n d t h e e qu a t i on t o t h e
,
a

c urve i s ,
15
y 8 0 3 x .

I f t h e p oi n ts ( log w, log y )a r e n o t e x a c t ly i n a s t ra i ght l i n e , a

'

m e an l i n e m ay b e d r a w n a m o n g s t t h e m , f r om wh i c h n a n d lo g I) m ay
b e t a k e n t o ge t a n a p pr ox i m a t e e qu a t i on t o t h e gi v e n c urv e .

1 1 9 T h e C u rv e
. c T h e m os t i m p or t a n t a p pl i c a t i on of
.
-

t h e e qu a t i on ysc : c i s t o t h e c urve w h o s e c o o rd i n a t e s g i v e t h e r e l a
‘
n
-

t i on b e tw e e n t h e pre s s ure an d v o lu m e of a gas wh i c h e xp an d s or i s

c o mp re s s e d I f p i s t h e pre s s ur e of a ga s wh e n i t s v o lu m e i s 11, t h e n
.

wh e n t h e g as e x p an d s or i s com pr e s s e d t h e pres s ure a n d v olum e bo th

v a ry an d i n g e n e ra l t h e r e la t i on b e t w e e n th e m i s gi v e n by an e qu a
ti on of t he fo rm p l) 0 I n t he c as e wh e r e n
"
. c, a n d t h e

c urve i s a r e c t a n g ul a r hyp e rbo l a wh i c h w a s c on s i d e r e d i n Ar t 1 1 5, .

p 1 34
. .

I n s t udy i n g t he c urve p t "

0 o n ly p os i t i ve v a lu e s of p , v, a n d n

n ee d b e co n s i d e r e d If v 0, th e n a) O, an d i n o rd e r th at p x 0
“
.

m ay h a v e t h e fi n i te v a lu e 0, p m u s t b e i n fi n i te Ag a i n , i f p 0, t h e n .

m u s t b e i n fi n i t e , a n d 7) m u s t a l s o b e i n fi n i t e i f n i s fi n i t e H e n ce .

t h e c urv e p v 0 a ppr oa c h e s n e a r e r a n d n e a r e r t o t h e a x e s bu t n e v e r
"

a c tu a lly m e e t s th e m , o r i t m e e t s th e m a t i n fi n i t e d i s t a n c e s f r o m t h e .

or i in T h e a x e s a r e t h e r e fo r e a s y m pt o te s t o t h e c urv e
g . .

A s a n e x a m pl e c o n s i d e r t h e c urv e 190
1 3
29 2 T ak i n g l ogar i t h m s .

of b o th s i d e s o f t h e e qu a t i o n ,

log p 1 3 log 7) log 292 .

L 8 51) 2 60, th e n
log 292 log 60 24 6 54 1 778é
~

log 22 05 28 6,

an d v

L e t 7) 4, th e n
lo g p log 292 log 4 2 46 54 13 X
an d
p 48 2 .

I n l i k e m an n e r for a n y g i v e n o r as s u m e d v a lu e o f v or p c orr e
s on di n g va lu e s o f p o r 2) m ay b e c a l c ul a t e d
p .

V a r i o u s c o rr e s p on d i n g v a lu e s of v a n d p ar e gi v e n i n t h e foll o w i ng
t abl e , a n d t h e s e ar e pl ot t e d i n F i g 258 , gi v i n g t h e c urv e AB D . .

An im por t an t pr c t i c l pr obl e m
a a is t o d e te r m i n e wh e th e r a gi ve n
c urv e i s of t h e fo r m p v an d i f t o fi n d t h e v lu e s o f ” a n d c
”
c, . so a
f .

If p v c th e n log p log log 0 wh i c h i s t h e e qu t i o n t o

"
n 1: a a
,

s t r ai g ht l i n e .
 P LANE C C O R -
D I NATE G E O METRY 1 39

Le t E FE ( Fi g 25 8 ) b
e a
g i en c .
v urve wh i c h appe a rs t o be of t he
fo r m p 11”
0 Co e s on i n g a e s
.
rr p d v lu of v n d p for th i s c urve
a ar e

g v
i e n I n t h e follo wm g a e , a s o t he t bl l value s of log 1: n d log 19 a .

FI G . 258 . FI G . 259 .

0 3424 04 7 7 1 0 6990 1 0000 1 1 7 61

1 6 021 1 3 01 0 08 7 51 0 6 28 2

T he v a lu e s of log n a n d log 1) ar e plotte d i n F ig 259 from whi c h .

,

i t i s s ee n t h a t t h e r e s ul t i n g p oi n ts ar e i n a s t rai gh t l i ne for wh i c h t h e
.

PL
e qu a t i on i s lo
g p log 1) CC M e as ur i n g PL on t he log p
CL
.

—
l P
l
s ca e a n d CL on t h e log 1) s c a e
L
L
I
2 6
Al s o C C
th r f r
,
m e as ur e d on t he

log 1 9 l s i
s ca e , 2 2 67 H e ce log 1
n . 9 l o g v 2 7 ,
e e o e

n log c 22 6 7 a n d c 185 T h e e qu a i o n .
t o t
'
h e c urv t e i s

t h e r e fo r e p v
”
185 .

In a r obl pem s c u h r
as t h e fo e goi g, n i f t h e p o i n t s
( g , g1)
l o 17 lo 9 ar e

n ot e a cx ly t
i n a s ai gr h l t
i ne , a m e a n lti n
'

e m a
y b e dr a w n a m o n st
g
th e m , fr om wh i c h n a n d 0 m ay b e fou d t e t a n a ppr o x i m a e t
n o g
e qu a t i on t o t he i v e n c urv e
g
—
.

w”
1 20 T h e C u . e y rv I n t h e e qu a i o n y n e ,
e tI s t h e

b as e of t h e N ap i e r i a n s y s te m of l ogarith , m s i t s n u r l v lu
m e i c a a e t o

four pl a ce s of d e c i m al s be i n g 2 7 1 8 3 a a n d a r e c o.
n s t t .
a n s b T h e

t
a bo v e e qu a i o n i s c a ll e d a n e x one nt i a l e qu a t i on b
p
e c a u s e t h e v a r i a bl e a:

oc cu r s as p a r t
of t h e i n d e x or e xp on e n o f t h e p w r
o e to f e T h e .

c urv e w h i c h i s t h e
g r a h of y ae
b"
i p
s ca l e d
l a n e xp o n e n t i a l c urv e .

Le t a: O t he n e ,
bx
e
"
1 , an d y a T h e c o n s a n .
a 1 s th e r e t t
t p
for e t h e i n e r c e t of t h e c ur v e on t h e a x i s of y
,

Le t y 0, h e n 6 “
t 0, a n d a: cc T h e c u r ve 1 8 h r r
e e fo e t
t
asy m p ot i c t o t h e a x i s of w .
1 40 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY
T a i ng k l og a r i th m s of b o th s i d e s of t he e qu at i on 3
, ac
“
,

log y 10g bx log log 0 4 34 i bx

'

a e a
°

F rom t h e e qua tion

log y log
0 4 343bx , y a
'

m ay b e c a l c ul a e d i f x i s
g i v e nt
o r a s s u m e d , or x m a b l
y e c a cu

l a t e d i f y i s gi v e n o r a s s u m e d .

A s a n e x am pl e t a ke a 0 8 ,
an d b = 2 he n 31 t a nd

log 31 1 9 03 1 0 8 6 8 6x '

Th i s c urve i s s h o wn pl otte d
i n F ig 26 0 . T he c u rv e
.

s al s o s h o w n i n
2"
0 8 i
‘
°

e
3)
F i g 260, a n d i t w i ll b e s e e n
.

t t
h a t h i s s ec on d c urve i s t h e
i m age o f t h e firs i n a m i rro r t FIG 260
t
r e pr e s e n e d by t he a x i s of y . .

—
.

1 21 T h e C u . e y a l o g. b x rv T h e c u rve y a l o c bx i s
g . ca ll e d
a lo ar i t hmi c cu r ve
g R e fe rr i n g g
a a i n t o t h e e x po n e n t i a l c ur ve
.
3
; ae
b"
,

log y,
log, a bx log, 6 , but log, 6 1 , th e r e fo r e log, y log8 a -

bx ,
1
a nd x
b
l og wh i c h i s of t h e form x
e p l o ge qy
.

l r th
T h e og a i m i c c urv e y a log bx i s t h e re for e of t h e s am e fo rm ,

as t he e xp
on e n i at l c urve y a e w i th t h e va r i abl e s x a n d y i n te r ’”c

ch n ed
a
g T h e l og.a r i th m i c c urv e w i ll t h e r e fo r e b e a s y m pt o t i c to
t h e ax i s of y wh i l e t h e e xpon e n ti a l c u rv e i s a s y m pto ti c t o t h e
a x i s of x
—
.

1 2 2 S fii r al C u
. rv e s I f a s tr i gh t l i n e O P r e v o l v e s i n a p lan e a

a b o u t a fix e d po i n t O i n a fix e d s t r i g ht l i n e O X i n t h e p l an e a n d i f a ,

a t t h e s m e ti m e a p oi n t P i n OP m ov e s a lon g t h e l i n e O P t h e p oi n t
a ,

P d e s c r i b e s a c urv e c a ll e d a sp i r a l T h e for m o f t he s pi ra l d e p e n d s
.

o n t h e la w c on n e c ti n t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e p oi n t P a l on O P w i th
g g
t h e n g u la r d i s pl c e m e n t of O P
a a .

T h e po i n t O i s t h e p ole a n d t h e fix e d l i n e O X i s t he i ni ti al li ne .

T h e p os i t i on o f O P t a n y i n s ta n t i s g i v e n by t h e a n g l e 9 wh i c h i t
a

m ak e s w i th O X 9 i s t h e vect ori a l a ngle a n d r t h e l e n g th of O P i s

.

t h e r a di u s ve ct or T h e pos i ti on of P a t a n y i n s tan t i s fix e d by r
.

—
an d 9 .

1 2 3 T h e A r c h i m e d e an S p i r a l
. I n t h e Ar chi me de a n sp i r a l t h e
d i s p la c e m e n t of P from O i s prop or ti on a l t o 9 an d t he e qu at i on t o
t h e c urv e i s , r a 9 wh e r e a i s a c on s ta n t I t foll o w s th a t fo r e qu a l .

i nc r e m e n t s of 9 t h e re ar e e qu a l i n c re m e n t s of r S t ate d i n a n o th e r .

w ay th i s m e a n s t h a t i f s u c ce s s i ve v a lu e s of 9 a r e i n a r i th m e ti c a l p r o
e s i on s u c c e s s i v e v a lu e s of r a r e a l s o i n a r i t h m e t i c a l p r og r e s s i o n
g r s .

Wh e n 0 O, r 0, a n d wh e n 9 27r , r 27m I f 9 b e i n c re as e d .

b y 30 a t a t i m e fr om 9 0, t h e n t h e c on s t a n t i n c r e m e n t of r i s
°

27r a
°

12
1 42 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

logm e 0 4343
-

t an 1
( )
logw a log a
For th e c u r ve s h ow n in Fi g . 26 2,

0 4343
t an l
‘’
00 7 9 2
T o dr a w t h e a n g e n t
a t t h e p oi n t
L , on t he r a d i u s O L rodu ce d t p
m ak e L K 1 o n a n y s c a le , a n m a k e K H a t ri g h t a n gl e s t o O L a n d
'

e qual
‘

t o 5 48 on t h e s a m e
s cal e . J o i n L H , th e n L II i s
t
t h e t a n ge n t o t he s i ra l a t L p 0
.

0 P = r = a
I f OP an d O Q ar e any t o w
ra d i i of t h e l oga r i th m i c s pi ral , log r = 0109
a n d i f O R i s a ra d i u s b i s e c t i n
g
t h e an g l e F O Q th e n o n i s M " ?
a m e a n pr o o r i o n a l b e tw ee n p t
O P an d O Q T h i s pr o e rty . p
m ay be u s e d i n con s ru c t i n g t
t he c u rv e geo m e tr i c ally wh e n
’

t h e p ol e a n d t w o p o i n t s on
t h e c urv e ar e k n o wn .

1 2 5 G r ap h i c S o l u i on t
—
.

o f E q u a i on s t
M any e qu a .

t i on s wh i c h a r e d i ffi c ul t or
i m p o s s i bl e of s olu i on b y o rd i t
n a ry a l ge br a i c m e th od s m a y

b e r e a d i ly s olv e d by gr a ph i c
t
m e h od s O n t h e o th e r h a n d
.

t h e g raph i c m e th od i s g e n e
r a lly i n fe ri o r t o t h e a lg e brai c FIG 262 . .

t
m e h o d i n t h e s o lu t i on of t h e
s i m pl e r fo r m s o f e qu a t i on s Bu i n any c as e a s udy of t he g raph i c. t t
m e th od w i ll l e a d t o a b e tte r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e h e o ry of e q u a t i on s t .

Con s i d e r fir s t t h e s i m l e e qu a i on a x b p t
0, wh e r e a a n d b ar e
c on s t an t s T o s o lv e th i s e qu a t i on g r a ph i c a lly , le t y _ a x
. b T hi s .

t
i s t h e e qu a i o n t o a s t r a i g ht l i n e wh i c h m a y rea d i ly b e dr aw n Th i s .

t
s tr a i g ht l i n e c u s t h e a x i s of x wh e r e y 0, a n d t h e d i s t a n c e of th i s
t
p oi n from t he o ri gi n i s t h e v a lu e of x wh i c h s a t i s fi e s t h e o ri g in al
e qu a t i on t
I n h i s c a s e t h e g r a ph i c m e th od i s o bvi ou s ly i n fe r i o r t o t h e
.

l
a ge br a i c .

t
N e x c on s i d e r t h e p ai r of s i m ul an e ou s e qu a i on s ax by c 0, t t
an d a l x M 0 1 0 , wh e r e a , b , c ,
a l, b ,, a n d c 1
a r e c o n s t a n t s ,

t
T h e g r a ph of e a c h of h e s e e qu a i on s i s a s r a i gh l in e , a n d t he l i n e s t t t
m ay r e ad i ly b e dr a w n , a n d t h e c c o rd i n a e s of h e i r p oi n of i n t e r -
t t t
s e c t i on a r e t h e v a lu e s of x a n d 3 ; wh i c h s a i s fy b o th e qu a t i o n s t .

T ak e t he e qu a t i on 1 7 x 2
0 7 5x 15 0 '
Th i s i s n ot a di ffi c u lt
°
.

e qu a t i on t o s o lv e by t h e m e h od of a l g e br a b u t i t s g r a ph i c s o lu i ont t
l
w i l n o w be c on s i d e r e d i n ord e r t o i llu s tr a t e g ra h i c m e h od s p t .

F i r s t m e t hod Le t y 1 7x 2
. 0 7 5x 1 5 C h oo se a n u m b e r .

of s i m pl e v a lu e s o f x a n d c a l c ul a t e t h e c o rr e sp o n d i n g v a lu e s o f y .

P l o t t he p oi n t s wh os e c c o rd i n a e s ar e th e s e v a lu e s of a: and y s T h e t ,
 P LANE C O O R D I NATE
-
G E O ME T RY 1 43

c urv e j oi n i n g th e s e p oi n ts wi ll c u t t h e ax i s of x w h e re y 0 Th e re .

w i ll be t wo s u c h p oi n t s n d th e i r d i s t n ce s fr om t h e o r i gi n ar e t h e
a a

valu e of x wh i c h s t i s fy t h e o r i gi n l e qu a t i on
s a a .

l 1 8 n d t B g i vi n g x —
T h i s c urv e i s s h o w n p l ott e d i n F ig 26 3 T h e c urve c ut s t h e a x i s . .

of x t A g i vi n g x
a , ,0 7 4 n d th e se r e
a a , ,
a a

t h e ro o t s o f t h e e qu t i o n T h e c urv e a h ould fir t b e s k e t ch e d t o
. s s a

s m a ll s c l e thr ou g h
a fe w c l c ul te d p oi n t s i n o rd e r t o s ee t h e pr ob bl e
a a a a

fo r m n d p os i t i on
a of t h e c urve T h e p a r ts of t h e c urv e i n t h e .

n e i ghb ourh oo d o f t he a x i s of x s h ould th e n b e pl o t t e d c r e f ul ly t o a

a l rge s c l e i n o rd e r t o ob ta i n m o re c cur a t e ly t h e p oi n t s A n d B
a a a a .

S e cond me t h d Re wri te t h e e qu t i o n i n t h e fo r m
o . a

Le t y
'
an d le t y 075 15 D r w t h e g r ap h of
"
x a

wh ch i s a tr ai g h t l i n e N e x t dr a w t h e g r ph of
”
y 0 7 5x
'
1 5 i s . a

y
'
wh i c h i s a p a r a b ol T h ese t w o g r a ph s ar e s h own
a .i n

FIG . 268 . FIG . 264 .

t
Fi g 26 4, a n d h e y i n e rs e c a t t he po i n s E a n d
. t t T h e v a lu e s t F .

of x for t h e p o i n t s E a n d a r e t h e r e qu i r e d r oo s F of t h e
g i v e n t
e qu a i on t Th i s i s e v i d e n t , for at h e s e oi n ts y y a n d h e r e
.
’ ”
t p t
fo re 1 7 x '2
0 7x °

1 5 wh e n fo r x i s s ubs i tu e d t h e a b s c i s s a of E or t t
t h e a b s c i s sa of F .

T h e g r a ph o f y
'
s h o uld fir s t be s k e c h e d hrou gh a fe w t t
c a l c ul a t e d p oi n s a n d t h e t p
a rt s i n t h e n e i hbo urh oo d o f t h e s r a i h
g g t t
lin e y "
0 7 5x °

s h o u ld th e n be dra wn c a re fully t o o b ai n a s t
a c c ur a t e ly as p o s s i bl e t h e p oi n s E a n d t F .

I n ge n e r a l t h e s e c o n d m e th od of s olu i on j u s d e s c r i b e d w i ll be t t
fou n d pr e fe ra bl e t o t h e fir s t as i t I n v o lv es l e s s c a l c u lat i on .

A s a fi n a l e x am l e t a k e t h e e qu a i on x p 3
0 6x 01 0 Re t .

t
wr i e t he e qu a i on i n t h e form x t 3
0 6x 01
'
Le t y _ x , a n d .

y
"
0 6 x 0 1 T h e
g.r a h o f y
"
0 p1 i s a s tr ai h
g l i n e an d t
t h e g ra ph o f y
'
x i s a c ub i c
3
a r a b ol a p .

t p
A r ou g h s k e c h of t h e gr a h s t o a s m a ll s c a l e w i ll s h o w h a t th e i r t
p oi n s t of t
i n e r s e c t i o n ar e w i th i n t h e l i m i t s x + 1 an d x 1 -
.

to : + 1 an d x
p
1 —
T h e g ra h s s h o uld n o w b e dr a w n t o a la r ge s c a l e b e w e e n t h e l i m i t s
Th e y w i l appe a r a s s h o w n i n Fi g 26 5
. l
t
. .
1 44 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

Th e i r p oi n ts i n te r s e c ti on ,
of A B , , an d C , gi ve t h e root x s 0 8 5,
x and x 0 67 . I n Fig . 26 5 t h e s m al l s qu a r e s a r e of

01 u ni t s i d e .

T h e g i v e n e qu a t i on i s of

t h e fo r m b 3
ax 0,x

a n d i s a cu bi c e u a ti on In
q .

t h e th e ory of e qu a i on s i t i s t
s h o wn th a t a c ub i c e qu a i o n t
h as thr ee r oo s bu on e or t t
t
m o r e o f h e s e r o o s m ay b e t
i m ag i n a ry , h a i s , th e r e m a yt t
t t
b e hr e e r e a l r oo s , o r t w o
r e l r oo t s or on e r e l r oo t
a ,
a ,

o r n o r e l r o o ts a Th i s w i ll .

b e u n d e r t o o d by r e fe r e n ce
s

t o Fi g 26 5 fo r . tr i ght , a s a

y
"
—
l i n e wh i c h i s t h e g r p h f
cx b m y m e e t t he a
a o

g ra p h o f y x t thr ee
’ 3
a

o i nt o t w
s,o p oi n t s on ly o
r
p F G 26 5 , r
I
o n e p o i n t o n ly n d t he l i n e
. .

,
a

m y n o t m e e t t h e urve t ll
a Wh e n t h e s tr i gh t l i n e d oe s n ot m e e t
c a a . a

t h e c urv e t h e r e i s n o r e a l v a lu e of x wh i c h w i ll s t i fy t h e o ri gi n l a s a

e qu t i on a .

S i m i l r r e m a rk s p ply t o t h e qu dr a ti c e q u at i on wh i ch m ay h a v e
a a a

t wo b u t n ot m or e t h a n t wo r e l r oot
, a s .

E x e rci s e s I X

1 T h e a e s be i n g a t i g x r ht gl t th r an d the u i t f l ngth b i ng
—
. an es o on e an o e n o e e
1 l 0t h o f an i n c , o th e h pl t p i t wh o n s os e co o -
rd i tna es ar e gi v n i n t h f ll wi g
e e o o n
t l
ab e

Pi o nt

2 S am e as e e c i s e 1 e c e
. xr x pt th t t h a e co o
-
rd i tn a es ar e ob l i qu t h
e, e glan e
X OY be tw
e e n t h e a e s b e i ng x
.lt
3 P o t h e oi n s os e o a p t wh plr di n t c o or -
a es ar e gi v n e in the of ll wi ng t bl
o a e,
u t l
t h e n i of e n g be i n g 1 i n c th h .

° ° °
1 00 320 1 20
1 46 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

14 . Gi v
i en
on y
?
the
2x ut
1 , ake t h e fo o i n g a e s o f y , n am e y ,
eq a t ll w v lu l
0, z l: 0 5, : 1: ziz 1 5 , : l: 2 0, a n d : 1: Ca c a e t h e c o r e s on i n g l ul t r p d
v lu
a pl t
es of x , o the d w
o i n s , an d ra a fai p t c e o g em N am e t h e r urv thr u h th
urv t h
.

c e Un i . 1 inc .

1 5 T hute e q .a i o ll p
n t o a n e i s e i s 0 49x + y
2 2
T a k e t h e fo l o i n g '

lw
v lu
a l
e s o f x , n am e y , 0, : l: 0 4 , z iz 0 8 , : L 1 2 , z iz 1 6 , z iz 1 8 , a n d : l : 2 0 Ca c a e l ul t .

r d v lu y pl t
t h e c o r e s p on i n g a e s o f p t o t h e oi n s an d a a fai r c e o gh em dr w urv thr u th
t h
.

Uni 1 inc .

16Dr w a r t . l rh p r l
t h e e c an gu a y e b o a x y 20 0 b e e e n t h e i m i s x 5, an d tw l t
x z : 40 t Un i h 01 inc
. .

17A u t pr ur
c b i c fo o o f g as a t a
. ess e o f 1 00 o n s p er s q a e i n c e an s pu d ur h xp d
th ll u t l v lu u t
i s o e r m a y n i i t s o m e i s 5 c b i c fe e ra the e an s i on c r e ic . D w xp u v wh h
hw
s o s t he rlt tw
e a i on be p u
een the r ess r e an d o m e o f t h e g as S ca e s , v lu l .

r u h pu d u h
P e s s r e , 1 i n c t o 20 o n s p e r s q ar e i n c V o l m e 1 i n c t o 1 c b i c foo . u h u t, .

18lt uv y
P o t he c r es ,
. y x
*
an d x , be
5
e en t h e im i s x
, z iz 2 S ca e tw l t l
l
.

h u t
for x , 1 i n c t o 1 n i h
S c a e fo r y , 1 i n c t o 1 0 n i s
. u t .

lt uv y
1 9 P o t he c r es,
. y ”
x , z x “ , an d x , be
3
e en t h e i mi s , x 0 y tw l t
an d x 3 l h u t
S ca e for x , 1 i n c t o 1 n i
. S c a e fo r y , 1 i n c t o 5 n i s . l h u t .

lt p t wh
20 P o t h e o i n s
. rd tos e c o o i n a e s ar e gi e n i n t h e fo o i n g ab e , an d
-
v ll w t l
ut r urv
fi n d t h e e q a i on t o t h e fai c th e j oi n i n g em .

l
T ak e t h e s c a e for x as 1 i n c t o 1 n i an d t h e h u t l f y 1 i h t 5 u it s ca e or as nc o n s .

2 1 P o t h e oi n s
. lt p
os e c o o i n a e s ar e gi t wh rd t v i t h f ll wi g t bl
-
d en n e o o n a e , an

ut
fi n d t h e e q a i on t o t h e fai c e a n o gh r urv d r w thr u th m e .

22 uv. lt tw
P o t h e c r e y (x l t 6 , be e e n t h e i m i s x z 0 7 5 an d x 4,
x yan d h b e i ng i n i n c e s .

23 v lu . u t rr p d pr ur pu d
T h e o m e s (1) c b i c fe e ) an d c o e s on i n g e ss es
( p o n s p er
sq u r h a e p u d w ht t
i n c )o f a o n xp d eig v ll w
o f s e am a s i t e an s ar e gi e n i n t h e fo o i n g
t bla lt e . xp urv
P o the e t t wh th r ppr x t l l w
ans i on c e an d es e e it a o i m a e y fo l o s t h e

l wpa d if it d
v
”
fi d t h v lu
c , an f d oe s , n e a es o n an c .

Dr w t h fi r t d
24 . a d nv luti
e f sA r hi m d
an pi r l h vi g
s e c on co o on s o an c e e an s a ,
a n

g i v th
en t rt i r d
a i u v t r ut t h fir t v luti
a ce a n a t 07 i sh fr m t h
ec o c s e s c on o on a nc o e
p l d th
o e an d t 2 i h fr m t h p l Dr w t h t g n t t t h urv t
e s e c on a nc es o e o e . a e an e o e c e a
t h p i t wh i h i 1 5 i
e o n h fr m t h p l
c s nc es o e o e.
25 T h qu t i n t
. e Ar hi m d n pi l i
e a o 16 i h
o Dr w t w
an c e ea s ra s, r nc es . a o
co n v l ut i
o f th pi r l
on s o e s a .

26 Dr w .t i gl P OQ O P 1 1 i n h OQ 1 4 i h
a a r an e nd t h gl
. c es , nc es, a e an e
F OQ P d Q p i t n t h fi r t nv luti
an far eAr hi m d o n s o e s co o on o an c e e an
spi r l f whi h 0 i t h p l F i nd t h i n i ti l li n d dr w t h fir t v luti n
a o c s e o e. e a e an a e s c on o o
o f th urv e c e .

27 T h q u. t i n t l
e eg r i th m i p
a i r l i
o 1 3
0
i h
o a Dr w o a c s a s, r nc es . a o n e c on

v luti f t h p i r l d dr w t ng n t t t h urv i n l i d t 60 t t h
o on o e s a an a a a e o e c e c ne a
°
o e
i i ti l l i n e
n a .
 P LANE CO O R D I N A TE G E O M ETRY
-
1 47

28 In a l
thm i pi l t h m m r ti f t w r d nt i i ng
ogar i c s gl ra e co on a o o o a i i co a n an an e
l g t di u v t r i n t h fir t v luti n i 3 i n h
.

of 30
°
isTh e on es ra s ec o e s c on o o s c es.

Dr w a nv l ut i
on e c o f th pi r l o on o e s a

Y
29 P l t t h
.

ou
urv y 6 1
m y bt i p i t
o

a tho
e c
{g f m 0t
e, 2

u v by l u l ti u i g m th m ti l t bl
a n o n s on e c
e

r e
c os

ca c
( a:

a on , s n
ro x

a e
o x

a ca
1r .

a es

b y p r j ti fr m t h l g i thm i pi r l 7 9 01 5
'
'

or o ec on o e o ar c s a , r ae
Ob rv th t i thi
se pi l t h r ti f t h l gth f t w d whi h d i ff r i
e a n s s ra e a o o e en s o o ra ii c e n

di r ti by 360
ec on
X °
1 3v y e ly 2"
er n e ar .

30 T h . u v (F i g 26 7 )r p
e c ti g t h urt i l f t
r e t pi . tutd e r es en n e c a o a s on e s e s c on s r c e

of i r ul r r
c c a h f S t
a c s , e ac t t h fi gur t t h givodi m i n wh i h e ou e e o e en ens o s, c

ar e i ti m tr
n c en S l 4 e es . ca e .

3 1 T h gi v
. v lut (F i g 268 ) f
e en v luti i o tru t d f i r u l r
e . o on e c on o on s con s c e o c c a

ar c s h f
e ac S t o t th urv wh n t h d i m i e fig d i
ou e c e, e e e n s on s ar e as ure , n
c en ti m tr e es .

24 cm

FI G . 26 7 . FI G . 268 . FI G . 269 .

32 Fi g 268
. hw . s o s a c on s tru ti c on d ri bi g v l ut
for e sc n a o e of on e c on v luti
o on .

S e t ou t a s i m i a . l r urv f c e o o n e an d a h l nv luti
a f wh n
co o on s , e the dim e n s i on s , in
t
c en i m e e s , ar e tr i F ig as n . 269 .

33 So e , g. lv r phi lly a ca ,
t h e eq u ti a on s

( )x
—
2
1 2 5x'

15 0 . 3) x 0 5x 3 °

01 0.

3
4) x + 2x 2
3x
lv r phi lly ult u u ti
—
34 . So e, g a ca , t he sim an eo s eq a on s

2y
l
x
( )
1
4x + ag + i s = 0 .

35 . So lv e, gr a phi lly ca ,
t he eq uati ons

(1 )3
223
5x 6 .
( 2)1 5a:
2
26 2”
0 .
 CH A P TE R X

PE RI ODI C MOT I ON

1 26 . P e ri o di c M o t i o n .
—
I f a n y po s i ti on of a m o v i n a g b o d y be

s e l e c t e d a n d i t i s fou n d th a t a ft e r a c e rt a i n i n t e rv a l of t i m e t he bo d
y
i s a eg a in m o vi n g thr o u g h th a t p os i t i o n i n t h e s am e d i r e c t i on a n d w i th
t he s am e v e l o c i t y , t h e b ody i s s a i d t o h a v e p e r i odi c moti on T h e .

i nt e rv a l of t i m e b e tw e e n t w o s u c c e s s i v e a p p e a ra n c e s of t h e b ody l n t h e
s am e p os i t i on m ov i n g i n t h e s a m e d i r e c t i on w i th t h e sa m e v e l oc i ty 1 s

c a ll e d t h e
p e r i odi c t i me or
p e r i od o f t h e m o t i o n .P e r i o d i c t i me i s
g e n e r a lly m e a s ur e d l n s e con d s a n d w i ll b e d e n o t e d by T .

T h e s i m pl e s t c a s e of pe ri o d i c m o t i o n i s th a t of a b ody r e v olv i n g
a bo u t a fix e d a x i s w i th u n i fo r m v e l oc i ty I n t h i s c a s e t h e p e r i od i c
.

t i m e i s t h e t i m e t a k e n t o m a k e o n e c o m p l e t e r e vo lu t i on A s w i n g i n g
.

p e n dulu m h as pe ri od i c m oti on , but i t h a s d i ffe r e n t v e l oc i ti e s i n d i ffe re n t

po s i t i on s I n ge n e ra l a ll t he p a r ts of a m ac h i n e h a ve p e r i od i c m ot i on
.

a l t h o u g h s om e p a r ts m ay h a v e v e ry v a r i abl e v e l oc i t i es a n d v e ry c om pl i

c a be d m o t i o n s dur i n g a p e r i od .

T h e n u m b e r of pe ri o d s 1 n t h e u n i t of t i m e i s c a ll e d t h e f re qu e ncy
a n d I S t h e r e c i pr oc a l o f t h e p e r i o d i c t i m e , o r f r e qu e n c y : 1 T
1 2 7 S i m p l e H a rm o n i c M o t i o n
. .
—
P ( F i g 27 0) r e pre s e n t s a
.

p oi n t wh i c h i s m ov i ng w i t h a u n i form v e l oc i ty V a l on g t he c i r c u m

FIG . 27 0
.

fe r e n c e of t h e c i r c l e X YX 1Y 1 wh os e c en t r e i s C M i s a n ot h e r p o i n t
.

wh i c h i s m ovi n g b a c kw a rd an d fo rw a rd al on g t he d i a me te r YYl of t he
s a m e c i r c l e i n s u c h a m a n n e r t h a t P M i s a l way s a t r i O
g h t an le s t o
g
V YI , i n o t h e r w o rd s , M I S t h e p r oj e c t i on of P on YY U n de r th es e
.

c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e p oi n t M h a s s i m le har moni c mot i on I f XX i s a

p , .
1 50 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME TRY

r l
ci c e be d i vi d e d i n t o t w e lve e qu al p a r ts t he s u cc e s i ve v al u es of t w i l l b e s

71 271 371
12 X 12 X 12 X 06
Th i s h a r m o n i c c urv e m ay a l s o b e
’ etc .

c on tru c t e d by c l c ul a t i n g v a lues of y f r o m t h e e qu a t i o n y
s a 2 s i n 1 2t *

I n th i s c as e v lu e s of t i n c r e as i n g by
a
y 0 5 e c on d m a
y b e
,
sa ,
s ,

t k e n T h e v a lu e s of t w ould b e m ult i pl i e d by 1 2 t o o bt ai n t h e
a .

v a lu e s of 9 wh i c h w ould b e i n r a d i n s T k i n g t h e v lu e s of t h e a . a a

s i ne s of th e s e n g l e s fr om a t a bl e of s i n e s an d m ult i p ly i n g th e m
a

b y 2 w ould gi ve t h e c o rr e s p on d i n g v a lu e s of y t w o uld b e pl o t t e d .

a lo n g OL o n a t i m e s c a l e wh i l e y w o uld b e pl ott e d at r i gh t an gl e s t o
O L o n a d i s ta n c e s ca l e .

Co n s i d e r t h e e qu at i o n y 25 s i n 9 Th i s i s t h e e qu ti on t o . a a

s i n e c ur v e wh i c h m y b e c on s tru c t e d a s i n Fi 2 7 0 T h ra d i u o f
g e s . . a

t h e c i rc l e i s 2 5 o n a n y c o n v e n i e n t s c a l e n d 3 ) w i ll b e m e as ur e d on t h e
a

s m e s ca l e
a I f t h e c i r c l e be d i v i d e d i n t o tw e lv e e qu l p a rt s t h e
. a

s u c c e s i v e v lu e s of 9 w i ll b e
s a etc n d th e s e Wi ll . a

b e pl ott e d a l on g OL t o an y c on v e n i e n t s c l e T h e c o rr es p on d i n g a .

v a lu e s of y ar e pr oj e c te d from t h e c i r c l e as s h o w n T hi s s i n e .

c urv e m ay l s o b e c on s tr u c te d by c a l c ul a t i n g v lu e s of y f r om t h e
a a

e qu a t i on y 25 s i n 9 v lu e s of s i n 9 b e i n g t a k e n f r om a t b le o f s i n e s
,
a a .

T h e e x c t p os i t i o n a t a n y i n s t a n t of t h e p oi n t M ( F i g 27 0)
a .

w h i c h h as i m pl e h a r m on i c m ot i on i s d e fi n e d by t h e a n g l e 9 wh i c h
s

i s c ll e d t h e p has e a ngle
a T h e t e rm p ha s e i s g e n e r lly u s e d t o
. a

d e s i g n at e t h e p os i t i on of t he p oi n t M t an y i n s t n t by s t a t i n g t h e ,
a a

f ra c t i on of i t s p e ri o d of m ot i on wh i c h i t h s pe r fo r m e d r e c k on e d a

f ro m i t s m i ddl e p os i t i on wh e n m o vi n g i n t h e po s i t i e di r e c t i on T he v .

firs t or z e r o p h as e i s wh en M i s p ss i n g t hrou gh C t ow rds Y For a a .

th i s p os i ti on 9 0 F or a com pl e t e p e r i o d 9 2 or
. 7;

9
360 a n d for an y p os i ti on t h e ph as e i s t h e p e ri o d
0

2
7 ;

ph as e F or e x am pl e w h e n 9 i s e qu a l t o t h e ph as e
.
,
11

i s t h e h a l f p e r i o d ph as e .

A w e ll k nown m e ch n i s m wh i ch gi v e s s i m pl e h ara

m on i c m oti on i s s h ow n i n F i g 27 1 T h e c r a n k p i n of
. .

t h e c r a n k w ork s i n t h e s l o t on t h e e n d of t h e p i e c e
wh i ch 1 s m ad e t o r e c i pr oc at e T h e r e c i proc ti n g p i e c e . a

h as s i m p l e h r m on i c m ot i on wh e n t h e c r a n k r o ta t es
a

w i th u n i for m v e l oc i t y
1 2 8 L e a d an d L a g —
.

. I n s t e ad of u s i n g t h e ph as e an gl e 9 t o fix
t h e p os i t i on of a p oi n t h a v i n g h a r m o n i c m o ti on i t i s fr e qu e n tly m or e
c on ve n i e n t t o gi v e t h e n g ul a r p os i t i on of t h e r e pr e s e n t t i v e c r n k
a a a

w i th r e fe r e n ce t o a fix e d r ad i u s of t he a ux i l i ary c i r c l e wh i c h i s
i n c l i n e d at an n gl e t o t h e z e r o p os i t i on of t h e r e pr e s e n t a ti v e c ra n k
a a .

I n F i g 27 2 CX i s t h e z e ro p os i t i on of t h e r e pr e s e n t t i v e c ran k a n d
. a

C A 1 s a fix e d r a d i u s i n c l i n e d a t a n a n gl e t o CX C P 1 8 an y p o s i t i o n
a .

o f t h e c ran k nd f ) i s t h e a n gl e wh i c h C P m a k e s w i t h C A
a ( T he .

an le i s p os i t i v e wh e n m e as ur e d i n t h e a n t i c l oc k wi s e d i r e c t i on a n d
g a
.

n e ga t i ve w h e n m e as u 1 e d 1 n t h e cl oc kw i se d i r e c ti on .
 P ER I O D I C M OT I O N 1 51

Evi d e n tly 9 d ) a an d
y r sin
(t
c a
)
.

If ul a r v e l o c i ty o f C P
i s t he an nd t i t h e t im e t a k e n by P t o a s
to g
tr a ve l fr o m A t o P th e n 9b wt an d y ,
s in
( i ) , r x a .

Wh e n i po s i ti ve i t i s c all e d t h e a d ance or le a d a n d wh e n i t i s
a s v ,

n e g t i v e i t i s c a lle d t h e ta g
a .

T h e c urv e wh i c h I S t h e g ra ph of t h e e q u t i on y _ r s i n ( f ) i s a c) a

t he s m e a t h e c urv e wh i c h i s t h e g ra p h o f t h e e qu t i o n y _ r s i n I
as a ()

e x c e pt th t i t s t a rt s a t
a d i ffe re n t p oi n t ; th i s i c l ea rly s h o wn in
a s

F i g 27 2
. T h e d ot t e d p r t of t h e c ur v e c orr e s p on d s t o t he m o t i o n
a

FIG . 27 2 .

of t he r k from t h e z e ro p os i ti on CX t o t h e p os i t i on CA wh i ch
c an

i s t o be ta k e n s t h e n e w t rt i n g po s i t i o n
a O b s e rv e t h t t h e e qu l
s a . a a

d i v i i on s on t h e ci rc l e w h i c h co rr e s p on d t o t he e qu l d i v i s i on s on OL
s a

s t r t f r om t h e p o i n t A
a
—
.

1 2 9 C o m p o s i t i o n o f C o ll i n e ar H a rm o n i c M o t i o n s
. A
s i m pl e w a y o f g i v i n g a p oi n t a m ot i on wh i c h i s com po u n d e d of t wo

o r m o r e s i m pl e h r m on i c m o t i on s i s s h o w n
a

i n F i g 27 3 . A n d B a e c r n k s wh i c h
. a r a

g i v e i m p l e h r m o n i c m o t i on s t o t h e r od s
s a

C and D w h i c h c a rry p ull e y s E a n d F

a t th e i r u p p e r e n d s G a nd H ar e s u s .

pe n d e d gu i d e pull e y s A th i n c o rd or fi n e .

w i r e i s fix e d at o n e e n d K n d p s e s a as

u n d e r or ov e r t h e d i ffe re n t pull e y s s a

s h o wn T h e fr e e e n d of t h e w i re i s l o d e d
. a

a nd
g de d i n
u i v e rt i c l d i re c t i on a n d
a a

c rri e s
a
p e n o
a p e n c i l P wh i c h t r ac e s
r a

c urv e o n a s h e e t O f p a p e r s t r e t c h e d r o u d n

a re v olvi n g dru m L T he c ran k an d t h e . s

dru m r e dr i ve n s o th a t e ch h s a u n iform
M

a a FIG 27 3
a . .

v e loc i ty .

T h e v e r t i c l c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e m o t i o n s of t h e c r a n k p i n s
a re a

c om m u n i c te d t o t h e p e n c i l but t h e
a m p l i t ud e s o f th e s e m ot i on s e a ar

d oubl e d by t he ac t i on of t h e p ull ey s I f o n e of t h e c r a n k s i s s t op p e d .

wh i le t h e o th e r ro t t e s u n i for m ly t h e p e n i l w i ll h a v e s i m p l e h arm oni c

a ,
c

m o t i on of t h e m e pe ri od sas th t of t h e r od dr i v e n by t h e m o v i n g
a a

c r a n k bu t t h e a m p l i t ud e o f t h e m ot i on of P w i ll be t w i ce t h e r d i u s of a
1 52 PRA CT I CAL G EO METRY

t h e m o i ng v r k Wh e n b oth c ran k s r o t t e t he p e n c i l t r ac e s On t h e
c an . a

m o vi n g p p e r a c urve wh o s e o rd i n te s a e t h e s u m of t h e o rd i n a te s
a a r

of t h e h r m o n i c
a urve s du e t o t h e s e p r a te c r n k s A ny n u m be r of
c a a .

h r m o n i c m ot i o n s m ay b e c om p ou n d e d i n t h i s w y by i n tro du c i ng
a a

a c r a n k fo e ch
r a .

T h e m e c h n i s m i llu s tr a t e d i ii F i g 27 3 i s t h e b a s i s of L o rd K e lv i n s
’
a .

t i de pr e d i c ti n g m c h i n e a .

I f t h e c r n k s h ft s b e t
a a c on s i d e r a bl e d i s t n c e fr o m t h e g u i d e
a a a

pull e ys G an d H com p re d w i th t he r a d i i o f t h e c ran k s t he p ull ey s

a ,

E n d F m ay b e m o un te d d i r e c tly on t h e c ra n k p i ns a n d t h e m e ch an i s m
a

i s c o n s i d e r b l y s i m p li fi e d b u t t h e m o t i o n s c m m u ni c t e d t o t h e pe n c i l
a o a

by t h e s e p arate c r n k s ar e n o t qu i te s i m pl e h r m on i c m o t i on s
a a .

Wh e n t w o c oll in e ar s i m p l e h r m on i c m ot i on s of the s a me p er i od
a

a n d t h e re for e of t h e s m e fr e qu e n cy ar e c om b i n e d t h e r e s ult i n g m o t i on
a

i s al s o a s i m pl e h a r m o n i c m o t i on .

R e fe rri n g t o Fi g 27 4 O Ap L i s t h e h r m on i c or s i n e c u rve for t h e

.
,
a

c r a n k C P wh i c h s t a r t s f r o m t h e z e r o p os i t i on CX T h e r a d i u s of t h e

FIG . 27 4 .

r k
c an CP i s 1 8 i n ch e s a n d t h e e qu a t i on t o t h e c urv e O Ap L i s t h e r e fore
1 8 s i n 9 i n wh i c h 9 i s m e a s ur e d fr om t h e z e r o p os i t i o n o f t h e
y,
c ran k . E F q H i s t h e h a r m on i c o r s i n e c urv e fo r t h e c r a n k C Q wh i c h
h as a l e ad o f T h e r a d i u s O f t h e c r a n k C Q i s 1 2 i n c h es a n d t h e
e qu a t i on t o t h e c urv e E F qH i s th e re for e y, 12 s in ( 9 in
wh i c h 9 i s m e as ure d fr om t he r ad iu s wh i c h i s 45 i n a dvan c e of t h e °

z e r o p os i t i on C X .

T o c om b i n e t h e t wo c urv e s t h e o rd i n a te s of t h e o n e m u s t b e a dd e d
t o t h e o r di n a t e s o f t h e o t h e r F or e x a m p l e , r n
.
p a q n I n t he .

a dd i t i o n r e g a rd m u s t o f c our s e b e p a i d t o t h e s i gn s o f t h e o rd i n a t e s .

T he e qu a t i on t o t h e r e s ult i n g c urv e i s y y, y2 1 8 s i n 9 1 2
s in
( 9
T h e r e s ul t i n g c urv e i n t h i s c a s e m a y b e dr a w n i n d e p e n d e n t ly
as f o ll o w s C . o m pl e t e t h e p a r a ll e l og r a m P C Q R Th e n t h.e d i a
g o n a l
C R i s t h e r e pr e s e n t a t i ve c r an k wh os e h a rm on i c c urv e , h a v i n g a n a n g l e
of a dv an c e R C P , i s t h e c urv e wh i c h h a s ju s t be e n Obt ai n e d by
c om b i n i n t h e h a r m o n i c c u rv e s OAp L a n d E F q H
g .

r
T he g e n e a c o l n s t ru c t i o n f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e pr e s e n t a t i v e c r a n k
1 54 P RA CT I CAL G E O METRY

T he c urv e
( q) i s r ph
t h e
g a O f t h e qu t
e a i o n 1 4 s i n ( 29
an d i s t he h r urv
a m on i c c e for t h e c a n r k CQ ic wh h t rt w th
s a s i an

a dv °
r
a n c e o f 50 f om t h e z r p e o t
os i i on CX .

w ll
It i b rv d th t
be o s e e a t he f e r qu yenc o f t h e s e co n d
m o i on i st
d ubl th t
o e a of t h efir t th t s , a i s , t h e c an
v
r k CQ o a es r t t tw
i c e as fa s as t
r k
t he c an CP .

t
1 3 0 C o m p o s i i o n o f H ar m o n i t l cM o t i o n s a t R i gh A n g e s
—
.

t
t o on e an o h e r d r. T he h w l tt d b r
i a g a m ( a )F i g 27 7 s o s t w o s o e
. a s

at r ht
ig l an
g e th r dr v by
s t o o ne an o r ke th t h
an d i en t w o c an s s o a eac
l tt d b
O f t he s o e pl h r
ar s h a s s i mt e p l fitt
a m o n i c m o i on If a. e n ci P i ng
b th l t
o p
s o s be d thr u h th wh r th y v rl p th
as s e o g em p le e e o e a , en t he enci

w ll h v
i t wh h
a e a m o ion p u d d ic pl h r
i s c om o n e of t w o s i m e a m on i c

t r ht
m o i on s a t i g l an th r
g e r d r
s t o on e an o e T.h e e m a i n e of F i
g 2 7 7 .

h w
s o urv tr d by
s h o w t he c p
e lac e dr w t h e e n c i P m ay b e a n .

FIG . 27 7 .

I n t h e e x am p l e w ork e d ou t i n F i g . 27 7 t h e c a n r k
at
( )
b h as a

r ad i u s of 2 i n ch es wh i l e th at a t (c)h as a r d
a i us o f 1 5 in c h e s T he
.
 P ER I O DI C M O TI O N 1 55

fir s t c r a n k m a k es t wo r e volut i on s wh i l e t h e s econ d m a k es thr ee r e v olu

t i on s T h e fr e qu e n ci e s o f t h e t w o h r m on i c m oti on s ar e th e re fo r e i n t h e
. a

r ati o of 2 3 Wh e n t h e fi rs t c ran k m k e s 30 w i th t h e h ori zon t l

. a
°
a

po i t i on O K t h e s e con d m k e s 45 w i th C X C ll i n g th e s e t h e i n i t i l
s a
°
. a a

po i t i on s i f t h e firs t c ra n k turn s throu gh n n gl e 29 fro m i t s i n i t i a l

s ,
a a

po s i t i on t h e s e c on d c ran k w i ll turn throu gh an n gl e 39 fr om i t s a

i n i t i l p os i t i o n i n t h e s m e t i m e
a ,
a .

T h e p o i t i on o f t h e p oi n t P i s d e t e r m i n e d w i th r e fe r e n ce t o t h e
s ,

a x e s OX a n d O Y
'
( ) g
d F i 2 7 7
'
by,
t h e t w o e qu a t.i on s ,

x 15 c os
( 39 an d y 2 s in ( 29

T h e c i r c l e (b)h a s b e e n d i v i d e d i n o 1 8 e qu a l p a r s , s t a r i n g fr om t t t
-

fli e i n i i a t l p os i t i o n o f i t s c r a n k , wh i l e t h e c i r c l e
()c h a s be e n d i v i d e d

p t
i n t o 1 2 e qu a l a rt s , s a rt i n g fr o m t h e i n i t i a l os i t i on of i t s c ran k p .

t
O b s e rv e th a t h e n u m be r s 1 8 a n d 1 2 ar e i n t he i n v e r s e r a i o of t h e
. t
fre qu e n c i e s .

t
T h e c on s ru c t i o n for d e t e rm i n i n g p oi n s i n t h e p a th of P i s c l e a rly t
s h o w n a n d n e e d n o t b e furth e r d e s c r i b e d .

A gre a t v a ri e ty of c urves m a y b e O b a i n e d b y ak i ng d i ffe r e n t t t

f r e qu e n c i e s a n d d i ffe r e n a n g l e s o f l e a d t A fe w of t he s i m pl e r c a s e s .

m ay b e m e n t i o n e d h e r e .

u a l f r e qu e nc i e s a nd e qu a l c r a nks
() q
1 E .

( )
1 O n e c r a n k 0 o r 1 8 0 i n a dv a n ce of t h e o h e r
° °
T h e r e s ul t . t
i s a c i rcle .

2
( ) O n e c r a n k 90 i n a dva n c e of t h e o h e r
°
T h e r e s ul i s a t . t
s tr a i ht l i n e
g .

( )
3 F o r a n y o th e r a n gl e be w ee n t h e c r an k s t h e r e s ul t i s an t
e ll i p s e .

u a l f r e u e nci es a nd une qu a l cr an ks
( ) q
ii E q .

( )
1 O n e c r a n k 90 i n a dv a n c e of t h e o h e r
°
T h e r e s ul i s a t . t
s rai h
g lti ne t .

( )
2 F or an
y o th g t
e r a n l e be w e e n t h e c r a n k s t h e r e s u lt i s a n

e ll i s e

h
.

t t
I t i s e as y t o s o w h a wh e n t h e p a h of P i s a s r a igh l i n e i t s t t t
t
m o i on i n th a t s r a i gh t t
li ne i s a s i m p le h a r m on i c
t
m o i on .

1 3 1 C om p o s i i on o f
. t
P a r a ll e l H ar m on i c
t
M o i on s .AB ( Fi g .

27 8 )i s a V i br a t i n g li n k .

T h e v e rt i c a l c o m p on e n t
o f t h e m o i on of A i s at
s i m pl e h a r m on i c m o t i on
of wh i c h 0a i s t h e r e r e
p
s e n t at i v e V
c r an k T he .

p
ve rt i c a l com o n e n of t h e t FIG 27 8 . .

m o t i on of B i s a s i m le p
t
h arm oni c m o i on of wh i c h ob i s t h e r e pr es en at i ve c ra n k T h e m o i on s t . t
1 56 P RA CTI CAL G E O MET RY

of A an d B h av e t h e s am e fre qu e n cy T he a d v an ce an gle s of t h e .

c r a n k s 0a a n d o b r e nd r p e c ti v e ly
B a
e s a a .

C i s a p oi n t i n AB o r i n AB p r odu ce d e i th e r w y T he ve r t i c l a . a

c om p o n e n t o f t h e m o t i o n o f C i s O bv i o u s ly a s i m pl e h ar mo n c m o t i on l

a n d i t i s r e qu i r e d t o fi n d t h e r e pr e s e n t a t i v e c r a n k fo r th i s m o t i on
-

F rom a poi n t 0 dra w o a p ra ll e l a n d e qu al t o c a D ra w o h

' ' '
a .
' ’

p ar ll e l n d e qu l t o ob J oi n a b an d d i v i d e i t a t c s o th at a c c b
a a a .
' ' ' '' ' '

A C : CB Th e n o c i s t h e c ra n k r e qu i re d a n d y i s i t s dvan c e
.
’ '
a

a n le
g T.h e p r o of i s a s fo ll o w s D r a w a p a r a ll e l t o b o t.o m e e t a
'
r
' '
o
' '

at r . D r a w c s p ara ll e l t o a t o m e e t o b at 8 L e t t h e v e r ti ca l m oti on
' ' '
o
' '
.

of B b e d e s tr y e d t h e n t h e v e rt i c a l m ot i on of C w i ll b e t o t h a t o f A
o ,

as CB AB or s c b a b or a s o r z o a o r i s th e re fore t he r ep r e
a
' ' ’ ’ ’ ' '
.
'

s e n t a t i v e c r a n k for t h e v e r t i c a l h a r m on i c m o t i on O f C wh e n B h s n o a

v e rt i c a l m oti on I n l i k e m an n e r wh e n t h e v e r ti ca l m o ti on of A i s
.

d e s t roy e d an d B i s dr i ve n t h e r e pr e s e n t a t i ve c ra n k for t h e v e rt i c a l
,

m o t i o n o f C w i ll b e o s H e n ce wh e n A an d B r e b oth dri v e n t h e
'
.
,
a

r e pr e s e n ta t i ve c ra n k for t he v e r ti c a l m o t i on of C w i ll be c c wh i ch i s ' '

t h e d i g on a l of t h e p a r ll e l og r a m o r c s a s wa s pr o v e d i n Art 1 29
' '
a a . .

D e noti n g t h e l e n gt h s of t h e c ran k s oa ob a n d 00 by a b a n d c , , , ,

r es pe c t i v e ly t he e qu a t i on s for t h e ve r t i ca l d i s pl ac e m e nts of A B an d C , ,

f r om t h e i r m e an po s i t i on s a r e

y 2
= b si n an d
y 3
= c sin
( + 7)
9
wh e re 9 i s m e as ure d fr om t h e i n i t i a l p os i t i on s oa , ob, a n d c c .

T he a b o ve probl e m oc cu rs i n c o n n e c t i on w i th r e c i pr oc a t i n g s t e a m
e ng i n e v a lve e ar s 0a a n d o b a r e e cc e n tr i cs wh i c h dr i ve t h e l i nk
g .

AB T h e v a lve i s dr i v e n fro m a p oi n t C i n AB c c i s t h e e qu i vale nt

.
' ’
.

ec c e n tr i c , t h a t i s , o c i s a n e c c e n tr i c wh i c h w o uld gi v e t h e sa m e m ot i o n
' '

t o t h e v a lve , dr i v i ng i t d i r e c tly , a s t h e t wo e c ce n tr i c s a n d t h e l i n k AB

g i ve it .

In a v e r t i ca l
i f t h e c r an k i s i n t h e v e rt i ca l p os i i on oY , wh e n
e n gi n e t
0a a n d o b a r e i n t h e p os i t i on s s h o w n , th e n 1 8 0 a is t h e a ngle of .

a dva nce of t he e c c e n t r i c oa , a n d 3 i s t h e a n g l e O f a dva n ce of t h e

[
e cc e n ri c ob t I n t h e a c t u a l e n gi n e t h e e c c e n r i c s 0a a n d ob a r e on t h e
. t
s am e s h a ft .

1 3 2 V e lo c i t y a n d A cc e le a t i o n i n H a r m o n i c M o t i o n
.
OP r —
( g
F i 27.9 ) i s t h e r e pr e s e n a i ve c r a n k f or t h e t t
t
s i m pl e h a r m on i c m o i on s o f t h e p o i n t s M a n d

p
N wh i c h r e c i r oc a e a l on g t h e v e rt i cal a nd t
t
h ori zon a l d i am e t e r s r e s p e c t i v e ly of t h e a ux i l i ary
c i r cl e .

Le t C P r a n d le t t h e p os i t i o n of CP b e

d e fi n e d by t h e a n gl e 9 wh i c h i t m ak e s w i h t
CX . L e t 0) b e t h e a n g ul a r v e l oc i ty o f C P an d
le t V b e t h e l i n e a r ve l oc i ty of P T he n V ( or . .

Le s t h e v e l oc i i e s of M a n d N wh e n i n t h e
t FIG 27 9 . .

t
(

po s i i on s s h o wn be V , a n d V , r e s p e ct i ve ly .

t
Th e s e v e l oci i e s ar e t h e v e r i c al a n d h or i z on a l com pon en s of t t t
V r e s p e c t i ve ly H e n ce V .
V c os 9 o r c os 9 o r c os wt , an d
1 58 P R A C T I C AL G E O METRY

i nst n t e d e te rm i n e d fr om t h e c om p on e n t v e loc i ti e s and co mpon e n t

a ar

cc e l e r t i o n s e x c tly for d i p l ce m e n t s
—
a a a as s a .

1 3 3 H a r;m o n i c A n a l y s i s I t h s b e e n h ow n t h t t h e d i s p l c e a s a a

m e n t of p oi n t from i t s m e n po i t i on wh e n i t has i m p l e h rm on i
a a s , s a c

m ot i on i n tr i gh t l in e i s gi ve n by t h e e qu ti on y _ r s i n ( 9
a s a
, ) a a

or by a;

Agai n i f a poi n t h as p e r i od i c m o t i on i n a s t r i ght l i n e n d i f i t s

, a
,
a

m ot i on i s c om p ou n d e d o f n u m b e r of s i m p l e h a r m o
a n i c m ot i on s i n

wh i c h t h e s e p a ra t e d i s pl a ce m e n t s fr om t h e m e an p os i ti on ar e gi ve n by .

t he e qu a t i on s
r 1 c os (9 m3 r 2 c os
( 29 933 r 3 c os
( 39 an d s o on ,

th en t he r e s u l t an t d i s p l a c e m e n t i s gi ve n by t he e qu a t i on

an d i t has b e e n s h ow n h o w s u c h a r es ult n t d i s pl ace m e n t m ay b e a

fo u n d g ra p h i c lly a n d pl ott e d t o ob ta i n a c urv e of r e s ul t an t d i s pl ce

a a

m en t o n a t i m e t o r a n g l e 9 b a s e .

I f i n s t e a d of m e as ur i n g t h e r e s ult n t d i s pl a c e m e n t from t h e m e an a

p os i ti on i t i s m e as ur e d from p oin t at a d i s t n ce 0 fr om i t th e n
a a
, ,

t t
T h e r i g h h an d s i d e of th i s e qu a i o n i s k n o w n a s a Fou r i e r s e r i e s .

p
A n y p e r i od i c c urv e of d i s l ac e m e n t b e i n g gi v e n i t m ay b e r e s olv e d
t p
i n o a n u m b e r of s i m l e h a rm o n i c c om p on e n t s T h e n u m be r o f h e se . t
t t t
c o m p o n e n s i s g r e a e r t h e g r e a e r t h e c o m pl e x i ty of t h e gi v e n p e ri o d i c

c urv e .

T h e pr oc e s s of bre a k i n g up a gi v e n p e ri od i c c urv e i n to a n u m b e r
of s i m
m
e h a r m on i c c urv e s o r t h e pr o c e s s of fi n d i n qu a t i on t o t h e
'

, g t h e e

c urv e i n t h e f o rm

is ca lle d har moni c a na l s i s

y .

T he proc e s s of h r n a ly s i s i s on e of
a m on i c r e a t i m p or ta n c e i n
g a

c on n e c t i on w i th t h e s t udy of t he p e r i o d i c m ot i on s of m c h i n e s a n d of a

a l t e r n a t i n g e l e c tr i c c urr e n t s .

A gra p h i c m e th o d of h a rm on i c an a ly s i s wh i c h i s c om p ara ti ve ly
s i m pl e a n d e s i ly a p pl i e d w i l l n o w b e d e s c r i b e d
a T h i s m e th od i s du e .

t o Mr J os e ph H a rr i s on an d w s d e s c r i b e d by h i m i n E ngi n eer i ng of
. a

F e b 1 6 th 1 906
. ,
.

T h e pro c e dur e w i ll b e i llu s t ra te d by r e fe r e n c e t o a d e fi n i t e e x am p l e .

T he f ull c urv e E F C H (Fi g 28 1 )h as b e e n pl o t t e d o n t h e b a s e l i n e O L

. .

T he b as e r e p r e s e n t s on e c o mpl e te r e volu t i on o f a s h ft u po n w h i c h a

th e r e i s an e c c e n tri c wh i ch d ri ve s a s l i d e v a lve thr ou gh c e rt ai n i n te r

m e d i a te l i n k; w o rk T h e o rd i n te s of t h e c urv e r e pr e s e n t t h e di s p l ce
. a a

m e n t s of t he v a lv e f r o m a c e rt ai n fix e d p os i t i on I n o rd e r th a t t h e .

s t ud e n t m a tr a n s fe r t h i s c urv e a c c ur a t e l y a n d of full s i z e t o his

y
dr w i n g p p e r n d w ork ou t t he e x m pl e for h i m e lf t h e ord i n a te s
a a ,
a a s ,

h a v e b e e n d i m e n s i on e d Tw e lv e o rd i na t e s at e qu a l i n te rval s w i ll b e
.

u s e d an d th e s e a r e n u m b e re d 0 t o 1 1 .
 P E RI O D I C M O TI O N 1 59

I n m os t e n g1 n e e r 1 n g p r o bl e m s i n h a r m on i c a n aly s i s i t w i ll b e fou n d
“

th a t n o t m or e th a n thr e e of t h e h a rm on i c t e r m s a r e r e qu i re d an d in
m a n y c a s e s t w o t e r m s a r e s u ffi c i e n t
-

I n t h e e x am pl e t o b e w ork e d
.

thr e e te rm s i n add i t i on t o t h e con s tan t w i ll b e fou n d .

it : 1 63 I 38 cos (0
- -

FIG . 28 1 .

T he e q u a t i on is

sa t e -

F r l c os c os
( 29 l —) l
— r112 - -
r 3 c os
( 9+
3 )
a3

an d i t is r e qu i r e d t o fi n d 0 r r an d r l s o , ,, 2 3
a a, (1 2 an d (1 3 .

Exp an d in g t h e r i ght h an d s i d e t he e qu a ti on m ay b e wr i t te n
—
,

w= c + r l c os a 1 c o s 9 r 1 sin a l siu 9
r 2 c o s a 2 c os 29 r 2 s i n (12 s i n 29
r 3 c os a 3 c os 39 r 3 s i n a 3 s in 39 .

Le t r
1 c os a1 a“ r 2 c os (1
2 a2 ,
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1 60 P RA CT I CA L G E O METRY

Al s o , le t — r l s i n (111 b, ,
— r 2 s i n (1 2 b2 , an d — r 3 s i n (1 3 b3 .

Th e n
b1 i 9 b2 s i n 29 b3 s i n 39
—
s n .

Si n ce r l c os a 1 a 1 , an d r 1 sin a 1 b1 i t foll o ws by d i v i s i on t h a t
In
t an a1
7
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si m i a l r r e l a ti on s for t h e o th e r corr e s p on d i n g c on s t n ts a .

T h e c on s t a n t c i s t h e m e a n of a ll t h e gi v e n o rd i n te s a a nd in th i s
c as e i t is
F r om r i gi n 0 be gi n n i ng w i th t he z e r o d i r e cti o n dra w 1 2 r di al
an o a

l i n e s at e qu al n g ul a r i n te rv l s Al on g th e s e ra di a l l i n e s be gi nn i n g
a a .
,

w i th t h e z e r o l i n e m a rk off 1 n s u cc e s s i on fr om O t h e ord i n a te s 0 t o 1 1
, , .

F i n d t he h o ri zon ta l a n d v e rt i c l pr oj ec t i on s of t h e s e r d i ti n g ve c tor s
a a a

as s how n Fi n d t he u m of t h e h ori zon ta l p r oj e c t i on s h avi n g r e g rd

. s a

t o t h e i r s i gn s Th i s s u m i s
. a n d i s e qu a l t o 6 a t he c oe ffi c i e n t 6 ,,
o f a b e i n g ha l
1 f he n u mbe r of o rdi na t es u s e d Th e r e for e a
t .
1

F i n d t he s u m o f t he v e r t i c l pr oj e c t ion s h av i n g r eg rd t o t h e i r s i g ns
a , a .

Th i s s u m i s a n d i s e q ua l t o 6 b Th e re for e b , .
1

t an a1
£ 1
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ar e h e re bo th p os i t i ve i t follo ws h a t t
T he firs t t
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c os
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,
b e g1 n n 1 n g w i t h t h e z e ro d i r e c t i on dra w , ,

a t e qu a l n gul r i n t e rv l s h a l f t h e n u m b e r o f r a d i l l i n e s t h t w e r e
a a a , a a

dra w n from C O n t h e s e r a d i a l l i n es be g i n n i n g w i t h t h e z e r o l i n e
,. , ,

m rk 011 i n s u cc e s s i o n fr om 0 t h e o rd i n t e s O t o 1 1 g oi n g tw i ce r o u n d
a 2 a ,
.

Fi n d t h e s u m s of t h e h or i zon t l n d v e rt i ca l proj e c t i on s of th e s e a a

r adi ati n g v e c tor s I n th i s c ase th ese s u m s a r e

. an d

r e s pe c ti v e ly .

N ow ,
6a z
th e re for e a 2

Al s o ,
6b 2
th e r e for e b 2

t an (1 2 0 333 an d ( 1 2
°
1 8 t o t he n ea e s r t d egr e e .

r2 /
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is p os i ti ve an d a2 i s n e g a ti v e r 2 m u s t b e n e g a t i v e . H e n ce r2

T he s e con d h a r m on i c te rm or t he octav e t e rm is t h e refore

cos
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L as t ly r a n o ri gi n 0 be gi n n i ng w i th t he z e r o d i r e c ti on dr aw
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a t e q u a l a n gul r i n te rv a l s o n e th i rd o f t h e n u m be r of r ad i a l l i n e s t h t
a ,
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w e re dra wn from O O n th e s e r d i l l i n e s wh i c h i n th i s c as e ar e a t
1
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r i g h t an gl e i n te rv l s m a rk off i n s u cc e s s i on from 0 t he ord i n te s 0 t o

a , 3
a

1 1 b e gi n n i n g w i t h t h e z e r o l i n e a n d go i n g thr ee t i m e s r ou n d a s s h o wn
, ,
.

T h e s u m s of t h e h o r i z on t l n d v e rt i c l p r j e c t i on s of th e s e r ad i t i n g
a a a o a

v e c to rs i n th i s c as e ar e an d r e p e c t i ve ly s .
1 62 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

M can

l t 9 d y d 9 d y fr m 9 0 t 0
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s iz e9 5i h t ,
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5 G iv th q u t i en y e ei 9 d y 2 i (0
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o fy y
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6 A p i t M h
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t

fr m t h m i d p i ti C i gi v i i h b y z 2 i (1 5t
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n s e c on e an e n ra .

a a or on a ne a on e ee s a e or e a o ,
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th t C d t h li m i t f t h wi g L t p i tiv d i pl m t b th t
e cen re an e s o
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th e ri ght f C D w t h p o . t ti k it
ra t ti b i g l kwi e re r e s en a ve cr a n , s ro a on e n c oc se .

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n ef M wh os t 0 d wh
on s o t 2 d d m ur CM i en an en s e c on s an e as e n
b tho c as e s .

7 A w i ght h g b y
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m tio f p ri d T
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b i g 3
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a e n s an en e e ns o e ec on e . e s
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y i i
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)
Dr w urv h wi g t h r l ti b tw y d t t y ti m fr m t 0 t
a a c e s o n e e a on e een an a an e o o
t T 2 d s e con s .

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o as e o on ad d t k th s ca e or e nc es o s e c on ,
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ti l l f 1)f l l i z R d 11 t h d i pl m t y wh t
ca s ca e or u s e . d
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8 A m ti . i tr i ght li whi h i m p u d d f t w i m pl h m i
o on n a s a ne , c s co o n e o o s e ar on c

m ti o f th
on s o m p ri d i i t l f e sa i m pl h rm e i m ti e f th t p ri d
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If i d i pl a: m st f p i t t t i m t th i th r m i p
s ac e en o t d by t h
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a dv E f t h r ult
an c e t m ti h vi g giv t h rr p di g l m t f
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2i h a, 3i h ; nc di
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9 Th . i m pl h rm r ee s i m ti i e tr i ght l i a r pr t d by t h
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15+
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wh re a i s d i placement i n i n hes f om mean p i ti on and t i

e s c r os s t i me .
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pl t p d v t
L e t t h e com e e dvd d i t
er i o of ib r a i on b e i i e n o n ine eq ula in t rv l
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.

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curv wh h
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p t
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t t rv l
L e t t h e i m e o f o n e o f t h e i n e a s be r e
pr t d
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on t h e a e h by a e n g of 8 i n c e s
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.

I n e e m i n i ng s c ce s s i e o i na e s t h e m e o
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12 A p i t P i pl h mp u d h m m t wh mp t O

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p ll l t t w p rp d i ul r x OX OY giv n by t h q t n
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lt pl t l u
P o t h e c om e e oc s o f P
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.
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( 26 i nc h es .

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4 s in (9

T he co m p on e n t m ti o on o f B in the s am e d i r ti ec on i s gi v en by
wz z b s i n wt z b sin e .

L et t h e c om p on e n t m ti o on o f C be d fi d by t h
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to a s in
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V al ue s of b i n i nch e s .

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i on i n fe e p e r s e c on p e r s e c o n d
i nc es e e rm i ne t h e eng s ic d h Dt . l th wh h
rp t
e r esen a we loc i t t
y o f 1 foo p er secon an d an acc e e a i on o f 1 foo p e r s e c on d lrt t d
p er s e c on d,
1 64 P RA C T I CAL G E O ME T RY

dt
1 6 T aki n g t h e a a o f e e r c i s e 9
. o the x
e oc i i e s an d ac c e le r at on s o f t h e pl t vl t '

p
c o m on e n sim e t pl h r
a m o n i c m o i on s a s o t h e e su an e oc i i e s an a cc e e r at l r lt t v l t l
t t
i on s , all o n t h e s am e i m e b as e , for a c om e e c y c e Con s c t h e e oc i y pl t l tru t vl t
lrt l
.

an d a c ce e a i on s ca e s .

l d v lv
1 7 T h e s i e a e of a s e am e n gi n e i s ac a e b y a Joy ge a
. t
F i g 28 3 tu t d r . .

FIG . 28 3 .

gi v ht p i ti
es e ig 0 1 2 7 f t h v lv
os r p n d i ng t t h
on s , , , , o e a e , co r es o o e eig ht r c an k
p i ti n 6 f
os o s o
M uri g fr m t h p i t A t h d i pl m t
e as n o f t h v lv f e o n ,
e s ac e en a
t o e a e or an y r c an k
p i ti n 6 i gi v n ppr xi m t ly by t h F uri r qu ti n
os o s e a o a e e o e e a o

m c os 26 + a 3 c os 36 + a , cos 46
b1 sin 6 b2 s i n 26 b3 sin 36 .

D t rm i t h i ght
e e t t i thi qu ti
ne e e c on s an s n s e a on .

If th p d f th k h ft i 1 0 r d i n p
e s ee o e c r an s a s a a s er s e con d wh t
,
a v l i ty
is the e oc

o f t h v lv wh
e 6 0a e en [a n ]
1 8 On y .
l f p ri d i
e u vc A i g
c ei v n o a e o c c r e s e in Fig . 28 4 . E xpr y ess as a

FIG 28 4 . .

fun t i n f 6
c o um i n g that ll t h F uri r v t
o ,
as s f t h f urth n d h i gh r a e o e e c or s o e o a e

or dr n gl i gi b l
e s ar e e e .

19 Th urv B (F i g 28 4) h w t h d i pl m t y i n h f t h b l k n
e c e . s o s e s ac e en c es o e oc 1

t h li k f S t ph n v lv g r f r p t d r d ur
.

e n o a e y nk i
enso i 6 g i ga e ea ,
or a n c a os on e ees , n one

re v luti f t h
o n k h ft
on o E xpr y pp xi m t ly i n t m f 6 by t h e fir t
e cr a s a . e ss a ro a e er s o s

thr t rm f t h F uri r ri
ee e s o e o e se es

y r i n (6 ) i n (2 6 ) s
1 s
i n (36 ) G1 r2 s oa
, rs as
n t nt a co s a

FIG 28 5 . .

20 A p i n t P . i ll t in tr i ght l i t h
o os c a es a s a ne , e t
m o i on be i ng r pe t d i n
e a e

d fin i t ly T h p ri d f osci ll ti n b i ng d ivi d d
e e . e e o o a o e e i n t tw lv
o e e e q u l i nterval s
a
,
 CH AP TER X I
PRO ECT I ONJ
134 . D e s c ri p t i v e G e o m e t r y —
P r a c ti ca l S oli d Geome t r y , o r D e
.

sc rip ti ve Ge ome t ry i s t h a t bra n c h of ge o m e t ry wh i c h t r e a t s ( l ) of t h e

r e p res e n ta ti on o n a pl an e s urfa ce of p oi n t s l i n e s an d fi g ur e s i n
, , , ,

s pa ce i n s u c h a w y th t t h e r e l a t i v e p os i t i on s of t h e p oi n t s l i n e s
, a a , ,

a n d fi g ur es a n d a l s o t he e x c t fo r m s of t h e l i n e s a n d fi ur e s
a
, g r e a

d e te r m i n e d n d ( 2) of t h e g ra ph i c s olut i o n of probl e m s c on n e c te d
,
a

w i th poi n ts l i n es a n d fi g ur e s i n s p ce T h e pro bl e m s of d e s c ri p ti v e
, ,
a .

e o m e t ry a r e b e s t s o lv e d by m e a n s of t h e m e th o d of pr oj e c t i o n s
g
—
.

1 3 5 P r oj e c t i o n
. Wh e n a n obj e c t i s s ee n by t he e y e of a
s pe c t tor a ray s o f l igh t c om e fr om ll t he v i s i bl e p a r ts of t h e obj e c t
,
a

a n d c on v e r ge t o w a rd s a p oi n t w i t h i n t h e e e N o w s upp os e t h a t a
y .

fl t s h ee t of gl a s s i s pl a c e d b e tw e e n t h e obj e c t a n d t h e e y e of t h e
a

s pe c ta t o r an d t h a t e a c h r a of l i ht i p as s i n t hr o u h t h l
, y g n g g e,g as s

from th e obj e c t t o t h e e y e l e a v e s a m a rk on t h e g l a s s of t h e s a m e
,

c olo u r a n d t i n t a s t h e p a r t of t h e obj e c t f r o m wh i c h t h e r y c a m e a .

I n t h i s w y a p i c t ur e w ould be pr o du c e d on t h e s u rfa c e of t he g l ss
a a ,

a n d if t h e o bj e c t b e r e m o v e d wh i l e t h e p i c t ur e a n d t h e e y e r e m i n a

s t t i on a ry t h e p i c t ur e w o uld c on v e y t o t h e m i n d of t h e s p e c t a to r t he
a ,

s m e k n o wl e d g e of t h e obj e c t a s w as c on v e y e d by t h e pr e s e n c e of t h e
a

o bj e c t i t s e l f A gai n i f i ns te ad of t he r ay s of l ig h t from all t he v i s i bl e

.
,

poi n ts of t he obj e c t l e a vi n g n i m pr e s s i on o n t h e g l as s on ly t h os e
.

a ,

wh i c h c am e from t h e e d ge s of t h e obj e c t w e r e t o do s o n ou t l i n e ,
a

w ou ld b e p r odu ce d on t h e s ur face of t h e gl a s s wh i ch a lth ou gh i t w ould ,

n ot c on v e y t o t h e m i n d of t h e s p e c t a t o r t h e s a m e i m pr e s s i on a s t h e

pre s e n c e of t he obj e c t i ts e l f m i gh t s ti ll gi ve a good i d e a of i t s form .

T he fo re goi n g r e m a rk s r e i llu s t r a t e d b y F i g
a 28 6 wh e r e AB .
,

r e pre s e n ts a n obj e c t v i e w e d by an e y e a t E ; CD 1 s a pl n e i n t e rp os e d a

be t w e e n E a n d AB ; t h e th i n d o tt e d l i n e s r e pr e s e n t a fe w of t h e r y s a

of l i g ht p s s i ng f r om t h e e d g e s of t h e obj e c t t o t h e e y e nd A R i s
’ ’
a ,
a

t h e o u t l i n e o bt i n e d from t h e i n t e r s e c ti o n s of t h e r y s of l i ght w i th
a a

t h e pl a n e CD T h e fi g ur e A R i s c a ll e d a p r oj e c t i on of t h e obj e c t
' '
.

AB on t h e pl an e C D .

T h e pl a n e u p on wh i c h a pr oj ec ti on i s dr a w n i s c all e d a p la ne of
r o e c ti on
p j .

T he r ay s of l i gh t or i m agi n ary l i n e s p as s i ng from t h e d i ffe re n t

p oi n t s o f t h e obj e c t t o t h e c orr e s p on d i n g p oi n t s of t h e proj e c t i on re a

c a ll e d r
p jo e ct or s
 P R OJE C T I O N 1 67

Wh e n t h e proj e c tors v e rge t o po i n t t h e pr oj e c ti on i s ca ll e d

c on a a

r a di a l ,o ni a l o r p e r p e t i ve pr oj e c ti on
c c ,
s c .

Wh e n t he poi n t t o wh i c h t h e p roj e ctors con v e rge i s at an i nfi n i te

d i s tan c e from t h e obj e c t t h e proj e c to rs b e com e p ar all e l n d t he ,
a

proj e c ti on i s c ll e d a p a r a lle l proj e c t i on

a .

I f b es i d e s b e i n g p r a ll e l t h e proj e c t or s a r e a l so pe rp e n d i c ul a r t o
a

t he pl n e o f pr oj e c t i on t h e pr oj e c t i o n b ec om e s
a e r e ndi c u la r
p p an a ,

o t hogona l or n or t hogr a hi c pr oj e c t i on
a
r , p .

For t h e purp o s e s of d es c r i p t i ve geom e t ry orth og r aph i c pr oj e c t i on s

a r e t h e m os t c o n v e n i e n t a n d m os t c om m on ly us e d a n d wh e n t h e te r m ,

p roj e c ti o n i s u s e d w i th ou t any qu al i fi ca ti on orth og r ph i c pr oj e c ti o n i s a

e n e r a lly u n d e r s t ood I n wh a t foll o w s pr oj e c t i on w i ll m e an or t h o

g .

g r ap h i c p r oj e c t i on .

T h e p r oj ec ti on of a p oi nt upon a pl a n e i s t h e foo t of t he p e rp e n d i c u l a r
le t f ll fr o m t h e p o i n t o n t o t h e pl a n e
a .

T h e p r j e c ti on of a li ne up o n a p la n e i s t h e l i n e wh i c h c on ta i n s t he
o

pr oj e c t ion s of ll t h e po i n t s of t h e or i gi na l l i n e
a .

T h e p oj ect i ng s urf a ce of a l i n e i s t h e s urf ac e wh i c h c on tai ns t h e

r

FIG 286 . .

pr oj e c tors of all t h e p o in ts of th at l i ne Wh e n t h e proj e c ti n g s urfa c e .

of a l i n e i s a p la n e i t i s c ll e d t he r la ne o f t he l i n e
p j ao e c ti n
gp T he .

proj e c t i n g s urfac e of a s tra igh t l i n e i s lway s p l an e bu t a l i n e i s n ot

a a ,

n e c e s s r i ly
a traigh t b e c au s e i t s pr oj e c ti ng s urface i s a pl an e Th es e
s .

d e fi ni ti on s of proj e c ti n g s urface an d pr oj e c t i ng pl an e of a l i n e and t h e

s t a te m e n ts wh i c h fo ll o w t h e m l t ll k i d f pr j t i on
pp y o a a n s o o e c .

7 O n e pr oj e c t i on a l o n e of a fi ur e i s n o t s u ffi c i e n t for d e t e rm i n i n i t
g g s
e x a c t for m F or e x m pl e i f a t r i an g l e a bc dr a w n o n a s h e e t of p a p e r
. a

be t ak e n as t h e pr oj e c t i on o n t h e p p e r of a tr i n g l e A B C s o m e wh e r e
a

a a
a bo v e i t i t i s c l e a r t h a t t he e x ac t fo r m of t h e tr i an l e A B C w i ll
,
g
d e pe n d o n t h e r e l t i ve d is tan ce s o f i t s n gul a r p oi n t s fr om t he p ap e r
a a
,

bu t t h e proj e c t ion a b g i ve s n o i nfor m t i on a b o ut the s e d i s t an ce s I f

c a .
,

h o we ve r an oth e r proj e c ti o n a b c of t h e tr i n gle A B C b e o bta i n e d o n

,
’ ’ ’
a
a s h e e t of p p e r a t r i h t a n l e t t h f r m r n t h w i ll be
g g s o a e o e o e e n a s , ,
s h o w n l a t e r t h e t ru e fo r m o f t h e t r i an l e A B C m a b e o b t i n d f r om
,
g y a e
th e s e t wo proj e c t i on s .

T h e r e pre s e n t t i on of a n obj e c t by m e an s of t wo pr oj e c t i on s on e
a
,
o n e a c h of t wo pl a n es a t ri ht a n l e s t o on e a n ot h e r a n d h w th e e
g g o s ,
1 68 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

pr oj e c ti on s ar e dr a w n on a fl at s h e e t of pap e r w i ll be u nd e rs too d by
r e fe r e n ce t o Fi g s 28 7 a nd 28 8 . .

F i g 28 7 i s t o b e t a k e n a s a p i c tor i a l pr oj e c t i on o f a m od e l
.
T wo .

pl an es of pr oj e c ti on r e s h ow n on e b e i n g v e rt i c al n d t h e o th e r
a a

h ori zon ta l T h es e pl an e s c all e d co or di na te p la nes d i vi d e t h e s p ac e

.
,
-

s urr o u n d i n
g t h e m i n t o fo ur di h e dra l n g l e s or qu a dr a n ts wh i c h r e a a

n m e d fir s t
a , s e on d ,t hi r d a n d f ou th di he dr a l a ngles o r fi s t s econd
c , r r
, , ,

t hi r d a n d f our th qu a dr a nts
, I f a n ob s e rve r b e f c i n g t h e v e rt i c l
. a a

pl an e of proj e c ti o n th e n t h e firs t qu adr n t i s a bo ve t he h ori zon t l

, a a

pl n e of pr oj e c ti on an d i n fro n t of t h e v e rti c l p l n e of pr oj e c ti on
a a a .

T h e s e c on d qu a dr a n t i s b e h i n d t h e fir s t a n d t h e o th e rs foll o w i n o rd e r

FIG . 28 7 . FIG . 28 8 .

as s h ow n T h e l i n e of i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e pl a n e s of pr oj e c ti on i s call e d
.

t h e gr ou nd li ne a n d i s l e t t e r e d X Y .

A n obj e c t i s s h ow n i n t h e fi r s t qu a dr a n t an d proj e ct i on s of i t on t h e
h ori z on t a l a n d v e rt i c a l pl n es of proj e c ti on r e l s o s h ow n T h e
a a a .

p roj e c t i on on t h e h o ri z on t l pl n e i s c ll e d a p l n an d t he pr oj e c ti on
a a a a

o n t h e v e rt i c a l pl an e i s c a ll e d a n e le va t i on .

No w i m agin e t h e v e r ti c a l pl n e t o turn b o u t X Y a s a n a xi s a a ,

c rry i ng w i th i t t h e e l e v t i on u n t i l i t i s i n
a a h or i z on t l pos i ti on T h e
,
a a .

h ori zon t a l n d v e r ti c l pl an e s of proj e c t i on w i ll n ow c oi n c i d e an d t he

a a

p l n an d e l e v t i on of t h e obj e c t w i l l b e on on e fla t s ur fac e an d th e 1 r
a a

e x c t fo r m s m ay b e dr w n a s s h o w n i n F i g 28 8
a a . .

I n s t e a d of i m a gi n i n g t h e v e r ti c a l pl n e t o t ur n ab out X Y u n t i l i t a

i s h o r i z o n t a l t h e h o r i z on t l p l an e m y b e i m agi n e d t o t urn ab o u t X Y
,
a a

u n t i l i t i s v e r t i ca l a s s h o w n i n F i g 28 9 . .
170 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY
ei th e r y te m c n b e m d e w i th e qu l f i l i ty i f t he pr i n ci ple s a r e
s s a a a ac

u n d e r t oo d
s .

I n w o rk i n g pr obl e m s i n d e s c r i p t i ve g e ome t ry by t h e m e th od o f
p r oj e c ti on on co ord i n a te p l n e s t h e gi ve n p oi n ts n d l i n e s m y be
s a ,
a a

i n a n y on e qu dr n t bu t t h e l i n e
a a fo t h e s o lu t i on m y e x te n d i n t o
, s r a

an y o ll of t h e o t h e r qu dr n ts
r a a a

1 3 6 N o t a t i o n i n P r oj e c t i o n —
.

. F or t h e p ur p os e of r e fe r e n ce .

a n d for c l e rn e s p oi n ts l i n e s n d fi g ure m y b e l e tt e r e d I n
a s , , ,
a s a .

g en e r l a p oi n t i n
a p c e i s d e n o t e d by a c p i t l l e tte r i t s pl n by
s a a a ,
a a

s m ll i t l i c l e tte r
a a n d i t s e l e v ti o n b y
,
a s m ll i t l i c l e t t e r w i th a d s h
a a a a a

ove r i t .Thu s P d e n ote s p oi n t n sp c e p i t s p l n n d p i t s

a i a ,
a a
’

e l e v t i on
a A l i n e AB n s p c e w ould h v e i t s pl n l e tt e r e d a b n d i t
. 1 a a a a s

e l e v t i on
a h A p oi n t P i n s p ce m y be r e fe rr e d t o as t h e poi n t P
a
' '
. a a

s t h e p oi n t p p I n l i k e m nn e r l i n e AB i n p c e ma y b e r e fe rr e d
'
or a . a a s a

t o s t he l i n e A B o r s t he l i n e a b
’ '
a b
a ,
a .

T h e h o r i z on t l a n d v e r t i l p l n e s of pr oj e c t i on m y b e r e fe rr e d
a ca a a

t o by us i n g t h e bbr e v i ti o n s H P a nd V P r e p e c t i v e ly
a . . a
“
. s .
 CH AP TER X II

J
PRO ECT I O NS OF POI NT S AN D LI NE S
137 R u l e s r e l a t i n g t o t h e P r oj e c t i o n s o f a P o i n t
.
—Fi g .

29 1 i s a p i c t o r i a l p r oj e c t i on o f a m od e l s h o w i n g t h e h o r i z on t a l a n d
v e rti ca l pl an e s of p roj e c ti on i n t h e i r n a tu ra l p os i t i on s t oge th e r w i th
four poi n ts A , B , C, a n d D in s p ac e , A be i n g i n t h e fir s t qu a dr a n t o r
firs t d i h e dr a l a ngl e , B i n t he s e c on d , C i n t h e th i rd , an d D i n t h e
fourth T h e pl a n s a n d e l e va t i on s of t h e s e p oi n t s a s obt a i n e d by
.

dropp i n g p e rp e n d i c ul ar s fr om th e m on t o t h e h o r i zo n ta l a n d ve r ti ca l
p l an e s of proj e c t i on r es p e cti v e ly ar e al s o s h ow n T h e p os i ti on s of t he
.

FIG . 291 . FIG . 292 .

l v t io n s of t h e p oi n ts wh e n t he v e r ti c a l pl n e of pr oj e c ti o n i s
e e a a

tur n e d b ou t X Y u n t i l i t c oi n c i d e s w i th t h e h o r i z on t l pl n e a e i n d i
a a a r

c t e d an d i n F i
a , g 29.2 t h e v a r i o u s pl n s a n d e l e v a t i on s ar e s h o w n
a s a

th e y pp e a r wh e n t he p l an e s of pr oj e cti on ar e m d e t o c oi n c i d e a n d
a a

th e n p l ac e d fl t on th i s p ap e r
a .

A c r e ful s tud y of F i gs 291 n d 292 s h o uld c on v i n c e t he s tu d e n t

a . a

o f t h e tru t h of t h e foll o w i n rul s r e l ati n t o t h e p r oj e c t i on s of a

g e g
po i n t .
172 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY
( )
1 T h e pla n of p oi n t i s be low or a bove X Y a ccord i ng as t he p oi n t
a

i s i n f r ont or be hi nd t h e v e r t i c a l pl a n e of pr oj e c ti on .

( )
2 T h e e l e v a t i o n o f a p o i n t i s a bove o r be low X Y ac c ord i n
g a s t he

p oi n t i s a bove or below t h e h or i zon ta l p l an e of p roj e c t i on .

( )
3 T h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e p l an o f a p o i n t fr om X Y i s e qu a l t o t he
d i s t n ce o f t he poi n t fr om t h e v e rt i c a l pl n e of proj e c t i o n
a a .

( )
4 T h e d i s t n ce of t h e e l e v a t i o n of
a p oi n t f r o m X Y i s e qu
a l t o a

t h e d i s t n c e of t h e p oi n t fr om t h e h o r i z on ta l pl n e of pr oj e c ti on
a a .

( ) T h e pl n n d e l e va t ion of a p oi n t a r e i n a s t ra i ght l i n e
5 a a

p e rpe n d i c ula r t o KY .

T h e te r m p r oj ector h a s a lr e a dy b e e n d e fi n e d a n d i s t h e l i n e j oi n i ng
a p oi n t a n d a pr oj e c ti on o f i t but t h e li n e j oi n i n g t h e pl an a n d
,

e l e v a t i on of a p oi n t i s a l s o c a ll e d a pr oj e c t o r A pl n an d e l e va ti on . a

ar e a l s o s ai d t o be pr oj e c t e d t h e on e from t h e o th e r
, .

1 3 8 T r u e L e n gt h I n cl i n at i o n s a n d T r a c e s o f a L i n e
.
, ,
.

FIG . 293 . FIG . 294 .

T he proj e c ti on of a l i n e on a p l an e w i ll be s h or te r th an t h e l in e i tse l f
e x c e p t wh e n t h e l i n e i s p r a ll e l t o t h e pl a n e ; i n t h e l a tt e r c as e t h e
a

l i n e an d i t s pr oj e cti on h a v e t h e s m e l e n gt h a .

A l i n e i t s pr oj e c ti on on on e of t h e c o ord i n ate pl an e s an d t he
,
-

proj e c to rs from i t s e n ds t o t h at p l an e form a qu dri l at e ra l con ce rni n g

,
a

wh i c h e v e ryth i ng r e qu i r e d for con s t ru c t i n g i t i s k n ow n i f t h e p l an an d

e l e v a t i on of t he l i n e a r e gi v e n O n e m e th od of fi n d i n g t he tru e
.

l e n g t h o f a l i n e i s th e r efor e t o c on s t ru c t th i s qu adr i l a te ra l .

L e t t h e p l a n a b a n d e l e va t i on a h of a l i n e AB be gi ve n as i n
' '

F i g 294
. . R e fe rr i n g t o t he p i c to r i a l p r oj e c ti o n i n Fi g 293 i t wi ll be .
,

s e e n th a t t h e l i n e AB i t s pl n a b a n d t h e pr oj e c t o r s A a a n d B b fo r m
,
a ,

a qu a dr i l a t e r l t h e b a s e a b of wh i c h i s g i v e n Al s o A a i s e qu a l t o a '
a . a ,
,

B b i s e qu l t o b b n d t h e a n g l e s A a h a n d B ba r e r i gh t a ng l e
'
a a
°
a s
l ,
.

H e n ce t o fi n d t h e tru e l e ng th of AB dra w ( Fi g 294)aA at r i gh t , .

1

a n g l e s t o a b a n d e qu l t o a a N e x t dr w bB a t r i ght ang l e s t o a b
'
a l . a ,

a n d e qu a l t o b b A B i s t h e t r u e l e n gt h of AB
'
1 .
I 1 .
1 74 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

an p a r t i c ul a r pl a n e i n c li n a t i on t o t h e h or i z on t a l pl an e i s r lly
y , ge n e a

u n d e r tood s .

T he t r a c e of a li ne on a s u rf ace i s a p oi n t wh e r e t h e l i n e i n t e r s e c ts
t h e s urfa ce Wh e n t h e tr aces of a s tr aight li ne ar e m e n t i o n e d w i th out
.

r e fe r e n c e t o an y p art i c ul a r s ur fa ce t h e po i n t s i n wh i c h t h e l i ne or t h e ,

l i n e p r odu ce d c ut s t h e pl an e s of p roj e cti on ar e u n d e r t oo d s .

T he hor i z ont a l t r a ce of a li ne i s t h e p oi n t wh e r e t h e l i n e o r t h e
l i n e pr odu c e d c ut s t h e h ori zon t l p l an e of proj e c t i on an d the ve r ti c l
,

a , a

t r a ce of a li ne i s t h e p oi n t wh e r e t h e l i n e or t h e l i n e pr odu ce d c u t s t h e
v e rt i c l pl an e of pr oj e c ti on
a .

A fte r m a k i ng t h e c on s tru c t i o n for fi n d i ng t h e t ru e l e n g th of a

l i n e s h ow n i n Fi g 294 i f g B A be produ c e d t o m e e t ba at h th e n h
, .
, l l

w i ll b e t he h ori zon t al t ra ce of t he l i n e AB I n li k e m an n e r i f A B .
Q ,

b e pr odu c e d t o m e e t a b t v th e n if w i ll b e t h e v e r ti c a l tr a c e of AB
' ' '
a .

T h e c orr e c t n e s s of t h e s e c on s t ru c t i on s i s o bvi o u s fr om an i n s p e c ti on
of F i g 293 . .

I f i t is on ly
trac e s of a l i n e wh i c h a r e r e qu i r e d th e n i t i s
t he ,

o n ly n e c e s s a ry t o p r odu c e t h e e l e va t i on a b eet XY at
’ ’

( g
F i 29 4) t o m .

h a n d th e n dr w h h p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o K Y t o m e e t t h e pl an a b p o
’ '
a r

du c e d a t h i n o rd e r t o d e t e rm i n e t h e h or i z on t al tr a c e I n li ke .

m an n e r by pr o du c in g t h e pl an a b t o m e e t X Y a t v a n d draw i n g vv
'
, ,

p e rp e n d i c ul ar t o KY t o m ee t t h e e l e vat i on a b pr odu ce d at v t he ’ ’ '

,

v e r ti c al tr ace i s d e te r m i n e d Th i s cons t ru c ti on f i l s h o w e v e r wh e n
. a

t h e pr oj e c t i on s of t h e li n e a r e p e rp e n d i c ul r t o X Y but t h e c on a

s tr u c t i on pr e v i o u s ly g i v e n w i ll a p p ly i n th i s c as e a l s o pr o v i d e d th a t ,

t h e pl n s an d e l e va t i on s of t w o p oi n ts i n t h e l i n e a r e d e fi n i t e ly
a

m a rk e d a n d l e tte r e d .

Wh e n t he p r oj e c ti on s of a s tr i ght l i ne ar e p e rpe n d i cul ar t o KY a

t h e l i n e i t s e l f i s p e rpe n d i c ul a r t o K Y a lth ou g h i t m y n o t m e e t X Y a .

Wh e n a l i n e i s p ar a ll e l t o on e of t he pl a ne s of proj e c t i on i t h as
n o t r a c e o n t h at pl a n e .

Wh en a l i n e i s p e rpe n d i c ul ar t o on e of
t h e pl an e s of pr oj e c t i on i t h s n o t r a ce on a

t h e o th e r pl a n e of pr oj e c t i on a n d i t s p r oj e c ,

t i on on t he pl an e t o wh i c h i t i s p e rp e n d i c ul a r
i s a p oi n t .

1 3 9 T r u e F o rm o f a P l an e F i gu r e
—
. .

T h e p r oj e c t i on of a pl an e fi g ur e on a pl n e a

w i ll n ot h av e t h e s am e for m or d i m e n s i on s
a s t h e fi gur e i t s e l f e x c e p t i n g wh e n t h e pl a n e

of t h e fi gu r e i s p a r a ll e l t o t h e pl an e of p r o

i on i n wh i c h c a s e t h e fi ur e d i
j e c t , g n t s
p r o a

j e c t i on w i ll b e e x a c tly a l i k e T o d e t e rm i n e .

t he tru e for m of a n y pl an e fi g ur e wh os e p r o ,

j e c t i on s a r e
g i v e n i t i s n e ce ss a ry t o k n o w
,

t h e tru e d i s t a n ce s of s u ffi c i e n t n u m be r o f a
F G 296
p oi n t s i n i t from on e an o th e r ; n ow th e s e I ‘ °

d i t n ce s m ay b e fou n d by one of t he con s tr u c ti on s gi ve n i n t he

s a

pre ce d i ng a rt i c l e .
 P R OJE CT I O N S O F P O I NT S AN D L I NE S 175

An e x am p l e wh r
i n Fi g 296,
is s h ow n v
e e a bc a n d a b c a r e t h e g i e n
.
~
' ' ’

pr j t
o e c i on s of a tr i a n gle t ru l th
T he e d
en g . u d by
s of t h e s i e s a r e fo n

t he c on s tru t h w
c i on s s o tr
n , an d t h e l wh h tru
i an g e r ic i s t he e fo m of

t he tr l wh pr j t
i an g e os e v
o e c i on s a r e th dr w
g i en i s en a n .

fi ur v
I f t h e g e gi e n by i t s pr j t r th thr
o e c i on s h a s m o e d an ee s i es i t

h uld fir t d v d d t tr
s o s be i i e i n o l t ru r
i an g e s th t r
t he l
e fo m s of ese i an g e s
ar e th u d
e n fo n bl d
a n d as s e m ve t ru r
t o gi e t h e wh l ur
e fo m of t h e o e fig e .

y
I n m an c a s e s t h e t ru r pl
e fo m o f a fi ur wh pr j t
an e
g e o se o e c i on s

ar e
gvi e n i td t r
s bes e d by
e m i n e th d r b t
t h e m e td rb d
o o f a a men es c i e i n

Ar t 1 8 9,
. p 221 . .

T he tr d pl
a c e s of t h e s i es o f a fi ur wh pr j t
an e
g e vos e o e c i o n s ar e gi e n

d t r
m ay be e e m i n e d by t ru t
o n e of t h e c o n s pr d r l
c i o n s of t h e e ce in g a t i c e ,

and i t w ll i u d th t
b e fo n a h r z t l tr
a ll t h e w ll
o i on a a ce s i li e i n on e
s tr h t l
ai
g i v rt l tr
n e , a n d a ll t h e e i caw ll a c e th r t r h t
s i l i e i n ano e s aig

l i n e , an d th tr h t l
e s e t wo s ai
g w ll t r t
i n e s i i nx pt
e s e c o n X Y ,
e c e i n
g
wh th y
en e p r ll l
ar e a a wh h
e , in th y w l
ic c as ep r ll le i l be a a e to XY .

Th is m a et t r w ll r rr d h pt r
i be e fe e t o a ga i n i n C a e X V I
—
.

1 4 0 T o m a r k o ff a gi e n
. v L t v L
e n g h o n a gi e n ine Le t
' '
ab, a h ( F i g 297 )be t h e pr j t
. l
o ec i on s of t h e r qu r d i ne , i t i s e i e t o fi nd
t he pr j to ec i on s of a p t oi n C
in th l is in e so th t a h ll
AC s a
v l th
b e a gi e n e n g .

D tr e e m i ne A IB l t he t ru e

l th
eng of AB M k a e A, C 1 .

e qu l a v
t o t he gi e n l th eng .

T hr u h dr w
o
g C 1 a C l o p e r en
p
di c u lar t o a b t o m ee t ab
a t 0 .Throu g h c dr w 60 a
'

p e rp en d i c ul ar t o X Y t o m e e t
' ' ' ’
b at c an d c t he

W
a c . ar e

pr oj e c ti ons r e qu i r ed A E
.

!
I f t h e g i v e n Pr oj e c t i on s FIG 297 FIG 298
o f t h e l i n e a r e p e rpe n d i c ul a r
. . .

t o X Y ( F ig d e t e r m i n e 0 a s be fore th e n m ak e
.
t he d i s t an c e of
c fr o m X Y e qu l t o
'
a

1 4 1 G i v e n t h e T r u e L e n gt h o f a L i n e a n d
.
t h e D i s t an c e s
o f i t s E x t r e m i t i e s fr o m t h e P l a n e s o f
P r oj e c t i o n t o d r aw i t s P r oj e c t i o n s
, .

F i rs t d e te rm i n e t h e pr oj e c t i on s a a (F i g 299) ’
.

o f t h e e n d A of t h e l i n e On a a m ak e a e .
l l
e qu a l t o t h e d i s t a n ce of t h e e n d B of t h e l i n e

from t he v e rt i c a l p l a n e of pr oj e c t i on a n d on ,

a a m a k e a c e qu a l t o t h e d i s t n c e o f B fr o m
' ’
l l a

t h e h or i z on t a l pl an e T hr ou gh c a n d c dr a w .
'

li n e s p a ra ll e l t o X Y Th e s e p ar all e l s to KY .

w i ll c on t a i n t h e pl an an d e l e vat i on r e s pe c
t i v e ly of B W i th a as c e n t r e an d t h e g i ve n
.
’

tru e l en gth of t h e l i n e a s r a d i u s d e s c ri b e an
ar c t o c u t t h e p a r a ll e l t o X Y thr ou h c at
'
'
g FIG . 299 .
176 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY

B2 . F r om B dr a w t h e pe rp e n d i c u l r s t o X Y Th e n i nc e a B i
2 a 2 . s
'
2 s
t he tru e l e n g th of t h l i n e n d a an d s e t h d i t n ce a f it al
'
2 are e s a s o s
e xtr e m i t i e s f r om t h e h o r i z on t a l p l n e i t fo ll o w s p
( e e Fi
g 2 9 3 1 7 2) a s

th t c mi t h e l e n gth of t h e pl a n of t h e l i ne H e n e i f w i th c e n tr
.
, .

a 2 s . c e
,

a a n d r d i u s e qu l t o a l) a n
a b e d e s c ri b e d t o c u t t h e p r ll e l t
a l 2 ar e a a o
K Y thr o u gh c t b th e n b i s t h e r e qu i r e d pl n of t h e l i n e
a a A pe a . r

p di c u l
e n t o X Y f rom b t o m e e t t h e p r ll e l t o K Y thr ou h c
ar a a
’

g
d e t e rm i n e b n d a b i s t h e r e qu i re d e l e va ti on of t h e l i n e
s
'
,
a
' '
.

1 4 2 G i v e n t h e P r oj e c t i o n o f a L i n e o n o n e o f t h e P l a n e s
.

o f P r oj e c t i o n i t s I n cl i n a t i o n t o t h a t P l a n e an d t h e D i s t a n c e
, ,

o f o n e e n d fr o m i t t o d e t e rm i n e i t s o t h e r
P r oj e c t i o n — Le t a b ( F i g 300) b e t h e gi ve n
.
,

pr oj e c ti on 9 t h e i n c l i n t i on t o t h e h ori z on ta l
, a

p l an e n d le t t he d i t n ce of t he e n d A of t h e l i n e
a s a

f rom t h e h or i z on t a l pl n e b e g i v e n a .

T h e d i s t an ce of a f r om X Y i s e qu l t o t h e
'
a

i v e n d i s t n ce of A f r om t h e h or i z on t l pl an e
a
g a .

At a m ak e t he n g l e baB e qu l t o 9 n d dr w a 1 a a a

bB l t r i g h t n gl e s t o a b t o m e e t a B
a a t B T he 1 a ,.

d i t n ce of b fr om X Y i s e qu l t o bB plu s t he Bl
s a
'
a 1

d i s t n ce o f a fr om X Y
a
’
.
FIG 300 . .

I f t h e e l e v t i on a b i s gi v e n n d t h e i n c li
' '
a a

n t i on gb of t h e l i n e t o t h e v e r t i c l pl n e of pr oj e c t i on
a n d a l o t he a a a s

d i s ta n c e of A fr om t h e v e r ti c l pl an e of pr oje c ti on t h e c on s tr u c ti on a ,

i s s i m i l ar t o th t ju s t gi v e n n d i s s h ow n i n F i g 3 00
a a . .

1 4 3 G i v e n t h e I n cl i n a t i o n o f a L i n e t o o n e o f t h e P l a n e s
.

o f P r oj e c t i o n a n d t h e An gl e w h i c h i t s P r oj e c t i o n o n t h a t
P l an e m a k e s w i t h t h e G r o u n d L i n e t o d r a w
i t s P r oj e c t i o n s — L e t t h e l in e b e i n c l i n e d t n
,

a a

a n l e 9 t o t h e h or i z on t l pl an e n d le t i t s p l an a a
g ,

m k e n ng l e ; w i th X Y
a a a F r om p oi n t C i n
a . a

K Y ( F i g 301 )dr w C b i n c l i n e d t an n g l e 9 t o
' '

. a a a

XY . D r w b b t ri gh t n gl es t o X Y Th e n bC
a
'
a a .

i s t h e l e n g t h o f t h e pl an of t h e l i n e wh os e t ru e
l e n gth i Oh n d wh os e i n c l i n ati on t o t h e h o ri
s
'
a

z on t a l pl an e i s 9 W i th b as c e n t r e n d bC s
. a a

r d i u s d e s c ri b e an r c n d from b dr w b t o
a a ,
a a a

m e e t t h i s r c a t a n d m k e n an gl e w i th X Y
'

a a a a a .

a b i s t h e r e qu i r e d pl n of t h e l i n e A pe rp e n d i c ul a r
a .

f rom a t o K Y d e t e r m i n e s a n d a b i s t h e r e qu i r e d
' ’ '
F m 301
a . ,

e l e v t i o n of t h e l i n e
a .

14 4 G i v e n t h e I n cl i n at i on s o f a L i n e t o t h e P l an e s o f
—
.

r j c t t
P o e i on t o d e e r i n e i t s ,
m P r oj e c t io s
n Le t t h e l i n e b e i n
c li n e d a t an n l e 9 t o t h e h ori z on t a l pl n e
a nd t an n l e 4 t o t he a a a
g g a 1

v e r ti cal pl an e of proj e c ti on F rom p oi n t C i n KY ( Fi g 302)dr w . a . a

C b i n c l i n e d t a n an gl e 9 t o X Y
’
a D ra w b b t ri gh t a n gl e s t o X Y .
’
a .

Th e n bC i s t h e l e n gt h of t h e pl n of t he l i n e wh os e tru e l e n gth i s Cb a
'

a n d wh os e i n c l i n t i on t o t h e h or i z on t a l pl a n e i s 9
a .

F r om 9 draw b D mak i ng t he angl e C b D equ al t o 4 D r w CD

' '
1. a
17 8 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

Fi cr 303 a l s o s h o w s h o w t o d e te r m i n e t h e proj ec t i on s of a l i n e
.

wh i c h bi s e c t s t h e an gl e A C B D ra w Cl r .

b i s e c ti n g t he a n gl e dC, e an d i n te rs e c ti n g ole
at r F i n d r t h e e l e va t i on o f R J oi n
.
'
.

er a n d c r
' '
Th e s e ar e t h e p r o e c t i on s of
’

l
.

t h e l i n e wh i c h b i s e c t s t h e a n g e be tw ee n
A C an d B C T h i s a l s o s u gge s t s t h e c on.

s tru c t i on for fi n d i n g t h e p r oj e c t i on s of a

l i n e wh i ch s h all i n t e r s e c t t h e l in e s A C an d
B C a n d m ak e a g i v en a n gl e w i t h on e of
th e m .

14 8 A n gl e b e t w e e n T w o N o n
—
.

i n t e r s e c ti n g L i n e s Le t AB a n d C D b e
t wo n on i n t e r s e c ti n g l i n e s wh os e pr oj e c t i on s
-

ar e gi v e n ; i t i s r e qu i r e d t o fi n d t h e t ru e F I G 303 . .

a n l e be tw e e n
g t h es e l i n e s Th r o u g h an
y .

p oi n t P i n o n e of t h e l in es , s ay AB , dra w a l i ne P Q par a ll e l t o t h e
o th e r l in e T h e a n gl e b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o i n t e r s e c t i n g l i n e s P Q a n d
.

AB i s t he an gl e r e qu i re d .

E x e rci s es X II

h w t h pr j ti n f t h f ll wi g p i n t u i ng t h m g un d li n
1 S o
. e o ec o s o e o o n o s, s e sa e ro e
for pr j t i
all t h e d m ki g t h pr j t r o ec i h p rt o n s , an a n e o ec o s nc a a .

A 12 i h i f t f th V P d 1 8 i h b v th H P
,
nc es n r on o e . . an nc es a o e e . .

B 1 9 i h i fr t f t h V P d i h b l w t h H P
,
nc es n on o e . . an nc es e o e . .

C i h i n f t f th V P d i t h H P
,
nc es r on o e . . an n e . .

D 2 i h b hi d t h V P d i h b v t h H P
,
nc es e n e . . an nc es a o e e . .

E 2i h b hi d t h V P d i h b l w t h H P
, nc es e n e . . an nc es e o e . .

2 S h w t h pr j t i
. f t h f ll wi g p i t
o ei t h pr d i ng exer i
o ec on s o e o o n o n s as n e ece c se .

A i h b hi d t h V P d i t h H P
,
nc es e n e . . an n e . .

B i th V P d i th H P ,
n e . . an n e . .

C i h i fr t f t h V P d i h b l w t h H P
,
nc es n on o e . . an nc es e o e .

h b l w th H P
.

D i th V P d 12 i ,
n e . . an nc es e o e . .

E i h b hi d t h V P d i h b v t h H P
,
nc es e n e . . an nc es a o e e . .

3 St t t h x t p i ti a e f t h p i t wh pr j ti
e e ac
gi v n i n F i g os on s o e o n s o se o ec on s ar e e
t t h pl f pr j t i n
. .

304 wi th r f r e e ence o e an e s o o ec o .

4 b th . l v tia
’
f
'
tr i ght l i n i
,
e e e a on o a s a e, s

2 i h l g d i t i i l i d t 30 t X Y
nc es on an s nc ne a
°
o .

Th d A i i t h h ri z t l pl
e en d2i
s h n e o on a an e an nc es

fr m t h v rti l pl n
o Th
e d B i i e th ca a e . e en s n e
v rti l pl
e ca d t h wh l l i i i t h fir t
an e an e o e ne s n e s

d i h dr l gl Dr w t h pl n d l v ti
e a an e . a . e a an e e a on

o f t h li e ne .

5 A tri n gl AB C i i t h fir t d i h dr l
a e s n e s e a

n gl A i i th V P d 2 i h b v t h
.

a e . s n e . . an nc es a o e e

H P . B dC . i th H P an bm k 45 ar e n e . . a a es
°

wi th X Y d b i n q i l t r l tri gl f an a c s a e u a e a an e o

2 i h i d Dr w t h pl n nd l v ti n f
nc es s e . a e a a e e a o o
t h tri e gl AB C an e .

6 Th m . t h pr d i n g x r i x pt
e sa e as F I G 304 e ec e e e c se e ce
th t whi l t h i d AB m i i t h fi r t
. ,

a e e s e re a ns n e s

d i h dr l gl t h i d AC i pl d i t h
e a an n d d i h d ral
e n gl
e s e s ac e n e sec o e a e.

7 b b . d d f rm thr
a ,
id e,f q u ran f i h c i d e i o n ee s es o a s a e o nc es s . a s o
XY bi i,
li d t 30 t KY d b d i b l w X Y b d i t h pl n f
a s nc ne a
°
o ,
an a c s e o . a c s e a o a

pi f th i n w i r AB CD f wh i h t h p rt AB B C tr i ght T h
.

e ce o d CD
e o c e a s , ,
an ar e s a . e
 P R O JE C T I O N S O F P OI N T S AN D L I NE S 179

h e i gh s p t A B
t t he ofoi n s D ,
v , C ,
a n d a b o e t h e H P ar e 0 5 , 0 9 ,
1 2 ,
an d . .

r p t v l Dr w
i nch e s es e c i e y pl alvt t he r
an a n d e e a i o n o f t h e w i e
. .

h l
' ’
lvt tr ht l wh h p ll l
8 a b , 2 5 i n c e s on g , i s t h e e e a i o n o f a s a i g
. in e ic is ar a e to
the V P . A
T h e e nd
. h r t B
i s i n t h e H P an d 1 i n c i n f o n o f t h e V P . T h e en d
. is . .

v Dr
i n c h e s abo e t h e H P pl lvt AB
aw t h e an a n d e e a i o n o f
. . .

D w
9 . pr j t
ra t he ll w l th
o e c i on s o f t h e fo o th r tr
i n g i n e s , an d en fi nd ei ac e s

wh p er e l o s si b e .

AB h l
,
p r ll l h v
2 i n c e s on g , a a e t o X Y , 1 i n c abo e t h e H P an d i n ch e s i n . .

r t
f on o f t h e V P . .

l p r ll l l d
CD , 2 2 i n c h e s on g , a a e t o t h e H P , i n c i n e at 30 t o t h e V P , t h e e n d
°
. . . .

h v
C t o b e i n t h e V P an d 1 2 i n c e s a b o e t h e H P
. . . .

EF, l p rp d u l r h v
i n c h e s on g , e e n i c a t o t h e H P , t h e e n d E t o b e 05 i n c ab o e . .

.h r t
t h e H P an d 1 i n c i n f o n o f t h e V P
. . .

h l p rp d ul r h v
G H , 2 i n c e s on g , e e n i c a t o t h e V P , 1 i n c ab o e t h e H P , t h e e n d . . . .

h r t
G t o be 05 i n c i n f o n o f t h e V P . .

pl
1 0 T he .l an o f a h l w th lv
i n e i s 2 i n c e s o n g an d i t m ak e s 35 °
i X Y, t he e e a
t w th
i o n m ak e s 4 5 °
i l tr t Dr w pl
X Y , an d t h e i n e i n e s e c s X Y a t he an a n d .

lvt l
e e a i on o f t h e th i n e an d tr l th en fi nd i t sl t ue e ng a n d i t s i n c i n a i on s t o t h e
pl pr j t
an e s o f o e c i on .

F d
11 tru l th
in t he
. l t
e eng , t
pl pr j t
h e i n c i na i o n s t o t h e an e s o f o e c i o n , an d t h e
z tl v rt l tr
h or i on a an d e i ca h l wh pr j t
ac e s o f e ac v
of t h e i n e s os e o e c i on s ar e gi e n i n

FIG . 305 . FIG . 306 . FIG . 307 . FIG . 308 .

In r ep r odu ci n g t he a bov e di agr ams t he s i des of t h e s ma ll s qu ar es ar e to be ta ken

e qu a l to h a lf a n i n c h .

Fig s 305 308

. hw l
S o — h
a s o i n e ac
. t he
c as e pr j t
o ec i on s o f a p i t i t h li o n n e ne
wh os e r e tu d t r lwr
i s an c e f om t h e o e end of t he i ne is 1 inc l h .

12 Dtr
e e m ine t hetru r e fo m o f e ac h
of t h e an e pl
g es fi ur wh pr j ti ose o ec ons
—
.

v
ar e gi e n i n F F d l
i gs 309 31 2 in a . . s o fo r e ac g e t heh fi uro ih r z t l d v rti l on a an e ca

FIG . 309 . FIG . 31 0 . FIG . 31 1 . FIG . 31 2 .

In r ep r odu ci n g t he a bov e di a gr am s t h e s i des of t h e s m a ll s qu ar e s a r e to be ta ken

e qu a l t o h a l a n i n c h
f .

tr f
ace s o h i d wh r p i bl e ac s e, e e os s e , an d s h o w th t t h h ri z n t l tr
a e o o a ac e s ar e in one
str ght l i
ai d t h v rt i l trn e an e e ca ac e s in an o th r e .
180 P RA CT I CAL G E O METRY

A tr i ght l i 25 i h l g h
13 . s a d 03 i h i fr t f t h v rt i l
ne nc es on as on e e n nc n on o e e ca
pl d
an e an i h b v t h h ri z t l pl whi l t h th r d i
nc es a io h e e o on a an e e e o e en s nc es
i fr t f t h v ti l pl
n on o d 06 i h b v t h h ri
e er t l pl
ca Dr w t h an e an nc a o e e o z on a an e . a e
pl d l v ti
a n an f t h li e e a on o e ne .

1 4 A tr i ght l i i l i d t 50 t t h h ri z t l pl h h °
. s a ne d 2i nc ne a o e o on a an e as o n e e n nc es
a b v th h iz
o e t l pl e d 05 ior h i fr t f t h v rti l pl
on a f pr j t i
an e an nc n on o e e ca an e o o ec on .

Th th r d f t h l i i
e o e t h h ri z
en t l pl
o d 2 i h i fr t f t h
e ne s on e o on a an e a n nc es n on o e
v erti l pl ca f p j ti Dr w t h pr j ti
an e o f t h li
r o ec on . a e o ec on s o e ne .

1 5 A tr i ght l i
. i is h l g O
a d i i t h h ri z
ne t l pl s nc es on . ne en s n e o on a an e

an d th th r d i i t h v ti l pl
e o e f pr j t i
en T h li s i i nli d t e er ca an e o o ec on . e ne s nc ne a
30 t t h h ri z t l pl d i t pl m k gl f 45 wi th X Y Dr w
° °
o e o on a an e an s an a e s an an e o . a

t h p j ti
e ro ec f t h li on s o e ne .

16 h ( F i g 31 3) i t h
. a
’ '
l v ti f tr i ght li
. B i i t h v ti l s e e e a on o a s a ne . s n e er ca

pl an ef p j ti o T h li i i
r o ec li d t 35 t t h h ri z t l pl
on . Dr w e ne s nc ne a
°
o e o on a an e . a

t h pl
e f t h li
an o e ne .

17 d (F i g 31 4)i t h pl
. e f tr i ght l i wh tru l gth i 3 i h
. s e an o a s a ne os e e en s nc es .

Th d 0 f t h li
e en i 05 i h b l w t h h i z t l pl
o e ne d th d D is nc e o e or on a an e an e en s

a b v th h iz
o e t l ple Dr w t h l v ti f t h l i
or on a an e . a e e e a on o e ne .

18 b (F i g 31 5)i t h pl
. a c f tri gl T h p i t A i
. t h h ri z s tl e an o a an e . e o n s on e o on a
pl an e Th p i t B i
. b v t h h ri z
e t l pl
o n d i h i gh th t h p i t C
s a o e e o on a an e an s er an e
'

o n .

T h tru l
e gth f AB i 2 5 i
e en h d th i l i ti f B C t t h h ri z t l
o s nc e s an e nc na on o o e o on a

pl i an e Dr w t h l v ti f t h tri gl d fi n d t h tru l gth f AC

s a e e e a on o e an e an e e en o .

F I G 31 3 F I G 314
. F I G 31 5
. F I G 31 6 . . . . . . F I G 31 7 . .

In r ep r odu c i ng t he a bov e di agr ams t he s i de s o t he s m a ll s u ar es

f q ar e t o be ta ken
e qu a l to ha lf a n i nc h .

19 . T he m i ddl p
t f tr i ght l i n 3 i h l n g i 1 i h b v t h h ri
e oi n o a s a e nc es o s nc a o e e o
zo n t l pl a d i h i fr t f t h v rti l pl
a n e an f pr j t i T h li nc es n on o e e ca an e o o ec on . e ne
i i
s li d t 30 t t h h ri z t l pl
nc ne a n d 40 t
°
t h v rti l pl n f p
o e o on a an e a
°
o e e ca a e o ro

j ti
ec Dr w t h pr j ti
on . f t h li a e o ec on s o e ne .

20 F i d t h r l.
gl b tw n t h li n wh pr j ti
e ea
gi v n i anFig e e een e es os e o ec o n s ar e e n .

31 6 Sh w l
. t h pr j t i n
o f t h li a sobi ti n g t h gl AB C e o ec o s o e ne se c e an e .

2 1 D t rm i n t h
.
g l M ON f t h tri
e e gl wh pr j ti
e gi v
e an i e o e an e os e o ec on s a r e en n
F i g 31 7
. n d dr w t h pr j ti n f t h l i whi h p
, a a thr ugh t h p i t M
e o ec o s o e ne c as s e s o e o n
an d i t r t t h li n O N t ri ght gl
n e sec s e e a an es .

22 AB C i n
.
qui l t l t i ngl f 2 5 i n h i d A i i t h h ri z t l
s a e a er a r a e o c es s e. s n e o on a
pl n d B i i t h v rti l pl
a e an f pr j t i s AB i i n l i d t 45 t t h
n e e ca an e o o ec on . s c ne a
°
o e
h ri z
o t l pl
on a d 30 t t h v rti l pl n an e f pr j t i an B C i in li d °
o e e ca a e o o ec on . s c ne
t 35 t t h h ri z n t l pl n Dr w t h pl n n d l v ti n f t h tri gl
°
a o e o o a a e . a e a a e e a o o e an e.
 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY
T h e t e t r a he dr on ( Fi g 3 1 8 )h as fo fa c e s , all e u i a e a
. ur
i an g e s q l t r l tr l .

T h e cu be (Fi g 3 1 9) T E T R AH E R O N
.

C UB E D
qu r
. .

h a s s i x fac e s , a ll s a es .

T h e octa he dr on ( Fi g .

ht
320) h a s e i g fa c e s , a ll
e qu l t r l tr
i a e a i ang e s l .

T he dode ca he dr on
( g
F i . 3 2 1 ) h as e e t w lv
fa c e s , a ll pe n a g on s t .

T h e i cos a he dr on (F i g .

322) ha s t w ty en fa c e s ,
q l t r l tr
a ll e u i a e a l i an g e s
A p ly
r ism i s a o
FIG .

31 8 31 9 . . FIG . .

p
h v ll d
h e dr on a i n g t w o of i t s fa c e s , ca e i t s e nds or ba s e s , a a e , a n d t he p r ll l
r p r ll l r
e m a i n i n g fa c e s a r e Th
a a e o
g am s o s e f a c e s of a ism .
ic are pr wh h
p r ll l r
a a e og a m s a r e r lly ll dg e ne a c a e t h e s i de s of t h e i sm pr .

C H E DR
O TA D OD E C H E D R
ON . A ON . I C O S &H E D R ON .

FIG . 320 . FIG 321 F G 322

. . I . .

A p a r a lle lep ip e d i s a pri s m wh os e b as e s r e p a r ll e l og r a ms a a .

A p y a mi d i s a p olyh e dron h v i n g a p oly g on for i t s b s e a n d fo r

r a a ,

i t s s i d e s i t h s tr i n g l e s wh i c h h a v e
a a c om m o n v e rt e x a n d t h e s i d e s of
a

t h e p oly gon f or th e i r b s e s T h e c om m on v e r t e x of t h e t r i a n g l e s i s
a .

c a ll e d t h e ve r t e x o r a e x of t h e pyr m i d
p a .

T h e a x i s of a pr i s m i s t h e t r ai g h t l i n e j oi n i n g t h e c e n t r e s of i t s
s

e nds nd t he
a x i s of a pyr a mi d i s t h e s t rai gh t l i n e j oi n i n g i t s v e rte x
a

t o t h e c e n tr e o f i t s b as e .

A i ght p i s m h s i t s a x i s a t ri g h t a ngl e s t o i t s e n d s an d an obli qu e

r r a

i s m h as i t s ax i s i n c l i n e d t o i t s e n d s
p r .

A r i ght p yr a mi d h as i t s a x i s a t r i g h t ngl e s t o i t s b as e 5 an d an a

obli q ue p y a mi d h s i t s a x i s i n c l i n e d t o i t s b s e
r a a .

T h e a lti tu de of a pr i s m i s t h e p e rp e n d i c ul r d i s ta n c e b e tw ee n i t s a

e nd s ; a n d t he lt i t ude of a pyram i d i s t h e p e rpe n d i cu l a r d i s tan ce of

a

i t s ve r te x fr om i t s b s e
—
a .

r
P i s m s an d pyr a m i d s a r e n a m e d f r o m t h e f o r m of t h e i r b a s es as ,

tr i an gul a r s qu r e p e n tagon l h e x ago n a l e t c Ex m pl e s of p r i s m s

a a a
—
, , , , .

and pyr m s
a i d ar e s h o w n i n F i g s 3 2 3 3 26 . .

A cylinder r e s e m bl e s a pr i s m I f t h e s i d es of t he b as e s of a pri s m
.

be c o n t i n u l ly d i m i n i s h e d i n l e n g th a n d i n c r e a s e d i n n u m be r
a t he .

ult i m a t e fo r m f t h e b ou n d ry l i n e s of t h e b ase s w i ll b e c urve d l i n e s

o a ,
 S I M P LE S OL I DS I N SI M P LE P O SI T I O N S 183

an d t he ul ti m a te fo rm o f t h e pr i s m w i ll be a cyl i n d e r A ri ght ci rcu la r .

cy li nde r h as i t s a x i s a t r i g h t a n l es t o i t s e n d s wh i c h a r e e qu a l c i r c l e s
g ,
.

O I Q UE
BL R IG H O I QUE T BL
P E G AL
NT A ON HE G N L H E G ON L XA O A PT A A
RI M
P S . YR AM I D P YR AM I D
P .

FIG . 323 . FIG . 324 . FIG . 325 . FIG . 326 .

A ri gh t c i r c ul ar cyl i n d e r m y a l s o b e d e fi n e d as a s ol i d d e s c r i b e d by
a

t h e r e vo lut i on o f a r e c t a ng l e bout on e of i t s s i d es wh i c h r e m i n s
a , a

s t a t i on a ry T h e fix e d l i n e a bo u t wh i c h t h e r e c ta n g l e r e v olve s i s t h e
.

a x i s a n d t h e c i r c l e s d e s c r i b e d by t h e o pp os i t e r e v o lv i n g s i d e s a r e t h e
,

bas es or en ds of t h e cyl i n d e r .

T he d i me te r of a r i gh t c i rc ul r cyl i n d e r i s t he d i ame t e r of i t s
a a

c i r c ul a r e n d s .

A cone r e s e m bl e s a S H ERE P ,

pyram i d I f t he s i d es .

of t he b as e of pyr a a

m id be c on t i n u a lly

d i m i n is h e d i n l engt h
a nd i n c r e as e d in
n u m be r t he ul t i m a te
,

form of t h e bo u n d a ry
l in e of t he b as e w i ll be
a c urv e d l i n e a n d t h e ,

ult i m t e form Of t h e
a FIG 327 FIG 328 FIG 329 . . . . . .

pyr m i d w i ll b e c on e
a a .

A ri ght ci r cu lar cone h as i t s ax i s at ri gh t a n gl es t o i t s b as e wh i c h i s a ,

ci rc l e A ri gh t c i r c u l a r c on e m y a l o b e d e fin e d as a s o l i d d e s c r i bed
. a s

by t he r e volu t i on of a ri gh t n gl e d t r i n gl e abo u t on e of t he s i de s a a

c on t i n i n g t h e r i ht a n l e wh i c h s i d e r e m a i n s s t t i o n ry
a T h e fix e d
g g ,
a a .

l i n e ab out wh i c h t h e tri n gl e r e volve s i s t h e a x i s nd t he ci r c l e de

a ,
a

s c r i b e d h y t h e o th e r s i d e co n ta i n i n t h r i ht l e i s t h e b as e of
‘

e n
g g g a

t he c on e .

A sp he re i s a s ol i d e ve ry p oi n t on t he s urface o f wh i c h i s at t h e
s am e d i s t a n ce f r om a po i n t w i th i n i t c a ll e d i t s ce n tre A s p h e re m y . a

a l s o b e d e fi n e d a s a s ol i d d e s c r i b e d by t h e r e v o lu t i on of s e m i ci rcle a

a bout i t s d i am e t e r wh i c h re m ai n s s t a t i o n a ry T he m i ddl e p oi n t o f
, .

t h e d i me t e r of t h e s e m i c i r c l e i s t h e c e n tr e o f t h e s ph e r e
1 5 1 P r oj e c t i o n s o f a P r i s m —
a .

. T h e p r oj e c t i ons o f a pri s m a r e .

s i m p l e t wh e n t h e s o l i d i s s o pl c e d th a t i t s e n d s ar e p r a ll e l t o on e o f
s a a

t h e p l an e s o f p r oj e c t i on n d wh t e v e r pr oj e c t i on s of t h e pr i m m ay be
,
a a s
1 84 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

r e qu i re d i t i s g e n e r lly n e ces s ary t o fi r s t dr w t h e proj e c ti ons of t he

a a

s ol i d wh e n s o s i t u a t e d .

Wh e n t h e e n d s of t h e p ri s m a r e p r lle l t o on e of t h e pl n e s of a a a

pr oj e c ti on t h e i r pr oj e c t i on s on th a t p l a ne w i ll s h o w th e i r t ru e fo rm
, ,

a n d as t h e fo r m o f t h e e n d s i s s upp os e d t o b e g i v e n t h e s e pr oj e c t i on s

FI G . 330 . FI G . 331 .

ar e dra w n firs t I f t h e pri s m i s a ri gh t pri s m t h e proj e c ti on s of t he

.

t wo e n d s o n t h e p l n e of pr oj e c ti on t o wh i c h t h e y r e p a r a ll e l w i ll
a a

e v i d e n tly c oi n c i d e T h e proj e c t i on s of t h e e n d s on t he o t h e r pl an e o f
.

pr oj e c ti on w i ll b e s tr i g h t l i n e s p r all e l a a

t o t h e g r o u n d l i n e n d a t a d i s t an ce a p r t
a a

e q u a l t o t h e a l t i t ud e of t h e pr i s m .

T he fo r e g o i n g ob s e rv a t i o n s a r e i ll us
t r at e d by Fi g s 330 331 a n d 332 .
, Fi g , . .

330 s h ow s t h e pl a n a n d e l e v a t i on of a

r i gh t t r i an gul ar pri s m wh e n i t s en d s ar e
h ori on t a l T h e p l an a bc i s firs t draw n
z .
,

i t s p os i t i on i n r e l a t i on t o X Y b e i ng a rb i
t r ar i ly c h os e n u n l e s s i t i s s p e c i fi e d T he .

e l e v a t i on i s p r oj e c t e d fr om t h e pl an a s ,

s h ow n . T h e h e i g h t of t h e e l e v a t i on of t h e
l o we r e n d ab ov e X Y i s e qu a l t o t he h e i ght
‘

of th a t e n d bo ve t h e h ori z on t al p la n e
a ,

wh i ch m y b e a rb i tr ari ly c h os e n u n l es s i t
a ,

is sp e ci fi e d T he d i s tan c e b e twe e n t he
.

h ori zon t a l l i n e s wh i c h r e t h e e l e va t i on s a
FIG 332
o f t h e e n d s i s e qu a l t o t h e a l ti t ud e of t h e
. .

pri s m wh i c h w ould b e gi ve n
, .

F i g 33 1 i s
. p i c to ri a l p roj e c ti on of t he pri s m an d t h e pl ane s of
a

proj e c t i on i n th e i r t ru e p os i ti on s .
18 6 P RA C T I CAL G E O ME T RY

to t he g o r u n d l i n e n d t h e p roj e c ti on of t he ve r te x w i ll
, a be a t
a d tis a n ce f r om t he pr oj e c ti on of t he b as e e qu al t o t h e a lt i t u de of t h e

pyr d a mi .

Th e s e ob se rv a t ion s ar e i llu s tr a t e d by Fi gs 333 t o 336 Fi g 333 . . .

s h o w s t he p l n n d e l e v a t i on of a r ig h t s qu a r e pyr am i d wh e n i t s b s e
a a a

i s h o r i z on t a l T he p l a n i s fir st dr w n
. Th i s p l a n i s a s qu a re bcd
a .
a

w i th i t s d i a gon a l s i n t e rs e c ti n g at v t he p la n of t he v e rt e x of t he
,

p yr am i d T
. h e p os i t i on o f t h e s qu r e a bc d i n r e l t i on
a t o XY i s a

a rb i tr ri ly c h os e n u n l e s s i t i s s p e c i fi e d T h e e l e v at i on i s p r oj e c te d
a .

fro m t h e pl an s s h o wn
, a T h e h e i g h t o f t h e e l e v a t i on of t h e b s e
.
a

a b o v e X Y i s e qu l t o t h e h e i h t f t h b s e a bo v e t h e h o r i z o n t l a
a
g o e a

p l an e wh i c h m ay be a rb i tr r i ly c h os e n u n l e s s i t i s s p ec i fi e d T h e
,
a ,
.

d i s ta n c e of t he e l e va t i o n of t h e v e r te x fr om t h e e l e v ati on of t h e b as e
i s e qu l t o t h e a l ti tud e of t h e pyr am i d wh i c h w ou l d b e gi v e n
a ,
.

Fi g 334 i s
. p i c tor i l proj e c t i on of t he pyr a m i d an d t h e pl an e s o f
a a

pr oj e c ti on i n t h e i r t r u e p os i ti on s .

F i g 335 s h o w s t h e p l an a n d e l e v at i on of a n o bl i qu e p e n t gon l
.
a a

pyra m i d wh en i t s b as e i s p ar all e l t o t h e v e rt i ca l pl a n e

FI G . 335 . FI G . 336 .

v e r te x of t h e pyr a m i d i s a s t r a i g ht l i n e a t r i h t a n l e s t o
'

T he g g
t he b as e an d p a s i n g throu gh on e c orn e r of t he b as e T h e
s .

e l e v a t i on i s fir s t dr w n T h e e l e va t i on of t h e b a s e 8 a r eg ul r
a . 1 a

pe n t go n
a wh i c h h as b e e n pl ce d w i th o n e s i d e a b t a
' ’
a

r i gh t n g l e s t o X Y T h e v e rt e x has b e e n pl a ce d i n th t p e r
a . a

p e n d i c u la r t o t h e b as e wh i ch p a sses t hr ou g h t h e c o r n e r wh o s e

e l e va t i on i s a T h e e l e va t i on v of t h e v e r te x t h e re for e co i n c i d e s
' '
.

w i th a '
. J oi n i n g v t o c a n d d c o m p l e te s t h e e l e v a t i on
' ' ’
I t wi ll b e .

n o t i c e d th a t t h e e l e va t i on s of t h e e d ge s V B n d V E c oi n c i d e w i t h t h e
a

e l e v a t i on s of t h e e d ge s AB a n d A E of t h e b as e T h e p l a n i s pr j e c te d . o

from t h e e l e v t i o n a s s hown
,
a Fi g 336 i s a p i c t o r i a l p r oj e c t i on o f
. .

t h e pyr a m i d a n d t he p l an e s of pr oj e c t i on i n th e i r tru e p os i t i o n s .
 SI M P LE SO LI D S IN SI M P LE P O SI T I O NS 18 7

153 . The A l t i t u d e o f a R e gu l a r T e t r a h e d r o n —S i n c e
t he
re g ul a r t e tra h e dro n h a s four fa c e s a ll e qu i la t e r a l t r i a ng l e s , th i s s o l i d
i s e v i d e n t ly a r i g ht pyr a m i d o n a t r i a n g ul a r b a s e .

I t s p r oj e c t i on s m a y th e r e fo r e b e dr a w n a s d e s c r i be d
i n t h e pr e ce d i n g a rt i c l e i f i t s b as e a n d a lt i tud e a r e
k n ow n T he al ti tud e w i ll e vi d e n tly d e p e n d on t he
.

s i z e o f t h e b as e a n d i s fo u n d a s fo llo w s F i g 337
. .
.

s h o w s t h e pl a n o f a t e tr a h e dron wh e n on e fa ce
A B C , wh i c h m ay b e c a ll e d i t s b as e , i s on t h e h or i
F I G 337
z on t a l p l a n e a v i s t h e pl a n of on e o f t h e s l op i n
' ‘

.
g
e d ge s , a n d s i n ce a ll t h e f a ce s are e qu i l a t e r a l t r i a n l e s t h e tru
g ,
e

l e ng th of t h e e d ge of wh i c h a v i s t h e p l a n w i ll be e qu a l t o a b .

H e n ce , w i t h a a s c e n t r e a n d a ra di u s a b dra w a n a r c t o c u t vv , w h i c h '

i s p e r p e n d i c ul a r t o av, a t v v v i s t h e a l ti t u d e r e qu i r e d ;
' ’

—
.

1 5 4 P r oj e c t i o n s o f t h e O c t a h e d r o n
. T he l i n e s j oin in g t h e
.

o ppo s i t e a n g ul a r p oi n t s o f t he o c t a h e dr o n a r e i t s a x es . T h e r e ar e
thre e of th es e li n e s all e qu a l i n l e n gth , an d b i s e c t i ng on e an oth e r a t
r i ght a n gl e s a t t h e c e n tr e of t h e so l i d .

1 I t w i ll b e fo u n d o n e x a m i n a t i on t h a t t h e o c t a h e dro n m ay be
d i v i de d , i n thr e e d i ffe re n t w a y s , i n to t wo ri gh t s qu a r e pyra m i d s h av i n g
a c om m on b a s e t h e tr i a n g ul a r fa c e s b e i n qu i l t r l tr i l T w f
, g e a e a a n
g e s o o.

t h e a x e s o f t he oc t a h e dr on a r e t h e d i ag on al s of t he s qu a r e wh i c h fo r m s
t he b as e of t h e t wo fo r e m e n t i on e d pyr a m i d s , wh i l e t h e t h i rd a x i s i s t h e
l i n e j oi n i ng t h e i r v e r ti ces .

I f t h e oc ta h e dron be p l a ce d w i t h a n a x i s p e rp e n d i c u l a r t o o n e o f
t he p l an e s of pr oj e c t i o n i t s pr oj e c t i on o n th a t
p l an e w i ll b e a s qu a re w i th i t s t w o d iagon a l s .

F i g 338 s h o w s t h e pl a n a n d e l e v a t i o n of a n
.

o c ta h e dr on w h e n on e a x i s i s v e r t i c a l T h e pl a n
.

i s a s qu ar e a bcd w i th i t s t wo d i agon a l s a c a n d
bd a n d t h i s pr oj e c t i o n i s firs t dra w n T he .

s qu a r e a bcd i s t h e p l a n o f t h e c om m o n b a s e of

t wo pyr a m i d s i n t o wh i c h t h e o c t a h e dr on m ay b e
d i vi d e d , t he p oi n t 1) wh e r e t he d i agon a l s ac an d
bd i n t e r s e c t b e i n g t h e pl a n of t h e v e r t i c es of t he
pyram i d s v v t h e e l e va ti on of t h e v e rti ca l a x i s
.
’ '

o f t h e o c ta h e dr o n i s a t r i ht a n l e s t o X Y a n d
g g
has a l e n g th e qu a l t o a c or bd . t he
e l e va t i o n of t h e c o m m o n b as e o f t h e t w o
py r a m i d s i s a s trai g ht l i n e pa ra ll e l t o X Y an d
b i s e c ti n g v v ' '
.

1 55 P r oj e c i o n s of t the C yl i n d e , r
—
. F I G 338 . .

G on e , a n d S p h e r e Wh e n t h e a x i s o f a
r i ght c i r c u la r cyl i n d e r i s p e rpe n d i c ul a r t o on e o f t he pl a n e s of p r o
j e c t i on , t h e proj e c t i on of t h e cy lin d e r on tha t p
l an e w i l be a ci r cl e l
t t t
h avi n g a d i am e e r e qua l t o h a of t h e cyl i n de r T h e r oj e c t i on o f . p
l
t h e c y i n d e r on t h e o h e r l a n e o ft p
r o e c t i o n w i ll b e a r e c t a n g l e , o n e
p j
s i de b e i n p l
a ra l e l t o t he r u d l qu l d t e r of
o

g g o n i n e a n d e a t o t h e i a m e

j
t h e c i rc l e , wh i l e a n a d a ce n t s i d e i s e u a l i n l e n
q g h t o t h e t
a x i s of t h e
18 8 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

c yl i n d e r Fi g 339 s h o ws t he pl n nd e l e va t i on of a ri gh t c i r c u l r
. . a a a

c yl i n d e r w h e n i t s a x i s i s pe rp e n di c u l a r t o t h e v e r ti c al pl an e o f
proj e c ti on .

Wh e n t he ax i s o f t he c yl i n d e r i s p r all e l t o bo th pla ne s of a

proj e c ti on s e ac h proj e c ti on wi l b e r e c t an g l e e q u l t o t h e o n e
,
j a a

FIG . 339 . FIG . 340 . FIG . 341 . FIG . 342 . FIG . 343 .

de s c r i b e d a b ove , b u t th a t s i d e wh i c h i s e q u a l t o t he d i am e t e r of
t h e c yl in d e r w i ll b e p e rp e n d i c u l a r t o t h e g r o u n d l i n e F i g 340 . .

s h o w s t h e pl a n a n d e l e va t i on of a r i h t c i r c ul a r cyl i n d e r wh e n i t s
g
a x i s i s p a r a ll e l t o b ot h pl a n e s of pr oj e c t i on a n d th e r e fo r e a ls o p a r a ll e l

t o t h e g ro u n d l i n e .

Wh e n t he a x i s of a ri gh t ci rc ul a r con e i s pe rp e n d i c ul ar t o o n e of
t h e p l a n e s of pr oj e c t i on , t h e pr oj e c t i on of t h e c on e on t h a t pl a n e w i ll
b e a c i r c l e h a v i ng a d i am e t e r e q u a l t o th a t o f t h e b as e of t he c on e .

T h e proj e c ti on of t h e c on e o n t h e o t h e r pl a n e of p roj e c ti o n w i ll be a n
i s os c e l es tr i an g l e , i t s b as e b e i n g p a r a ll e l t o t h e g ro u n d l i n e a n d e qu a l
t o t h e d i am e t e r o f t h e b as e of t he c on e , a n d h a v i n g an a lt i t ud e e qu a l t o
th a t of t he c on e F i g 34 1 s h ow s t h e pl an an d e l e va t i on of a r i ght
. .

c i r c ul a r c on e wh e n i t s a x i s i s v e r t i c a l .

Wh e n t h e a x i s of t he c on e i s p ar all e l t o both pl an e s of proj e c ti on ,

e a c h pr oj e c t i on w i ll b e a t ri a n l e e qu a l t o t h e o n e j u s t d e s c r i be d , b u t
g
t h e b a s e w i ll b e p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e g r o u n d l i n e Fi g 342 s h o w s . .

t h e p l a n a n d e l e v a t i on of a r i g h t c i r c ul a r con e wh e n i t s a x i s i s
p ara ll e l t o bo t h pl an es of proj e c tion , an d th e r e for e a l s o p a rall e l t o t he
g r o u n d l in e .

All pr oj e c ti on s of a s ph e re ar e ci r c l es h avi ng a d i ame t e r e q u al t o

t h a t of t h e s p h e r e T h e pl an a n d e l e v a t i on of a s ph e r e h av e th e i r
.

c e n t re s i n a s t r a i h t l i n e a t ri h t a n l e s t o t he r ou n d l i n e as s h ow n
g g g g
i n Fi g 343 . .

E x e rc i s e s XIII

1 thr
. T het ngl (Fi g 344) t h pl n f three ri gh t p i m t h n d s
ee r e c a es . ar e e a s o r s s e e
of whi h v rti l d 1 i h qu r E h p i m i 3 i h l g b d
c ar e e ca an nc s a e. ac r s s nc es on . a , c ,

an d f t h pl
c , f th x f t h pri m bi t
e an s n th r
o T h fir te a es o e s s, sec on e a o e . e s ,
or

l w t pri m r t
o es , th g u d th
s dr t t p f t h fir t
e s s on d th e ro n ,
e s e c on es s on o o e s ,
an e

thi d t r t p f th
r e s s on d D w th pl d fr m th m pr j t t h
o o e s e c on . ra ese an s an o e o ec e

l v ti
e e f t h pri m
a on s o e s s .
1 90 P RA C T I C AL G E OMETRY

th i ub h o i d i l i d t 25 t t h gr u d l i
s c e as ne s e nc O ne a hf f thi
0
o e o n ne . n e ac ac e o s

c ub i pl d ri ght q u r p yr m i d t h
e s ac e a s f tha e qu b a b i g t th , e c or n e r s o e s ar e as e s e n a e

m i ddl p i t e f th
o n s o dg f t h ub T h t i gul f
e e es o f t h py m i d
e c e . e r an ar ac e s o e ra s ar e

e q u i l t l
a er a t i g l D
r an w t h pl es . d l v t i ra f th i b u i l t u p
e l i dan a n e e a on o s so .

1 1 Dr w t h pl a d l v tie f
an an t tr h dr wh e e dg a on 2 i o h a e a e on os e e es ar e nc es

l g wh i i t h v rti l pl f p j ti d g f th t f
.

on f
e n o ne ac e s n d
e e ca an e o r o ec o n an an e e o a ac e

i i
s nc li d t 20 t X Y
ne a
°
o . o

1 2 Dr w t h pl
. a n d l v ti n
e f
an a t h dr n wh e e dg a o 1 5i o h an o c a e o os e e e s ar e
-
nc es

l ng wh
o en xi i on e a s s
p p di ul r t t h
er en c a o e v er

t i l pl
ca f p j ti
an e o r o ec on

an d th l v ti
e e e f a on o

an o th r xi i i li n d
e a s s nc e
a t 60 t X Y °
o .

13 Th . m i ir l
e se c c e

(F i g . 35 2) i t h l v
s e e e a

ti on f o h m i ph r
a e s F G 352
e e F G 353 I . I .

wh ose b i n
as e th s o e

g u d
ro n d t u h i g t h gr un d l i n
an o c n T h tri gl i t h
e ol v ti f e i ght
. e an e s e e e a on o a r
c i r ul r
c a wh b i n t h g un d d t u hi g t h gr u d li
c on e os e as e s o e Th
ro an o c n e o n ne . e

c ir l i t h
c e s l v ti f ri ght i r u l r y l i d r 1 5 i h l g wi th
e e e a on o a c c a d c n e ,
nc es on ,
on e e n
i t h v rt i l pl
n e e caf p j ti an e o d ti g t h th r t w l i d D w t h
ro ec on an r es n on e o e o so s . ra e
pl f thi gr u p f l i d
an o s o o so s .

m i ir l l v t h l r ht
' ' '
14 Th . e se b ( Fi g c 3 53 )
c ei t h a i c f t h .f f i g s e e e a on o e a o a
i ul r
c rc a th b
c on e , b i g i et h v ti as e l pl e n f pr j t i n Th e m i ir l
er ca an e o o ec on . e se c c e

a d
’ ’
c
'
i th s l v ti f t h h l f f ri ght i r u l r y l i d r
e e e a on o e a nd b i g i
o a th c c a c n e ,
on e e e n n e

v rti l pl
e ca f pr j t i
an e o Th lti tud f t h
o ec on i th . m e ath t of t h e o e c on e s e sa e as a e
“

c y l i d
n r e m ,
l na
y i n he Dr w t h gi v l c v t i es d f
. r m i t pa r j t t h e en e e a on an o o ec e

pl an .
 C H AP T E R X I V
CH ANGING T HE ANES
PL OF PRO ECT I ON J
l r
1 5 6 Au x i i a y P r o e i o n s
. j c t — I h g e n e r a l t h e t ru e fo r m of a n
.

ob j e c t i s d e t e r m i n e d by a pl n n d a n e l e va t i on b u t th e r e
a a re c se
,
a a s

wh e re t wo proj e c t i on s a r e n ot s u ffi ci e n t a n d i n m n y o t h e r c s e s
,
a a

a dd i t i on a l pr oj e c t i o n s wo uld m a k e t h e fo r m o f t h e o bj e c t m u c h e as i e r

t o u n d e r s ta n d . F o r e x a m pl e i n F i g 354 a r e gi v e n a pl a n ( a ) a n d
,
.

e l e v t i on a r e c t n g ul r bl o c k h a v i n g r e c e s s e s i n thr e e of i t s
'
a
( )
a o f a a

I t i s c l e a r fr om t h e pl a n (a )a n d e l e v a t i o n (a )t h a t t h e r e c e s s
’
fa c e s
.

FIG . 354 . FIG . 355 .

ul r r t th t
i n t h e t op i s e c a ng a a n d r a r t yl dr
t h e e c e s s i n t h e f on i s c i n i cal,
bu t r
t he l t h d
e ce s s i n t h e ef ht an t h r r t ul r
e nd m i g be e i e ec ang a or

cyl dr l
i n i ca r . r h w v r t r d
T he fo m o f t h e e n d e c e s s i s o e e de e m i n e b y an
end v w ie wh h pr j t
ic is a bl k pl
o e c i on of t h e p r ll l
oc on a an e a a e to
d
t he e n s Th . d v rt l pl
i s s e c on e pr j t
i ca t r t
an e of o e c i on i n e s e c s t he
h r z t l pl
o i on a l
an e i n a wh hin e X IY l d r u dl
ic i s a s e co n g o n i ne T h e .

rl tv p t
e a i e ld thr pl
os i i on s of t h e s o i an d t h e pr j t ee a n e s of o e c i on a r e

l ry h w
c ea l p t r l pr j t
s o n i n t he i c o ia wh r
o e c i on , F i g 355, e e A E P i s t he
. . . .

add t l v rt l pl
i i on a e i ca pr j t
a n e of ll d
o e c i on an d m a
y b e ca e t h e a ux i li a r y
e leva ti on la ne
p
—R
.

l r
1 5 7 A u x i i a y P r o e i on s o f a P o i n t
. j ct e fe i n g t o t he rr
p t r l pr j t
ic o ia o e c i on , F i g 356 , A t
i s a po i n i n s ac e , a i s i t s
. p o e c i on pr j t
1 92 P RA CT I CAL G E O METRY
on t he h ori zon ta l pl an e d a i s i t s pr oj e c ti on on t he v e r t i ca l
H P . . an
'

p l an e V P X Y i s t h e g rou n d l i n e i n wh i c h the s e t wo p l a n e s of p r o
. .

c t i o n i nt e r s e c t X Y i s a n o th e r g r o u n d l i n e a n d is t h e l i n e of
j e I 1 .

i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e v e rt i c a l pl an e A E P w i th t h e h or i z on tal pl an e . . .

H P a , i s t h e pr oj e c t i on of t h e p oi n t A on t h e pl a n e A E P I f th e s e
’
. . . . .

t w o v e rt i c a l p l a n e s of p r oj e c t io n w i t h t h e p r oj e c ti o n s o n th e m b e
r ab a tte d a b out th e i r r e s p e c t i ve g r ou n d l i n e s i n t o t h e h or i zon t al p lan e ,
F i g 357 i s o b ta i n e d
. A n e x am i n a t i o n o f F i gs 356 an d 357 w i ll s h o w
. .

th a t t h e d i s t an ce of t h e a uxi l i ary e l e vat i on a , from X IY , i s e qu al t o

’

t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e e l e v a t i o n a f r om X Y ; a n d ju s t a s t h e s t r a i gh t
'

li n e j oi n i n g a an d a i s p e r p e n d i c ul a r t o K Y s o a l s o i s t h e s tr ai ght l in e
'

j oi n i n g a a n d d l pe rp e n d i c ul a r t o X lY l
'
.
‘

FIG . 356 . F I G 357

. . F I G 358 . . F I G 359 . .

R e fe rri n g n e x t t o F i gs 358 an d 359 A a an d a a n d t h e pl an e s .

, , ,
'

o f pr oj e c t i on H P a n d V P r e t h e s a m e a s b e fo r e but X Y i s n o w
. . . . a , I ,

t h e l in e of i n t e r s e c ti on of a p l a n e A P P a n d t h e v e r t i c a l pl a n e of p r o . . .

j e c t i o n V P t h e
. p l n e A P P be i n
.
, g p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e p la n e V P
a . . . . .

Wh e n t h e p la n e s H P a n d A P P ( F i g 358 )w i t h t h e p roj e c t i on s o n
. . . . . .

th e m a r e r b at t e d ab ou t X Y an d X Y r e s p e c ti ve ly i n t o t h e v e rt i c a l
a I 1

p l a n e V P Fi g 359 i s obt ai n e d A n e x a m i n a t i on of F i gs 358 n d

. .
,
. . . a

359 w i ll h o w th a t t h e a uxi l i a ry pl a n a i s a t a d i t a n ce fr om X Y
s 1 s l 1

e qu a l t o t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e pl a n a f r om X Y a n d j u s t a t h e s tr a i g h t ,
s

l i n e a a i s at r i gh t a n gl e s t o KY s o al s o i s t he s tr ai ght l i n e a a a t r i g h t
' ’
l

a n g l es t o X YI I .

I t w i ll be o b s e rv e d t h a t t h e a ux i l i a ry pl an e of pr oj e c t i on A P P i s . . .

n o t a h or i z on t a l pl an e bu t i t i s u s u l t o s p e k of t h e pr oj e c t i on a o f
,
a a 1

t h e p oi n t A on t h i s pl an e a s a n ux i l i a ry pl a n a .

T h e s t ud e n t m u s t c a r e f ully s tudy F i gs 356 359 a n d s a t i s fy hi m .

-

s e l f a s t o t h e c o rr e c tn e s s of t h e fo ll o w i n g rul e s wh i c h a r e u s e d i n t he

d e te rm i n ati on of aux i l i ary pr oj ec ti o n s

e pl a n a n d e l e v a t i on of a p oi n t a r e i n a s t r ai gh t l i n e wh i c h
( )
1 T h
i s p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e g r ou n d l i n e .

Wh u m b r f l v a t i on s a r e pr oj e c te d f r om t h e s a m e pl a n
( )
2 e n a n e o e e ,

t h e d i s t a n c e s of ll t h e e l e v a ti on s of t h e s am e p oi n t fro m t h e i r c o rr e
a

s on di n
p g g r o u n d l i n e s ar e t h e s a m e .

Wh n a n u m b e r o f pl an s r e pr oj e c te d f r om t h e s a m e e l e v a t i on
( )
3 e a ,

t h e d i s t a n c e s of a ll t h e pl a n s of t h e s am e p oi n t fr om t h e i r c orr e s p on d
i n g g rou n d l i n e s ar e t h e s am e .
1 94 P RA C T I CAL G E O M ETRY

t h i s s l op i ng e d ge i s p ara ll e l t o X Y Com pl e ti n g t he pl an ( 1 )t h e e le
.

v ati on ( 2)i pr oj e c t e d from i t X Y i s dr wn t r i gh t n gl e s t o v a

s .
I 1 a a a
' '

a n d f r om t h e e l e v t i o n
( )
2 tah e p l an
( )
3 i s pr oj e c te d Apply i n g th . e

rul e fo ux i l i ary pr oj e c ti on s of p oi n t i t i fo u n d th t t h e n e w pl n s
s r a a s a a

v1 a nd al o f t h e p oi n t s V n d A c oi n c i d e wh i c h s h o w s t h t t h e l i n
a , , a e

V A i s v e r t i c l wh e n t h e pl n e of t h e pl n ( 3)i s c o n i d e r e d t o b e
a a a s a

h or i z o n t l pl n e A n e l e v t i on ( 4)i s l s o s h o w n pr oj e c te d
a a . a t he
a

pl an (3)on gr ou nd l i n e X Y
a 2 2.

FIG . 362 . F I G 36 3
. .

I n t he s e con d e x am pl e ( Fi g 363) i t i s r e q u i r e d t o dr a w t he pl an
.

of a c ub e wh e n a d i ag on l o f t h e s o l i d i s ve rt i c a l
a T h e c ub e i s firs t .

pl ace d wi th on e face on t h e h or i z on ta l plan e T h e pl an of t h e c ube i n .

th i s pos i ti on i s a s qu ar e wh i ch i s dr aw n w i th on e d i agon al a c p a r ll e l a

t o K Y a s s h o w n at T h e e l e v t i on ( 2)i s pr oj e c t e d f rom t h e pl an
a

a c i s t h e pl an an d a c i s t h e e l e v t i on of a d i a on a l of t he c ub e
' '
a
g .

X Y i s dra wn a t r i gh t an g l e s t o d c a n d t h e pl a n ( 3)i s pr oj e c te d fr om
' '
l l

t h e e l e va ti on ( 2) a s s h o w n T h e pl an (3) i s t h e on e r e qu i r e d
. T he .

o u t l i n e o f t h e pl a n a r e ul a r h e x a on
( )
3 i s g g .

T h e pl a n o f a s ol i d m ay b e dr a w n wh e n a g i ve n l i n e i n i t i s
i n c l i n e d a t a ny g i ve n a n gl e t o t h e h ori z on t l pl an e by pr oc e e d in g i n
‘

t h e m ann e r j u s t e x p l ai n e d bu t m ak i n g t h e n e w g r o u n d l i n e i n c l i n e d at
,

t h e gi v e n an gl e t o t h e e l e v a ti on of t h e g i v e n l in e i n s t e a d of p e r p e n
di cu lar t o i t .Bu t a s t he s ol i d in th i s cas e c an occ upy an y n u m b e r of
p os i t i on s w i t h r e fe re n ce t o t h e h ori zon ta l pl an e an d s ti ll fulfil t h e
i v e n c on d i t i on t h e pr obl e m i s i n d e fi n i t e I n t h e cas e wh e r e t h e
g ,
.

i v e n l i n e i s v e r t i c a l h o w e v e r t h e pl n i s a l way s t h e s a m e a Th ese
g , , .

r e m a rk s w il l b e u n d e rs tood i f t h e s ol i d b e i m agi n e d t o t urn r oun d t he

g i v e n l i n e as a n a x i s .

1 6 1 P r oj e c t i o n s o f a S o l i d wh e n a gi v e n F a c e i s i n cl i n e d
.

a t a gi v e n An gl e t h e B as e o f t h a t F a c e b e i n g h o r i z o n t a l
,
.

T h e s oli d i s fir s t pl ace d i n a s i m pl e pos i t i on a n d h a v i n g t h e p la n of t h e

b as e of t he gi v e n face at ri gh t a n g l e s t o t h e g rou n d l i n e T h e e le vati on .

of t h e i v e n f ce w i ll th e n b e a s t rai g ht l i n e A n e w g rou n d li n e i s
g a .

th en dr a w n m ak i n g w i th t he e le va ti on of t h e gi ve n f ce an a n gle
,
a
 C HAN GI N G THE P LANE S O F P R OJE C T I O N 1 95

e qu al t o t he gi ve n i n c l i n ati on A pl an on t h i s n e w g rou n d l i n e i s t he .

p l an re qu i r e d .

T wo e x m pl e s a r e i llu s tr te d by F i g s 36 4 a n d 36 5
a I n t h e fir s t a . .

e x m pl e (F i g
a 36 4) pr oj e c t i on s o f. r i ght h e x gon a l pyram i d a r e a a

d e te r m i n e d wh e n t h e f c V A C i s i n c l i n e d t gi v e n an g l e 9 t o t h e
a e a a

pl an e upo n wh i c h t h e n e w pl n i s t o b e pr oj e c t e d T h e pl n ( 1 ) a n d a . a

e l e va t i on ( 2)ar e dr a w n r e pr e s e n t i n g t h e pyr m i d w i t h i t s b as e on t h e a

h or i z on t l pl an e n d w i th ac t h e pl an of t he b as e of t he fac e V A C t
a a , ,
a

ri ght an gl e s t o X Y I t w i ll be s e e n t h at t h e e l e v ati on of t he face

.

V A C i s t h e s t r a i gh t l i n e v a X Y i s dra w n a t t h e gi v e n i n c l i n a t i o n
' '
. I 1

9 t o v a an d t he pl an ( 3)i s p r oj e c t e d as s h ow n
’ '
, .

I n t h e s e c on d e x am pl e (Fi g 365) pr oj ec t i o n s of a r e g ul a r o ct a h e .

dr on r e d e t e rm i n e d wh e n on e face V A C i s h ori zon t a l T he va ri ou s

a .

proj e ct i on s ar e dr w n i n t h e o rd e r i n wh i c h th e y a r e n u m b e r e d F rom
a .

t h e p l an ( 3 )a n e x t r a e l e v at i on h as b e e n pr oj e ct e d on t h e g rou n d l i n e

FIG . 364 . FIG . 365 .

X 2 Y2 I t i s of i n e re s t o ob se rve
. h a t he bou n d a ry t t t t l i n e of t h e
pl an ( 3)i s a r e gul a r h e x agon , an d th i s p lan m ay e vi d e n tly be draw n
t
d i re c t ly w i h ou t t he ai d of a ny o h e r pr oj e c i ons t t .

E xe rci s e s X I V

Dr w t h e l v ti n f t h p i nts gi v n i F i g 366 n gr un d li n
1 . a e e a o s o e o e n . o a o e
i li
nc d t 45 t X Y
ne a
°
o .

2 Fi d t h t u di t n
. n f t h p i t gi v
e r i n F i g 366 fr m X Y
e s a ce s o e o n s en . o .

3 A tri gl AB C i gi v n i n F i g 367
. an e Dr w l v ti f thi t i ngl n
s e . a an e e a on o s r a e o
a g un d l i
ro p r ll l t ne Al pr j t fr m t h gi v l v ti
a a e o ac n w pl . so, o ec o e en e e a on a e an o n

g un d l i p ll l t ' '
a ro ne ar a e o a o .

4 A fi gu
. AB CD E F ( t pl r e fi gur ) i gi v i F i g 368 Dr w n no a an e e s en n . . a a
l v ti
e e a f thi fi g
on o gr u d l i s p ll l t b Al pr j t fr m t h
ure on a o n ne ar a e o c . so, o ec o e

gi v l v ti n
en e e w pl a og u d li a ne p r ll l t b an o n a ro n ne a a e o a
’ ’
.

5 A pl . d l v ti
an f urv d li
an
gi v
an e ei F i g 36 9 Dr w n
a on o a c e n e ar e en n . . a a
l v ti f thi urv
e e
gr u d l i i l i d t 45 t X Y °

—
a on o s c e on a o n ne nc ne a o .

6 S h w t h pl
. o d l v ti ef t h f ll wi g p i t
an s A an i h i e e a on s o e o o n o n s ,
nc es n
fr nt f t h V P
o o b v th H Pe d 2 in h
. . fr m X Y
, a o B 12 i h b v
e e . .
, an c es o .
,
nc es a o e
 96 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

t h e H P , be i n . . h d
t h e V P , a n d 1 8 i n c e s f om X Y C, 1 6 i n c . . h r . h es h d
be i n t h e
V P , be o
. . lw
t h e H P , an d 2 i n c e s f o m X Y ,
2 i n c es b e o
. . h r . D h lw t he H P , i n . .

r t
f on o f t h e V P , a n d 2 5 i n c e s f o m X Y . . h r .

FIG . 366 . FIG . 367 . FIG . 8 68 . F I G 369 . .

In r ep r oduc i ng t he a bove di agr a m s ta ke t he s m a ll s qu ar es as o f 0 3 i n ch s ide.

7 r ht pr
T h e e n s of a i g
. r ul r p t d h d
i s m ar e e g a e n agon s o f 1 2 5 i n c e s s i e , an d t h e
lt tud
a i pr
e of t he h pr t w th
i sm i s 1 5 i n c e s T his t i sm r e s s i on e o f i t s r e c an g a
. ul r
d
fac e s o n t h e gr oun w th d
an d l d
i v t l pl °
i t s e n s i n c i n e at 45 t o t h e e r i ca an e o f p r o
D w
j e c t i on pl
ra lvt
t he
. an an d e e a i on .

8Dr w a
.pl t he r ht u r p
an o f a wh
ig d l
sq a e r i sm en a i agon a o f t h e s o i is ld
v t l
e r i ca d h . Alt tud h
S i e o f bas e , 1 25 i n c e s i e , 2 i n c es . .

9A r t lvt
. lt r v th
f on e e a i on o f a M a e s e c os s i s gi e n i n F i g 37 0 T he i c kn e s s o f . .

r h Dr w pl
t h e c os s i s 0 7 i n c a r p
t he t lvt
an a n d f o m i t .r oj e c an e e a i o n o n a g o n ru d
l w th
i n e m aki n g 50 °
i XY .

10Dr w lvt
a . ld v
an e e a i o n o f t h e s o i r dl
gi e n i n F i g 37 1 o n a g ou n i n e i nc i ne . l d
a t 60 t o X Y
°
.

11Dr w pl a . a ld v
an o f t h e s o iwh l v rt
gi e n i n F i g 37 1 en t h e in e R S i s e i ca . l .

12Dr w lvt
a . ld v
an e e a i o n o f t h e s o i u dl
gi e n i n F i g 37 2 on a gr o n i n e i nc i n e . l d
at 60 t o X Y
°
.

FIG . 37 0 . FIG . 37 1 . FIG . 37 2 . FIG . 37 3 .

In r ep r oduc i n g t he a bove di agr ams take the s m a ll s qu ar es as o f 04 i n c h s i de .

13 Dr w pl f t h li d gi v i n F i g 37 2 wh n i t i ti lt d b ut n dg
a . a an o e so en . e s e a o o e e e
thr ugh n gl f
of i t s b a s e o a an e o
1 4 T he li d gi v i F i g 37 3 i f rm d t f t w ri ght qu r pri m
. so en n . s o e ou o o s a e s s.
Dr w n l v ti n f thi li d
a a e e g u d li
a i oli d t 60 t X Y
o s so on a ro n ne nc ne a
°
o .

1 5 Dr w t h pl. f th li d giv n i n F i g 37 3 wh n i t i ti lt d b ut n
a e an o e so e . e s e a o o e
e dg f i t b thr ugh
e o gls f as e o an an e o

1 6 Dr w t h pl. f ri ght h x g l py m i d wh i t t wi th
a e an o a e a on a ra en r es s on e
tri gul r f
an t h gr u d
a F m thi pl pr j t
ac e on l v ti e gr u do n . ro s an o ec an e e a on on a o n
l i i li d t 45 t t h pl n f t h xi f t h py m i d S i d f b 1 2 5
ne nc ne a
°
o e a o e a s o e ra . e o as e ,

inc h Al ti tud 2 i h
es . e, nc es .

17 A i . l tri gl b 1 i n h i d 1 5 i h h i t b p r ll l t
n sos c e e s an e, as e c ,
s es nc es , as s as e a a e o
XY T hi tri
.
gl i t h l v ti n f n f t h tri gul r f ce of ri ght
s an e s e e e a o o o e o e an a a s a
 CH AP TE R X V
PL A NE S OT H ER T H A N T H E CC ORDINAT E PLANES
-

16 2 R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f P l an e s
.
—T r
a c e s o f a P l an e a n es —P l
o th e r th a n t h e co ord i n a t e pl a n e s a r e
-
r e pre s e n t e d by t he l i ne s i n
wh i c h th e y m e e t t h e l a t te r T h e l i ne s i n wh i ch a pl an e m e e ts t he
.

c c ord i n a t e p l an e s o r pl a n e s of pr oj e c t i on a r e c a ll e d t h e t r a c e s of t h a t
-

p l a n e , t h e i n t e r s e c t i on w i t h t h e ve r ti ca l pl an e b e i n g c all e d t he ve r ti ca l
t r a ce , a n d t h at w i t h t h e h o r i z on t a l pl a n e t h e hor i z ont a l t r a ce .

T h e l i ne i n wh i c h o ne pl a n e m e e ts a n oth e r i s a l s o c a ll e d t h e t r ac e
o f t h e o n e p la n e o n t h e o th e r , bu t wh e n t h e t r a c e s o f a pl a n e a r e

m e n t i o n e d i t s tr a c e s on t h e pl a n e s o f pr oj e c t i on a r e ge n e r a lly u n d e r s tood .

P l a n e s o c c upy i n g v a r i o u s p os i t i on s i n r e l a t i on t o t h e pl an e s o f
p r oj e c ti on ar e s h o w n i n pi ctori a l pr oj e c ti on i n t h e l ow e r p a r ts of
F i gs 37 6 t o 38 4 T h e uppe r p ar ts of t he s am e F i gs s h o w h ow t he
.

. . .

s a m e pl a n e s a r e r e pr e s e n te d by m e an s of t h e i r h or i zo n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l .

t ra c e s wh e n t h e pl a n es of proj e cti on ar e m a d e t o coi n ci d e as e xpl ai n e d

i n Ar t 1 35, p 1 6 6
. . .

FIG . 37 6 . FIG . 37 7 . FIG . 37 8 . FIG . 37 9

.

R efe rr in g t o F igs 37 6 t o 38 4 s e pa rately Fi g 37 6 s h o w s a h ori

. . .

z o nt a l p la n e Fi g 37 7 s h o w s a pl a n e wh i c h i s p a rall e l t o t he v e r t i c a l
. .

pl ne of pr oj e c t i o n an d i s th e refore al so a v e rti c l plan e F i g 37 8

a a . .

s h o w s a pl a n e wh i c h i s e rpe n d i c ul a r t o b ot h pl a n e s of pr oj ec ti on an d
p
P LANE S OT HE R T HAN THE C C O R D I NA T E P LANE S
-
1 99

is t h e refor e l s o v e r ti c l p l ne n d i t i s l s o p e rpe n d i c ul r t o t h e
a a a a ,
a a a

g r o u n d l i n e F i g 3 7.9 h o w s pl
. n e wh
s i h i s p e rp e n d i c
a ul r t o t he a c a

v rt i l p l an e of p roj e ct i on n d i n c l i n e d t o t h e h or i zon t l p l n e
e ca a a a .

S uch p l n e i s ge n e r lly alle d an i ncli ned p lane F i g 38 0 s h ow s a

a a a c . .

FIG . 38 0 . FIG . 38 1 . FIG . 38 2 . FIG . 38 3 .

pl ne wh i c h i s i n c l i n e d t o t he v e r t i c l pl n e of p roj e c ti on an d i s
a a a

p e rpe n d i c ul ar t o t h e h or i o n t l pl n e a n d i s th e re fo r e ve r ti c l pl n e
z a a a a a .

Fi g 38 1 s h o ws a p la n e wh i c h i s i n c l i n e d t o bo t h pl n e s of pr oj e c t i o n
.
a

bu t i s p ra ll e l t o t h e gro u n d l i n e F i gs 38 2 a n d 38 3 S h o w pl n e s
a . . a

wh i c h a r e i n c l in e d t o bo t h pl a n e s of proj e c t i on n d t o t h e gr o u n d l i n e a .

F i g 38 4 s h ow s a pl an e con tai n i n g t he g r o u n d l i n e X Y a n d i n c l i n e d
.

t o bo t h pl n e s of pr oj e c ti on
a T h e h or i z on t a l a n d v e r t ic l t ra c e s
. a

c oi n c i d e w i th X Y a n d th e s e t r a ces do n ot fix

d e fi ni te ly t h e p os i t i on of t h e pl an e I n t h i s .

c as e a t r a ce o n a n ot h e r pl a n e of pr oj e c t i o n i s

n e c e s s a ry s y o n a v e r t i c a l pl a n e of wh i c h X Y
,
a I 1

i s t h e gr o u n d l i n e .

A p erp endi cular p lane i s on e wh i c h i s t a

r i gh t n g l es t o on e o r ot h e r or b ot h of t h e
a

pl n e s of proj e c ti on (Fi gs 37 6 37 7 37 8 37 9
a .
, , , ,

an d

An obli la ne i s on e wh i c h i s i n c l i n e d t o
ue
q p
b ot h pl an e s of proj e c ti on (F i gs 38 1 , 38 2, an d .

38 3)
bv u th t
It i s o i o s a i n t h e cas e of a p e r p e n
pl
di c u lar tr
an e P , i t s a ce T on t h e a n e of pl
pr j t Q
o e c i on wh h
,
t o i c t h e an e i s p e r p e n pl
d v w
di c u lar , i s a n e ge i e of t h e an e , an d t h e pl
F I G 384
pr j t p
o ec i on s on Q of all oi n s a n d i n e s on P t l . .

w ll
i li e onT .

d ul t
I t i s n ot i ffi c t o s ee a i f t he th t
a ces of a an e m e e tr pl t
th r th r p t
on e an o e ei oi n t r t
of i n e s e c i on i s on t h e g ou n i n e , an d i f t h e r dl
 An gl e b e t w e e n T W O l b e t w e e n t wo
P la n e s .
—T h e an g e

p l an e s o r t h e i n c l i n at i on of on e pl an e t o an oth e r I s t he an gl e b e t w e e n
, ,

t wo s tr a i g h t l i n e s dr a wn fr om an y p oi n t i n t h ei r l i ne of i n t e r s e c t i on ,

a t r i ght a n l e s t o i t o n e i n e a c h l
g p, an e .

R e fe rri n g t o F i g 38 5 wh i c h 1 s a pi c tori al proj e cti on AB and CD

.
, ,

a re t wo pl an e s a n d C E i s th e i r l i n e of
i n te r s e c ti on F H i s a s t r ai g h t l i n e I n t h e
.

pl n e AB an d at r ig h t ang l e s t o CE F K
a .

is s tr a i h t l i n e i n th e p l an e C D a n d a t
a
g
r igh t n g l es t o CE I f H F b e prod u c e d
a .

t o L t h e n t h e a n gl e b e t w e e n t h e pl a n e s
,

AB a n d CD i s e i th e r t he n g l e H EK or a

i t s s u p pl e m e n t t h e a n gl e LF K .

O f t h e t wo an gl e s wh i c h on e pl n e a

m k e s w i t h a n o th e r i t i s g e n e r a lly t h e
a FIG 385 . .

a c u te a n l e wh i c h i s t a k e n s t h n l
g e a g e a

b e tw e e n t h e pl a n e s I n t he c as e of t he n g l e b e t we e n t wo a dj a ce n t
. a

pl n e fa ce s of a s ol i d i t i s ge n e ra lly t h e an gl e w i th i n t h e s ol i d wh i c h i s
a

u n d e rs tood wh e th e r i t b e a c ut e or ob t u s e
, .

T h e n gl e b e t we e n t w o pl a n e s i s c ll e d a dihe dr a l a ngle
a a .

1 6 4 I n cl i n a t i o n s o f a P l a n e t o t h e P l a n e s o f P r oj e c t i o n
. .

A p l n e i s gi v e n by i t s t r a c e s i n F i g 38 7
a T h e sa m e p l n e nd t he. . a a

p lan e s of pr oj e c ti on i n t h e i r n a t u ra l p os i ti on s a r e s h o w n i n obl i qu e
proj e c t i on i n F i g 38 6 R e fe rr i ng t o Fi g 38 6 AB i s
. . l i n e i n t he .
,
a

FIG . 38 6 . FIG . 38 7 .

i v n pl a n e a n d a t r i h t a n l e s t o i t s h or i z o n t a l t r a c e H T A O i
g e g g s a . .

l i n e i n t he h ori z on tal pl an e an d at r i gh t a n gl es t o H T By d e fi n i ti on . .

t h e a n gl e OAB i s t h e an gl e wh i c h t h e g i v e n pl a n e m a k e s w i th t h e
h or i zon tal pl a n e 9, t h e tru e v a lu e of th i s a n gl e , i s fou n d by t he
.

foll o w i n g con s tru c t i on , s h o wn i n F i g 38 7 T ak e a p oi n t 0 i n KY an d

. .

dra w c d a t r i g h t an g l es t o H T W i th 0 a s c e n t re an d oa a s rad i u s
. .
‘

d e s c r i b e t h e a r c a Al t o c u t X Y at A1 D ra w ob pe rp e n d i c ul a r t o KY
'
.

t o m ee t V T a t b J oi n b Al T h e a n gl e oAl b i s t he tru e va l u e of 9
’ ' ’
. . . . .
202 P RA CT I C AL G E O METRY
th i s c i r c l e an d m ak e w i th X Y n an gl e e qu l t o 0 c u tti n g X Y t Aa a , a I

a nd a l i n e t hr ou g h 0 a t ri ght n g l e s t o KY t b D r w dC t o t o u c h
a a
'
. a 1

t h e s m e c i r c l e a n d m k e w i th X Y n n gl e e qu l t o 1 ut t i n g X Y t
a a a a a <) c a

C n d l in e t hr ou gh 0 at r i g h t an g l e s t o KY t d
1 a a W i t h ce n t re a . 0

F I G 38 8
. . F I G 38 9 . .

an d r d i u s 0A d e s c ri b e t he r c A a W i th c e n t re 0 n d r ad i u s 0C
a
1 a l . a 1

d e s c ri b e t h e r c C c A t n ge n t i d t o t h e a r c A a i s t he re qu i re d
a
l
'
. a ( ,

h o ri zon t l t rac e a n d t an ge n t b c t o t h e r c C i s t he r e qu i r e d
a ,
a
' '
a l
c
'

v e rti cal t ra c e I f th e s e tr ac e s m e e t th e i r p oi n t of i n te rs e c t i on m u s t
'
.
,

b e o n t h e g r ou n d l i n e T h e s p h e r e a n d e n v e l op i n g c on e s h a v i n g be e n
.

dra w n t h e re w i ll i n ge n e r al be four p l a n e s wh i c h w i ll b e tan ge n ti l

, ,
a

t o b ot h c on e s T h e s tud e n t w h o h as m as t e r e d t h e pr obl e m of t h e
.

p re c e d i n g Ar t s h ould n ow h a v e l i tt l e d iffi c ul ty i n u n d e r s ta n d i n g t he
.

s o lut i on ju s t i v e n if h e c a r e fully s t ud i e s F i s 38 8 a n d 38 9 I t on ly
g g . .

re m i n s t o e m ph a si z e t h e poi n t th a t t h e t wo c on e s ar e m d e t o e n ve l op
a a

t h e s m e s ph e r e i n o rd e r t o e n s ure t h a t th e y s h all h av e a c omm on

a

tange n t pl an e .

T h e s e c on d m e t h od of s olvi n g t h i s pr obl e m d e p e n d s on t h e fo ll ow i n g
t h e or e m s ( 1 ) T he i n c l i n at i on of a p l an e t o on e of t h e pl n e s of p r o
. a

e c t i on i s t h e c om pl e m e n t of t h e i n cl i n a t i on of i t s n or m a l t o t h a t pl n e
j a

o f p r oj e c t i on e tr a ce of a pl n e on on e of t h e p la n es of p r o
.
( )
2 T h a

e c t i on i s p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e pr oj e c t i on of i t s n o rm l on t h t p l a n e
j
H e n c e t h e con s tru c t i on —D r a w ( Ar t 1 44 p 1 7 6 )t he
a a

of p r oj e c t i on . .
, .

proj e c t i on s of a l i n e i n c l i n e d at 90 9 t o t h e h ori zon ta l pl n e an d °

a

v e rt i c l pl a n e of p r oj e c t i on e h or i z on t l a n d v e r t i c l
°
90 1 t o
<) t h e a T h . a a

tr c es of t h e r e qu i r e d p l n e w i ll be p e rp en d i c ul ar t o t h e p l an n d
a a a

e l e v a t i on r e s p e c t i v e ly of th i s l i n e I f t h e tr a ce s m e e t th e i r p oi n t of
.
,

i n t e r s e c ti on m u s t b e on t h e g r o u n d l i n e If t h e tra c e s do n ot m e e t .

w i th i n a c on v en i e n t d i s t an ce or i f th e y r e p arall e l t o t h e grou n d l in e
,
a ,

c a r e m u s t b e t a k e n t o e n s ur e t h t t h e tr a c e s ar e t h e t r a c e s of t h e sa m e
a

p l an e .

1 6 6 G i v e n on e T r a c e o f a P l an e an d t h e I n cl i n a t i o n o f
.

t h e P l a n e t o o n e o f t h e C o o r di n a t e P l a n e s t o d e t e rm i n e t h e
-

,
P LANE S O THER THAN THE C O O R D I NAT E P LANE S
-
203

t
o he r T ra e c — I n F i gs 390 n d 391 9 t h e i n cl i n a t i on of t h e p l n e t o
. a ,
a

t h e h o ri z o n t a l p l n e i s s uppos e d t o be g i v e n
a .

I n F i gs 392 n d 393 a t h e i n c l i n ti on of t h e pl n e t o t h e v e r t i c l
. a , a a a

pl n e of pr oj e ti on i s s uppos e d t o b e g i ve n
a c .

CA SE I . F i gs 390 n d 39 1 n d Fi gs 392 n d 393 LA i s t h e

. a ,
a . a .

g i v e n tr c e
a .

F r om n y p oi n t 0 i n KY dr w O A t r i gh t n gl e t o LA W i th
a a a a s .

0 s c e n tre nd r d i u s O A d e s c ri b e t h e
a a a c A C t o cut X Y t C ar a .

D r w CB m k i n g t h e an gl e O CB e qu l t o t h e gi v e n i n cl i n ti on of t h e
a a a a

p l n e D r w O R t ri ght n gl e s t o X Y t o m e e t CB t B J oi n LB
a . a a a
’
a . .

LB i s t he th r t r ce of t he pl ne
o e a a .

FIG . 390 . F I G 39 1
. . FIG . 392 . FIG . 393 .

CASE I I S a m e fi gur e s
. LB i s t h e gi v e n t rac e
. .

F r om an y p oi n t C i n KY dra w C B m ak i n g t h e an gl e C OB e qu a l
t o t h e g i v e n i n c l i n a t i on of t h e p l a n e , a n d m e e t i n g L B a t B D ra w .

B O a t r i gh t a n g l e s t o X Y W i th 0 a s c e n t r e a n d 00 as r ad i u s
.

d e s c ri be t h e a r c CA Throu gh L dr a w LA t o tou c h t he a r c CA LA
. .

i s t h e o th e r tr a c e of t he pl an e .

T h e co rr e c t n e s s of t h e a bo v e c on s t r u c ti on s w i ll b e obv i ou s , i f, a ft e r
t h e r e qu i r e d t r a c e h as b e e n fou n d i n e ac h c a s e , t h e c on s t ru c t i o n fo r
fi n d i n g t he gi ve n i n c l i n a ti on be appl i e d I t w i ll be fou n d th at all t he .

l i n e s for t h e l a t te r c on s tru c ti on ar e a lr ea dy on t he fi gure s

—
.

1 6 7 T r u e A n gl e b e t w e e n t h e T r a c e s o f a P l an e
. B y t he
tru e a n gl e b e t w e e n t h e
tr a ce s of a pl an e i s
m e a n t t h e an gl e b e t w e e n
t h em wh e n t h e pla n e
a n d t h e pl a n e s of o
p r

j e c t i o n ar e i n the i r
n a tur a l p os i t i on s a s
s h o w n i n Fi 39 4 wh r
g . e e
t h e a n gl e ALB i s t h e
a n l e r e fe rr e d t o Th i s
g .

a n l e i s d e te r m i n e d by
g
fi n d i n g t h e tru e for m of
t h e tri an gl e ABL i n FIG 394 FIG 395 . . . .

wh i c h t he a n gl e ABL i s a ri gh t a n gle .

R e fe rri n g t o Fi g 395, fr om a po i n t a i n KY dra w a b at ri gh t a n gl e s

.
204 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY
t o t he h ori z on ta l t rac e o f t h e pl n e n d dr w a a t rig ht an gl e s t o KY a a a
'
a

t o m e e t t h e v e rt i c l tr c e of t h e pl a n e at a
a a W i th c e n t r e L wh e re ’
.
,

t h e t r a c e s m e e t X Y a n d r d i u s L a dr a w t h e r c a A l t o m e e t a b p r o
' '
,
a ,
a

du c e d a t A J oi n A I L Th e n t he an gl e A L b i s t he tru e a n gl e
, . . a, l ,

b e t w e e n t h e t ra ce s of t h e pl an e .

T h e th e ory of t h e a b o v e con s t ru c ti on i s t h a t t h e t ri n gl e ABL a

s s upp o s e d t o t ur n a b o u t LB a s a n x s u n t i l i t c om e s i n t o
( g
Fi 3 9
. 4 ) i i a

t h e h o r i zon t a l pl a n e T h e p oi n t A d es c ri b e s a n ar c of a c i r c l e wh os e
.

pl n e i s p e rp e n di c ul a r t o LB a n d wh o e c e n tr e i s B
a s .

I n s t e a d o f t a k i n g t h e t r i a n g l e ABL w i t h t h e r i ght a n g l e t B t h e a ,

t r i an gl e m ay b e ta k e n w i th t h e r i gh t a n gl e a t A an d t h e t r i n gl e w ould a

th e n b e s u pp os e d t o t urn a b ou t LA as a n a x i s i n to t h e v e r ti cal pl n e a

of p r oj e c ti on T h e s t ud e n t s h o uld dr a w t h e fi g ur e for t h i s c a s e a s
.

w e ll as for t h e ot h e r an d s h o w th a t t h e r e s ul ts a r e t h e s am e .

1 6 8 G i v e n o n e T r a c e o f a P l a n e a n d t h e t r u e An gl e
—
.

b e t w e e n t h e T r a c s t o dr aw t h e ot h e r T r a c e
e ,
Le t LB ( F i gs .

e t h e g i ve n
396 n d 39 7
a
) b
tra ce D r w LA m k i n g
. a 1 a

t h e a n g l e B L A e qu l t o l
a a,

t h e g i v e n n gl e b e tw e e n t he
a

tr c e s D r w A 13 t ri gh t
a . a 1
a

a n gl e s t o LB n d p r odu c e i t
a

t o m eet X Y t 0 Dr w a . a

C A a t r i g h t a n gl e s t o X Y .

NV i t h c e n tr e L n d ra d i u s a

LA d e s c ri b e t he r c A ,A
1
a

t o cu t C A at A J o i n LA . .

LA i s t h e o th e r t race of t h e FIG 396 FIG 397 . .

pl an e
. .

T he co e c rr t n e s s o f t h e a b o v e co n s t r u c t i o n w i ll b e o bv i o u s i f a f t e r , ,

t he e r qu r
i e d tr a c e h a s b e e n f o u n d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r
,
fi n d i n
g t h e
g i v e n

a n gl e b e appl i e d I t w i ll b e fo u n d th t all t h e l i n e s for t h e l a tte r

. a

c on tru c t i on lr ea dy o n t h e fi gur e
—
s re a a .

16 9 In t er s . e c t io n o f T w o P l a n e s T h e i n te r s e c t i on o f t w o

p l n e s i s s t r i gh t l i n e wh i c h
a a a d t
is e e r m i n e d wh e n t w o
p om t s i n i t ar e

k n o wn or wh en one p oi nt i n i t an d t h e d i r e t
c i o n o f t h e h n e a r e k w
n o n .
 206 P R AC T I C AL G E O METRY

in te r s e c t p oi n t pp wh i c h i s an ot h e r p oi n t i n t he i n t e rs e cti on of
at a
'

t h e t w o gi ve n p l an e s .

T h e c as e wh e r e t h e tr a c e s of t h e i v e n pl an e s r e p a r ll e l t o t h e
g a a

g r o u n d l i n e a n d t h e p l a n es t h e m s e lve s a r e th e r e for e p a r a ll e l t o th a t
,

l i n e i s s h o wn i n F i g s 404 n d 405 A p oi n t pp i n t h e l i n e of i n t e r
, . a .
'

s e c t i o n of t h e t w o p l n e s i s fo u n d by m e a n s of
a th i rd pl an e as be fo re a

a n d l i n e s t hro u h p ra ll e l t o K Y ar e t he pl an an d e l e va ti on
’

g p n d p a a

r es pe c ti ve ly of t he i n te rs e cti on re qu i r e d .

FIG . 404 . FIG . 405 .

A pl an e m y b e fix e d by t he pr oj e cti ons of t hr e e p o i n ts
a i t an d ,

t h e i n te r s e c t i on of t wo pl an e s fix e d i n t h i s w y m y b e fou n d w i t h ou t a a

u s i n g t he t r ac e s of t he pl n e s on t h e pl an e s of proj e c ti on R e fe rr i ng
a .

t o Fi gs 406 a n d 407 d a bb
’ '
.
, ,

n d cc a r e t h e pr oj e c t i on s
’
a

of thr e e p oi n t s i n a p l a n e .

T h e t ri a n g l e a bc a b c i s o b
’ ’ ’
,

n th i s pl a n e
'
v i ou s l i dd
y .
,
' ’
cc d ff a r e t h e p r oj e c
,
an

ti on s of t hre e p oi n t s wh i c h
a r e i n a n o th e r pl a n e T he .

t r i an gl e def , d e i s ob v i
’ '

ou sl
y i n t h i s s e c on d pl a n e .

I t i s r e qu i r e d t o fi n d t h e
-

i n te r s e c ti on of th e s e t wo
pl an e s .

R e fe rr i ng t o Fi g 406 .
,

a h o r i z on t a l pl a n e a t t h e

l e v e l of t h e p oi n t ff i s ’

t ak en Th i s pl an e c u ts
.

t h e p l an e of t h e t ri an g l e
' ' ' ’ '
a bc , ab c i n t h e li n e gh, g h .

T h i s s a m e pl an e c u t s t he
FIG 406
.

p lan e of t h e tri an gl e def , .

d ef i n t h e l i n e f k, f lc i n t e rs e c t i on l i ne s
' ’ ’ ' ’
h m of h
’

pp t e p o t . of t he g ,
P LANE S O T HER THAN THE CO OR -
D I NATE P LANE S 207

g
' ’
h ,
a n d f h , f
’
k is
’
o bvi ou s ly a p oi n t i n t he i n te r s e cti on of t h e t wo

g i v e n pl an e s .

FIG . 407 .

A ve r ti ca l pl ane of wh i c h bl i s t he h ori zon t al tra ce i s t a k e n Th i s .

pl an e c u ts t h e pl an e of t h e t ri an gl e a bc a b c i n t h e l i n e bl b l Th i s ,
' ' ’
,
''
.

s a m e pl an e c u t s t h e pl a n e of t h e tr i a n g l e def d e f i n t h e l i n e mn m n
' ' ’ ’ '
, , .

e p oi n t of i n te r s e c t i on of t h e l i n e s bl b l n d m n m n i s o bvi o u s ly
' ’ ’ ' ’

qq t h ,
a ,

a n ot h e r p oi n t i n t h e i n te r s e c ti on of t h e t wo gi v e n pl a n e s Th at p a rt .

of t h e l i n e of i n t e rs e c t i on o f t h e t wo gi v e n pl a n e s wh i c h l i e s w i th i n

b ot h of t h e gi ve n tri an g l e s i s s h ow n th i c k e r an d th i s t h i ck e r l i n e i s t h e ,

i n te rse c t i o n o f t h e g i ve n t ri an gl e s .

F i g 407 s h ow s t he va r i ou s pl an e s an d t h e i r i n te r s e c t i on s i n obl i qu e
.

proj e c t i on .

Wh e n an au x i l i a ry c u tti ng pl an e i s r e qu i re d i n o rd e r t o fi n d t h e
i n t e rs e c ti on of t w o g i v e n pl n e s t h i s a ux i l i a ry pl an e m ay be pl ace d i n
a ,

a n n u m b e r of p os i t i on s a n d t h e s t u d e n t m u s t e x e r c i s e h is j ud g m e n t
y ,

an d i n e n u i t y i n d e t e r m i ni n v n i n t os i t i on th t i s a po s i t i o n
g g a c o n e e p ,
a ,

wh i c h w i ll l e ad t o po i n t s of in t e rs e c t i on of l i n e s wh i c h w i ll fa ll w i th i n
c on v e n i e n t d i s t an c e s an d wh i c h c n b e fo u n d w i th a c c ur a c y a Lin e s .

i n te r s e c ti n g a t v e ry a c ut e a n g l e s s h ould be a v oi d e d i f p os s i bl e
—
.

1 7 0 D i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t w o P ar a ll e l P la n e s
. P a r a ll e l pl an e s
h av e p a rall e l t race s t h e v e r ti cal an d h ori z on ta l trace s b e i n g p ara ll e l t o
,

o n e a n o th e r r e s p e c t i v e ly .

I n Fi gs 408 an d 409 V T l a n d V T 2 a r e t h e ve rt i c a l t r a c e s an d
.
, . . . . . .

H T l
. . . nd H T 2
a r e t h e h o r i z on t a l t r a c e s o f t wo p a r a ll e l pl an e s
. . . a It .

i s re qu i r e d t o fi n d t h e d i s t an c e b e t w e e n th e s e pl an e s Cu t t h e gi ve n .

pl n e s by a v e r ti c al pl an e wh os e h o ri zon ta l tra ce 00 (Fi g 409) or

a .

00 ( Fi g 408 ) i s p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e g i v e n h o r i z on t l t r c e s
. T hi s a a .

pl an e w i ll c u t t h e gi ve n p l n e s i n t wo p ar ll e l l i n e s t h e tru e d i s t an c e
a a

b e t we e n w hi c h w i ll be t h e r e qu i r e d d i s t a n ce b e t w e e n t h e gi ve n pl n e s a .
208 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

R e fe rri n g t o F i g 409, . wi th t
o as c e n r e a n d r a d i i 0a an d d e s c ri b e
cc

a rcs to cut XY at A ,
an d C, r e s p e c t i ve ly . D r a w ob d ’ ’
at r i g ht n gl es a

F I G 408 . . F I G 409 . .

to KY cu t t in g
ve n v e r ti c a l t ra ce s at b an d d as s h o wn J oi n
t h e gi
' ’
.

T h e p e rp e n d i c ul a r d i s t an c e b e t w e e n A b an d C d i s t h e
' ' '
A b an d C d
’
, , .
, ,

d i s t an ce b e t w e en t he t w o gi v e n pl an e s .

T h e th eo ry of t h e for egoi n g c on s t ru c t i on i s t h t t h e v e rt i ca l pl n e a a

C O D ( Fi g 408 )i s s u p p os e d t o t urn ab ou t i t s v e r t i c al t race O D wh i c h

.
,

i p e rpe n di c ul a r t o X Y c a r r y i n g w i t h i t t h e l i n e s of i t s i n t e r s e c t i on
s
,

w i t h t h e gi ve n pl an e s u n t i l i t i s i n t he v e rt i c al pl an e of pr oj e c ti on
, .

T h e t ru e d i s t an c e b e t w e e n th e s e li n e s c an th e n be m e a s ur e d .

T h e a ux i l i a ry c ut t i n g pl a n e m ay b e qu i t e as c on v e n i e n t ly t k e n , ,
a

p e r p e n d i c ul a r t o t h e gi ve n v e rt i c l t r a c e s an d t h e s t ud e n t s h ould dra w
a ,

t h e fi g ur e w i th t he c utt in g pl an e s o t a k e n .

1 7 1 T o d r aw t h e T r a c e s o f a P la n e w h i c h s h all b e p ar a ll e l
—
.

t o a gi v e n P l an e an d a t a gi v e n di s t an c fr m e o i t T h e s o lu ti o n .

o f t h i s p r o bl e m i s s o obv i o us if t h e pr e c e d i n o n e h a s b e e n u n d e r s to od
g , ,

th a t n o d e ta i l e d d e s cr i p t i on o f i t n ee d b e gi ven I t m ay b e p oi n te d .

ou t h o w e v e r th a t t w o pl an e s m a pl a c e d a t a gi v e n d i s t a n c e f r o m a
‘

y b e

g i v e n pl a n e on e on e a c h s i d e of i t
, .

E x e rci s e s X V

l l
P an e s v by ei th r tr
ac e s at (a (b), an d (f )m Fi 4 1 0
t )pl
. ar e gi en g . .

Dtr e e m ine In e ac h l t
cas e t h e i n c i n a i o n s of 1e an e t o t h e pl an e s o f p j ti
ro ec on .

FIG . 41 0 .
21 0 P RA CT I C AL G E OMETRY

p ll l pl
1 6 T wo ar a e p ll l r u dl
an e s ar e h rz
ar a e t o t h e g o n ine . T he t l tr
o i on a ac e
2 i n c e s b e owX Y
.

fir t
of t h e s h lw th t
i s 1 5 i n c e s be o d
X Y an d h a o f t h e s e c on l .

v rt l tr
T h e e i ca fir h
ac e o f t h e v F d v t
s t i s 2 i n c e s ab o e X Y . in the er ica l tr ac e o f
d pl
t h e s e c on d t tw
an e an d t h e pl
i s an ce be e e n t h e t wo an e s
.

r t h v pl hw
1 7 R e fe r i n g t o F i g 41 0, ake e ac o f t h e gi e n
. . an e s an d S o t wo pl an e s
p ll l v pl
ar a e t o t h e gi e n hd t t
an e an d 07 i n c i s an fr om i t .

p r ll l pl
1 8 T wo a a e
. hv l t
an e s th r h r z
a e an i n c i n a i o n o f an d ei o i on at l tr a ce s
h p t Dt
ar e 1 i n c a ar . v rt l pl wh h ut th pl
e er m i n e a e ica an e ic c s e se an e s i n l i nes
wh h h p t
i c ar e 1 5 i n c e s a ar .
 CH AP TER X V I
A
ST R I GHT LI NE AND P L ANE
17 2 . L i n e s an d P oi n t s i n a P l an e —
T H E O R E M I A s t r ai ght
.

li ne conta i ne d by a gi ve n p la ne ha s i ts t r a c e s on t he t r a ces of t he p la n e .

T h e t r a c e s of t h e l i n e a r e p oi n t s i n t h e pl a n e s of pr oj e c ti o n , but th e y
a r e a l s o poi n t s i n t h e pl a n e c on t ai n i n g t he l i n e , th e r e fo r e t h e tra c e s of

t h e l i n e m u s t li e on t h e i n t e r s e c t i on of t h e pl an e w i t h t he pl an e s of
pr oj e c t i on , t h at i s , on t h e t ra ce s of t h e pl an e .

R efe rr i n g t o t h e p i c to r i a l pr oj e c t i on , F i g 41 4, LA an d LB ar e t he
.

trace s of a pl an e an d AB i s a s tr ai g ht l i ne con t a i n e d by t h e pl a ne
ALB T h e poi n t s A an d B ar e t h e trace s of AB
. .

T H E OR E M I I A s tr a i ght li ne whi ch i s p a r a lle l to o ne of t he p la nes

.

r o e c ti on a nd i s c on ta i ne d b a gi v e n la ne i s a r a lle l t o t he t r a c e o
o
fp j y p p f
t ha t p la n e on t he p la ne of p r oj e c t i on to whi ch t he li ne i s p a r a lle l .

Re fe rr i n g t o t h e p i c t or i a l pr oj e c ti o n , F i g 4 1 4, CD i s a h or i z on t a l l i n e
.

l y i n g i n t he pl an e L AB C D i s pa r all e l t o LA t h e h or i zon t a l tr a ce of
.

t h e pl an e H e n ce ed t h e pl an of C D i s p ar alle l t o LA c d , t he ' '

. .

e l e va t i on of C D , i s p a r a ll e l t o X Y Th i s l i n e h a s o n ly on e t rac e C
.

wh i c h i s a v e r ti c a l tr ace E F i s a l i n e p a r all e l t o t h e v e rt i ca l p l an e
.

of pr oj e c t i on a n d l y i n g i n t h e pl a n e ALB F F i s p a rall e l t o LB t h e
.

v e rt i cal tra ce of t he p l an e H e n c e e f t h e e l e va ti on of F F i s p a ra ll e l
.
' ’

t o LB . cf , t h e pla n of E F, i s p a r a ll e l t o X Y Th i s l i n e h as on ly on e
.

tr ace E wh i c h i s a h ori zon t a l tr ac e .

F i g 4 1 5 s h o w s t h e v a r i o u s l i n es r efe rr e d t o ab ov e by o rd i n a ry
.

pl an an d e l e va ti on .

I t i s obvi o u s t h a t t h e d i s t an c e of C D f rom t h e h or i z on t a l pl a n e of
pr oj e c ti on i s e qu a l t o t h e d i s tan ce of i t s e l e v a t i on from X V , a l s o t h e
d i s tan c e of EF from t h e v e r ti ca l pl an e of pr oj e c ti on i s e qua l t o t he
d i s tan ce of i t s pl a n from X Y .

A k n owl e dge of t he fore goi n g pri n ci pl e s w i ll e n abl e t h e s tu d e n t t o

s o lv e a n u m b e r of pr obl e m s

—
.

F or e x am pl e G i ve n t h e t r a c e s of a pl an e (F i g 4 1 5)a n d t h e pl an
.

of a po i n t c o n t a i n e d by t h e p l an e , t o fi n d t h e e l e v a t i on o f t h e p oi n t
p .

Thro ugh p dr aw a b t o c u t t h e h o ri zon ta l t r a c e of t he p l an e at a a n d

KY a t b C on s i d e r ab as t h e pl an of a l i n e ly i n g i n t h e p l a n e
. T he
.

e le v a t i o n a b of th i s l i n e i s fou n d as s h o w n a n d a b m u s t c o n t ai n
’ ’ ' ' '
, p
t h e e l e v ati on r e qu i r e d I n s te a d of t ak i n g t h e l i n e a b, a b ly i n g i n t h e
' '
.
 12 P RA CT I C AL G E O ME T RY

pl an e an d c on t i n i n g t h e p oi n t P t h e h or i zon tal l i n e ed c d ly i ng i n
a , ,
' '

t h e p l a n e a n d c o n t ai n i n g t h e p oi n t P m y be t k e n o r t h e l i n e
a a ,

FIG . 41 4 . FIG . 41 5 .

p ar all e l t o t he ve r ti c al pl an e of proj e c ti on m ay be u s e d t o fi n d p I f ’
.

v u d by w rk r s t ru c t i o n
’

p i s
g i en
p m a
y b e f o n o i n g t h e f o e go i n g co n

b ac kw a rd s .

A gai n gi v e n t h e t r ace s of a pl an e an d t h e d i s tan ce s of a p oi n t i n

,

t h e pl an e f r o m t h e pl an e s o f pr oj e c t i on t o fi n d i t s pl n a n d e l e v t i on a a .

P l a c e i n t h e pl a n e ( F i g 4 1 5)a h ori z on t a l l i n e cd c d wh os e d i s tan c e

' '
.
,

fr om t h e h or i z on t l pl a n e of p r oj e c t i on i s e qu a l t o t h e g i v e n d i s t a n c e
a

o f t h e p oi n t f r om t h e l a tt e r pl an e Ne xt pl a ce i n t he p lan e l i ne f
. a e ,

wh d t an ce fr om t h e v e r ti c a l pl a n e of pr oj e c t i on i s e qu a l t o t h e
'

f
’
e o s e i s

i v e n d i s t a n c e of t h e i n t f r om t h e l tt r pl an e t h e i n t r e t i n
g p o a e
p e
. s c o

of ad a n d ef i s t h e pl a n e i n t e r s e c t i on of
' ' ' '
nd , p t ha d and e
ff ics t h e

e l e va ti on r e qu i re d .

I n a n o th e r s e t o f pr obl e m s i t i s r e qu i r e d t o fi n d t h e t r a c e s of a
pl n e wh i ch con tai n s gi ve n p oi n t s or l i n e s Thre e p oi n t s wh i c h e
a . ar

n o t i n t h e sa m e s tr ai g h t l i n e w i ll fix a pl n e a l s o t w o p a r a ll e l s tr a i g ht
a ,

l i n e s or t wo i n te rs ec t i n g s tr ai g ht l i n e s or on e s t rai ght l i n e a n d o n e
,

p oi n t n ot i n t h a t l i n e Th e s e p robl e m s a r e s olve d by m a k i n g u s e of
.

t h e fa c t s t h a t i f t w o p oi n t s a r e i n a pl a n e t h e s t r i g h t l i n e j oi n i ng a

t h e m i s i n t h t pl an e a n d t h e tra c es of t h i s l i n e a r e on t he t ra ce s of
a

t he p l an e .

1 7 3 T o d r aw t h e T r a c e s o f a P l a n e w h i c h s h a l l c o n t a i n
.

a gi v e n L i n e an d h av e a gi v e n I n cl i n a t i o n t o o n e o f t h e
l
P an e s o f P o e r j c t i on — Le t ab b ( F i g 4 1 7 )b e t h e g i v e n l i n e
,
a
' ’
. nd ,
a

le t t h e gi v e n i n c l i n t i o n of t h e pl a n e b e t o t h e h ori z on t a l pl n e
a a .

D ra w t h e pr oj e ction s of con e h a v i n g i t s v e r te x t t h e v e rt i c a l
a a
21 4 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY
an d th e i r s l n t s i de s i n c l i n e d t o th e i r b as e s t t h e gi v e n an gl e
a a

T he h or i z on t al t ra c e of t h e r e qu i r e d pl n e i s c om m on t n ge n t t o t h e
a a a

b as e s of t h e t wo c on e s T h e v e r ti c l t r ce of t h e pl n e m ay b e fou n d
. a a a

by t ak i n g p oi n t c c i n t h e h o r i z on t l tr a ce of t he pl an e n d j oi ni n g
a
’
a a

t h i s p oi n t w i t h t wo p oi n ts (s ay a n d dd )i n t he gi v en l i n e T he l i ne
’ ’

p
c .

F I G 41 8
. . FI G 41 9
. .

j oi n i n g t h e v e r ti ca l t rac es of t h e s e t wo l in e s i s t he v e rti ca l t ra ce of t h e
pl n e r e qu i r e d A re fe re n c e t o t he p i c tori a l pr oj e c ti on ( Fi g 41 8 )w i ll
a . .

m a k e t h e c on s t ru c ti on c l e r a .

I t s h ould b e n ot i c e d t h a t a l t h ou gh four t a n ge n ts m ay b e dr a w n t o
t h e b s e s of t h e c on es s h o w n i n F i g s 4 1 8
a n d 41 9 o n ly t h e o u t s i d e
. a

ta n ge n ts an d n ot t h e c ros s ta n ge n t s c an b e t he h or izon ta l t race s of

, ,

pl n e s wh i c h r e t an ge n t i l t o t h e t wo c on e s
a a a .

I f t h e i n c l i n a t i on o f t h e r e qu i re d pl an e b e gi v e n t o t h e v e r t i c a l
pl n e of proj e ct i on i n s te ad of t o t he h ori zon t a l pl an e t h e b as e s of t h e
a

c on e s m u s t b e pl a ce d on t h e fo r m e r p l an e i n s te a d of o n t h e l tt e r a .

1 7 4 I n a gi v e n P l a n e t o p l a c e a L i n e h a v i n g a gi v e n
I n cl i n a t i o n t o o n e o f t h e P lan e s o f P r oj e c t i o n —T h e i n c l i n
.

t i on of t he l i n e m u s t n ot e x ce e d t h e i n c l i n a t i on of t h e p lan e .

L et t h e g i v e n i n c l i n ati on b e t o t h e h or i z on t a l pl n e a .

T k e a poi n t C (F i g 421 )on t h e g rou n d l i n e a n d dr a w Cb m ak i ng

. a .
’

t h e g i v e n a n g l e 9 w i th X Y n d m e e ti n t h e v e r t i c a l t r a c e of t h e
g a

g i v e n pl a n e t b a D r ’
a w b
. b p e rp e n d i c ul r ’
t o K Y m e e t i n gat h e l a t t er

a t b W i th c e n t r e 6 a n d r d i u s bC d e s c ri be an ar c of c i r c l e t o c u t
. a a

t h e h or i z on t a l t r a ce of t h e g i v e n pl an e a t a D ra w a a p e rpe n d i cul a r ’
.

t o KY m e e t i n g i t a t a a b i s t h e pl a n a n d a b t h e e l e v a t i on o f t h e
’ ' ’
.

l i ne re qu i red .

T h e c orr e c tn e s s of t he c ons t r u c t i on i s o bv i ou s for AB ( F i g 420) ,

.

i s e v i d e n t ly on t h e gi v e n pl a n e a n d i t i s a l s o on t h e s ur fac e of c on e a

wh o s e b as e i s on t h e h o r i zon t a l pl an e n d wh os e b as e an gl e i s 9 a .

T h e con s t ru c ti on i s a ppl i c abl e wh at e ve r b e t h e po s i t i on s of t he

trace s of t he g i ve n plan e .
 S TRA I G HT L I NE AN D P LANE 21 5

v l
I f t he gi e n i n c i n a i on b e t o t h e t
v e rt i c a l pla n e of p roj e c ti on
t d
i ns e a of t o the o i on a h r z t l pl
an e , t h e cons t ru c t i o n w i ll p re s e n t n o
d fi ulty
if c to t he s en tud t
wh o h as fo o e ll w d th a t ju s t gi ve n .

F I G 420
. . FIG . 421 .

17 5 . T odr aw t h e P r oj e c t i o n s o f a L i n e w h i c h s h a l l p a s s
t h r o u gh a gi v e n P o i n t h a v e a gi v e n I n cl i n a t i o n , an d b e p a r a ll e l
—
,

t o a gi v e n P l a n e B y t h e c on s t r u c t i on of t h e pre c e d i n g Ar t .

pl ac e i n t h e gi v e n pl an e a l i n e h a vi n g t he g i v e n i n c l i n a t i on Throu g h .

t h e pl an an d e l e v a t i on of t h e gi ve n po i n t dr a w l i n e s p a r a ll e l t o t h e
pl a n a n d e l e va ti on r e s pe c ti ve ly of t he l i n e wh i c h has be e n pl ace d i n
t h e gi ve n pl a n e T h e s e w i ll b e t h e pr oj e c t i on s r e qu i r e d
. .

Th at t he l i ne wh os e proj e cti on s h a ve t hu s b e e n fou n d fulfil s t he

i v e n c on d i t i on s i s n ot d iffi cu l t to s ee f i t i p a r a ll e l t o a l i n e
g o r s

wh i c h h a s t h e gi v e n i n c l i n a ti on , an d m u s t t h e re for e h av e i ts e l f t he
i v n i n c l i n a t i on Al i t n n v r m t t h i v e n pl a n e , fo r i f
g e . s o c a e e e e e
g
i t di d i t c o uld n ot b e p a r a ll e l t o a n y l i n e i n th a t pl a n e , th e r e fo r e
i t i s p a r all e l t o t h e g i v e n pl an e .

1 7 6 T o d r a w t h e T r a c e s o f a P l a n e w h i c h s h a l l c o n t ai n
—
.

a gi v e n P o i n t a n d b e p a r a l l e l t o a gi v e n P l an e T h e h or i z on t a l
a n d v e r t i c a l t r a c e s of t he pl an e r e qu i r e d m u s t be p ar all e l t o t he
h ori zon tal an d ve r ti cal t r a c es r e s p e c ti v e ly of t he gi v e n pl a n e .

FIG . 422 . FIG . 423 .

pp
’
F
( gi s 422 an d 4 23)i s t h e gi
. v en p oi n t an d H T . . an d V T
. . ar e

t he tr a c es of t h e gi e n v
an e pl .
21 6 P RA C T I CAL G E O ME T RY

T he pr oj e c ti on s of a l i ne p ass i ng thr o u gh pp n d p r l l l t o t he ’
a a a e

g i v e n pl n e a r e fir s t dr a w n
a T h e t r a c e s of th i s l i n e a r e on t he t ra c e s
.

o f t he pl a n e r e qu i r e d .

I n F i g 4 22 a h or i z on ta l l i n e p q p q p a r a ll e l t o t he g i v e n pl n e
.
, a

i s s h ow n T h e v e r t i c l t r a c e of th i s l i n e i s
. a p oi n t o n t he v e rti c l a a

tr ce of t he pl an e re qu i r e d n d ;th e p oi n t wh e re t he v e rti c a l tr c e of
a
,
a a

t h e p l a n e m e e t s X Y i s a p oi n t o n t h e h o r i z on t a l t r c e of t h e pl an e a .

I n F i g 423 a l i n e a b a b i s pl ac e d i n t h e g i v e n pl an e a n d t h e
’ ’
.
,

proj e c t i on s r s r s of a l i n e p ar all e l t o a b a b ar e dra w n t hrou gh p

,
’ ’
,
’ ’

r e s p e c t i v e ly t r tr
’
nd
’ ’
a
p T h e ac e
. s o f s r s ar e o n t h e a c e s of t h e
r ,

pl an e r e qu i r e d .

T h e c on s tru c ti on s h ow n i n F i g 4 23 i s u s e d wh e n t he v e r t i ca l .

t race o f a h ori z on t al l i n e t hrou gh pp p a r all e l t o t h e gi v e n pl an e i s ’

i na c ce s s i bl e or wh e n t h e h or i z on ta l t r a c e of l i n e thro ugh pp p ar ll e l ’
, a a

t o t h e v e rt i ca l pl n e of pr oj e c t i on an d p a r all e l t o t h e g i v e n pl a n e i s
a

i n acce s s i bl e .

1 7 7 I n a gi v e n P l an e t o p l a c e a L i n e w h i c h s h a ll b e
.

r ll l t d t i v d i t c f m t h r i v
P l a n e n o t p a r a ll e l t o t h e fi r s t —
p a a e o a n a a g e n s a n e r o a n o e g e n
D r w t h e t r a c e s of . pl an e a a

pa ra ll e l t o t h e s e con d g i ve n pl an e n d a t t h e gi v e n d i s tan c e from i t a

( Ar t 1
. 7 1 p , . T h e l i n e o f i n t e r s e c t i on of t h i s t h i rd pl a ne w i t h

t h e fir s t gi v e n pl n e i s t h e l i n e r e qu i r e d
a .

1 7 8 T o dr aw t h e P r oj e c t i o n s o f a L i n e w h i c h s h a ll p as s
.

t h r o u gh a gi v e n P o i n t an d b e p a r a ll e l t o t w o gi v e n i n t e r
s e c t i n g P l an e s — T h e r e qu i r e d p r oj e c ti on s w i ll p s s t hr ou g h t h e a

pr oj e c t i on s of t he g i v e n p oi n t an d b e p ar lle l t o t h e pr oj e c t i on s o f,
a

t h e l i n e of i n t e r s e c t i on of t h e t wo gi ve n p l n e s a .

1 7 9 T o dr aw t h e T r a c e s o f a P l an e w h i c h s h a l l c on t ai n
a gi v e n L i n e a n d b e p a r a ll e l t o a n o t h e r gi v e n L i n e —D r w
.

t he pr oj e c t i on s of a l i n e t o i n t e rs e c t t h e fir s t g i v e n l i n e n d b e p r ll e l a a a

t o t h e s e c on d T h e pl a n e c on t i n i n g t h e s e t wo i n t e r s e c t i n g l i n e s i s
. a

t h e p l n e r e qu i re d
a .

1 8 0 T o d r aw t h e T r a c e s o f a P l a n e w h i c h s h a l l c o n t a i n
—
.

a gi v e n P o i n t a n d b e p ar a ll e l t o t w o gi v e n L i n e s D ra w t he
pr oj e c ti on s of t wo l i n e s t o p as s throu g h t h e gi ve n p oi n t a n d b e p a r a lle l
r e s p e c ti ve ly t o t h e t wo gi v e n l i n e s T h e pl n e c on t i ni n g t h e l i n e s . a a

p a s s i n g thr ough t h e gi v e n poi n t i s t he pl an e r e qu i re d

—
.

. c t
1 8 1 I n t e r s e i o n o f a Li n e an d la n P e Le t LMN (F i g 425) .

be a
g i v e n pl a ne n d a b a ba a g i v e n l i
,
n e
’
I t
’
i s r e qu i r e d t o s h ow t h
. e

proj e c t i on s of t he p oi n t of i n t e r s e cti on of t he l i n e a n d p l an e .

D ra w t he t r aces LR and RN of a pl an e pre fe r bly p e rp e n di c ul ar ,

a

t o o n e of t h e pl an e s o f pr oj e c t i o n t o c on t ai n t h e gi v e n l i n e , F i n d t he .

l i n e of i n te r s e c ti on of t h i s pl an e w i t h t h e gi ve n pl an e T he p oi n ts .

wh r a b m e e t t h e pl an a n d e l e v a t i on r e s p e c t i v e ly
' ’ ’
an d e e a b a n d
p p
of t h e i n t e r s e c t i on of t h e pl an e s ar e t h e pr oj e c t i on s r e qu i r e d .

R e fe rr i ng t o t he p i c tori l pr oj e c ti on ( Fi g 424) i t w il l b e s e e n
a .

th at AB an d LN b ei ng i n t h e s am e pl an e L R N th e y m u s t i n te r s e c t
a t s om e p oin t P unle s s t h e y h a pp e n t o b e p a r a ll e l Agai n s i n ce LN .
,

i s th e l in e of i nt e rs e c t i on of t h e pl ane s LMN a n d L R N t h e l in e LN
,
21 8 P RA CT I CAL G E O METRY
i n t he h ori z on ta l tr ace of t he pl an e r e qui r e d a n d th t t hi s t rac e w i ll
, a

be d e te rm i n e d by dr a w i n g l i n e thr o u gh d p e rp en d i c ul a r t o a b
a .

P r odu c e a b t o m e e t X Y a t c a n d dr a w cc p e r pe n d i c u l r t o a b ,
’
a
m ee t i n g c d a t T h e p oi n t c a u x i l i a ry e l e v a t i on of a poi n t
’ ’
, ,

F I G 426
. . F I G 427
. .

h h
w i c i s i n t he e r qu r d pl
i e l v r t l pl
an e a n d a s o i n t h e e h h
ica an e of w i c

X Y i s t he g o n r u d l i ne th r r
If . dr w p rp d ul r
e e fo e cc b e
’
a n e e n ic a to
d qu l
KY an d m a e e a t o w ll c
’
p t
i v r t l tr
be a oi n i n t h e e i c a a ce

r qu r d wh h w l l p rp d ul r
e i e ic i b e e en i c a t o a h
’ ’
.

x t
A n e am i n a i on of t h e g es fi ur w ll S h th t i pl
ow d t r
a d
t he an e e e m in e

t fi
s a i s e s t he
gvi e n c dt
o n i i o n s .

r c c
1 8 4 T o d r aw t h e T a e s o f a P la n e w h i h s h a l o n ai n
. l c t
v
a gi e n P o i n t r c l v
a n d b e p e p e n di u ar t o t w o gi e n P a n e s l
T he pl an e wh tr os e r qu r d w ll
a c e s ar e e i e p rp d ul r
i l
be e e n i c a t o t he i n e
t r t
o f i n e s e c i on of t h e t w o v pl g i e n H an e s . tr t
e n c e o n e c on s u c i on i s

l t r t
fi n d t h e in e of i n e s e c i on of t h e gi e n v pl t h by an e s , a n d en t he
c on s t ru tc i o n of t h e pr d e ce i n rt l d t r
g a i c e etr e m i pl
n e t he a c e s of t h e an e

wh h t v p t
i c c o n a i n s t h e gi e n oi n an d wh h p rp d l r th l
i c i s e en i cu a t o is ine
t r t
of i n e s ec i on
—d t r
.

A th r
no e c on str tu c i on i s pr j t
e e mine t he l
o e c i on s of t wo ines
wh h h ll p thr u h
ic s a as s o
g t h e p t
g i v e n o p rp d ul r
i n an d be e e n ic a o ne t o

on e pl an e a n d t h e o th r e th r
t o t he o e pl t
T he
. than e c o n a i n i n g es e

t r t l
t wo i n e s e c i n g i n e s i s t h e pl wh t r
an e r q r d
os e a c e s ar e e ui e .

j ct
1 8 5 T o dr a w t h e P r o e i o n s o f a
. L c l
i n e w h i h s h a l p as s
r v t
t h o u gh a gi e n P o i n a n d m e e a gi e n t v L t l
i n e a t r i gh a n g e s
—D t r
.

e e mine ( Ar t p
1 8 3, . tr
21 7 ) t h e
. pl wh h h ll
a ce s of a an e ic s a

t
c on a i n t h e
g v p t
i en oi n p rp d ul r
a n d be e en i c v l a t F d
o t he
g i e n i ne . i n

( Ar t . 1 8 1 p 21.6 ) t pr j t
h e o e c i o n s t r t th p l
o f t h e i n e s e c i on o f i s an e a n d

v l
t he g i e n i n e l j
T h e i n e oi n i n g t h e
. pl v p t w th
an of t h e gi e n oi n i t he
pl tr t l
a n of t h e i n e s e c i o n of t h e i n e a n dpl w l pl
an e il be t hel an , an d t h e i n e

j l v t
oi n i n g t h e e e a i on s of t h e s am e p t w ll oi n s l t r qu r d
i b e t h e e e v a i on e i e .
 S TRA I G HT L I NE AN D P LANE 219

1 8 6 T o d r a w t h e T r a c e s o f a P l a n e w h i c h s h a ll c o n a i n
. t
v
a gi e n L i n e a n d b e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o a gi e n P l a n e e er v .
-

D t
m in e t he p t
roj e c t i on s of a l i n e t o i n e r s e c t t h e gi v e n l i ne a n d be
l
p e rp e n d i c u a r t o t h e gi ve n l an e p
i nd t he F
ra ce s of a pla n e t o
. t
co n ta i n t
h e s e t wo i n t e rs e c t i n g l i n e s Th e s e w i ll b e t h e r a ce s r e qu i r ed
. t .

v t
1 8 7 G i e n t h e I n cl i n a i o n s o f t w o i n e r s e c i n g L i n e s a n d
. t t
t t
t h e A n gl e b e w e e n h e m , t o d r a w h e i r P r oj e c i o n s an d t h e t t
T r a c e s o f t h e P l an e c o n a i n i n g h e m t t
r a w C , A a n d O, E .
—
D
F
( g i 4 .2 8 ) m a k i n g t h e an g l e A C , B e q u a l t o t h e gi v e n a n g l e b e w e e n t
t he l i ne s F t
r om a poi n A i n C, A dra w A m a k in g t h e an gl e C, A D
. D
t
e qu a l t o a , t h e gi v e n i n c l i n a i on o f o n e of t h e l i n e s ra w C, D pe r . D
p e n di c u lar t o A W i D
h t
c e n tr e C , a n d r a d i u s C , D d e s c r i b e a n a r c
.

D F F t t
E a n d dr a w B t o o u c h h is ar e an d m a k e t h e an gl e O, E F e qu a l
t o ,8 , t h e g i v e n i n c l i n a t i on of t h e o th e r l i n e J oi n AB C on s i d e r t h e
. .

t t
r i a ng l e A C, B t o be on t h e h or i z on a l pl an e an d i m agi n e th i s ri a n gl e t
t t
t o r o t a e a b ou t h e s i d e AB u n i l t h e p oi n t t
C, i s a t a d i s a n ce e qu a l t
t o C , D or C, F fr om t h e h o r i z o n a l p la n e t D
e n o i n g t h e n e w p os i t i o n
. t
o f t h e po i n t t
C 1 by C (s e e t h e p i c ori a l pr oj e c t i on , F i g t h e l i n es .

FIG . 428 . FIG . 429 .

CA d C B w i ll b e i n c l i n e d t o t h e h ori z on t a l pl a n e a t an g l e s e qu a l t o
an

a an d 8
.
, r e s p e c ti ve ly, an d th e 1 r pl an s w i ll b e e qu a l i n l e n g th t o A D
a n d B F r e s p e c t i v e ly H e n ce , i f w i th c e n t r e A an d rad i u s A D t h e a r c
.

Dc be d e s c r i b e d , a n d i f w i th c e n t r e B a n d r a d i us B F t h e a r c B e be
d e s c ri b e d , m e e ti n g t h e fo rm e r a r e at c, A c an d B e w i ll be t h e pl ans of
t h e l i n e s r e qu i r e d .

AB w i ll b e t h e h ori zon ta l t ra ce of t h e pl a n e co n tai n i n g t h e l i n e s

CA and CB .

A n e l e v a t i on o f t h e l i n e s on a n v rt i al pl ane c a n e a s i ly b e
y e c
ob t a i n e d , s i n c e A a n d B a r e on t h e h o r i z on t a l p l a n e a n d t h e d i s t a n c e

of C f r o m t h e h o r i z on t al p l a n e i s k n o w n
.
I n F i g 428 a n e l e v a t i on i s
. .

s h ow n o n a
g rou n d l i n e p e rpe n d i c ul a r t o AB T h e d is t a n ce of c fr om
’
.
220 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY

X Y i s e qu a l t o C, D o r C,F N c i s t h e v e r i c a l ra ce of t he pl a n e
.
’
t t
t
c on a i n i n g t h e l i n e s C A a n d C B .

I n s t e a d of u s i n g t h e a r c s D c a n d F e t o fi n d t h e p oi n c, h i s po i n t t t
t
m ay b e d e e rm i n e d a s foll o ws : D
r a w X Y e r e n d i c ul a r t o AB an d p p
p ro du c e AB , i f n e c e s s a ry , t o m e e X Y a t N t
ra w C, C, pe r e n d i c ul a r
’
. D p
to XY W . t
i th c e n r e N a n d r a di u s N C , dr a w t h e a r c C, c t o m e e t a t
’ ’ ’

’
c a p
a r a ll e l t o K Y a t a d i s t a n ce f r om X Y e qu a l t o C, D o r C , F A .

p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o KY f r om c t o m ee
’
t
a p a r a ll e l t o K Y fr om C, d e e r t
m i n e s t h e o in t e p .

t
T h e s ud e n t s h o uld af t e r dr a w i n g t h e fi g ur e A B F C, D A on a p i e c e
of p
a p e r c u t i t o u t a n d fold i t a l on
g t h e l i n e s A C, a n d B C , u n i l t he t
e d g e s C , D a n d C , F c o i n ci d e P l a ci n g th i s m o d e l s o th a t h e e d ge s
. t
F D
AB , B , a n d A a r e o n t he t abl e , h e s h ould h e n h a v e n o d i ffi c u l y t t
t
i n f ully u n d e r s t a n d i n g h i s i m p o rt an t pr obl e m .

v
1 8 8 G i e n t h e T r a c e s o f a P l an e , t o de t e r m i n e t h e T r a c e
—
.

of t
h i s P l a n e o n a n e w V e r i c al P l a n e t
Le t MN (Fi g 43 1 )b e . .

t
t h e h or i z o n t al r a c e of a pl an e , a n d le t L M b e t h e rac e of th i s l an e t p
o n a v e rt i c a l pl a n e o f wh i c h X V i s t h e g r o u n d l i n e i t i s r e qu i r e d t o
fi n d t h e tr a ce of th i s pl a n e on a v e r i c al pl a n e of wh i c h X ,Y , i s t h e t
g r o u n d l i n e L e t MN
. m e e t X , Y,
at S .

FIG . 430 . FIG . 431 .

T ke a p oi n t p i n t he n e w gr ou n d l i n e an d c on s i d e r thi s as t h e pl n
a a
of p o i n t ly i n g i n t h e g i ve n p l n e LMN Fi n d t h e e l e v ti on p o f
a a . a
’

t h i s p oi n t o n t h e gro u n d l i n e X Y D ra w pp p e rp e n d i c ul r t o X Y
.
,
’
a , ,

an d m k e p p e qu a l t o t h e d i s ta n c e of r v rt l
’ ’ ’
a , p f o m X Y S p i s t h e e i c .
, a

t r c e r e qu i r e d F or P i s a p oi n t i n t h e g i v e n p lan e a n d a l s o p oi n t
’

a .
, a

i n t h e n e w v e r t i c a l pl an e th e r e fo r e p mus t b e ,
p oin t i n t h e n e w ,
’
a

ve rti c al tra ce Al s o t he p oi n t S w h e r e t h e h ori z on t a l trace m e e ts

.
,

X Y i s e v i d e n t ly a poi n t i n t h e n e w v e r ti c a l t r a c e t h e r e for e t h e l i n e
, ,, ,

Sp i s t h e t r a c e re qu i r e d
’
, .

I n t h e c a s e wh e r e t h e n e w g rou n d l i n e d oe s n ot m e e t t h e h o ri z on t a l
t r c e of t h e p l an e w i th i n a c on ve n i e n t d i s t a n c e s e c on d p oi n t i n t h e
a
,
a

r e qu i re d ve r ti c al t ra c e m y b e fou n d i n t he s am e way as t he firs t

a

p oi n t
222 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY
pl an an d e e l v ti a on of a p i t whi h i o n c s i n t h e gi ven pl an e an d 1 2 5 i nc h es f rom
e ac h of t he pl an e s o f pr j t i o ec on .

F I G 433 . . F I G 434 . . F I G 435. . F I G 436 . .

3 . a
’
an d lvt
( g
F ib 4
'
35) ar e t h e e e .a i o n s o f t wo o f t h e an gu a oi n s o f a lrp t
tri gl l an e pl wh t y i n g on t h e an e os e r a c e s ar e g i e n , an d c i s t h e an o f t h e o e v pl th r
an gu l r p t Dr w
a pl
oi n .lvt
a the an an d e e a i on o f t h e i an g e an d fi n d i t s e tr l tru
f m
or .

4 Dr w t h tr f t h pl whi h t
c on ai n s v
t h e gi e n r i an g e a bc , a b c t l ' ' ’
. a e ac e s o e an e c

(F i g . S h w l t h t f t h plo a so e r ace s o e an e whi h c l t ' ’

c on a i n s t h e i n e a b, a b an d

i p
s ll l t t h g u d li
ar a e o e ro n ne .

5 T h h i z t l tr
. ef pl or i s gi v on a ac e o a an e en i F i g 437 l
n t h pl
. d l v ,
a so e an an e e a
ti f p i t P i t h pl
on o a Dr w t h v
o n n e an e . a e er ti l trca f t h pl Sh w l
ac e o e an e . o a so

t h pl e d l v ti
a n an f p i t Q whi h i
e e a on o a o n c s i th i pl
n d whi h i 2 i
s h an e , an c s nc es
fr m P
o d1 i h b v t h h i z t l pl
an nc a o e e or on a an e . A um th t t h p i t wh r t h
ss e a e o n e e e

g i v h
en ri z t l tr m
o t t h g
on a u d l i ac e ee s e ro n ne i i
s i bl
n ac c e s s e .

FIG . 437 . FIG . 438 . FIG . 439 . FIG . 440 . FIG . 441 .

6 hori z nt l tr
. T he f pl n i gi v i F i g 438 l t h l v ti
o a b
ac e o a a e s en n .
,
a so e e e a on a
' '

of l i AB t i n d b y t h pl n T h l ngth f AB i 3 i n h
a ne c on a e Dr w t h e a e . e e o s c es . a e
pl f AB d t h v rti l tr
an o f t h pl
an A um th t t h p i t wh r t h
e e ca ac e o e an e . ss e a e o n e e e
h i z n t l tr
or o f t h pl a m t t h gr u n d l i
ac e o i i i bl e an e ee s e o ne s n ac c e s s e .

7 Dr w t h tr f t h pl n wh i h t i t h li b b n d t h p i nt ' '
. a e ac e s o e a e c c on a n s e ne a , a ,
a e o

gi v
’
cc i n F i g 439
en . .

8 T h pl n . d l v ti n fe li AB
a gi v n i n F i g 440 T h i l i
an e e a ut o o a ne ar e e . . s ne c s
a pl n wh h ri z t l tr i giv n t p i nt 1 5 i h fr m B D w t h
a e os e o on a ac e s e a a o nc es o . ra e

v rti l t
e ca f t h pl r ace o e an e .

9 Dr w t h tr f t h t w pl whi h n t i t h li n b b (Fi g 441 ) ’ '

. a e ac e s o e o an e s c co a n e e a , a .

an d whi h i n li d t 60 t t h h ri z nt l pl
c ar e A um th t p i t t t h
c ne a
°
o e o o a an e . ss e a o n s o e
l ft f
e o d p i t t th da
'
i ght f bb
an i i bl
o n s o e r o
'
ar e n ac ce s s e.

1 0 T h h ri z . t l tr f
e v rti l plo m k n
on a g l f 45 w i th X Y ac e o a e ca an e a es a an e O l
°
.

Dr w t h l v ti
a f t w li
e e e t i d by thi pl n
a on l i n b i g i li d
o o n e s c on a n e s a e , on e e
‘

e n nc ne

a t 30 t t h v rti
°
l plo f pr j t i
e d th e th r i l i d t 60 t t h
ca an e o o ec on an e o e nc ne a
°
o e

h i z t l pl
or on a T h fir t l i i t r t t h gr u d l i n d t h
an e . e di tr s ne n e s ec s e o n e an e s e c on n e
t t h fir t t p i t 1 5 i h fr m t h v ti l pl
sec s e s a a f pr j t i
o n nc es o e er ca an e o o ec on .

1 1 T h v rti l n d h i z n t l tr pl n m k ngl f 60 nd 45 °
. e e f ca a or o a ac e s o a a e a e a es o
°
a
 S TRA I G H T L I NE AN D P LANE 223

r p tiv l y wi th X Y D w t h pr j ti
es ec e f li ly i g i n thi pl i li d
. ra e o ec on s o a ne n s an e , nc ne
t 30 t t h h ri z t l pl d p i g th r ugh p i t 1 i h fr m h f
°
a o e o on a an e an as s n o a o n nc o ea c o
t h pl e f p j ti
anes o r o ec on .

1 2 T k i g t h pl. a gi ni F i g 435 pl ie thi pl li

an e i li d t v en n . ac e n s an e a ne nc ne a
30 t °
th h iz o t l pl e t h p rt i
or f t h li
on a b tw t h tr an e , f th e o on o e ne e ee n e ac e s o e
pl t b 2 5 i h l g
an e o e nc es on .

1 3 Dr w t h p j ti li p i g thr ugh t h gi v n p i t p p (F i g '

. a f e r o ec on s o a ne as s n o e e o n
442)h vi g li ti f 45 t t h h i t l pl
.

i
a n an nc na dp ll l t t h gi v
on o
°
o e or z o n a an e an ar a e o e en
pl an e .

14 D w th t . raf pl whi h h ll t i t h gi v n p i t pp ( F i g
e r ac e s o a an e c s a co n a n e e o n
'

442) d b p r ll l t t h g iv pl
.

an e a a e o e en an e .

1 5 I t h gi v . pln e en an e

L M N (F i g 443)pl li . ac e a ne
wh i h h ll b p r ll l t
c s a e a a e o
th epl P QR an ed t an a a
di t f 05 i
s an c e o h fr m i t nc o .

1 6 Dr w t h .
p j a e r o ec
ti on s o f li wh i h h ll a ne c s a
p th r ugh t h p i t
as s o e o n da
'

( F i g 4 43 ). d b p r l l l an e a a e

t o e ac h f t h gi v pl o e en an e s .

17 Th v rti l d
. e e ca an
h ri z
o t l tr on a f pl ac e s o a an e
m k gl
°
a e f 60
an d es o an
45 °
p ti v ly wi th X Y
r es ec FIG 442
e FIG 443 FIG 444 . . . . . .

D w t h pl d l v
,

ra e an an e e a
ti f l i p p d i ul r t thi pl n m ti n g i t t p i nt A d i nt r ti ng
on o a ne er en c a o s a e, ee a a o , an e s ec
XY t B a th t AB i 1 5 i h l g so a s nc es on .

1 8 A li i. l i d t 35 t X Y i b th h ri z t l d v ti l t
ne nc ne a f °
o s o o on a an er ca r ac e o a
pl an e A p i t P i X Y i 2 5 i h fr m t h p i t wh r t h pl n ut X Y
. o n n s nc es o e o n e e e a e c s .

F i d t h p p di ul di t
n e er f P fr m t h pl
en c ar s an c e o o e an e .

1 9 T h pr j ti n . f tw n
e i t r
o ec ti g l in AB d CD
o s o gi v i o on -
n e sec n es an ar e en n
F i g 444 . D w t h tr . f t h pl
ra wh i h t i t h l i CD an d i
e ac e s o e an e c c on a n s e ne s

p ll l t AB S h w l t h pl
ar a e o d l v t i n f t h pr j t i
o f AB
a so thi e an an e e a o o e o ec on o on s
pl
.

an e .

20 Dr w t h tr f t h pl n wh i h b i t t h li '
h (F i g 440) t
’
. a e b
ac e s o e a e c sec s e ne a , a . a
r i gh t gl an es .

2 1 Dr w t h t f t h pl wh i h h ll t i t h p i nt (F i g 443) '
. a e r ac e s o e an e c s a c on a n e o aa .

an db p p e d i ul r ter h f t h giv n pl
en c a o e ac o e e an e s .

22 D w t h pr j ti. ra f li whi h h ll p thr ugh t h p i t

e o ec on s o a ne c s a as s o e o n cc
'

F i g 439) d m t t h l i
. an b b t ri ght ee gl e ne a a
' ’
a an es .

pl p rp di ul t t h pl f t h tri n gl
,

23 S h w by i t tr. o s ac e s a b an e e en c ar o e an e o e a e a c,

(F i g 436 ) d bi ti g t h i d AC d B C
' ' ’
a b c . an sec n e s es an .

24 T w i t . ti g t i ght l i
o n ersec ti i g gl f 60
n pl ds ra n es c on a n n a n an e o
°
ar e ac e so
th t a f th m i i
on e li d t 35 whi l t h th r i i l i d t 45 t t h
o e s nc ne a
°
e e o e s nc ne a
°
o e
h i z t l pl
or on a F i d t h i l i ti f t h pl
an e . t i i g t h t w li
n e nc na on o e an e c o n a n n e o nes .

25 A p . u i g th d l i t t e r s on t t i p i t A b rv t h
s n a gu l r eo o e a a s a on o n o se es e an a
l v ti
e e a f tw bj t P nd Q b v t h h i z
on s o o o t b 35 ec sd 6 5 r p ti v l y a a o e e or on o e
°
an
°
es ec e .

Th eh ri z t l gl ( zi m uth) b tw
o on a th i r d i r ti
an e th t i b tw
or a e e en e ec on s , a s e een
v rti l pl
e ca t i i g th m m u
an e s c on Fi d t h gl P A Q u b t
a n n dd e ,
e as res n e an e s en e
by t h t w bj t
e t t h plo o A w uld b m u d by xt t
ec s a e [ n] ac e ,
as o e e as re a se an . a

1 9 0 I n cl i n a t i o n o f a L i n e t o a P l a n e
. T h e i n c l i n a t i on of —
a
gi v e n l i n e t o a g i v e n p lan e i s t h e an g l e wh i c h t h e l i n e m a k e s w i th i t s
proj e c ti on on t h e p lan e L e t P Q b e t h e gi v e n l i n e an d le t i t i n te r s e c t .

t h e p l an e a t Q L e t P R b e a n o r m a l t o t h e p l an e , i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e
.

p l an e a t R I f Q a n d R b e j oi n e d , t h e n t h e l i n e R Q i s t h e p r oj e c
.

t i on of P Q on t h e p l an e a n d t h e a n gle P Q R i s t h e i n c li n a t i on of t h e
l i ne P Q t o t h e pl an e But s i n ce t he an g l e P R Q i s a r i gh t an gl e t he .
224 P RA C T I CAL G E OMETRY
an g el Q PR i s t h e co m pl e m e n t of t h e a n gl e P Q R H e n c e , i f fr o m a .

t
p oi n P i n t h e gi ve n l i n e a n o rm al P R b e dr a w n t o t h e gi v e n l an e p
t t
( Ar 1 8 2, p 21 7 )t h e tru e a n g l e b e w e e n th i s n o rm a l an d t h e g i ve n
. .

li n e m ay b e fou n d as e xpl ai n e d i n Art 1 47 , 1 7 7 , an d t h e c om pl e . p .

t t
m e n of h i s an g l e i s t h e i n c l i n a i on r e qu i r e d t .

I t i s ob v i ou s ly u n n e c e s s a ry. t o fi n d t h e p oi n s i n wh i c h t h e gi ve n t
l i n e P Q a n d t h e n or m a l P R i n t e rs e c t t h e gi v e n pl an e
—
.

1 9 1 T o fi n d t h e A n gl e b e t w e e n t w o P l a n e s
. R e fe rri ng t o
t t
t h e p i c ori a l pr oj e c i on , Fi g 445, A B an d C D a r e t w o pl an e s i n t e r s ec t
.

i ng i n t h e l i n e C E F H i s a th i rd
.

p l an e wh i c h i s at ri g h an gl e s t o t h e t
l i n e CE T h e pl an e F H i n e r s e c s t h e
. t t
pl an e s AB a n d CD i n t h e l i n e s E H
an d K L r e s pe c i ve ly t Si n c e CE i s .

a t r i ht a n l e s t o t h e pl an e F H i t
g g
t t
foll ow s h a C E i s a t ri ght a n gl e s t o
e a c h of t h e l i n e s K H a n d K L He n c e .

t h e an g l e b e tw e e n t h e pl a n e s AB a n d
t
C D i s t h e a n gl e be w e e n t h e l i ne s K H
a n d KL I f f rom a p oi n t P i n t h e
.

FIG 445
pl an e F H p e rp e n d i c ul a r s P R an d P Q
t
b e dr a w n t o K H an d KL , h e n , t h e a n gl e QK R i s t h e s uppl e m e n of t
t h e a n gl e Q P R , a n d i f R P b e pr o du c e d t o S t h e a n g l e Q KR i s h e r e fo r e t
e qu a l t o t h e a n l e Q P S
g I t m a
y b e pr.o v e d th a t h e l i n e s P R a n d PtQ
a r e p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e pl a n e s AB a n d C D r e s p e c i v e ly t .

H e n c e , t o fi n d t he a n gl e b e tw e e n t w o gi ve n pl an e s , dr a w , fr om an y
t p
p oi n , t wo p e rp e n d i c ul ar s , on e t o e ach l an e , an d fi n d t h e a n gl e b e w ee n t
t
th e s e pe rp e n di c ul ar s T h e acut e an gl e b e we en th e s e p e rp e n d i c ul ar s
.

w i ll b e e qu al t o t h e a cut e a n gl e be w ee n t h e pl an e s t .

t t
A n o h e r m e h od i s as foll o w s L e t LMN an d LR N (Fi g 447 )b e
. .

t h e t wo gi v e n pl an e s D
r a w IN , t h e pl an o f t h e l i n e of i n e r s e c ti on
. t

FIG . 446 . FIG . 44 7 .

of t hepl an e s D ra w A CB at r i gh t a n gl e s t o lN i n t e r s e c ti ng MN
.
,
IN ,
a nd RN a t A C an d B r e s p e c ti ve ly W i th c e n tr e 1 n d r ad i i lC
, , . a an d
226 P RA C T I CAL G EO METRY

T he a ne pl wh h
i c c on a i n s t h e i ne st l AB an d ON i s t h e l a n e r eq u i r e d
i ts tr
a ce s a r e an d S T NR
T e e . h r ar e t wo pl an e s w i ch s at i s fy t he
i v
g e n c on i i on s on dt
on e bu t ly
of th
e m i s s o wn i n F i g 4 4 8 h . .

1 9 4 T o dr a w t h e T r a c e s
.

o f a P la n e w h i c h s h a ll c o n
t a i n a gi v e n P o i n t , h a v e a
gi v e n I n cl i n a t i o n , a n d m a k e
a gi v e n A n gl e w i th a gi v e n

P l an e —
C on c e i ve a con e h av
i n g i t s v e r t e x a t t h e g i ve n p oi n t ,
i t s b a s e on t h e h o r i z on ta l pl a n e ,
a n d h a vi n b as e a n l e e qu a l
g a g
t o t h e an g l e wh i c h t h e r e qu i r e d
pl an e i s t o m ak e w i t h t h e h o r i
z on t a l pl a n e Con ce i v e a l s o a
.

s e c o n d c on e h av i n i t s v e rt e x
g
at t h e
g i v e n p o i n t ,
i t s b as e on

t h e g i ve n pl an e , a n d h a v i n g a
b as e an gl e e qu a l t o t h e an gl e
wh i c h t h e r e qu i re d pl an e i s t o
m a k e w i t h t h e g i v e n pl a n e It .

i s e v i d e n t t h a t a pl an e whi c h
t o u c h e s th e s e t wo c on e s w i l l
fulfil t h e c on d i t i on s of t h e ma
bl e m .

FIG 448
R e fe rri n g t o F i g 449 vv i .
,
’
s
. .

t he g i ve n p oi n t n d LMN i s t h e , gi
a v e n pl an e wh i c h i s a s s u m e d t o b e ,

pe r p e n d i c ul a r t o t h e v e rti ca l pl an e of proj e c t i on v a b i s t he e l e vat i on .

’ ’ ’

o f t h e c on e wh os e b a s e i s o n t h e h o ri z on t a l pl n e a n d wh os e b as e a n l e a
g a

i s e qu al t o t h e n g l e wh i c h t h e r e qu i r e d p l an e i s t o m a k e w i th t h e
a

h ori z on tal pl n e v c d i s t h e e l e v a t i on of t h e c on e wh os e base i s on

a .
’ ’ ’

t h e g i v e n pl an e a n d wh os e b as e a n g l e B i s e qu a l t o t he a n gl e wh i c h t h e
r e qu i r e d pl a ne i s t o m ak e w i th t h e gi ve n pl n e a .

L e t t h e s urf c e of t h e s econ d c o n e b e produ ce d t o c u t t h e h ori z o n t a l

a

pl n e of proj e c t i on T he c urve of s e c t i on or h ori zon ta l t r ac e of t h e

a .
,

c on e w i ll b e a c on i c s e c t i on and i t m a b e fo u n d as fo ll o w s D r aw
“
, y .

t
’
r p e rp e n d i cul a r t o c c t h e e l e v ti on of t he a x i s of t he c on e m ee t i n g
’ ’ ’
, a ,

v e pr o du c e d t t X Y a t s a n d c d p r o du c e d t r Wi t h t as c e n tre
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
a ,
a .

as r a d i u s d e s c r i b e a n a r c an d t hr o u g h 8 dr a w e H p e r pe n di c u
’ ’ ’ ’
an d t r , ,

la r t o t r t o m e e t t h e a r e at H
’ ’
D r a w s p e r p e n d i c ul a r t o KY t o m ee t ,.
’
s

a p arall e l t o X Y t hr ou gh v at 8 On s s m ak e s h e qu a l t o e H h i s a .
’ ’

, .

poi n t on t he h ori zon ta l tr ace of t he co ne A n oth e r p oi n t w i ll be at a .

d is t n ce b e l ow 3 e qua l t o s h By t ak i ng d i ffe r e n t p os i ti on s for t he l i n e

a .

n u m b e r of p oi n t s o n t he h o ri z on t l t r a c e of t h e c on e m ay be
’ ’
t ran
y a

fo u n d .

T h e b s e of t h e c on e wh os e a x i s i s v e r t i c l w i ll be i t s h or i z on ta l
a a

trac e an d w i ll be a c i rc l e wh os e c e n tre i s v an d d i am e te r e qu l t o b a a
’ ’
.

T h e h ori z on t a l t race s of all p l an e s wh i ch tou c h t he t wo c on e s w i ll

 S TRA I G H T L I NE AN D P LANE 227

be t ange n t s t o t h e h ori z on ta l t r ce s of th e s e c on e s O Q i s on e of th e s e a .

tange n t s m ee ti ng X Y a t Q T hr ou gh v dra w p p ar all e l t o OQ t o . v

FIG . 449 .

me e t X Y F r dr w p rp d ul r o X Y t o m e e t a l i ne
’

p omat p a .
pp e e n i c t a

thro gh v p r ll e l t o X Y t p J oi n p Q T he pl an e p Q O w i ll s a ti fy
u
’
a a a
’
.
’
.
’
s

t he on d i t i on s
c of t h e pr obl e m .

I f t he h or i z on ta l t r ce O Q d oe s a

n ot m e e t X Y w i t h i n a co n v e n i e n t

di t n ce t h e v e r ti c l t r c e m y
s a ,
a a a

be fou n d by t he c on s t ru c ti on s h o w n
i n Fi g 4 1 9 p 21 4
.
, . .

T h e dr w i n g of t h e c on i c se c t i on
a

wh i c h i t h e h or i z on t l t rac e of
s a

t he c on e wh os e b e i o n t h e gi v e n as s

p l an e m y be voi d e d by t h e fo l
a a

l o wi n g c on s tru c t i on Con ce i ve . a

s p h e r e t o be i n s c r i b e d i n th i s co n e .

T h e e l e va t i on o f th i s s ph e re w i ll
b e a i r c l e to u c h i n g t h e l i n e s v
c
’
c
’

d as s h ow n i n F i g 450 i t s
’ ’
a nd c , .
,

c e n t re b e i n N e xt c on
’ ’

g on v e .

ce i e v c o ne t o e n v e l op t h i s s p h e r e
a

a n d h ve i t sa x i v e rt i l an d i t s
a s ca

b s e n g le e qu l t o
a a i t hea a. u
’
s

e l e v ti on of t h e v e rte x of s u c h
a a

co n e nd t he
a i r l s h o w n wh os e c c e

ce nt re i s u i s i t h ori zon t l trace s

FIG 450 a .
. .
 8 P RA C T I C AL G E OMET RY
A pl an e wh i c h t ou c h e s t he con e s wh os e v e r ti c e s a r e at vv w i ll al s o ’

tou c h t h e c on e wh os e ve rt e x i s a t u u an d t he h ori zon ta l t r a c e of t he ’

,

pl a n e w i ll b e tan ge n t t o t h e t wo c i rc l e s s h o wn i n t h e p l an A l i t tl e
a .

con s i d e r a t i o n w i ll S h o w th t i f t h e h o r i z on t a l t r ac e of t h e r e qu i r e d a

pl n e i s b e a c ros s t n g e n t t o t he c i rc l e s t h e v e rt i c e s vv an d u u m u s t
a a
’ ’

e o n ( p p os i te s i d e s of t h e h or i zo n t a l pl a n e Of pr oj e c t i on as s h o w n i n

lgg i . 4 5a
I n t he pa r ti c ul a r c as e wh e re t h e r e qu i r e d pl an e i s t o b e p e r pe n
di c u l r t o t h e g i ve n pl an e t he con e wh os e b as e i s on t h e gi v e n pl an e
a

w i ll b e c o m e a s t rai g h t l in e p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e gi v e n p l an e an d ,

t he h o r i z on t al t r a c e of t h e r e qu i r e d pl an e wi ll p a s s thr o u h t h e h or i
g
z on t l t r a ce of th i s l i n e a n d t ou c h t h e b s e of t h e o th e r c on e
a a .

1 9 5 T o d r a w t h e P r oj e c t i o n s o f a L i n e w h i c h s h al l p a s s
.

t h r o u gh a gi v e n P o i n t a n d m e e t a gi v e n L i n e a t a gi v e n A n gl e
—
.

Le t p p ( F i g 4 5 1 )be t h e g i v e n
’
.

p o i n t an d a b a b t he gi ven li n e ,
’ ’
.

D e t e rm i n e (Ar t 1 7 2 p 21 1 ) t he .
, .

pl n e LMN wh i c h con tai n s t h e

a

p oi n t P an d t h e l in e AB R ab t . a

th i s pl an e w i th t h e p oi n t P an d
l in e AB i n to t h e h or i z on ta l pl a ne
A r t 189 p P an d A h a r e
( .
, .
, ,

t h e r a ba t t e d p os i t i ons o f P a n d AB
r e s p ec ti ve ly Thr oug h P dra w . ,
,

P C m a k i n g w i t h A b a n a ng l e
, , ,

e qu a l t o t h e g i v e n a n g l e Throu gh .

C dr a w C c p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o MN
, ,

t o meet ab t c D r aw cc pe r pe n ’
a .

di c u lar t o X Y t o m ee t a h a t c
’ ' ’
.

T he l i n e s p c n d p c ar e t h e p r o
’ ’
a
FIG 451 ,

e ct i o n s of t h e l i n e r e qu i r e d
.

j .

I f t h e r e q u i r e d l i n e i s t o b e p e rp e n d i c ul a r o r p a r ll e l t o t h e gi ve n a

li ne th e r e i s o n ly on e s olut i on i n o th e r c as e s t h e r e w i ll be t w o ,

l in e s wh i ch w i ll s a t i s fy t h e g i v e n c on d i t i on s I n F i g 451 on ly on e . .

of t h e t wo l i n e s wh i c h m ay b e dr a w n t o s a t i s fy t h e g i v e n c on d i t i on s

i s s how n
19 6 T o fi n
.

d t h e T r a c e s o f a P l an e w h i ch s h a l l c on t ai n
.

o n e gi v e n L i n e a n d m a k e a gi v e n A n gl e w i t h a n o t h e r gi v e n
Li ne — Le t AB d e n o t e t h e firs t g i v e n l i n e a n d C D t h e s e c o n d .

D e te r m i n e t he proj e c ti ons of a l i n e EF wh i c h s h all be p a rall e l t o

CD an d m e e t AB a t a p oi n t E .

T k e E a s t he v e r te x a n d E F as t he a x i s of a con e whos e s e m i
,

v e r ti c al a n gl e i s e qu a l t o t he g i v e n a n gl e Fi n d as i n Ar t 1 94 t he . .

h o ri zon t a l t rac e of th i s c on e A t a n ge n t from t h e h o ri z on t al trace of .

AB t o t he h ori z on ta l t ra ce of t h e c on e w i ll b e t he hori z on ta l t race of

t h e pl an e r e q u i r e d H a v i n g fou n d t he h or i zon t a l t race of t he pl n e
. a ,

i t s v e r ti c a l tra ce m ay b e d e t e r m i n e d fr om t h e c on d i t i on th a t t h e pl an e
i s t o c on t ai n t h e l i n e AB .

I f t he h or i z on ta l t r ace of AB fa ll s ou ts i d e t he c u rv e wh i ch i s t he ,
230 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

pl an o h w i ll b e p e r p e n d i c ul r t o t h e h o ri z on t l t r c e of t h e p l n e
f e ac a a a a

o f t h e o t h e r t wo Als o t h e h or i z o n ta l t r ac e of t h e p l a n e con t i n i n g
. a

an t w o of t h e l i n e s w i ll p a s s thr o u h t h e h o ri z on t l t r a c e s o f th e s e
y g a

lines .

I t i s e v i d e n t th a t t h e fo rm of an y e l e va ti on of t h e l i n e s w i ll n ot be
ffe c te d by t h e p os i t i o n of t h e h ori z on t a l p l n e o f pr oj e c ti o n ; t h e
'

a a

h o r i zon tal pl a ne of proj e c t i on m y th e refore b e t a k e n a t ny l e v e l

a a .

T k e an y l i ne a b p e r p e n d i c ul ar t o c o s t he h or i z on t l tr ace of t h e
a , ,
a a

p la n e c o n t a i n i n
g t h e l i n e s O A a n d C B A . p e rp e n d i c ul r f r om b t o c d
a

t o m e e t c c a t c w i ll b e t h e h o r i z on t a l
tr c e of t h e pl n e c on t ai n i n g O B
a a

an d C C a n d a c w i ll b e t h e h o r i
,

on t l tr a c e of t h e l n e of O A
z a
p a

an d CC .

P ro du ce co t o m e e t a b a t d, a n d
c on s i d e r c d a s t h e pl a n of a l in e
ly i ng i n t he p l ane A O B S i n ce C C .

i s p e r p e n d i c ul a r t o t h e p l an e A O B ,
t h e a ng l e C O D w i ll b e a r i g ht
a ng e l .

Con c e i v e t h e tr i a n g l e C OD t o
r e v olv e ab ou t CD a s an a x i s u n ti l i t
c o m es i n to t h e h or i z on t a l pl a n e .

T h e p oi n t C w i l l d e s c ri b e a n ar c of
a c i r c l e wh os e pl a n w i ll b e a l i n e

throu gh c p e rp e n d i c ul ar t o cd, an d
t h e p oi n t 0 w i ll , wh e n br o u gh t i n t o
t h e h o r i z on t a l p l a n e , oc c upy s u c h
a p os i t i on th a t t h e l i n e s dr a w n fr o m
FIG 453 . .

i t t o c a n d d w i ll c on ta i n a r i gh t a n g l e H e n ce on cd d e s cri be a
.

s e m i c i r c l e t o c u t t h e l i n e 00 , p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o c d a t O , 00, w i ll be
.

t h e d i s ta n ce o f t h e p oi n t O f rom t h e h o r i z on t a l p l a n e c on t a i n i n g t h e
p oi n t s A , B , a n d C H av i n g fo u n d th i s d i s t a n c e , a n e l e va t i on of t he
.

l i n e s on a n y v e r t i ca l pl an e c a n b e dra wn I n t h e fig ure a n e l e v a ti on
.

i s s h o w n on X Y .

Th i s pr obl e m i s on e of gr e a t i m p o r tan c e i n c on ne c ti on w i th i s o
m e t r i c a n d a x om e t r i c pr oj e c ti on s a n d i t i s fur t h e r c on s i d e r e d i n
C h ap X X I . .

2 00 T o fi n d a P o i n t o n a gi v e n P l a n e s u c h t h a t t h e s u m
.

o f i t s D i s t a n c e s fr o m t w o gi v e n P o i n t s s h a l l b e t h e l e a s t

p o s s i b l e L e t LMN — F
( g i ?
45 4 ) b e t h e g i v e n pl a n e a n d a a
’
, b b
’
t h e

i v e n p oi n t s Th e s e gi v e n p o i n t s a r e on t h e s am e s i d e of t h e g i v e n
g .

p l a n e D e te r m i n e t h e proj e c ti on s of a l i n e t o pas s t hr ough d a an d

.
’

b e pe rp e n d i c ul ar t o t he pl a n e LMN . Fi n d t he poi n t cc w h e re ’t h i s
’

p e rpe n d i c ul a r m e e ts t he pl an e LMN D e t e r m in e a p oi n t dd i n
.

a c , a c pr o d u ce d s u c h th a t C D i s e qu a l t o A C T h e p r oj e c t i on s d
’ ’
.

a n d d of D a r e s u c h t h a t cd J oi n bd an d b d
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
a c, an d c d a c .
.

F i n d t h e p oi n t c c wh e re t h e l i n e bcl, b d i n t e rs e c ts t he pl an e LMN
’ ’ ’
.

c c i s t h e p o i n t r e qu i r e d
’
.
 S TRA I G HT L I NE AN D P LANE 231

T he s tud en t h
s o uld h a v e n o d i ffi c ul t y i n pr o v i n
g t h e c o rr e c t n e s s o f
t he b
a v
o e c on s tru t
c io n ft e r r e f e rr i n g t o t h e cao rr e s po n d i n g pr o bl e m i n

plan e geom e t ry d i s c u s s e d i n
Ar t 9 p 8 .
,
. .

I t i s e a s y t o S h o w th a t t h e
l i n es a e a an d b b e r e ,
’
e
’
e,
’ ’
a

e qu a lly i n c l i n e d t o t h e p l an e
LMN an d h e n c e i f a r ay of
,

l ight fr om a i m p i n g e s u p o n a
’

t he pl a n e LMN n d on t e a

fle c t i o n f r o m t h e p l n e p s s e s a a

thr ou gh bb t he i n c i d e n t r y ’

,
a

m u t s tr i k e t h e p l a n e a t c
’
s c .

201 T o fi n d t h e L o c u s
.

of a P oi n t w h i ch m ove s on
a gi v e n P la n e s o t h a t t h e
F G 454
R a t i o o f i t s D i s t a n c e s fr o m I ! ~

t w o gi v e n P o i n t s s h a ll b e
e q u al t o a gi v e n R a t i o L e t LMN ( g
F i 4 5 5 ) b
.
e t h e g i
-
v e n pl ane .

n d c d a n d bb t h e gi ve n po i n t s
’ ’
a .

D ra w a n e w e l e v t i o n o f t h e l i n e AB on t h e pl a n a b a s a
a

g or u n d l ine D e t e rm i n e by . t h e c o n s t r u c t i on o f Art 1 6 p 2 0 t h e .
,
.
,

c i r c le wh o e c e n tre i s o an d ’
s ,

r di u s
a wh i c h i s t h e l oc u s o f
a po i n t wh i c h m o v e s i n t h e p la n e

of t h e n e w e l e v t i o n nd w ho e a a s

d i t n c e s fr om a an d b a r e t o
s a
’
, ,
’

on e n ot h e r i n t h e g i v e n r t i o
a a .

I n F i g 455 th i s r t i o i s
. a

T h e po i n t o i s i n pr odu ce d ’
,
.

F i n d 0 t h e pl an an d o t h e e l e v a ’

t i on on X Y of t he po i n t of wh i c h
i s t h e e l e v t i on o n a b
’
o , s a a a

g r o u n d l i ne T h e s urf c e o f . a a

s ph e r e wh os e c e n tre i s
’
t 0 nd a 0 a

wh os e ra d i u s i s w i ll c on t i n a

all poi n t s i n s p ce wh os e d i s t a n c e a s

fro m a a
’ ’
n d bb r e t o on e
a n a a

o t h e r ln t h e i v n r ti o T h e
g e a .

c i r c l e wh i c h i s t h e s e c t i n o f t h i s o

s ph e r e by t h e p l an e L M N i s t h e

l oc u s re qui re d I n F i g 455 t h e .
,
pl an e LMN b e in g p e rp e n d i c ul a r
t o t h e v e r ti c a l pl n e of p o a r

c i r c l e wh i c h i s F G 455
j e c t i on t h e , t h e I

s e c t i o n o f t h e s ph e r e by t h e p l n e a

LMN w i ll h av e t h e s tr i ght li n e c d for i t s e l e v at i on an d t he e ll i p s e cd

a
’ ’

fo r i t s p l n a .

2 02 T o de t e rm i n e a L i n e w h i c h s h all p a s s t h r o u gh a gi v en
.
232 P RA C T I CAL G E O MET R Y
P o i n t a n d i n t e r s e c t t w o gi v e n L i n e s —L e t P b e t h e gi v e n po i n t
a n d AB a n d C D t he i v e n l i
g n es .

F i r s t me thod .
D e te r m in e t h e trace s of t h e pl an e c o n t a i n i n g t h e
p oi n t P a n d t h e l i n e AB D e t e r m i n e a l s o t h e t r a c e s of th e p l an e
.

c on t a i n i n
g t h e p o i n t P a
'

nd
t he l i n e C D . T h e l i n e of
i n t e r s e c t i on of th e s e t wo
pl a n e s i s t h e l i n e r e qu i r e d .

S e cond m e thod . F i g 456

. .

D e t e rm i n e t h e proj e ct i on s of
t wo l i ne s , P K L an d P M N ,

i n t e r s e c t i n g AB a t p oi n t s K
an d M . Le t t h e s e l i n e s m e e t
t h e ve r ti ca l p l an e c on t ai n i n
g
C D a t t h e p oi n t s L a n d N .

T h e l i n e LN wi ll b e t h e i n
t e r s e c t i on of t h e pl an e con
ta i n i ng P an d AB w i th t h e
v e rt i c a l p l a n e c on t ai n i n g C D .

L e t LN m e e t C D a t Q . PQ FIG 456 . .

i s t h e l i n e r e qu i r e d .

2 03 T o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o m m o n P e rp e n di c u l ar t o t w o
—
.

g i v e n L i n e s w h i c h a r e n o t i n t h e s a m e P l a n e L e t AB and C D

( gF i s
. 4 5 7 a n d 4 58 ) b e t h e t w o g i v e n li n e s . D e t e r m l n e a h n e F EH

F I G 457 . . FIG . 458 .

te rs e c t AB t E an d be p r ll e l
t o in a a a t o CD . T he pl a n e c onta i n i n g
AB n d F EH w i ll b e p ar ll e l t o CD
a a . T he tr ace s of t h i s pl a n e a r e

KL n d MN
a .
234 P RA C T I CAL G E O ME T RY
an
g l e s o f t h e t r i h e dr l a n l e wh i c h i t s ub t e n d s a t t he c e n tre of t h e
g a

s p h e r e o n t h e s urf c e of wh i c h i t i s dr a w n H e n c e t he s o lu ti on of a '

a .

s ph e ri c a l t ri n le i s t h e s o lu t i on of a t r i h e dr a l n le
g a
g a .

I f f rom a po i n t S w i t h i n
t h e t ri h e dr a l n le F
g ( gi a .

p e r p e n d i c ul ar s S P ,

S Q a n d S R be le t fa ll o n
, ,

t h e f a c e s O B C , O CA , an d

OA B re s pe c t i ve ly of t he
t ri h e dr l a n gl e th e se p e r
a
,

p di c u lar s w i ll fo rm t he
e n

e d ge s of a n o th e r tr i h e dr l a

an l e S wh i c h h t h
g , a s e

r e m rk bl e pr ope r ti e s t h t
a a a

i ts a n gl e s r e t h e s uppl e
a

m e n ts o f t h e s i d e s o f t h e
tr i h e dr l an g l e 0 n d i t s
a ,
a

s ide s r e t hea s up p l e m e n t s

of t h e n l es of t h e tr i b e
g a

dra l n g le 0 T h e t ri h edr a l
a .

a n gl e s 0 an d S a e th e r e r

fo re c ll e d s upp le m e nt a y
a
FIG 459 r

t i he d a l a ngles e i th e r be
. .

r r ,

i n g t h e s up p l e m e n t a ry tr i h e dra l a n gl e of t h e ot h e r .

I f fr om t h e p oi n t 0 ( F i g 459) pe rp e n d i c u l r s O A O B a n d C C . a
’
,
’
,
’

b e dra w n o utw a rd s f rom an d t o t h e f c e s C B C O C A a n d O A B a , ,

r e s pe c t i ve ly t o m e e t t h e s ur fa ce of t h e s p h e r e at A B an d C th e n ’
,
’
,
’
,

A B an d C r e po l e s of t h e gre t c i rc l e s B C C A n d AB r e s p e c ti ve ly
’ ’
,
’
a a , ,
a ,

n d g r e t c i r c l e s o f t h e s ph e r e t hr o u h A a n d B B ' ’ ’ ’ ’
a a
g a n d C a n d C , ,

a n d A for m n o t h e r s ph e r i c a l tr i n l e A B C wh i c h i s ca ll e d t h e
’ ’ ’ ’
a ola r
g p a

t i a ngle of t h e t r i n g l e A B C
r I t i s obv i o us th a t t h e t r i h e dr a l n g l e
a . a

s ubt e n d e d by A B C a t t h e ce n t r e of t h e s ph e r e i s e qu a l i n e ve ry
’ ’ ’

r e s pe c t t o t h e t ri h e dra l a ng l e at S H e n ce t he po l a r tri an gl e A B C .
’ ’ '

a n d t h e tr i a n g l e A B C a r e s uppl e m e n t a ry .

T h e foll o w i n g n ot a t i on i s u s e d t o d e n o t e t h e e l e m e n t s of a t r i h e dr a l
a ng l e or s ph e ri c l t r i n g l e T h e thr e e a n g l e s a r e d e n o te d by t h e
a a .

c p i t a l l e tte r s A B
a n d C a n d t he thr e e s i d e s by t h e i t a l i c l e t t e r s a
, , a , ,

b n d c t he s i de s a b a nd 0 be i ng opp os i t e t o t he a ng les A B and C

,
a , , , , ,

r e s e c ti ve ly T h e e l e m e n t s of t h e s uppl e m e n t ry t r i h e dr l n le o r
p .
g a a a

t h e po l a r t r i n g l e a r e d e n ot e d by t h e s am e l e tt e r s a cc e n t e d t hu s t h e
a

a n le s a r e A B a n d t h e s i d es a
’ ’ ’
an d c
’ ’ ’
an d C b
g , , , , , .

T h e r e l a t i on s b e t w e e n t h e e l e m e n t s of t wo tri h e dr a l an g l e s w hi c h
a r e s uppl e m e n t a ry or b e t w e e n a s ph e r i c a l tri a n g l e a n d i t s p o l a r t r i n g l e a

ar e e xpr e s s e d by t h e fo ll o w i n e qu a t i on s a ll a n l e s b e i n g m e a s u r e d i n
g g ,

d egree s
— —
— —
’ ’
A = 18 0 a 18 0 Aa =

—
’

—
’
B = 18 0 b b = 180 B
’ ’
C = 180 c c = 180 C
Fr om t h e a o b ve e qu a t i on s t he foll ow i n g a r e o b a i n e d t
 ST R AI G H T L I NE AN D P LANE 235

— —
— —
’
A
’
a = 1 80 A = 180 a

—
’

—
’
b = l80 B B = 180 b
’ ’
c = l 80 C C = 180 c

An y t hr l t tr h dr l
e e of t h e s i x e e m e n s of a i e a a n g e or s e i ca l ph r l
tr l b v t h r t hr
i an g e e i n g g i e n , t h e o e u d e e c a n b e fo n T e e a r e i n all h r
d r—
.

s i x c as e s t o c on s i e .v thr
I Gi e n t h e
. d e e s i es I I G i e n t wo s i e s
. . v d
an d t h e a n g e l b tw eth e en v
em d
I I I G i e n t w o s i es a n d t h e a n g e
. . l
p t
O pos i e t o on e o f t e mh v thr
I V , G i e n t he
. l ee ang e s V Gi e n o n e . . v
d
s i e an d t he t w o a dj t l
ac e n an v
g e s V I G i .e n o n e s.i e ,
a n ad a c e n d j t
l
an g e , an d a n o pp t l
os i e an g e .

By m e an s o f t h epr p rt o e up p l t ry
i e s of t h e s em en a i e a an g e , tr h dr l l
cas e s I V , V , a n d V I m a y be r du d e ce t o c as e s I , I I , a n d I I I e s e c i e l r p tv y .

Th us, in s o lv by
i n g c as e I V , fi n d lut t he s o i on o f c as e I t he a n g e s of l
t he tr h dr l
i e a an g e l wh d up p l t
os e s i e s a r e t h e s e m e n s of t h e g i e n a n g e s , v l
th en t he s uppl t l u d w ll
e m e n s of t h e a n g e s fo n i be t h e s i e s e i e d r qu r d .

Or , usi ng y b l
s m o s, v A B
g i e n ,
th ,
and C , e n a
’
1 8 0 ,
A
b
’
18 0 B , a
nd c
’
180 by
C ; n o w fi n d, t h e c on s c i on fo r t ru t
cas e I, A B
’
,
’
,
an d th C,
’
en A b a 18 0
’
,
180
’

,
an d B
’
c 18 0 C .

I n c as e V s upp os e a, , and C B g i e n , e n v’
1th
8 0 a, A
b
’
18 0 B
,
a n d c
’
1 8 0 C N o w , . t h e co n s u by
c i o n f o r c a s tr t
e

I I, fi nd a ,
’
B
’
, and C,
’
en th 180 A a ,
’
180
’
b
, and B
c 180 C
’
. lk
I n i e m a n n e cas e V I i s e r ce r du d
t o c as e I I I .

T he s o luti on s of c a s e s I , I I , an d I I I i n o w be g i e n w ll v .

CA SE I . Gi ve n t he thr e e s i des a , b, a nd c of a t i he dr a l a ngle to r

de te r mi ne t he t hr e e a ngle s , ,
A B
a nd C Co n s c
. t he
'

tru t
e e s i e s a , b, thr d
h
a n d c , as s o wn i n F i
g 4 . 6 0 ,
f o m in
g t h er e e o m e n t o f d v l p
t h e f a ce s of

FIG . 460 .

t he tri h e dra l n gl e Cons i d e r th i s d e v e l op me n t t o be ly i n g on t he

a .

h ori z on t l p l n e M rk o fl qu l l e n gth ON n d O N o n t h o ut e r
a a . a
‘

e a s , a 2 e

l i nes of t he d e v e l opm e n t D r a w N m pe rpe n di c ul r t o 0L n d N n

. a
,
a g
 P RA C TI C AL G E O METRY

p e rp e n d i c ul r a t o OM t o m ee t
thre e l in e s
N ,n at n . J o in On . T he
O L O M a n d O n w i ll form t h e pl n of t he t ri h e dr a l a n gl e t h e f c e b
, , a , a

be i n g on t he h or i zon t l pl ane I n fi n d i ng t he p oin t n t he f c e s a n d

a . a a

e h a v e be e n s upp os e d t o t ur n b o u t t he e dge s O L an d OM res p e c ti ve ly a ,

u n t i l t h e l i n e s O N n d O N c o i n c i d e I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e p oi n t N
, a 2 .
,

d e s c ri b e s a n ar c o f a c i rc l e who s e p l an i s t h e s tra i gh t l i n e N n l s o , a ,

t he poi n t N d es c r i b e s a n ar c of a c i r c l e wh os e pl a n i s t h e s t r a i g h t l in e
2

N n an d s i n ce N a n d N a r e e q u i d i s t a n t fr o m O it m u s t b e t h e pl n
g , 2 ,
a

o f t h e p oi n t wh e r e t h e y m e e t a n d O n i s t h e pl an of t h e e d e b e t w ee n
g ,

t h e fac e s a an d c .

t
T o d e e r m i n e t h e a ngl e s A a n d C, dra w nn, p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o N ,n,
’

a n d nn, p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o N 2n
’
Wi h Q as c e n re , an d Q N , as r a d i u s ,
. t t
d e s c ri b e a n a r c t o c u t nn, a t’
a n d w i th R a s c e n r e , a n d R N 2 a s t
r ad i u s , d e s c ri be an a r c t o c u t nn, a t ’
J oi n n, Q a n d nz R n, Q n i s
’ ’ ’
.

t he a n gl e C , a n d nz R n i s t h e a n g l e A
’
I t i s e v i d e n t h a w h e n t he . t t
t t
fa ce a i s bro u g h t i n o i t s n a ur a l p os i t i on , t he l i n e N , Q o n h a fa ce t t
w i ll r e m ai n pe rpe n d i c u l a r t o OL ; a l s o t h e l i n e n Q on t h e face i s b
p e rp e n d i c ul ar t o O L ; th e refor e t h e an g l e n, Q n, wh i c h i s t h e an gl e
’

t
be w e e n th e s e l i n e s , w i ll b e e qu a l t o t h e a n gl e b e w e e n t h e fa c e s a t
a n d b, t t
h a i s , t he an g l e C I n l i k e m an n e r t he a ngl e nz R n i s e q u a l
.
’

t o t h e an g l e A .

T o fi n d t he a n g l e B , dr a w N l L p e r pe n d i c ul a r t o ON , t o m e e O L t
a t L , a n d dr a w N 2M p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o O N 2 t o m e e t O M a t M Wi h . t
t
ce n re L , a n d ra d i u s LN d e s c r i b e an ar c t o ou t O n a t N J oi n N t o .

L an d M LN M i s e qu a l t o t h e a ngl e B I t i s e vi d e n t h a wh e n
. . t t
t h e fa ce s a a n d c a r e br ou g ht i n o th e i r n a ur a l p os i t i on s , t h e l in e s t t
t
LN, an d M N 2 ly i n g on h e se fa c e s w i ll b e pe rpe n d i c ul a r t o h e i r l i ne t
t
o f i n e rs e c t i on , an d t
h e r efore t he a ng l e b e tw e e n h e m , wh i ch i s t
o bv i o u s ly e qu a l t o t h e a n g l e LNM , w i ll be e qu a l t o t h e a n g l e B .

t t
T h e s ud e n w i ll m or e c l e a rly u n d e r s a n d t h e fo r e goi n g c on s ru c i on s t t t
t
i f, a f e r dra w i n g t h e fig u r e s h o w n , h e c u s i t ou t a l on g t h e l i n e s LN t
N , O , O N 2, a n d N z M , a n d h e n fold s t h e r i an gl e s L N ,O a n d M N z O t t
a bo u t t
O L a n d OM r e s p e c i ve ly u n i l t he l i n e s ON , a n d O N 2 m e e on e t t
a n ot h e r .

C ASE II Gi ve n two s ides

.

of a t r i he dr a l a ngle , a nd t he

a ngle be twee n the m, t o de t e r mi n e

t he t hi r d s ide and the o t he r

a n le s L e t a a nd b b e t h e
g .

g i v e n s i d e s ,
a n d C t h e a n g l e

t t
be w e e n h e m Con s tru c t t h e .

t wo s i d e s a a n d b on t h e h o r i
z on t a l pl a n e as s h o w n i n F i g .

46 1 F
r om a p oi n N , i n O N ,
. t
dra w N , Q n p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o
t
O L an d i n e r s e c t i n g i t a t Q .

D r a w Q n, m a k i n g t h e a n g l e
’ F I G 46 1

n,
’
Q n e qu a l to C
. Ma k e Q n ’
,

e qu a l to QN a n d dr a w n n pe rp e n d i c u l a r t o N n t o
’
, , m ee t t he l at t e r a t n .
 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

tr i an g l e A ri g h t ci r c ul ar c o n e h av i n g i t
.
,
s O , t h e c e n tr e of
t he s ph e r e n d h a v i n g i t s c urv e d s urfac e
,
a t h e t hr e e fa ce s
o f t h e tr i h e dr a l a n g l e s ubt e n d i n g

t h e s ph e r i ca l t ri n g l e a t O w i l l a ,

i nt e r s e c t t he s urf c e of t he a

s ph e r e i n a c i r c l e wh i c h i s t h e

i n s c r i be d c i r c l e of t h e s ph e r i c l a

t r i an gl e T h e i n s c r i b e d c on e i s
.

d e te rm i n e d by fir s t dra w i n g a
s ph e r e i n s c r i be d i n t h e tr i h e dr l a

an g l e T h e c on e e n v e l o p s t h i s
.

s ph e re .

E x e rc i s e s X V I b
Fi d t h
I .
gl b tw n t h
n e an e e ee e
p i r f pl
a s h w t ( ) (b) ( )
o an e s s o n a a , , c ,

an d (d) F i g 46 4 Sh w l
, i h . . o a so n e ac
c as e th tr f t h ple whi h ac e s o e an e c
bi t th
sec s gl b tw t h gi v e an e e e en e en
pl n a es. FIG . 46 3 .

FIG . 46 4 .

2 h ri z t l n d v ti l tr
. T he o f pl n (1 )m k n gl f 90 d
on a a er ca ac e s o a a e a e a es o
°
an
45 r p t i v l y wi th X Y
°
A l i i li d t 40 t t h rti l pl f p j °
es ec e . ne nc ne a o e ve ca an e o ro ec
ti n li i thi pl
o es d t h di t
n b tw s it h iz t l d v rti l tr
an e a n e s an c e e e en s or on a an e ca ac e s

i 3i
s h ncT hi l i i th i t r
es : ti f pl s
( )
2 w i th
ne t h pl s t h e n e sec on o a an e e an e e
inc li ti f t h pl
na 2)t t h h ri z
on o t l pl b i g
e an e Dr w t h tr f
o e o on a an e e n a e ac e s o

t h ple ( 1 ) d
an e s 2) fi d t h g l b tw
an t h pl an n e an e e een e an e s .

3 0A . d O B F i g 46 5) an tw tr i ght l i n ly i n g t h h ri z n t l pl
. ar e o s a es on e o o a an e.
00 i th r li f whi h 0 i
s an o e ne o c 0 s

th epl Th ian li ti . f 00 e nc na on o

t t h h ri z n t l pl
o e o i o D a an e s e
t rm i t h
e ne gl b tw n t h e an e e ee e
pl AO G
an e s d B 00 l th gl
an ,
a so e an e

b tw
e t h pl
e en A00 d AOB
e an e s an ,

an d th g l b tw e n t h an l i e e ee e nes

0A d 00an FIG 465 F m 466

b (F i g 466 )i t h pl
. . . .

4 . a f . s e an o a
li l yi n g i n pl
ne f whi h H T i t h h ri z nt l tr
a an e o T h i n li t n f c . . s e o o a ac e . e c
0

na i o o

AB t t h h i z t l pl i
o e Dr w t h tr
or on a f n d pl n t an et in s a e ac e s o s eco a e o c on a

AB d m k n gl f 60 w i th t h fi r t pl
°
an a e an a e o e s an e .

5 T h v ti l d h iz t l tr pl (1 )m k gl f 40 d 45 ° °
. e er f ca an or on a ac e s o a an e a e an es o an

r p tiv ly wi th X Y A p i t i n t h v rti l tr
es ec e f th i pl . nd i h o n e e ca ac e o s an e a nc es
 ST R AI G H T L I NE AN D P LANE 239

abo v e lvt l AB D w
X Y i s t h e e e a i on of a i n e tr . pl ra th et ac e s o f a an e
(2 ) t o c on ai n

li
t he ne AB l w th
an d m a k e a n a n g e o f 7 5 pl °
i the an e

6D w ra tr t he pl
ac e s o f a wh h an e l d
( 1 ) i c h z t l
i s i n c i ne a t 4 5°
t o t h e o r i on a

pl p rp d u l r v t l pl pr t h dr w
.

an e an d i s e en i c a t o t he er i ca an e o f oj e c i on T en . a the
t pl
r ac e s o f a w h
an e 2
( ) l d
h i c i pl
s i nc in e l d
a t 65 t o
°
an e
( )
1 a n d i n c i n e a t 7 5 °
t o

h r z t l pl
t h e o i on a an e .

7 T he
. tr pl
ac e s o f a th l d
an e L M N ar e bo Ap t
i n c i n e a t 45 t o X Y
°
oi n . P in
th plis h v h r z t l pl
an e i s 2 i n c e s abo e t h e o i on a h r t v rt l
an e a n d 1 i n c i n f on o f t h e e i c a
pl an e Dr w a pr tt he l p
oj e c i o n s o f a th u h ine p tas s i n g l d ro g the oi n P , i n c in e at
h z t l pl l d pl
.

30 t o t h e o r i on a an e a n d i n c i n e to t he an e L M N at
°

8 a bc i s t h epl tr l
an o f a i an g e h . ab z 2 1 i n c e s , bc
.
2 9 i n c h e s , an d
p t A B h rz t l
.

ca h
1 4 in c e s h ht T he
. eig s of t he v
oi n s , ,
an d 0 abo e t h e o i on a
pl h p tv l F d
an e ar e , 0, 2 5, an d 1 2 5 i n c e s r e s e c i e y pl p t D AB . in t he an o f a oi n in
u h th t
s c l
a t h e an g e AD C i s
9A l AB
. i ne d fi t l th p
of i n e n i e t u h p t wh h
e ng as s e s h r o g a oi n C ic is in the
v t l pl
er i ca pr t
an e o f h v AB
o j e c i on an d 2 i n c e s abo e X Y l i s i n c i n ed at 40 t o t h e
.
°

h r z t l pl
o i on a pl
a n e an d i t s w th
an m ake s 30 Ap t °
i hXY oi n. P is i nc es in
r t v rt l pl
f on o f t h e e i c a h v h z t l pl
an e a n d 1 i n c a bo e t h e pl or i o n a an e , a n d i t s an i s

at a p rp d ul r d t
e en ic a h pl AB Dr w
i s an c e of 1 8 i n c e s fr o m t h e pl an o f a t he
. an
lvt u l t r l tr l wh h
an d e e a i on o f an e q i a e a i an g e ul r p t i c h as on e an g a oi n at P an d t h e

O pp t d AB
o s i e s i e on .

u dr l t r l l
1 0 a M N b i s a q a i a e a , t h e an g e s a t M an d N be i n g i g
. r ht l a ng e s .

MN h
1 5 i nc es , aM h h
1 i n c , an d bN pl h rz t l
2 5 i nc es ab is t he
. an o f a o i on a
l wh h
i ne ic h v
is O 8 i nc °
h r z t l pl
abo e t h e o i on a h r z t l tran e M N i s t h e o i on a
. ac e

of a pl wh h t
an e p t A Dr w pl
i c con ai n s t h e o i n . l wh h l a t he an o f a in e ic i es in t he
pl l
an e AM N an d m ak e s an an g e o f 7 5 w t AB °
i h .

11Dr w . a tr t he pl wh h h ll t
ac e s o f a an e l AB x r
i c s a c on ai n t h e i n e ( E e c i s e 1 7)
l d
an d be i n c i n e l l
t o t h e i n e CD at an an g e o f
1 2 On epl. l d
an e i s in c i n e h r z t l pl
at 60 t o t h e
°
v rt l
o i on a
°
an e an d 45 t o t h e e ica
pl an e A th r pl
. no e fir t
a n e i s p e r p e n di c u la
nl t o t he s an d i n c i n ed at 7 0 t o t h e
°

h r z t l pl
o i on a Dr w
an e tr a. the pl
ac e s o f t h e t wo an e s .

1 3 T he h rz t l
. o i on av rt l tr an d e pl
ica tr ht l
ac e s o f a a n e ar e i n o n e s ai g ine
l d
i n c i n e a t 40 t o X Y
°
A d pl p rp d u r
s e c on
. an e i s fir t e l d
e n i c la to the s an d i n c i n e
a t 60 t o t h e
°
h r z t l plo i on a Dr w tr
an e . a pl
the ac e s o f t h e t wo an e s .

14 Thr pl . ee utu l p rp d ul r
a n e s ar e m al y e l d
e n ic a On e i s i n c i n e
. at 50
°
an d
an o th e r at F d l t th d pl
i n t h e i n c i n a i on o f t h e ir an e .

. . . h r t l tr
1 5 H T (F i g 46 7 )i s t h e o i z o n a
. pl wh h t ac e of a p t an e i c c on ai n s t h e o i n
wh pl os e an i s c h ht T he
. v
e ig h z t l pl
o f 0 abo e t h e h or i o n a an e i s 1 i n c a an d b .

pl
ar e t h e p t wh h ht
an s of t wo oi n s v os e h r z t l pl
eig s a bo e t h e h o i on a an e ar e i nc es
h r p tv l F d
an d 2 i n c e s es ec i e y pr t i n t he
. t v pl
o j e c i on s o f a
po i n P on t h e gi e n an e
u h th t
s c a AP h ll u
B P s a be a m i n i m m .

FIG . 46 7 . FIG . 468 . FIG . 469 .

16 T ak i n g t h e s am e
. an e an d t h e pl s am epi t o n s as i n t he pr ece di ng e xr
e cise ,
dr wa p t
t h e r oj e c i on s o f t h e oc s o f a l u p i t P whi h
o n c v
m o e s on t h e an e i n pl s u ch
a m ann e r th t
a t h e r a i o o f AP t o B P s t h ll b q u l t
a e e a o the rt
a i o of 3 to 2 .
240 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

17 . 46 8 )ar e t h e
a b an d cd an s o f t wo s
(Fi g tr ht l
ai g .ines h t
T h e ei gh s of pl .

t he p t A B
oi n s , , C , an d D v
ab o e t h e h z t l pl
or i o n a an e ar e 0 5, an d 2 5
h r p tv l D w pl lvt p rp d u l r
,

i nc e s es ec i e y ra t he an an d e e a i on o f t h e c o m m on
. e en ic a
t o the ines l ABa n d CD a n d fi n d i t s tru l th
e eng .

1 8 a , b, c , an d d (Fi g 46 9) a r e t h e
. pl
an s o f fo ur p t
oi n s T h e h e i g s of
. ht .

A B, ,
C , an d D v
ab o e t h e h z t l pl
or i on a a n e ar e , 2 5, an d 06 i n c es h
r p tv l
es ec i e y Dtr
e e m in e t he
. pl lvt
an an d e e a i o n of t h e s ph r wh
e e os e s ur
fac e
t
c on a i n s t h e p t A B
oi n s , ,
C , an d D .

. l v xr dtr
1 9 T a k i n g t h e i n e s g i e n i n e e c i s e 1 7 an d F i g 468 , e e m i n e t h e oc s o f l u .

a p t wh h v
oin i c m o e s on t h e h r z t l pl
o i on a an e s o as a lw
a y s t o be e q a y u ll d t t
i s an
f m th
ro li e se n es .

20 T h . m m n p rp d i ul r E F t t w
e co o tr i ght l i AB d CD i 1 i h
e en c a o o s a nes an s nc
l g n d i t i l i ti i li t i f AB i d th gl
°
on a s nc Th i na on 35 s e nc na on o s an e an e

b twe t h pl
e en f AB n d CD i
e an s o D w t h pl f AB CD a d EF nd s ra e an s o , , an , a

fi d t h i n li
n e ti f CD c na on o .

2 1 A per n t di g i n t h
. so r r f q u rry n ti th t
s an n v rt i l e co ne o a a o ces a on on e e ca
fac e t h li e f p rt i ul r b d l p
ne o a d w ward fr m t h r r t
a c a gle f
s o es o n s o e co n e a an an e o

30 wi th t h h ri z
°
t l whi l t n n d j nt v rti l f t h rr p n di g
e o on a ,
s o a a ac e e ca ac e e co es o n
an gl i e s Th n gl b tw n t h t w f e i
e a Wh t i t h tru di p
e e ee e o ac s s a s e e or
inc l i ti f t h tr t
na on o e s a a

22 T w i . li d f o f r k A B in
nc ne q u rr y i t r
ac e s t i n L Toh l i f
oc , a a n e sec . e n es o

t p t
s ee es t n A m k 1 0 wi th t h v rti l d g d N th T h
as c e n o a e
°
B e e ca an o ue or . os e on

m k 20
a e dh v°
an d i r ti 1 2 N rth f E t A m f l i t
a e a ec t th
on
°
o o as . sea o c oa n er sec s es e

fac e s i l i whi h b th g upw rd fr m L m ki g 7 0 wi th L t h f A

n n es c o o a s o ,
a n
°
on e ac e

an d 6 5 wi th L °
th f B Fi d t h di r ti
on n d i n l i n ti n t
e ac e th . n e ec on , a c a o o e

h ri z t l f t h l i n
o on a , o f te p t d e t f th m
es o s e es e s c en o e sea .

23 T h pl . e f f ur p i t 0 A Ban s dC o g i vo n i n F i g 47 0 O
o n si t h , , ,
an ar e e . . s e
t f ph r f 2 5 i h r d i u A B
c en r e o a s e e o nc es a s .
, ,

a n d C li n th e urf o f th ph r A d 0
e s ac e o e s e e, an

b i g b v
e n a d B b l w th l v l f 0
o e , an Dr w e o e e e o . a

t h pl n ph ri l tri gl AB O n d n ’

e a f th o e s e ca an e , a a
l v ti n
e e a o gr u d l i
on p r ll l t
a Add
o n ne a a e o

th e pl n d l v ti n f t h i r um ri b d
a an e e a o o e c c sc e
c ir l c es o f th ph ri l tri ngl L tly d t rm i
e s e ca a e . as , e e ne
t h pl ne a d l v ti n f t h p l r tri
an e e gl
a o o e o a an e .

24 S lv . by o tru ti
e, th f ll wi g c on s c on , e o o n
tri h dr l gl
e a an ph i al tri n gl
es Th
or s er c a es . e
r u lt
es bt i
s , as o d b y l ul t i a ne t t th ca c a on , c or r e c o e

n r t t th f d gr
ea es en dd d
o a e e e , ar e a e .

( )
1 Gi v en , 6 a 0

R lt A es u B
s . C F I G 47 0 . .

( )2 G i v n e b ,
a c

R lt A e su B
s . C
( )
3 G i v en , b C a

R lt A
e su B
s . c

( )
4 Gi v en , 6 C a
R lt A
es u B
s . c

( )
5 G i v en , 6 A a

R es u lts . 6 B C
or , c l55 ' °
, B C l5 5 ' °
.

( )
6 G i en, v a A C
R es u lts . 6 c B
or , b c B
( )
7 G i en , v A B C
Re su lts . a b 6 z
( )
8 Gi en , v A B 0
Resu lts . a 1
“

b C
 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY

wh e n s tan d i ng w i th on e e n d on t he h or i zon tal pl an e P Q i s t h e .

h or i z on t al t race of a v e rt i ca l pl an e of s e c ti on T h i s pl n e of sec tion . a

c ut s t w o of t h e v e r t i c l fa c e s a

o f t h e pr i s m i n v e r ti c a l l i n e s of

wh i c h t h e po i n ts a a n d b a e r

t h e pl an s an d a a an d b b pe r
’ ’ ’ ’
, 0

p e n di c u lar s t o X Y t h e e l e va ,

ti on s T h e sa m e pl n e i n t e r
. a

s e c t s t h e e n d s o f t h e pr i s m i n
,

h o ri z on tal s tr i ght l i n e s o f a

wh i c h a b i s t he pl n n d a b a a
’ ’

n d a b t h e e l e v t i on s
’ ’
a T he a .

r e c t an gl e i s t h e c om
le t e e l e v a t i on of t h e s e c t i on
p .

R S i s t h e v e r ti c l t r a ce of a

an o th e r pl an e of s e c t i on Th i s .

s e con d p l n e of s e c t i o n i s
a F m 47 1
pe r , ,

e n d i la r t o t h e v e rt i c al pl an e
p c u

o f pr oj e c t i on O n t h e p l a n ( 1 )t h i s s e c on d se c t i on a p p e a r s as t h e fi g ur e
.

c de c . An oth e r pl n ( 3)of th i s s e con d s e c t i on i s s h ow n on a gr ou n d

a

l i n e X Y p ar a ll e l t o B S T h e pl n ( 3) s h ow s t h e tru e for m of t h e
, , . a

s e c t i on o f t he pr i s m by t h e pl a n e R S T h e wh o l e s o—l i d i s al so s h ow n .

i n pl n a t h e p art a b o v e t h e s e c ti on by t h e pl n e R S be i n g r e p r e a

s e n t e d by t h i n d ot te d l i n e s

2 09 S e c t i o n o f a P y r a m i d b y a P l an e p e rp e n di c u l a r t o
—
.

o n e o f t h e P l a n e s of Pr o e j c t i on T h e fir s t p ar agr aph of t h e p r e .

c e d i n g Art i c l e ou t h e s e c t i on

of a p r i s m a ppl i e s a l s o t o t h e

s e c ti o n of p y ram i d n d all
a ,
a

th at n ee d b e d on e h e r e i s t o
g i v e n
a e x a m pl e wh i c h t h e

s tud e n t s h ould w ork ou t .

I n F i g 47 2 ( l )i s t h e pl n
.
, a

a n d 2 t h e e l e v a t i o n of a r i ht
( ) g
h e x agon al pyr m i d wh e n s t an d a

i ng on t h e h o ri z on t a l pl a n e
w i t h t wo s i d e s at r i ght an gle s
'

s a pl n of t h e
to XY .
( )
3 i a

pyr am i d wh e n o n e tr i an gul r a

f c e i s h ori z on ta l
a T h e pl a n .

s p roj e c t e d f ro m t h e e l e v
( )3 i a

t i on (2) as s h o w n 4) i s a n .

e l e v a t i on pr oj e c te d from ( 3)on

a g r ou n d l i n e X Y p ar a l l e l t o2 2

XY T h e s t r a i gh t l i n e P Q i s
.

t h e h or i z on t l t ra ce o f a pl a n ea
FIG 47 2 .

o f s e c t i on wh i c h i s p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e pl a n e o f t h e p l a n PQ
i s p ar ll e l t o KY an d p as s e s thr ou g h c t h e pl n ( 3) of o n e an gul r
a , a a

p oi n t of t h e b as e of t h e pyram i d T he s e c ti on of t h e pyram i d by t he .
 S E CT I O N S OF SO L I D S 243

pl n e P Q i s s h ow n pr oj e c t e d o n t o e ac h of t h e o t h e r v i e w s of t he
a

pyra m i d an d i n e ac h i e w t h e p rt of t h e s ol i d be t w e e n t h e ve r te x
,
v a

a n d t h e s e c t i on i s s h o w n by th i n d o tte d l i n e s T h e i d e of t h e h e x a
. s

on a l b as e m y b e t k e n 1 25 i n c h e s l o n g
a a
g .

2 1 0 S e c t i o n s o f M o u l di n gs
.
A mo uldi ng i s n or n a m e n t o f
.
-
a

u n i fo rm c ros s s e c ti on wh i c h m y b e for m e d on a p i e c e of a s tru c ture

a

or i t m y b e a s e p a r a te p i e c e
a t tac h e d t o t h e s t ru c tur e for o rn am e n t
a

o n ly or i t m ay be t h e m i n p rt of t h e s t ru c tur e as i n a p i c t ur e f r am e
,
a a .

M o uld i n gs r e of fr e q u e n t oc c urr e n c e i n c ab i ne t m a k i n g j oi n e ry a n d
a , ,

m s on ry
a .

T h e p r i nc i p a l pr o bl e m i n t h e ge o m e t ry of m ould i n g s i s t h e d e te r m i n a
t i on o f t he c ros s s e c ti on of o n e m ould i n g wh i c h w i ll m i tre corre c tly

FIG . 47 3
. FIG . 47 4 .

w i th an o th e r wh e n f a ce s of t he on e a r e in d i ffe r e n t pl a ne s from co rre

s
po n di ng fa c e s of t h e o th e r .

Gi v e n t h e c r os s s e c t i o n of a m ould i n g t h e d e t e r m i n a t i on of an y o th e r
se c t i o n i s a s i m pl e pr obl e m a n d i s w ork e d e x a c tly a s fo r a pr i s m In .

F i g 4 7 3, ( l )i s t h e t ru e fo r m of t h e c ros s s e c ti o n of a s tr a i gh t p i e c e o f
.

m ould i n g ( 2)i s a pl an of t he m o uld i n g , t h e l on g e d ge s b e i n g h ori z on ta l

. .

P Q i s t h e h ori zon t a l tra c e of a v e rt i c a l pl an e o f s e c t i on , an d ( 3) i s t h e

e l e v a t i on of t h e se c t i on P Q on a r ou n d l i n X Y p a r a ll e l t o P Q
g e , , .

T h e sa m e m ould i ng i s s h ow n i n F i g 4 7 4 s t h e c r os s s e c t i on ,
( )
1 i. .

( )
2 i s a s i d e e l e v a t i on , a n d
( )
3 i s a pl a n wh e n t h e l o n
g e d g e s a r e p a r a ll e l

t o t h e v e r t i ca l p la n e o f pr oj e c ti on but i n c li n e d t o t h e h o ri z on ta l p l an e .

R S i s t h e h o r i z o nta l tra c e o f a v e r t i ca l pl a n e of s e c t i on
’ ’
a b i s t he .

p roj e c ti on of t he s e c ti o n R S on t h e pl an e o f t h e e l e va t i o n and

i s a p r oj e c t i o n of t h e s a m e s e c t i o n o n a pl a n e p a r a ll e l t o i t a n d wh i c h
the re for e s h o ws t he t r u e form of t h e s e c ti on .
244 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

I II F i g 4 7 4 t h e
. roj e c ti on s p an d
( )
4 h a v e b e e n dra w n

i n t h e o rd e r i n wh i c h th e y a r e n u m b e re d , bu a s tud y of t h e fi ur e w i l
g t l
s h o w th a t i f t h e s e c t i o n by t h e pl a n e R S b e gi v e n i n s t e a d of t he
c ro s s s e c t i o n tt
1 )t h e l a e r m ay b e fo u n d by w o rk i n g b a c k wa rd s .

t
I n F i g 4 7 5 t h e s e c i o n a i s t he c r os s se c t i on a nd a i s t h e l a n of a
.
’
p
t
s r a i ht p i e c e o f m o uld i n
g g wh o s e l o n
g e d g e s a r e h o r i z on a l a n d wh i c h t
i s fix e d t o t he fa c e o f a v e rt i c a l w a ll wh os e pl a n i s r s b i s t h e la n . p
a n d b t h e e l e v a t i on of a n o h e r s r a i h
’

g p i etce o f m o t
uld i n t
g wh os e l on g
e d e s a r e i n c l i n e d t o t h e h o r i z on t a l pl a n e a n d wh i c h i s fix e d t o t h e
g
fa ce of a v e rt i c a l w a ll wh o s e pl a n i s s t T h e fa c e s o f t h e t w o w all s a r e
.

a t ri h
g t g ,
t
a n l e s t o on e a n o h e r a n d t h e t wo m ould i n s i n t e r s e c t i n a
g
t
v e rt i ca l pl an e , wh os e h o ri z on a l tr a c e , or pl an , i s t h e s trai gh l i n e ns t
t
wh i c h b i s e ct s t h e a n gl e b e we e n e r an d s t A m o uld i n g s u c h a s bb .
’

FIG . 47 5 . FIG . 47 6 .

wh os e l on g e d ge s ar e i n c l i n e d t o t he h o r i z on t a l is ca ll e d a r a ki ng

mou ldi ng .

T he p r bl
o em i s n ow t o fi n d t he t ru r r t
e fo m of t h e c os s s e c i on o f t h e

r k
a in
g m uld
o i n g T h e c
.dt
on i i o nwh h i c t h e r k
a i n g m uld
o i n g ut
m s

t y th t
s a isf is a t
i t s s e c i on by t hepl a n e ns o f t h e j t w th
oi n i t he o th r e

mo uld u t t
i n g m s b e t h e s am e a s t h e s e c i on of t h e o e m o th r uld i ngby
t h t pl
a an e Fr om
. th dt
i s c on i i on i t fo o sll w th t a rr p d
t h e c o e s on i n g
lon i
g tud l d
i na e
g e s or l i n e s on t h e t w o m o uld i n s mus
g t t r t
i n e sec i n t he

pl an e of t he j t
oi n T he pr j to e c io n s o f t h e
. l on i
g tud l l
i na i n e s on t h e

r k
a in
g m ould i n
g m a
y th r r
e e fo e n ow b e dr w
a n r t
a n d t h e c o ss s e c i o n

c d e t e rm i n e d h o wn
’
as s .

T he e i llu s tr t e d by F i g
c as a 47 6 d i ff r f rom th t i llu tr t e d by
. e s a s a

F i g 4 7 5 i n th at t h
. n l
g t b e t w e e n t h e f ce
e a e rs o f t h e w ll i n Fi g 47 6
a s a s .

i s g r e t r th n
a e r i ght n gl e
a a t h e c ros
a s e c t i on
. f t h e h or i zo n t l
s o a
246 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

in b a c k i ng off t h e t op fa ce of t he ra fte r to bri n g i t in to t he pl an es or

pl ane t h e oof s fa c e
of r ur .

F i g 47 9 s o s i n e
. d t ai l a pl n
h w a s i d e e l e v t i on ( 2)an d a fr on t a a

e le v t u pp r p a r t of j a c k r aft e r wh e r e i t j oi n s t h e h i p
a i on
( )
3 of t he e a

r fte r All t h e rafte rs h ve th e i r s i d e fac e s v e r ti c l , n d

a . a i s t he a a

pl n of t h e v e r ti c a l f c e of t he h i p r ft e r t o wh i c h t he j ac k r fte r i s
a a a a

FIG . 47 8 . FIG . 47 9 .

a ttac h e d Th i e n d of t he j a k r fte r re qu i res t o be be ve ll e d i n t wo

. s c a

di r e c t i on s i n o r d e r t o fit g i n s t t he f c e of t he h i p r ft e r
a a T h e a n gl e s a a .

fo t h e se b e ve l s r e m a rk ed
r a nd B
a T h e a n gl e 8 i s h o w n o n t he i d e
a ,
.
,
s s

e l e v t i on
a T o d e te rm i n e t he upp e r s ur f c e of t h e r ft e r i s br o u gh t
a a a

i nto h o ri z on t l p os i t i on by t urn i n g i t b ou t h o r i zon t l x i s throug h

a a a a a a

B t r i g h t n g l e t o X Y s h o w n i n t h e p l n ( 1 ) n d e l e v ti o n
a a s ,
a s a a a

T h e t r u e for m o f t he e n d o f t he r fte r i s h o wn t a s a

E x e rci s e s XV I I

1 . d wh pr j ti
T he s oli g iv i Fi g 480 i
os e o ec on s a r e en n . s cut i n t wo b y a e i c al v rt
p l wh
an e h r i z t l
os etr i H T
o Dr w
on a l v t i ac e s . a an e e a on of t h e a p rt
l t
t o t he ef
o f t h pl ef ti an e o gr u d l i
sec p r ll l t H T
on o n a o n ne a a e o .

2 Th l i d wh pr j ti
e so gi v i F i g 48 1 i
os e o ec on s a r e en n . s cu t i t w b y v rti l
n o a e ca

pl wh h i z t l tr i P Q Dr w l v ti t h l rg r p rti
.

an e os e or on a ac e s . a an e e a on of e a e o on on

a pl p r ll l t t h pl
an e a a f e ti o e an e o sec on .

3 Th li d wh pr j ti
. e so s giv i Fi g 48 2
os e o ec on s ar e en n . ar e c u t by v ti l pl a er ca an e
 S E CT I O N S O F S O L I D S . 247

wh os e h ri z t l t i RS D w
o l v ti
on a f t h p rt i wh pl
r ac e s . ra an e e a on o e o on s o se an s
li e b tw e RS d KY gr u d l i
een p ll l t R S an on a o n ne ar a e o .

4 T h pl f i ght q u r pri m wi th
e r t gul r h l thr ugh i t i giv
an o a r s a e s a e c an a o e o s en
in F i g 48 3 A i d f t h qu r b i
. . t h h ri z n t l pl n
s Dr w t h
e o e s a e as e s on e o o a a e . a e

FIG . 480 . FIG . 48 1 . FIG . 48 2 . FIG . 48 3 .

In r ep r odu c i n g t he a bo ve di agr ams ta ke t he s m a ll s q u a r es as o f 03 i nc h s i de .

e el v ti a XY d h w
on o n th i l v t i t h anti f t h li d b y t h v rti l
s o on s e e a on e sec on o e so e e ca

pl f wh i h H T i t h h ri z
an e o t l tr
c D t rm i l t h tru f rm f t h
s e o on a ac e . e e ne a so e e o o e

se c ti on

5 A ri ght q u r pri m id h lti tud 3 i h i t i t t w

.

fb s1 i a e s ,
s e o as e nc ,
a e nc es , s cu n o o
l p pl
.

e q u a rt b y T
a h tru
s f rm af t h t i an e i h.m b u f e i h e o o e s ec on s a r o s o nc es

s id Dr w pl
e . f a p rt wh i t t d wi th i t
a an o ti fon e th a en s an s s s ec on ac e on e
h ri z t l pl
o on a an e .

6 A p yr m i d h
. f it b a q f 2 i h i d wh i h i
as or s th as e a s u ar e o nc es s e c s on e
h ri z t l pl
o on a Th lti tud f t h pyr m i d i 2 5 i h
an e e a d t h pl f th e o e a s nc e s an e an o e
v t x i t t h m i ddl p i t f id f t h pl T hi pyr m i d
.

er e s a e f th b e o n o on e s e o e an o e as e . s a

is t i t t w p rti
cu by
n o h ri z t l pl o wh i h i 1 i h b v t h b
o on s a o on a an e c s nc a o e e as e .

D w t h pl f t h l w r p rti
ra e an o e o e o on .

7 A i ght h x g
. l pyr m i d i d f b 1 i h lti tud 2 i h i t by
r e a on a a , s e o as e nc ,
a e nc es s cu

a pl wh i h an e ti dg f t h
c c on a n s on e e e o e

b as e d i p rp an d i ul r t t h pp i t
s e en c a o e o os e
fac e D t rm i t h tru f rm f t h
. e e ne e e o o e

se c ti on .

8 T h pl . d l v ti e f f th
an an e e a on O on e o e
r t gu l r f
e c an AB CD f i ght h x
a ac e s o a r e a
on a lp i m g iv i F i g 48 4 AB
r s ar e d en n .
, an
D b i g t h d f t h pri m C m
e n on e en s o e s . o

p l t t h pl
e e d l v ti e f t h pr i m
an an e e a on o e s

an d h w s th l v ti t h
o on ti b y e e e a on e sec on

t h v tie l pl wh h ri z t l tr
er ca an e ose o on a ace
i PQ
s .

9 T h pl . d l v ti e f f th
an an e e a on o on e o e
tri gul r f
an V AB fa ri ght q u r
ac e s o a s a e

py r m i d gi v i F i g 48 5 V b i g t h
a ar e en n .
, e n e
v rt x f t h pyr m i d C m pl t t h pl
e e o e a
F G 4 8 4.
F o
G 4 8 5 e e e an I “ ° I “

an d l v ti f th l r m id d h w
on o an on
l v ti t h d
e e e a s o

ili by t h v rti l
a
T k m ll q 0 4 wh d a e s a s u a r es “ si e .

th e e e a on e se on e e ca
pl wh h ri z t l t
an e i RS
os e o on a r ac e s .

1 0 A h ri z t l m uld i g h o () g F ion a 48 6 f i t r t
o i D t n r m i as e or s c os s s e c -
on . e e ne
v ti l ti whi h i i li d t 45 t t h l gitudi l
.
.
, ,

th t u f m
e r f e or o a er ca sec on c s nc ne a
°
o e on na

li nes o f th m l di g e ou n .

1 1 A m u ld i g wh
. r o t i i giv t ( f )i F i g 48 6 i pl d wi th
n os e c o s s s e c -
on s en a n . s ac e

it b k
s act h v rt i l pl on f pr j t i e d it l
e ca
g i tu d i l l i i
an e o l i d t o ec o n an s on na nes nc ne a

30 t t h h i z
°
o t l pl e D w t h pl
or on ad l v ti d h w th
an e . tu ra e an an e e a on an s o e r e

f rm
o f ti by v ti l pl
o a sec wh h ri z t l t
on a i i er li d t 60 ca an e os e o on a r ac e s nc ne a
°

t XY
o .

1 2 T w m u ld i g. f th o m o ti ( ) F i g 48 6
n s o fix d t t h f e sa e c r os s s e c -
on c ,
.
,
ar e e o e ace
248 P RA CT I C AL G EO ME T RY

of a v rt i l w ll e ca a . On e m o i n g i s h or i uld z t l d t h th r r k t 30 t t h
on a an e o e a es a
°
o e
h ri z t l T h
o on a . e t w o m o ul i n gs j o i n c o d rr tly t g th r D t rm i t h tru
ec o e e . e e ne e e

f rm f t h j i t
o o e o n s e c i on t .

( bl

FIG . 4 86 .

In r ep r odu ci ng t he a bove s ec t i on s t a ke t he s m a ll s qu a r es a s o f 4i n c h s ide .

A h ri z t l m u ld i g m i tr
13 . o rr tly wi th
on a k i g m ul d i g
o I
n li es co ec a ra n o n . nc na

ti f ki g m uldi g t t h h ri z t l
on o ra n o Th b k n f t h m u ld i g
o e o on a ,
e ac s o e o n s ar e

i v rti l pl
n e whi h
ca t i ghtan e s gl t th r
c ar e a r an es o on e an o e as

s h w i pl i F i g 48 7 S l t fr m F i g 48 6 r
o n n an n . . e ec o . a c oss
sec ti f t h h ri z t l m uld i g d th d t rm i t h
on or e o on a o n an en e e ne e
ti f t h r ki g m l di g
c r os s s e c -
on o e a n ou n .

14 S m . x i 1 3 x pt th t t h
a e as e gl b tw
er c se e ce a e an e e e en

t h v ti l pl
e er i 1 20 i
ca t d f an e s s
°
n s ea o

1 5 T w r ki g m u ld i g
. o v rti l w ll whi h
a n o t n s on e ca a s c ar e a
ri ght gl t an th r i F i g 47 5 p 244 m i tr
es o on e an o e as n .
,
e c or
B th m uldi g l i d t 20 t t h h i z t l
.
,

r ect ly . o i o n s ar e nc ne a
°
o e or on a .

S l t
e ec ti f
a c r os s s e c f t h m uld i g fr m F i g 486
-
on or FIG 48 7
on e o e o n s o . . .

an d th d t rmi t h r
en e e ti f t h th r ne e c os s s e c
-
on o e o e .

16 S m . x r i 1 5 x pt th t t h
a e as e g l
e c se b tw t h w ll i 1
e 2 0 ce a e an e e e en e a s s
°

i t d f
ns ea o
17 A C d E (F i g 48 8 )
.
, ,
thr pi
an f rm i g p rt f . ti m b r fr m ar e ee eces o n a o a e a e,

e ac h pi b i g f
ece t g lr r e n ti oTh pr j ti
r e c an d u a c os s s e c -
on . e o ec on s a
’
an c ar e

i m pl t
n co C m pl t t he e . p j ti i di t d
o d dr w
e e l v ti
e ro ec on s n ca e an a an e e a on on a

g u
ro d l i n i l i d t
ne4 5 t X Y nc ne a
°
o .

1 8 A pi . f t i m b r h vi g pl ece f o i h w i pl e d l v ti a in an e ac e s s s o n n an an e e a on n

F ig 5489 . Dr w t w th r l v ti a g r u
o o d l i p rpe d i u l r
e et X Ya on s . o n e on a o n ne e en c a o ,

an d th th r e og r d l i e p ll l t
on a t h l g r i d
oun f t h pl D t
ne rm i ar a e o e on e s es o e an . e e ne

th t u f m f th
e r e r or ti f t h pi o e c os s s e c -
on o e ece .

FIG . 48 8 . FIG . 48 9 . FIG . 490 .

di agr am s t a ke t he s ma ll s qu a r es h a lf i n ch s i de
In r ep r odu ci n g t he a bove as o f -
.

1 9 F i g 490 s o s t h e a n of a hw rA u r
i e c e of i m b e ur r,
o pl
f n i f o m s q a ep c os s t
t
wh l tw v t l w ll
. .

s e c i on , i c h i e s b e e e n t h e fa ce s R T a n d S T o f t w o e r i c a a s T h e .

l tu d l
o n gi i n a e ge s o f d
ar e i n c i n eA l d °
h z tl r
a t 20 t o t h e o r i on a , i s i n g fr om R t o S .

B is ant r
o h e i e c e o f i m b e p
o f t
n i r u r
fo m s ur
q a t
e c r o s l tud l
s s e c i o n T h e o n g i
in a -
.
.

d
e ge s o fB ar e o i on a h rz t l
T he iece p B t th A r t tv t l
fi t s i n o a n o c on , t h e g e a e s
.
er i ca

d p th th
e o f i s n o c b e i n g q e a tht o h aul f l
t h e th i A Dr w
c k n e s s lvt
o f a t w o e e a i on s .

of A B
an d o n e o n a g r o n i n e u d l p r ll l
a a e t o r s ,th r
a n d ru dl
t h e o e o n a g o n i n e

r ll l Dt vl d t p A
,

t o t e e r m i n e a ll t h e b e e s f or t h e e n s a n d t h e n o c h o f t h e i e ce
pa a e r
.
.
 250 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

as foll o ws P Q p a ra ll e l t o KY i s a k e n a s t h e v e r i c a l t ra c e of a
. t t
t
h or i z on a l pl an e Th i s pla n e c u s t h e s ph e r e i n a c i r c l e wh os e pl an i s t
'

t t
a c i r c l e c on c e n r i c w i h t h e pl a n of t h e s ph e r e a n d w h os e d i am e e r t
t
i s e qu a l t o t h e p or i on of P Q w i h in t h e ci r c l e wh i c h i s t h e e l e va i on t t
O f t h e s ph e r e Th i s s am e pl an e c u s t h e gi v e n p lan e of s e c i on i n
. t t
t
a s r ai h
g l i ne t t
T h e p oi n s r r in w hi c h t h e pl an of h i s l i n e i n e r s e c t s
. t t
t he pl an of t h e c i r c l e a r e t h e pl an s of p oi n t s on t h e r e qu i r e d i n e r t
t
s e c i on , a n d r r t h e e l e v a i on s of th e s e po i n s a r e on P
’ ’
t
Q I n l i k e man n e r t .

t t t
by a k i n g o h e r p os i i on s for P Q an y n u m be r of p oi n t s on t he pro e c i on s j t
of t h e r e qu i r e d i n e r s e c i on m a
y b e fo t
u n d t .

S i n c e t h e r e q u i re d i n t e rs e c t i on i s a c i r c l e an d t h e pr o e c i on s of a j t
c i r c l e a r e e ll i p s e s t h e a x e s of h es e e lli ps e s m ay b e fo u n d an d t h e t
p
e ll i s es t
h e n b e dra w n by t he tram m e l m e th od (Ar 45, p t . .

R efe rri n g t o Fi g 492 a a t he i n e r ce pt of V T on t h e e l e va i on of

’ "
. t . . t

FIG . 4 91 . FIG . 492 . FIG . 493 .

t he p h e re i s t h e e l e v ti o n of t he ci r c l e wh i h i s t he e cti on of t he
s a c s

s ph re by t he gi ve n pl n e P roj e c tor s fr om a n d a t o m e e t p r ll l
e a .
’
a
’
a a a e

t o K Y thr o u gh 0 t h e p l n of t h e c e n t r e of t h e s p h e r e d e t e rm i n e s
a a a

t h e m i n o r x i s of t he e ll i p s e wh i c h i s t h e pl n of t h e r qu i r e d s e c ti on
a a e .

T h e m j or a x i s b i s ec ts t h e m i n o r x i s t ri gh t n g l e s a n d h s a l e n g t h
a a a a a

e qu l t o
’ ’
a a a .

R e fe rr i n g t o Fi g 493 dr w a a b thr ou gh 0 t ri gh t an gl e s t o H T
. ,
a a . .

a a b i s t h e h or i z o n t l t r c e of a v e r ti c l pl n e wh i h i n t e r e t s
a a t he a a c s c

s ph e r e i n r t c i rcle n d t h e g i v e n p l n e of s e c t i on i n a s tr i gh t
a a a
g e a a

l i n e n d AA t h e po rt i on of th i s l i n e w i th i n t h e g r e t c i r cl e has fo
,
a a r

i t s pl n t h e m i n o r x i s o f t h e e ll i p
a wh i h i s t he p l n of t he r e qu i r e d
a se c a

s e c ti on L e t th i s v e rt i c l pl n e w i th t h e l i n e A A B
. n d t he g re t
a a a a

c i r c l e i n i t b e t ur n e d r ou n d a b ou t a v e r ti l x i s thr ou gh 0 u n ti l i t i s ca a

p r ll e l t o t he v e rt i c l pl n e of pr oj e ct i on A A B i t h e e l e v t i on of
a a a a .
, , , s a

t h e l i n e A A B i n i t n e w p o i t i on n d t h e e l e v t i on of t he p h e r e i s t he
s s a a s
 THE S P HERE , CYL I N D ER , AN D C O NE 25 1

l v ti o n of t he n e w po s i t i on of t he gr e a t c i r c l e T h i s d e t e rm i n e s
e e a .

t h e l e v e l s o f t h e p oi n t s A an d A o n t h e gi v e n pl n e of s e c t i o n a n d t h e a

pl ns a n d a a r e t h e n r e ad i ly fou n d a a i s t he m i n o r x i s o f t he
a a , a

e ll i p s e ,
t h e m j o r a x i s of wh i c h i s e qu a l t o A A
a By a s i m i l r , , . a

con s t ru c t ion u s i n g pl a n e p e rp e n di c ula r t o t he ve rt i c a l p l n e o f

,
a a

proj ec t i on w i th i t s v e r ti ca l trace throu g h 0 a t ri gh t n gl e s t o V T t he ’

a . .
,

a xe s of t h e e ll ip s e i n t he e l e va t i on m ay b e fou n d I t s h ould be .

re m e m be re d th at t he m aj or x e s Of th e s e e ll i p s e s r e p a ralle l t o t he
a a

h ori z on t l an d v e r ti ca l tr ac e s re s p e c ti ve ly of t he g i ve n pl an e of s e ct i on
a

a n d t h e m i n o r a x e s a r e p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e s e tr c e s a .

By tak i ng a h ori z on t a l s e c t i on of t h e s ph e r e a n d gi ve n pl an e of
s e c ti on thr ou g h t h e c e n t r e of t h e s p h e r e t he po i n t s 3 a n d s wh e r e t h e .

. e l li ps e i n t h e pl a n to u c h e s t h e c i r c l e whi c h i s t h e p la n of t h e s ph e r e

r e d e te r m i n e d F and Th s e p oi n t s d t r m i h
a
( gi s 4 92 . e e e n e t e

l i m i t s of t he po r ti ons of t he r e qu i r e d se c ti on wh i c h r e on t h e uppe r a

a n d l ow e r h a lv e s o f t h e s ph e r e r es pe c t i ve ly I n l i k e m an n e r ( F i g 493)
. .

a s e c ti on of t h e S ph e r e a n d gi v e n pl a n e by a pl n e p r all e l t o t h e a a

v e rt i cal pl ane O f pr oj e c ti on an d thr ou gh t he c e n tre of t he s ph e r e

d e t e rm i n e s n an d n wh e re t h e e ll i ps e i n t he e l e va t i on t ou ch e s t he
’ ’

c i rc l e wh i c h i s t he e l e v t i on o f t h e s ph e re
a A n d th e s e po i n ts d e te r m i n e
.

t he l i mi t s of t h e p o rt i on s of t he r e q u i r e d s e c t i o n wh i c h a r e on t h e fron t
n d b a c k h lv e s of t he s ph e r e r e p e c t i v e ly
’

a a s .

FI G . 494
. F I G 495 . .

U s eful e x e rc i s es on t h e proj e c t i on of pl an e s e c ti on s of t h e s ph e re
a r e i llu s t ra t e d by F i s 4 9 4 d 4 9 5 I F i 494 t h t i x p t
g a n . n g . e s e c on s e c e
.
,

t he m i ddl e on e a r e s m all c i r c l e s of t h e s ph e r e wh i l e i n Fi
, g 4 9 5 t h e,
y re . a
a ll g re at c i r c l es T h e d i ffe r e n t v i e w s i n ea c h F i g s h o uld be dr a w n i n
. .

t h e o rd e r i n wh i c h t h e y a r e n u m be r e d T h e s ph e r e m ay be ta k e n
.
,

sa
y ,2 5 i n c h e s i n d i a m e t e r .

A n oth e r u s e ful e x e r c i e i s i ll u s tra t e d by Fi g 496 Th i s i s a

s . .

he xagon l n u t w i th a s ph e ri c al c h a n fe r T he v r i ou s c urve s o th e r
a i . a ,

th an th os e re p re s e n t i ng t h e h o l e i n t h e n u t r e pl a ne s e c t i on s o f ,
a a

s p h e re wh o e ce n tre i s O a n d rad i us R I n th i s e x am p l e t h e v a ri ou s
s .
 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY
v ie ws ar e rran ge d a c co rd i n g t o t h e Am e ri c n s y s te m (p
a a In .

t he e l e v a ti on s ( 2 ) n d ( 3)t h e e ll i pt i c a rc s a a n d b r e u s u lly dr a w n
’ '
a a a

as a r cs o f c i r c l e s . T he
i n t he e l e v a t i on
’
a re c

( )
3 i s a tru e r c of
a a

c i r c l e wh ose c e n tr e i s o
'
.

I n w o rk i n g th i s e x am pl e
t he fo ll o w i n g di m e n
s i on s m a
y b e t a k e n .

D i am e t e r of s c r e w ,

i n c h e s ; w i dt h o f n u t
a c ro ss t he fl ats ,

i n c h e s ; h e i g h t of n u t ,

1 7 5 i n c h e s ; ra d i u s o f
s ph e r i c l a c h a m fe r 21
,

i n c he s . FIG 496 . .

P r oj e c t i o n s
21 5
—
.

o f P o i n t s o n t h e S u r fa c e o f a S p h e r e S u pp os e t h a t on e p r o
j e c t i o n o f a p o i n t o n t h e s ur f c e o f
a a s ph e r e t o b e g i v e n a n d t h a t i t
i s r e qu i r e d t o fi n d t he o th e r T k e a pl n e pa r ll e l t o on e o f t h e
. a a a

pl an e s of proj e c ti on nd c on ta i n i n g t h e p oi n t T h e s e c ti on of t he
a .

s ph e r e by t h i s pl a n e w i l l h a v e for on e proj e c t i o n a c i r c l e a n d for t h e

o th e r a s t r a i h t l i n e a n d t h e i v e n p r oj ec t i o n o f a po i n t w i ll li e on
g , g
o n e of th e s e a n d t h e o t h e r o n t h e o t h e r

2 1 6 . I n t e r s e c t f
i o n o a S ai g tr h t L i n e a n d
.

a Sph e r e — Tak e a
pl an e pe rpe n d i c ul ar t o o n e of t he pl n e s of pr oj e ct i on a n d c on t a i n i ng t he
a

g i v e n li n e . D r aw a
pr o j e c t i on A
( ) o f t h e s e c t i on o f t h e s ph e r e by t h i s

plan e on a pl an e ( B ) p a ra ll e l t o i t D r a w a l so o n t he pl a ne ( 8 ) .

a n o th e r pr oj e c ti on (C) o f t he gi ve n l i n e (A) i s a ci r c le wh i c h .

i n t e r s ec ts (C ) t p oi n ts wh i c h a r e pr oj ec t i on s of t he p oi n t s of i n t e r
a

s ec t i on O f t h e l i n e a n d s ph e r e F rom th e s e t h e proj e c ti ons of t he

.

poi n ts of i n t e rs e cti on on t he ori gi na l pl an e s of proj e c ti o n m ay be

fo u n d
2 1 7 T h e C y l i n de r —
.

. T h e cy li nde r m ay be ge n e rat e d by a s t ra i gh t
.

l i n e wh i c h m o ve s i n c on tac t w i th a fix e d c urve an d re m ai n s p ar a ll e l
to a fix e d s t ra igh t l i ne I f t h e fixe d c u r v e i s a c i r c l e wh os e pl an e
.

is a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t he fi xe d s tra i g h t l i n e t h e c yl i n d e r i s ,
r i ght a

c i r cu la r cy li nde r a n d a s tr a i ht l in e thr ou h t h e c e n t r e of t h e fix e d
, g g
c i r c l e a t r ig h t a n gl e s t o i t s pl a n e i s t h e a x i s of t he cy li nde T h e fix e dr.

c i r c l e r e fe rr e d t o a b o v e i s a nor ma l s e ct i on o f t h e r i g ht ci r c ul a r cyl i n d e r
'

a n d i t s d i a m e t e r i s t h e di a me t e r o h e cy li nde r
f t .

Wh e n a c yl i nd e r i s l i m i te d i n l e n gth by t wo pl an e s wh i c h i n te r s e c t
a ll po s i t i on s of t h e e n e r a t i ng l i n e t he s e c t i o n s O f t h e cyl i n d e r by th e s e
g ,

pl an e s be com e t he e nds of the cyli nde r n d wh e n th e se e n d s a r e t r i g h t

,
a a

a n gl e s t o t h e ge n e ra t i ng l i n e t he c yl i n d e r i s r i ht c li nde ra I n
g y .

s p e a k i n g Of a r i g h t c i r c ul r c yl i n d e r wh e n i t s e n d s
a ,
r e c on s i d e r e d
a t he ,

e n d s a r e g e n e r a lly u n de r s t ood t o be a t r i gh t a n g l e s t o t h e a x i s Bu t
‘

a r i h t c i r c ul r c yl i n d e r m a h v e i t s e n d s i n c l i n e d t o i t s ax i s a t an
g a
y a

a n l e wh i c h i s n o t a r i h t a n l e
g g g .
 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY

s ec t i on s of a ri gh tr ul a r cyl i nd e r by pl an e s t ri gh t an gl es t o i t s
ci c a

a x i s a r e c i r c l e s o f t h e s m e d i a m e t e r a n d a ll s ec t i on s of t h e c urv e d
a
,

s ur fac e by p la n e s p a r all e l t o t h e a x i s a e p a r ll e l s tr a i gh t l i n e s
r a All .

s e c t i on s o f t h e c u r v e d s urf a c e by pl a n e s i n c l i n e d t o t h e a x i s ar e e ll i p ses

wh os e c e n tr e s ar e o n t h e a xi s of t h e c yl i n d e r .

R e fe rri ng t o F i g 498 P Q is t he v e rt i c l tr a ce of a h o ri zon t al p lan e

.
,
a

c u tt i n g t h e i n c l i n e d c yl i n d e r wh os e ax i s S S i s p r a ll e l t o t h e v e rt i ca l
, a

p l n e of proj ec ti on S a n d S a r e t h e c e n t r e s of t wo s ph e r e s i n s c ri be d
a .
,

i n t h e c y li n d e r a n d to u c h i ng t h e pl n e o f s e c t i o n t F a n d F r e s pe c
a a , ,

t i e ly
v . T h e po i n t s F n d F a r e t h e foci of t h e e ll i p s e wh i c h i s t he
a ,

s e c t i o n of t h e c yl i nd e r by t h e g i ve n pl a n e of se c t i on t he po r ti on
’ ’
a a .
,

o f P Q ly i ng w i t h i n t h e e l e v t i o n of t h e c yl i n d e r i s t h e e l e v a t i on o f t h e
a

m aj o r a x i s of t h e e ll i p s e a n d from th i s t h e pl an a a i s pr oj ec t e d lT he .

FIG . 498 . FIG . 499 .

m i n or a x i s bb, of t he pl a n of t h e e ll i p se i s e qu a l t o t he d i a m e te r of t he
c yl i n d e r .

P l a ne s t hrou gh S an d S , a t ri gh t an g l e s t o t h e a x i s o f t h e cy l i n d e r
i n t e rs e c t t h e gi ve n pl an e of se c t i on i n s t r a i gh t l i n e s K M a n d K ,M ,
wh i ch ar e t h e d i re c t ri ce s of t he e ll i p s e (A r t 35, p . .

Fi g 499 di ffe r s from Fi g 4 98 i n t h a t t h e a x i s of t h e c yl i n d e r i s

. .

i nc l i n e d t o b ot h pl a n e s o f pr oj e c t i on i n s t e a d o f b e i n g i n c l i n e d t o t h e
h ori z on ta l pl a ne on ly T he i n t e r ce p t of P Q w i th i n t h e e l e v a ti o n o f
.

t h e cyl i n d e r d oe s n ot n ow g i v e t h e m aj o r a x i s o f t h e e ll i p s e , but t h e foc i

a n d t h e m i no r a x i s a r e d e t e rm i n e d as b e fo r e , but by m a k i n ca a n d c a ,
g
e a c h e qu a l t o bf , t h e m aj o r a x i s i s d e t e r m i ne d .

T he d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e s e c t i on of a c yl i n d e r , wh os e a xi s i s
 THE S P HERE , CYL I N D ER , AN D C O NE 255

i nc l i n e d t o b oth pl a n e s of pr oj e c t i o n , by a n o bl i qu e pl an e i s i llu s ra e d t t
by F i g 500 AB i s t h e ax i s of t he cyl i n d e r a n d H T a n d V T ar e
. .
‘

. . . .

t h e tr ace s of t h e pl an e o f s e c i on t .

T he e l li p s e u v, wh i c h i s t h e
t t
h ori zo n a l ra c e of t h e cyl i n d e r , i s
t h e s e c t i on o f t he c yl i n d e r by t h e
h ori zon t a l pl an e of proj e c t i on an d
i t m ay be d e e r m i n e d by t h e con t
t t
s ru c i on s h o w n i n F i g 4 9 9, o r by .

t he c o n s tru c i on s h o w n i n F i g t .

503 .

T a k i n g mu, p a rall e l t o a b, a s
t h e h or i z on a l t t
rac e of a v e rt i ca l
l
p an e , th i s pl an e i n e r s e c s t h e t t
g i v e n pl a n e of s e c i on i n a l i n e o f t
wh i c h m n i s t he e le v at i o n Th i s
’ ’
.

t
s a m e v e r i c a l pl a n e i n t e r s e c s t h e t
cyl i nd e r in t w o s tr ai gh l ine s t
wh os e e l e v a t i on s c d an d ’ ’
ar e

p arall e l t o a b , t h e p oi n t s c an d c,
’ ’ ’ ’

be i n g pr oj e c t e d from c a nd c, , t h e
t
poi n s wh e re mn c ut s t h e e ll i p s e u v .

’
t
T h e poi n s r a n d s wh e r e m n
’ ’ ’

i n t e rs e c s c d a n d
’
t
’
ar e t he
e l e va t i on s of po i n t s o n t h e r e qu i r e d

s e c i ont P r oj e c o rs fr om r a n d s
.
’
t ’

t
t o m e e t mn d e e r mi n e p oi n s r a n d s on t h e pl a n of t he r e q u i r e d t
s e c t i on .

t t t
By ak in g o h e r v e r i cal pl anes p ar all e l t o t he ax i s of t he c yl i n d e r .

t t
o h e r p oi n s o n t h e r e qu i r e d

s e c t i on m a b e f oun d
y .

I t s h o uld be n o e d ha t t t
a ll t h e l i n es o f i n t e r s e c i on of
. t
t h e a s s u m e d v e r i c a l pl an es t
w i th t he gi ve n pl an e of s e c t i on
w i ll be p a rall e l .

t
T he s ud e n t s h ould w o rk
t
ou t h i s e x a m pl e t o t h e di m e n

s i on s m a rk e d on t h e fi ur e
g .

2 2 0 C i r c u l ar S e c i on s
. t
of a R i gh t
E ll i p i c a l t
C y l i n de r —
A r ig ht e llip ti c a l
.

cy li nde r i s on e i n wh i c h a
t
se c i on by a pl an e at ri gh t
an l e s t o t he a xi s o f t h e FIG 501 FIG 502
g . . . .

c yl i n d e r i s a n e ll i p s e I n Fig . .

p
501 , ( u )i s t h e l an a n d ( v t he e l e v a i on o f s u c h a cyl i n d e r , t h e a x i s
) t
of t h e c yl i n d e r b e in p
g pe r e n d i c ul a r t o t h e v e r i c a l lan e of proj e c i on , t p t
a n d t h e m aj o r a x i s of a s e c t i on a t r i h
g a n g l e s t o t h e a x i s i s v e rt i c a lt .
 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

T he l v a t i on ( v)s h o w s t he t ru e for m o f t he n or m al s e c tio n an d i s an

e e

e ll i p s e wh os e s e m i m aj o r x i s i s o a -
a
’ ’
.

T k i n g p oi n t on t h e pl an of t h e x i s as ce n t re an d ra d i us
a a 0 a a

e qu a l t o c i r c l e i s d e s c r i be d c ut t i n g t h e o u t l ine of t h e
’ ’
a an a r c of
o a

pl an wh i c h i s p a all e l t o t he p l an of t h e a x i s t r an d s T he s tr ai gh t
r a .

l i n e r s i s t h e h o r i zon ta l tr a ce of a ve r ti c l pl an e wh i c h w i ll cu t t he a

c yl i n d er i n a c i r c l e wh os e d i a me t e r i s e qu a l t o t h e m j o r a x i s of t h e a

n o r m a l s ec t i on A n e l e va t i on (w)of t h e c i r c ul a r s e c t i on on a g r ou n d
.

l i n e X Y p a r all e l t o r s i s s h o wn All s e c t i on s o f t he c urve d s u rf c e

, , . a

o f t h e c yl i n d e r by pl an e s p a r a ll e l t o on e c i r c ul a r s e c t i on ar e e qu a l

c i r c l es .

T h e pr o pe r ty of a ri gh t e ll i p t i ca l c yl i n d e r o f h a v i n g c i r c ul a r
s e c t i on s m a k e s i t p os s i bl e t o b o re s u c h c yl i n d e r w i th n o rd i n a ry
a a

b or i n g b ar a s s h o w n i n Fi g 502 T he a x i s of t he b or i n g b ar i s s e t a t
. .

a n a n gl e 0 t o t h e a x i s of t he c yl i n d e r t o be bo r e d 9 be i n g s u c h th a t ,

d
wh e r e d i s e qu a l t o t h e m i n or a x i s a n d D i s e qu al t o t h e
D ’

m j o r a x i s Of t h e n o r m a l e ll i p t i c s e c t i o n of t h e c yl i n d e r
a Wh i l e .

t h e b or i n g b ar i s r o ta t e d t he c yl in d e r i s m ov e d i n t h e d i r e c t i on of i t s
a x i s or if t h e cyl i n d e r i s s ta t i on ary t h e bo r i n g b a r i s m ov e d bod i ly i n
,

t he d i r e c ti on of t h e a x i s of t h e cyl i n d e r I t i s e v i d e n t th at w i t h t h e
.

a rr an ge m e n t s k e t c h e d i n
F i g 502 t h e l e ng t h Of
.

c yl i n d e r wh i c h m ay be
bore d i s l i m i te d t he l i m i t ,

d e p e n d i n g on t h e a n g l e 0
a n d t h e d i am e t e r of t h e

b or i n g b a r .

22 1 C y l i n d e r E u
.

v e lo p i n g a S p h e r e .

A c yl i n d e r wh i c h e u
v e lo s a s ph e r e w i ll h a v e
p
i t s a x i s p a s s i n g t hr ou gh
t h e c e n t r e of t h e s p h e r e
a n d t h e c urve of c on t ac t

w i ll b e a g re a t c i r cl e
“ ”

of t h e s ph e r e wh os e pl a n e

i s p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e
a xi s of t h e cyl i n d e r .

R efe rr i ng t o F i g 503 .
,

00 i s t h e c e n t r e of t h e
’

s ph e r e an d run m n i s t h e
’ ’
,

axis of t he c yl i n d e r .

T he s ph e r e a n d t h e di r e c
t ion of t he a x i s of t he
c yl i n d e r a r e s uppo s e d t o F m 503 , ,

be g i v e n I n p r obl e m s
.

r e qu i r i n g a c yl i n d e r t o e n ve l op a s ph e re t he cy li n d e r i s ge ne r ally of
i nd e fi n i t e l e n g t h n d t h e e n d s ar e n o t r e qu i r e d t o b e s h o w n but
a
258 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY
of t he x i s of t he cyl i n d e r Th e r e a r e t wo p o i n ts o n t he s urface of
a .

t h e c yl i n d e r h a vi n g t h e p oi n t r for th e i r pl a n T h e e l e va t i o ns o f .

th e s e p oi n ts ar e on t h e proj e c t ors fr om r an d on t h e l i n e s wh i c h ar e
t h e e l e v a t i on s of t h e l i n e s of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e ssu med ve r t ic a l a

pl an e n d t h e c yl i n d e r
a .

A n oth e r s olut i o n o f t he pr obl e m i s s h o wn i n F i g 505 A s p h e re . .

i s i ns c r i b e d i n t h e c yl i n d e r a s b e fo re an d a s e con d cyl i n d e r w i th i t s ,

a x i s v e r t i c a l i s m a d e t o e n ve l o p t h i s s p h e r e
, T h e t w o cyl i n d e r s i n te r .

s e c t i n t w o e ll i p s e s wh os e e l e v a t i o n s o n t h e ve rt i c al pl n e p r a ll e l t o a a

t h e x e s Of t h e c yl i n d e r s ar e t h e s t ra i gh t l i n e s m n a n d s t T h e p oi n ts
’ ’ ’ ’
a .

wh os e pl an i s r r e e vi d e nt ly o n t h e i n t e rs e c t i on of t he t w o cyl i n de rs
a

a n d t h e i r e l e va t i on s a r e fou n d a s s h o w n .

2 2 3 I n t e r s e c t i o n o f a S tr a i gh t L i n e a n d a R i gh t C i r c u l ar
—
.

l
C y i n de r Fi rs t Obtai n from t h e gi ve n p roj e c ti o ns of t h e l i n e an d
.

c yl in d e r pr oj ec ti on s of t h e m o n p l a n e s p a r a ll e l a n d p e rp e n d i c ul a r

r e s p e c t i ve ly t o t he a x i s of t h e cyl i n d e r Ne xt t ak e a pl an e p rall e l . a

t o t he a x i s of t h e c yl i n d e r an d con t i n i n g t h e gi v e n l i n e aTh i s pl a ne .

w i l l i n te r s e c t t h e c urve d s urfa ce of t h e cyli n d e r i n t wo s t r ai ght l i n es

wh i c h w i ll i n te r s e c t t h e g i ve n l i n e at t h e p oi n t s of i n t e r s e c t i on r e qu i r e d .

Work i n g b ac kw a rds t o t he or igin al p roj e c ti on s t h e r e qu i r e d p r oj e c t i on s

o f t h e p oi n t s of i n te r s e c t i on of t h e l i n e a n d c yl i n d e r r e fo u n d

2 24 T h e C o n e —
a .

. T h e co ne m y b e g e n e r a te d by a s t r i g h t l i n e
. a a

wh i c h m ove s i n c on ta c t w i th a fix e d c urve n d p s s e s thr ou gh a fixe d a a

p oin t T h e fix e d p oi n t i s t h e ve r tex of the cone I f t h e fixe d c urv e i s

. .

a c i r c l e a n d t h e fix e d p oi n t i s on t he s t r a i g h t l i n e wh i c h p s s e s thr o u gh a

t h e c e n t r e of t h e c i r c l e a n d i s a t r i g ht n g l e s t o t h e pl a n e of t h e c i r cl e
a ,

t h e c on e i s a r ight ci r cu la r cone T h e fix e d c i r c l e i s a c i r c ul r s e c t io n
. a

of t h e r i g ht c i r c ul a r c o de T h e s t r a i g ht l i n e j oi n i n g t h e v e rt e x of a
.

r i gh t c i rc ul ar c on e t o t he c e n tr e of c i r c ul a r s e c t i on i t he a x i f t hea s s o

c o ne . T h e r i gh t c i r c ul r con e m ay a l s o b e d e fi n e d
a s t h e s urf c e a a

d e s c ri be d by a s trai gh t l i n e wh i c h i n te rs e c t a fix e d l i n e t a fixe d s a

poi n t an d m ove s s o th a t i t s i n c l i n a t i on t o t h e fix e d l i ne i s c ons t an t .

T he fix e d l i n e i n t h i s c a e i s t h e a x i s of t h e c o n e
s .

I f a r i g ht c i r c ul a r c on e t e r m i n t e s a t on e e n d a t t h e v e r t e x a n d
a

a t t h e oth e r e n d a t c i r c ul a r s e c t i on t h a t c i r c ul r s e c t i on i s c ll e d
a ,
a a

t h e ba s e o f t he c one
—
.

j
2 2 5 P r o e i on
. c t s o f a R ig h t Ci r c u l a r C o n e S tar ti n g w i th
t h e c on e i n t h e p o i t i on i n wh i c h i t s a x i s i s v e rti c a l i t s p l a n i s a
s ,

c i r c l e a n d i t s e l e v a t i on i s a n i s os c e l e s tr i a n g l e as s h o w n a t ( 1 ) n d ( 2) a

i n F i g 506 . .

T k
a in g a d grou n d l i n e X Y i n cl i n e d t o v r t h e firs t e l e v ti on
s e c on , ,
’ ’
a

o f t h e a x i s of t h e c on e a n d p roj e c t i n g fro m a n e w p l an
, ( )
3 i s

o bt ai n e d I n t h i s n e w pl n
. vr t h e p l a n of t h e a x is o f t h e c on e
a ,

i s p a r a ll e l t o X Y n d a t a d i ta n ce fr om i t e qu l t o t h e d i s ta n ce of
, , a
s a

vr i n
( )
1 f r om X Y Al s o t h e p l n o f t h e ba se of t h e c on e i s a n e ll i p s e
. a

wh os e m aj o r a x is i s a t ri ght a n gle s t o vr an d e qu al i n le n gt h t o t he
d i m e te r of t h e b as e of t h e c on e T h e m i n o r x i s b i s e c ts t h e m j o r
a . a a

a x i s at r i gh t an gl e s an d i t s l e n g th i s fo u n d by p roj e c t o rs fro m ( 2) a s
s h ow n .
 THE S P HERE , CYL I N D ER , AN D CO NE 259
5

T aki n g t h i rd g r ou n d l i n e X Y i n cl i n e d t o W i n t h e p l an
a 2 2

a n e w e l e v a t i o n of t h e x is o f t h e c on e i s fi r s t ob ta i n e d t h e d i s t n ce
’ ’
v r ,
a ,
a s

of
’
n d r in
v a
( )
4 ’
f r om X Y b e i n g e qu l t o t h e d i s t n c e s o f v
, ,,
nd a a
’
a 7
"

r e s pe c t i ve ly i n ( 2) from X Y B efor e g oi ng fur th e r w i th t h e e l e v

, , . a

t i on t k e an oth e r grou n d l i n e X Y p r all e l t o

a i n ( 4) n d 3 3 a
' ’
vr a

dr w e a n ew pl n of t he xis of t h e c o ne s h o w n i n
a r a a T he a s

d is tan ce s of v n d i n ( 5)fro m X Y e e qu l t o t h e d i s t n ce of v
a r 3 3 ar a a s

a nd r e s p e c ti ve ly i n ( 3) from X Y T he n e w pl n ( 5) be i n g o n
r , z . a a

pl an e p r ll e l t o t h e ax is of t he con e w i ll be an i sos c e l e s t r i a ng l e
a a

FIG . 506 .

i n ( 2) an d m ay h e r e fo r e n ow be dr a w nt T he ax e s of t he e ll i p s e i n .

( )
4 ar e n e x d t
e te r m i n e d by pr oj ec o r s fr om _ 5 as s h o w n , j u s
( ) t
a s t he t
a x es of t he e ll i p s e i n
( )
3 w e r e o bt a i n e d by pr oj e c o r s fr om t
I n s t e a d of fi n d i n g t h e a x e s of t h e v a ri o u s e ll i p s e s wh i c h a r e t he
p r oj e c t i on s of t h e b as e o f t he c o n e an d th e n c o n s ru c t i n g t h e e l li p s e s t
i n t he u s u a l way , a n u m be r o f p oi n s on t h e b as e m ay b e pr oj e c e d as t t
i s s h o w n fo r on e p oi n t N .

I f vr i n (3)an d v r i n (4)b e g i v e n a n d al s o t he di a m e e r of t h e b as e
' '
t
of t h e c on e i t i s obvi ou s th a t
by dra w i n g t h e pr oj e c t i ons (2)a n d ( 5)
t h e pr oj e c t i ons ( 3)a n d ( 4)m ay be c om pl e t e d
—
.

2 26 P l a n e S e c i o n s o f a R i gh
. t C i r c u l a C on e I n wh a t t r
foll o w s on ly t h e c urv e d s u r fac e of t h e co n e i s c o n s i d e r e d , t h e b a s e
p
be i n g s u p os e d t o be be y on d t h e l i m i s of t h e se c t i on or t h e p ar of t t
t h e s e c t i o n r e pr e s e n t e d Wh e n t h e e rm c on e i s u s e d ri ght
.
“
t
c i r c ul a r c o n e i s t o b e u n d e r s oo d t .

t t
I n s udy i n g t h e s e c i on s of t h e c on e i t i s n e c e s s a ry t o c o n s i d e r th a t
t t
t he s r a i g ht l i n e wh i c h g e n e r a e s t h e s u r fa ce i s of u n l i m i t e d l e n g h t
a n d c on s e qu e n t ly t
h a t t h e v e rt e x of t he c on e i s n ot at on e e n d of t he
ge n e r a i ng l i n e t T h e c o n e th e n c on s i s t s of t w o s he e ts ge n e r a t e d by t h e
.

t
p a rt s of t h e ge n e ra i n g l i n e wh i c h ar e o n O pos i e s i d e s of t he v e r e x p t t .

T h e t w o s h e e ts of a c on e ar e e x a c tly a l i k e a n d t h e a xi s of on e i s t h e
a xi s of t h e o h e r pr odu c e d t T h e t w o s h e e t s of a c on e a r e s h ow n i n
. .

Fi g 5 1 0 . .

T he fol low i n g ar e t h e v a ri ou s s e c t i ons o f t he c on e ( )

1 T w o .
 260 P RA CT I C AL G E O METRY

s tr a i g ht li nes wh e n t h e pl an e of s e c t i on p a s s e s thr ou gh t h e v e rt e x of
e wh e n t h e p la n e o f s e c t i on i s pe r p e n d i c ul a r t o
t h e c on e .
( 2 ) T h e c i r c l
t h e a x i s of t h e c on e s e wh e n t h e p la n e of s e c t i on c ut s
.
( )
3 T h e e llip
a ll t h e g e n e r a t i n g l i n e s o n t h e s am e s i d e o f t h e v e r t e x .
( )
4 T h e

hyp e r bola wh e n t h e pl an e o f s e c ti on ca ts both s he e ts of t he cone a n d

d oe s n ot p as s t hr o u gh t he v e r te x (5) T h e p ar a bola wh e n t h e pl an e
.

of s ec t ion i s p a r a ll e l t o a t an g e n t pl an e t o t h e c on e , or , t o gi ve a

c om m on bu t l es s e x a c t d e fi n i ti on , wh e n t h e pl a n e of s e c ti on i s p a r a ll e l

t o t h e s la nt s i de of t h e c on e .

T h e c i r c l e ( 2)i s a p a r ti c ul a r cas e of t he e ll i p s e a n d t wo s t ra i h t
g
l i n e s ( 1 )ar e a p a rt i c ul ar c as e of t h e hyp e rb ol a A s t h e pl an e of

FIG . 507 . FIG . 508 .

t i on t urn s rou n d fr om a p os i ti on wh i ch gi ve s an e ll i p s e t o a pos i ti on

s ec
‘

wh i c h gi ve s an hyp e rb ola i t p as s e s throu gh t he pos i ti on wh i c h gi v e s

a p a r a b ol a S e c t i o n s ( 1 )an d (4)ar e t h os e wh i c h li e on bot h s h e e t s of
.

t he c on e .

T he s ec ti ons w hi c h
w i ll n ow b e c on s i d e re d ar e t he e ll i ps e t he
, ,

p ara b ola an d t h e hyp e rb ol a

, .

Ta k ing t he e lli p ti c s ec ti on fir s t an d r efe rr in g t o Fi g 507 a c on e .

, ,

wh os e ax i s V S i s i n c l i ne d t o t h e h ori zon tal plan e b u t i s p ara lle l t o t h e

ve rti ca l pl an e of proj e c ti on i s cu t by a h or i zon ta l pl ane of wh i c h P Q
,

i s t h e v e rt i c a l tr a c e S a n d S a r e t h e c e n tr e s of t wo s ph e r e s
.
I

i n s c r i b e d i n t he con e a n d t ou c hin t he pl an e of s e c t i o n a t F an d F
g 1
26 2 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY
c on s t ru c ti on m ay a l s o b e u e d t o fi n d poi n ts on t h e ell i p s e of an e llip t i c
s

s e c ti on wh e n t h e c on e i s pl c e d s i n F i g 507
a a . .

A n hype rb o l i c s e t i on i s i llu tr t e d by F i g 51 0 T h e ax i s of t h e
c s a . .

c on e i s p r ll e l t o t h e v e rti c l pl an e o f pr oj e c t i o n bu t i s i n c l i n e d t o
a a a

t h e h o r i z on t l p l n e
a a A h ori zon t l p l n e wh os e v e r ti cal trac e i s
. a a

P Q c u ts b o t h s h e e t s o f t h e c on e T h e foc i t h e tr ns v e r s e a x i
. nd ,
a s, a

t h e d i r e c t r i ce s of t h e hyp e rb o l r e d e te r m i n e d a s i n t h e c as e of t h e
a a

e ll i pt i e c t i on Fi
c s 5 07
g . .

T h e hyp e rb ol m y b e c ons t ru c t e d fr om i t s foc i

a a n d t ran s ve rs e a

a xi s s d e s c ri be d i n Ar t 43 p 4 0 or p oi n ts s u ch as r an d r m y b e
a .
, .
,
a

PARABOLA HYPERBOLA

FIG . 509 . FIG . 51 0 .

fo u n d by t h e c on s t r u c t i on s h o w n a n d a lr e a dy e xpl a i n e d i n c on n e c ti on
w i th t he p ar ab o l i c s e c ti on .

T h e a s y m p t ot e s p a s s t hr o u gh C t he m i ddl e p oi n t of t h e t r a n s v e r s e
a x i s a n d a r e p ar a ll e l t o t h e s t r a i ht l i n e s wh i c h fo r m t h e s e c t i o n o f
g
t h e c on e by t h e pl an e U W thr ou gh t h e v e rt e x a n d p a r a ll e l t o t h e
i v e n pl a n e of s e c t i on P Q t a a n d an ar e t h e p l a n s of t h e l in e s wh i c h
g .

for m t h e s e c t i on of t h e c on e by t h e pl a n e U W , t h e p oi n t s n a n d a
b e i n g d e te rm i n e d i n a m an n e r s i mi l a r t o th at for t h e p oi n t s r an d r as
s h o wn . T h e l i n e s v n a n d m m ay h o w e ve r b e fo u n d by dra w i n g
t h e m a s t an ge n ts throu gh 1) t o t h e c i r c l e wh i c h i s t h e pl an of t he
s e c t i o n of on e of t h e i n s c r i b e d s ph e r e s by t h e pl a n e U W as s h ow n .
 THE S P HERE , C YL I N D ER , AN D C ONE 26 3

y pt t
T h e a s m o e s lc l a n d lcl m ay n o w b e a n o g c a a e dr w thr u h p r ll l
t o 1 m an d r m .

v l
2 27 C on e E n e op i n g a S p h e r e
. c on e w i c en e o s a -
A h h vl p
sph r w ll h v
e e i x p
a e i t s a is as s i n g o g t h e c e n e of t h e s thr u h
e e an d tr ph r
rv
t h e cu t t w ll
e of c on a c i be a “
sma ci c e of t h e s e e os e ll r l
an e ph r wh pl
p rp d ul r x
i s e e n i c a t o t h e a i s of t h e con e .

R rre fe
'
i n g t o Fi g 5 1 1 , 00 i s t h e ce n e of t h e s
.
’
e e a n d cv i s t h e tr ph r
v rt x
e e ph r
of t h e c o n e T he s e e an d t he
. e e of t h e c on e ar e s os ev rt x upp d
v
t o be g i e n tru t
T h e c on s
. c i on s for n in g t he o i on a fi d
a ce o f t h e h r z t l tr
pl
con e a n d t h e r l
a n of t h e c i c e of c on a c ar e s o n A n au i i a t t h w x l ry .

FIG . 51 1 .

l v ti on of t he c on e an d s p h e re i s dra w n on t h e pl an m of t h e ax i s of t he
e e a

c on e s
a
g r o
a u n d li n e v n i s t h e n e w e l.e v t i on o flt h
'
e a xi s o f t h e conea

a nd 0 1 th t of t h e c e n tr e of t he ph e r e T h e p oi n ts a an d b wh e r e t he
’
a s .

ta n ge n t s from c t o t he ci r c l e wh i c h i s t h e n e w e l e vati on of t he s ph e r e
l
'

m e e t m a r e t h e e xtr e m i t i es of t h e m aj o r ax i s of t h e e ll i p s e wh i c h i s t he
h ori zon tal t r ace of t h e c on e T h e m i n o r a x i s of th i s e lli p s e m u s t of co ur s e
.

b i s e c t a b t r i gh t an gl e s bu t i t s h ould b e n o t i c e d th t t h e m i ddl e poi n t

a ,
a

of a b i s n ot a t n t h e h o r i z on t a l tr a c e of t h e a x i s of t h e c on e T o dete r .

m i n e t h e l e n g t h of t h e m i n or a x i s of t h e e lli p s e wh i c h i s t h e h o r i z on t l a

tr ce of t h e c on c i b e c on s tru c t i on i s as foll ow s Throu gh e t h e m i ddl e

a
'

poi n t of a b dr w g e h a t righ t an gl e s t o c u m e e ti n g v n at g n d
a l
'
l
’
,
’

l
'
1
’
a
26 4 P RA CT I CAL G E O M ETRY
‘

r
'
, b at W i th ce n tre 9 an d ra d i u s g h d e s c ri b e t h e r c h f n d
h] .
1
’
l
’
l
'
a l
'
a

dra w ef at r i gh t an gl e s t o e h t o m e e t th i s r e t f ef i s e qu l i n ,
’
a a . a

l e n gt h t o t h e s e m i m i n o r a xi s T h e t h e o ry of th is con s t ru c ti on i s th a t
-
.

a s e c t i on o f t h e c on e p e rp e n d i c ul r t o i t s a x i s h a s b e e n t ak e n wh os e a

t race on t h e pl an e of t he a ux i li ary e l e v a ti on i s g h T h e tru e for m of l

’
l
'
.

th i s s e cti on i s a c i r cl e a p or ti on of wh i c h i s s h o w n tu r n e d rou n d i n to
.
‘

t h e p l an e of p r oj e c t i on T h e c h ord of th i s c i r c l e dr aw n t hrou gh c p e r
.

pe n di c u lar t o e h g i v e s t h e g re at e s t wi d t h of t h e con e at t h e l e ve l of t he
’
l
'

h or i z on tal pl an e .

T he l i n e c d j oi ni n g t h e p oi n t s of con ta c t of t h e ta n ge n t s f rom v
’ ’ ’
l , ,

t o t h e c i rc l e wh i c h i s t h e a ux i l i ary e l e va ti on o f t h e s p h e r e i s t h e
a u x i l i a ry e l e v a t i on of t h e c i r c l e of c on t a c t P e rp e n d i c ul a rs fr om c
’
.
,

a n d d t o 1 m d e t e r m i n e 0 a n d d t h e e x t r e m i t i es of t he m i n o r a x i s of t h e
'
l

e ll i p s e wh i c h i s t h e pl a n of t h e c i r c l e of c on t a c t T h e m aj or a x i s of th i s .

e ll i p s e i s e qu l t o t h e d i a m e te r of t h e c i r c l e of c on t a c t
a n d i s t h e r e for e a

e u al t o c d
' '
q l l .

T h e a x e s of t h e e ll i p s e wh i c h i s t h e e l e v a t i on of t h e c i r c l e of c on t c t a

a r e fo u n d b m k i n n ux i li ry pl f t h n d ph e r e o n a pl an e
y a g a a a n o e c o n e s a a

p rall e l t o t he a xi s of t he c on e s y on c u a s a gr o u n d l i n e T h e c on
a
,
a
' '
.

s t ru c ti on i s s i m i l r t o t h a t a lre ady d e s c ri b e d for t he pl a n

a T he .

ve r t i c l t r ace of t h e c on e m ay a l s o b e fou n d from t h i s s am e au xi l i ary

a

pl an .

2 28 P r oj e c t i o n s o f P o i n t s o n t h e S u r fa c e o f a R i gh t
C i r c u l a r C o n e —S upp os e t h a t on e p r oj e c t i o n s y t h e pl n
.

of a ,
.
a a r,

p oi n t R on t h e s urfac e of gi ve n r i ght c i r c ul ar c on e t o b e g i ve n a n d
a

th t i t i s r e qu i r e d t o fi n d t he ot h e r T k e an e l e va t i on of t h e a x i s of
a . a

t h e c on e on a gr ou n d l i n e p ar a ll e l t o t r (Fi g T k e a p oi n t 00 on '
. a

FIG . 51 2. FIG . 51 3 .

t he xis
t h e c o n e a s t h e c e n e of a s
a of tr ph r rb d
e e i n s c i e i n t he con e .

A us s m e vr t o b e t h e o i on a a ce o f a h r z t l tr
e i ca v r t l pl
an e Th v r t l
i s e i ca .

pl an e t
cu s t he s e e in a c i c e ph r
os e r l wh
i am e e i s e d a tr qu l
t o ac t he
t r pt
i n e ce of e r o n t h e a n of t h e s e e pl ph r
T h e e e a i on of l v t th
is ci c e r l .

r l
i s a c i c e wi i t s c e n e at o
'
th tr
i s s am e e Thi ca v r t l pl
an e cu s t h e t .
 26 6 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY

t o t he ve rt i cal pl n e of pr oj e c ti on T h e s ec ti on by th i s p l ane P Q i s an
a .

e ll i p s e wh os e m aj o r a x i s i s e qu al t o a a a n d wh os e m i n o r a x i s i s e q u l
' ’
l a

t o t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e b as e c i r c l e T w o p l n s of th i s s e c t i o n wh i c h
. a ,

a r e e l li p s e s a r e s h ow n t h e l o w e r o n e 1 on X Y a s a g ro u n d l i n e a n d
, ,
) ,

t h e u p p e r on e ( 3)on P Q s a g r o u n d l i n e a T h e l a t t e r pl a n s h ow s t he .

t ru e for m of t h e s e c t i on .
0

T o fi n d p oi n t s on t h e l o w e r pl n ( 1 )of t h e s e c t i o n t k e a h or i z on t l
a ,
a a

pl n e wh os e ve r ti c l t rac e i s S T a n d wh i c h c ut s t h e ax i s of t h e cyl i n d e r
a a

a t ad . T h e s e c t i on of t h e c yl i n d e r by th i s pl an e I s a c i r c l e e qu l t o a

t h e bas e c i rcl e .T h e pl a n of t h i s c i r c l e i s a c i r c l e wh os e c e n t r e i s 0 .

D ra w t h i s c i r c l e an d fr om t h e p oi n t of i n t e r s ec ti on of P Q an d S T
, r
'
, ,

dr w t h e pr oj e c t or er c u tt i n g t h e c i rc l e a t r an d r wh i c h r e p oi n t s
a r
’
a

o n t h e pl an o f t h e s e c t i on I n l i k e m a n n e r o t h e r p oi n t s m y b e fo u n d
. a .

T h e p l a n of t h e s e c t i on m y h o we v e r b e c on s t ru c te d fr om i t s a x e s a a
a l

a n d bb by t h e t r m m e l m e th od
1 a .

R e fe r r i ng n e x t t o t h e up p e r pl n ( 3)wh i c h s h o w s t h e tru e fo r m of a

t h e s e c t i on a a t h e m aj o r a x i s i s p ar a ll e l an d e qu a l t o a a
'
, l, ,
T he l

s e m i m i n o r a x i s e h i s e qu l t o t h e r d i u s o f t h e b as e c i r c l e a n d e r i n
a a 3)
i s e qu a l t o e r i n ( l ) .

A s e c t i on by pl an e L M whi c h i s p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e pri n c i p l
a a

s e c t i o n an d m a k e s w i th t h e a x i s a n a n l e 9 e qu a l t o t he a n g l e b e tw e e n
g
t he a x i s a n d t h e b as e i s c all e d s u b contr a r y s e cti on a n d i s
a c i r c l e e qu al
-
a

t o t h e b as e c i r c l e .

P l a n e s o f s e c t i on p ar a ll e l t o t h e ba s e or t o a s u b co n t r a ry s e c t i on -

ar e c ll e d c cli c la n es b e c u s e t h e s ec ti on s by th e se pl a n e s ar e
a
y p a

ci rc l e s .

S i n ce a s ec t i on of an obl i qu e cyl i n d e r by a pl an e a t ri g h t a ng l e s t o
i t s a x i s i s an e ll i p s e t h e o bli qu e cyl i n d e r i s e v i d e n t ly a l s o a i ght r

e lli ti ca l cy li nde r
p ( Ar t .

23 1 T h e O b li q u e C on e
. T h e obli qu e con e m ay b e ge n e r a te d by
-

a s tr a i g h t l i n e w hi c h m o v e s i n c on t a c t w i t h a fix e d ci r c l e a n d p a s s e s

thr ou gh a fix e d p oi n t wh i c h i s n ot on t he s t rai gh t l i n e t hr ou g h t he
c e n t r e o f t h e c i r c l e a t r i ght a n g l e s t o i t s pl a n e T h e fix e d p oi n t i s t h e .

v e r t e x of t he cone a n d t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e j oi n i n t h e v e rt e x t o t h e c e n t re
g
of t h e fix e d c i r c l e i s t he a x i s of t he cone A s e c t i on of t h e obl i qu e .

c on e by a pl a n e p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e pl n e o f t h e fix e d c i r c l e nd a a

c on t a i n i n g t h e a x i s of t h e c on e i s ca ll e d t h e p r i ncip a l s e cti on .

An o bl i qu e c on e i s s h ow n in Fi g 51 5 by a pl n ( 1 )a n d e l e va t i on . a

T h e fix e d c i r c l e i s on t h e h or i z o n ta l pl a ne of pr oj e c ti on a n d
m y b e ca ll e d t h e b a s e of t h e c on e
a T h e a x i s o f t h e c on e i s p a r ll e l
. a

t o t h e v e r t i c l pl a n e of pr oj e c t i on
a T h e pri n c i p l s e c ti on i s t h e r efore
. a

a l s o p r a ll e l t o t h e v e r t i c l p l an e o f pr oj e c t i on
a a .

P Q i s t h e v e rt i c a l tra c e of a pl n e of s e c ti on wh i c h i s pe r p e n a

di c u la r t o t h e v e r t i c a l pl an e of pr oj e c t i on T h e s e c t i on by t h i s pl a n e .

P Q I s a n e ll i p s e wh os e m aj o r x i s i s e q u a l t o a a T w o pl an s of thi s
'
a

s e c t i on wh i c h ar e e lli p s e s ar e s h ow n t h e l o w e r on e ( 1 )o n X Y as a
, , ,

r u d l upp r on P Q r u n d li ne T h e l tte r
g o n i n e a n
, d t h e e o ne
( )
3 s a
g o a . a

pl an s h o w s t h e tru e f orm of t h e e c t i on s .

T o fi n d p oi n ts on t h e l o w e r pl n ( 1 )of t h e s e c t i on ta k e a h or i z on t a l
a ,
 T H E S P HERE , CYL I N D ER , A N D C O NE 26 7

pl wh os e v e r ti c l tr ac e i s S T an d w h i c h c ut s t he a x i s of t h e
an e a

T h e s e c t i on of t h e c on e by t h i s pl n e i s a c i r c l e wh os e
’
c on e a t c c . a

d i am e te r i s t he i n te r c e pt of S T on
t h e e l e v ti on of t h e c on e a T he .

p l n of th i s c i r c l e i c i r c l e wh os e
a s a

c e ntr e i s 0 D r w th i s ci r c l e an d . a

f r o m r t h e p oi n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n
'
,

of P Q nd ST dra w th e pr oj e c to r
a ,

r e r c utt i n r l
'
g t h e c i c e a t an d r r ,

wh i c h a r e po i n ts on t he pl an of
t h e s e c ti on I n l i k e m an n e r ot h e r
.

poi n t s m ay be fou n d T he abo v e .

co n s t ru c t i o n wh e n ppl i e d t o t he a

p oi n t c wh i c h i s t h e m i ddl e p oi n t
'

of a a
g i v es
’
t h e m l i n o r a x i s bb of
’
,

t h e e ll i p s e wh i c h i s t h e pl an of t h e
s e c ti on .

R e fe rri ng n e x t t o t h e pl an ( 3)
wh i c h s h ow s t he t ru e for m of t h e
s e c t i on aa t h e m j o r a x is
, l,is a ,

pa ra ll e l an d e qu l t o a a T he a
'
l
'
.

s e m i m i n or ax i s -
h in ( 3)i s e qu a l c

t o ch i n al s o e r i n qu l
( )3 i s e a

t o er in FIG 51 5 . .

A s e c t i on by a pl ane L M
wh i c h i s p e rp e n d i c ul r t o t h e pr i n ci p al s e c ti on an d m ak e s w i th t hea

a x i s a n an gle 6 e qu al t o t he n gl e b e t w e e n t he a xi s a n d t he ba s e i s a

c a ll e d a s u b c on tr a r s e c t i on an d i s a c i r c l e
y
-

P l an e s of s e c t i on p a r a ll e l t o t h e b as e or t o a s u b c on t rar y s e c t i on -

a r e c a ll e d c c li c l a n es b ec a u s e se c ti o n s by t h es e pl an es a r e c i r c l es
y p .

A s i n t h e ca s e of a r i g h t c i r c ul r c on e a s e c t i on of a n obl i qu e c on e a ,

by a pl n e wh i c h i s p a r all e l t o a tan ge n t pl n e t o t he c on e is a p r
a a a a

b ol aAl s o s e c ti on of a n obl i qu e co n e by a pl an e wh i c h cu ts b oth

. a

s h e e t s of t h e c on e i s n hyp e rb ol a a.

E x e rc i s e s XV I I I
1 r l (F i g 51 6) i t h pl
. T he f ci c eph r r ti ng n t h h i z t l . s e an o a s e e es o e or on a

pl an e H T d H T p r ll l t X Y
.
l t h h ri z
, an t l tr f tw p
2 2,
ll l a a e o ar e e o on a ac e s o o ar a e

pl T h pl { T i th h iz t l tr
,

an e s . f wh i h ]E e t i th
an e o tr f c , l s e or on a a c e co n a n s e c en e o

th ph r Dr w t h pl
e s d l v ti
e e. f th z f th
a ph r whi h li
e an an e e a on o e on e o e s e e c es

b twe th t w pl
een ese o an e s .

2 T h p r ll l l i
. H T d H T (F i g 51 7 )
e a a t h h i z nt l tr
e nes f I ,
an 2 2 . ar e e or o a ac e s o
t w pl o wh i h p thr ugh t h
an e s tr f ph r cti g t h h ri z
as s t l o e cen e o a s e e res n on e o on a

pl t h gi v
an e , i l b i g t h pl ef th ph r Dr w t h pl
en c rc e d l v ti e n e an o e s e e. a e an a n e e a on
o f t h l w r lu e f th ph r ly i g b tw t h gi v pl
o e ne o e s e e n e e en e en an e s .

3 Th i l (F i g 51 8 )i t h pl
. f ph r ti g t h h ri z n t l pl
e c rc e . s e an o a S e e r es n on e o o a an e .

H T i liI 1 d t 45 t X Y d H T p p d i l r t X Y
nc ne a th h iz
°
t l
o an Q 2 er en cu a o ar e e or on a

tr f t w pl
ac e s o whi h t i t h tr f t h ph
o Dr w t h pl n d
an e s c c on a n e cen e o e s er e . a e a an

l v ti f t h l w p ti f t h ph r wh i h l i b tw th t w pl
e e a on o e o er or on o e s e e c es e e en ese o an e s .

4 T h gi v . i l (F i g 51 9)i t h pl e f ph r
en tr 0 T h p i t
c rc e . s e an o a s e e , cen e . e o n s
a, a, b t h pl f p i t A A B
,
ar e i t upp r urf
e N nd S
an s oth o n s , , on s e s ac e . a ar e e
upp r d l w r d f v ti l di m t r
e an o e en s o a er ca a e e .
26 8 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY
Dr w t h pl f figur
a th urf m d up f thr r f g t ir l
e an o a e on e s ac e a e o ee a c s o r ea c c es

j i ni g N A N A AA d t h
o n f m ll i r l ABA
, , ,
an e ar c o a s a c c e .

Dr w t h t r gr phi p j ti
a f th i fi gu th
e h ri z nt l pl n
s e eo a c r o ec on o s re on e o o a a e

FI G . 51 6 . FI G . 51 7 . FI G . 51 8 . FI G . 51 9 .

thr ugh 0 T h t i fi d t h pl n
o . ti n f a n e v rt x S
s, f wh i h t h
n e a e sec o o a co , e e , o c e
fi gur i ph i l ti n
e s a s e r ca sec o .

5 Th h iz . t l n d v rti l tr
e or f pl m k ngl f 30 d 45
on a a e ca ac e s o a an e a e a es o
°
an
°

r p ti v ly wi th X Y A h m i ph r f 1 2 5 i h
es ec e diu h i t b. n th i e s e e o nc es ra s as s as e o s
pl d t u h i n g t h pl
an e a n f pr j t i n
o c Dr w t h pl n n d l v ti f t h
e an e s o o ec o . a e a a e e a on o e
h m i ph r
e s e e .

6 A qu r . f si h i d d ir l f a e o in h r di u t h nc tr f es s e an a c c e o c es a s, e cen e o
th ir l b i g t t h
e c c e tr f t h qu r f rm t h pl n f ph r wi th
e n a e c en e o e s a e, o e a o a s e e a

s q u r h l th ugh i t
a e o e F m thi pl pr j t t w l v ti n
ro .
gr d ro s an o ec o e e a o s , on e o n a oun
l i X Y p r ll l t
ne id f th
a a qu r d th
e th r n gr u d li X Y
o a s e o e s a e an e o e o a o n ne , ,
p r ll l t di g l f t h q u r Al fr m t h
a a e o a a on a d l v t i n pr j t
o e s a e . so o e s e c on e e a o o ec a

pl n gr u d l i X Y m k i g
an o a o gl f 45 wi th X Y
n ne 2 2 a n a n an e o
°
, ,“
7 A y li d r 2 i h
. c i di m t r n d 3 i h l ng h i t xi h ri z t l
n e nc es n a e e a nc es o as s a s o on a
an d i l i d t 45 t t h v ti l pl n f pr j ti
nc ne a
°
Th y li d r i
o t i e er ca a e o o ec on . e c n e s cu n
h lv by v rti l pl whi h i i li d t 60 t t h xi f t h y li d r d
a es a e ca an e c s nc ne a
°
o e a s o e c n e an
1 5 t t h v rti l pl
°
o e f pr j t i n
e Dr w t h l v ti n f n f t h h lv
ca an e o o ec o . a e e e a o o o e o e a es

o f th y l i d
e cr n e .

(F i g 520)i t h xi s f h ll w y li n d r wh xtern l d i m t r
' '
8 . rs, r s . s e a o a o o c e , os e e a a e e
i 2 1 in h
s n d wh s
c i n t rn l d i m t r i 1 4 i
es a h s Dr w t h pl n d
o e e a a e e s nc e . a e a an
e l v ti n
e a o .

9 A pl n n d an l v ti n f a h oll w h lf y l i n d er wi th one en d c l os d
. a a e e a o o o a c ,
e , ar e

FIG . 520 . FIG . 521 . FIG . 522 . FIG . 523 .

gi v Dr w th pr j t
i n F i g 521
en a ese o e c i on s an d fr om t h e
.
an o ec an e e a i on pl pr j t lvt
r u dl I l d
on a g o n i n e n c i n e at 60 t o X Y
°
.

10 A pl lvt
an
( )
a an d e e a i on s (v) an d (w) o f a s o i ar e gi e n I n F i g 522 ld v . .

Dr w th pr t r pl pr j t lvt u dl
.

oj e c i on s an d f om t h e an e e a i on on a ro n i ne
a es e an o ec
g
p r ll l
a a e to rs l lvt
A s o fr om t h e e e a i on.
oj e c a an on a g o n h n e p e r p en pr t pl ru d
di c ul ar t o r s .

11 A pl lvt
an (1 )an d an e e a i on (2)o f a i g ci c a cy i n e W i t wo on gi r ht r ul r l d r th l
r v v Dr w th pr j t th r
.

t u di n al g oo e s i n i t ar e gi e n i n F i g 523 a es e o e c i on s an d add o e s . .
27 0 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

di am e e tr i pl
,
r the sp t
an o f a oi nupp r ur
on t h e e s l dr
fac e o f t h e c y i n e an d 3 I s
th e e e l v ti a p t on o f a oi n r t ur
on t h e f on sF d fac e
'
i n r an d 3F d l i n a so t hepl an s . .

an d l v ti
e e a p t
on s o f t h e tr t l w th
' '
o i n s o f i n e s e c i o n o f t h e i n e a b, a b i ur
t he s fac e o f
th e c y li d r n e .

1 7 Th . l v ti f li d m d up f t w tru t d i ght i r l r
e e e a on o a so i a e o o nca e r c cu a co n e s s

gi v en i F i g 527n Dr w t h pl f t h li d S h w l t h pl f t h
. . a e ti
an o e so . o a so e an o e sec on
o f th li d by pl whi h i p p di ul r t t h v ti l pl
e so a an e c f pr j t is er en c a o e er ca an e o o ec on
an d wh i h h VT f
c i t v ti l tr
as or s er ca ac e .

1 8 A i ght i r u l r
. r b 25 i c h i d i m t r d lti tu d 2 i h
c a c on e , as e nc es n a e e an a e nc es ,
li wi th i t l t i d
es s s anth g u d Dr w t h pls e on f th e d h w th ro n . a e an o e c on e an s o e

pl f tr i ght l i whi h li
an o a s a th urf f th
ne d i i
c l i d t 45
e s on e s ac e o e c on e a n s nc ne a
°

t t h gr u d
o e o n .

1 9 T h pl . d e l v ti f i ght i ul
an an an e e wh xi i v ti l
a on o a r c rc ar c o n e , os e a s s er ca
an d whi h h ctri g l r h l thr ugh i t
as a gi v
an i
u a F i g 528 Dr w th
o e o ,
ar e en n . . a e se

p j ti
r o ec d dd on s an l v ti ga u d l i i l i
an e e d t 4 5 t
a X Y on o n a ro n ne nc ne a
°
o .

20 A pl . d l v t i f qu r t wi th
an an an e e i l h mf ra on o gi v a s a e nu a c on c a c a e ar e en

in F i g 529 .D w th pr j ti . d dd
ra l v ti e se g d li
o ec on s an a an e e a on on a r oun ne
p ll l t
ar a e d i g l f t h pl
o on e Al pr j t fr m t h giv l v ti
a on a o e anw . so, o ec o e en e e a on a n e
pl a n on a g un d l i iro li d t 60 t ne nc ne a
°
o r s
' '
.

21 A .
q u i l t r l
n e tr i g l f 2
a ei h i d
a i t h lanv t i ef i g ht o nc es s e, s e e e a on o a r
c i r ul r
c a b th
c on e , l v ti f th b
a
' '
b i g p r ll l t
e e e XYa A ir l
on o e as e e n a a e o . c c e
insc ri b d i t h tri gl i t h l v ti f pl
e n e an ti f t h
e s D w
e e e a on o a an e s e c on o e con e . ra

t h pl
e f th
an o ti e sec on .

22 A i ght i r u l r
. r b 2 i c h d i m t r lti tud 25 i h li
c a c on e , as e nc es a e e ,
a e nc es , es

wi th i t l t i d s s an t h h ri z t l pl
s e Th on i d i vi d d b y
e o v rti lon a an e . e c on e s e a e ca

pl whi h p
an e thr ugh t h
c tr f t h b
as s e s d wh o h ri z t l t e cen i e o e a s e an os e o on a r ac e s
inc li d t 30 t t h pl f t h xi Dr w t h l v ti f t h l rg r p t f
ne a
°
o e an o e a s . a e e e a on o e a e ar o
th e c o n e on a pl p ll l t t h pl an ef ti ar a e o e an e o sec on .

23 .
( F i g
vr , v r5 30 ) i
’
t h x
’
i f i ght i r
. l r s b i g t h
e a v t x s o a r c cu a c on e , vv
'
e n e er e

an d rrth
'
t f th b e cen r e o Th t wi th i t l t i d e as e . th h ri e c on e r es s s s an s e on e o

FI G . 530 . FI G . 531 . FIG . 532 .

z ont al pl Dr w t h pl
an e d l v ti n f t h a n S h w t h p j ti
e an an f e e a o o e co e. o e ro ec on s o

pi whi h i 0 7 5 i h b v t h h r z n t l pl n
.

a o n tht ufon f th e s r ac e o e c on e c s nc a o e e o i o a a e

and in h d i t t fr m t h v rt x f t h
c es s an o e e e o e c on e .

2 4 T h gi v i l e b d ( F i g
en 53 1 ) c r c es a, h 2 i h d m t ran c . ar e e ac nc es In ia e e .

ir l tr i ght li HT i
.
,

Th ese c tuh c es th r d b t u h XY
o c on e an o d th e . a an o c an e s a ne s

t n g nti l t
a e ad i t h pl
o a an f lti tud 2 5 i h ; b i t h pl
c a s e an o a c on e , a e nc es s e an

l d r l th h pl p h r All th
.

f i 4 i d i t h f hd so s
o ay c g n e en nc
s
e s , an c s e an o a s e e . e e

t n d t h h ri z t l pl H T i t h h ri z t l tr pl wh h ut
,

s a on e o on a f an e s e o on a ac e o a an e ic c s

li d d i i li d t 45 t t h h ri z t l pl Sh w i pl
.

th e so s an s nc ne a nd °
o e o on a an e . o n an a

l v ti t h
e e a on ti f t h gi v
e sec li d by t h gi v pl on s o e en so s e en an e .

25 A l i d t fr m h ll w yl i d r i gi v i F i g 532 by pl n d
so cu o a o o c n e s en n . a an a an

l v ti Dr w n l v ti r u d l wh h p rp d u l r
.

e e a on g a ai i e e i a ion t X Y on a o n ne c s e en c a o ,

l l v ti r u d l wh h l d
.

a s o an e e g a i i i
on o n ai i t 45 t X
o Y n ne c s nc ne a
°
o .

26 S h w t h p i nt f i t ti f t h giv n li n b b (F g 533)W th ’ ’

e o s o n er s e c on o e e e a a i i
. o , .

th uf
e s f t h gi v
r ac e o n e en co e .
 ‘

T H E S P HERE , CYL I N D ER , AN D C O NE 27 1

A ph
27 i h i di m t
s er e t t h h iz
nc es t l pln d it a e er r es s on e or on a an e an s
tr i h i fr t f t h v rti l pl f p j ti A p i t th
.

c en ei s nc es n on o e e ca an e o ro ec on . o n on e

h ri z t l pl
o on a 3 75 i h in fr t f t h v rti l pl
an e , nc f pr j ti
es d 2 25 on o e e ca an e o o ec on an

i
nc h f m t h pl f t h
es ro tr f t h ph i t h v rt x f
e an o e ce n wh i h e o e s ere s e e e o a c on e c

en v l p t h ph r Dr w t h v ti l t
e o s e s e e f th a l t h pl e d er ca r ac e o e c on e , a so e an an

l v ti f t h i r l f t t b tw t h d ph r
.

e e a on o e c c e o c o n ac e e en e c on e a n s e e .

28 A i r u l ti f
c c bli q u y li d r i 2 i
ar s e c on o h i di m t r d t h
an o e c n e s nc es n a e e an e

xi f t h y l i d r i i li d t 40 t thi ti Dr w t h tru f rm f t h
.

°
e c n e s nc ne a o s sec on a e e o o e
a s o .

s ecti f t h y li d by pl p rp d i ul r t i t xi
on o e c n er a an e e en c a o s a s .

29 A bl i q u
.
y l
n oi d r i g i v i F i g
e c53 4 Drn w teh v rt i
s l tr f t h en n . . a e e ca ac e o e

FIG . 534 . FIG . 535 . FIG . 536 .

cyli d r th t i d t rm i t h
n e ,
a ti n f t h yl i d r b y t h v rti l pl
s, e e ne f e sec o o e c n e e e ca an e o
pr j t i
o ec Dr w l t h pl
on . d l v ti a f b tr ry ti
a so e an a n e e a on o a su -
c on a sec on .

30 A bl i q u
. i gi v
n o i F i g 535 Dr w t h pl
e c on e d l st h tru en n . . a e an an a so e e
f rm f t h p r b l i
o o ti f thi
e a a by pl o wh v rti l tr i P Q
c se c on o s c on e a an e os e e ca ac e s
an d wh i h i p rp d i u l r t t h v rt i l pl
c s e f pr j t i
en c Dr w l t h
a o e e ca an e o o ec on . a a so e
l v t i f t h hyp rb l i
e e a on o ti by t h v rti l pl wh h ri z t l tr
e e o c sec on e e ca an e os e o on a ac e
i RS
s .

3 1 Dr w t h pl
. d l v ti
a f th t i n f t h bl i qu
e an an
( i g 536 )
F e e a on o e se c o o e o e c on e
by t h pl wh tr
.

e an eH T dV T os e ac e s ar e . . an . .
 CH AP TER X IX

S PECI AL J
P RO ECT I O NS OF PL ANE F I GURES AN D SOLI DS

2 3 2 P r oj e c t i o n s o f a F i gu r e w h o s e P l a n e a n d a L i n e
—
. .

i n i t h a v e G i v e n I n cl i n a t i o n s .Fi r s t d e te rm i n e t h e trac es of a
pl an e con tai n i n g t h e fi g ur e T h e w ork i ng of t h e pr obl e m i s m u ch
.

s i m pl i fi e d by fir s t as s u m i n
g t h i s pl an e p e rp e n d i c u l ar t o t h e v e r ti ca l
l a n e o f pr oj e c ti on I n th i s p i ti on t h e e l e va ti o n of t h e fi gur e w i ll
p . o s

be a s t r ai g h t l i n e c oi n ci d i n g w i t h t h e v e rt i c a l t r ac e of t h e pl an e .

Aft e rw a rd s an y o th e r e l e va ti on m ay b e obtai n e d by Art 1 57 , p 1 91 . . .

D r a w L M ( F i g 537 ) m aki n g w i t h X Y an an gl e 9 e qu al t o t h e
'
.

i v e n i n cl i n a ti on of t h e p l a n e of t h e fi u r e D r w MN t h h r i z t l
g g . a e o on a
t r ace at ri gh t an gl es t o X Y I n t h e .

pl an e L MN plac e a l in e R S h avi n g
’

t h e i n c l i n a t i on a of t h e l i n e of t he
.

fi g ur e gi ve n (Art 1 7 4, p. .

N o w i m agi n e t h e pl a n e L MN ,
'

w i t h t h e l i n e R S upo n i t , t o r o t a te
a bo u t i t s h o ri z on t a l t r ac e MN u n t i l

i t c om e s i n to t h e h o r i z o n t a l pl an e .

T he p oi n t S b e i n g i n MN w i ll r e m ai n
s t at i o n a ry wh i l e t he poi n t R w i ll
d e s c ri be an ar c of a c i rc l e i n t he
v e r ti ca l pl an e of proj e c ti on w i th M
as c e n t re. H e n c e , if w i th M as
c e n t r e an d M r r a d i u s t h e ar c
'
as

b e d e s c ri b e d , m ee t in g X Y at
'
r Rl

R 1 , R 1 8 wi ll b e t h e pos i t i on of t h e
l i n e R S wh e n th a t l i n e i s br ou ght F 1 0 537
i n t o t h e h or i z on ta l pl an e
“
.

M a rk off on B 13 a l e ngth A ,B 1 e qu al t o t he l e n gth of th at l i ne of

t h e fi g ur e wh os e i n c l i n a ti on a i s gi v e n , a n d on A I B 1 c on s tru c t t h e
.

i v e n fi gu r e N o te t h a t t h e li n e AB of t h e fi gur e i s n ot n e c e s s a ri ly
g .

o n e of i t s s i d es , b u t m ay b e a n y l i n e wh a t e v e r i n t h e pl an e of t h e

fi g ur e an d oc c u py i n g a d e fi ni te pos i ti on i n r e l a t i on t o t h e fi g ur e .

N e x t i magi ne t he fi gu r e thu s draw n on t h e h ori zon t al pl an e t o r otat e

a bou t MN u n t i l i t s i n c li n a ti on i s 0 All poi n t s i n t he fi gur e w i ll
.

d e s c r i b e a r cs of c i rc l e s wh os e pl an s w i ll be s trai g h t l i n es p e rp e n d i cul a r
t o MN an d wh o s e e l e va t i on s w i ll be a r c s o f c i r c l e s h a v i n g t h e i r
ce n t r es a t M a n d h a vi ng ra d ii e qu a l t o t h e di s t an c e s of t he p oi n t s
27 4 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY
.

pl an e con tai n i ng t h e p oi n t s A B an d C i s s i m i l r t o t h at of t h e c on
, ,
a

s t ru c t i on g i v e n i n Art 1 8 7 p 21 9 wh i c h s h o uld b e gai n re fe rr e d t o

.
, .
,
a .

I t i s e vi d e n t t h a t t h e a n gl e s A RH n d A S E e t h e i n c l i n ati on s of
, a l
ar

t h e s tr ai gh t l i n e s AB a n d A C r e s p e c ti v e ly .

T h e p l n a bc n d t h e e l e v t i on a b c of t h e t r i n gl e A B C ar e
' ' '
a a a a

n e x t d e te r m i n e d a s s h o w n t he c on s t ru c ti on b e i n g t h e s am e as i n
,

Ar t 232
. .

I f A B C i s n ot t h e c om pl e t e fi g ur e g i ve n a fi g ur e e qu a l t o i t ,

m u s t b e bu i l t up on t h e t ri a n g l e T h e n t h e p r oj e c t i on s of t h e
re m ai n de r of t h e fi gure a r e Obt a i n e d i n t he s am e way s t he pr oj e c ti ons a

of t h e p a r t A B C .

2 3 5 P r oj e c t i o n s O f a P l an e F i gu r e w h e n i t h as b e e n
.

t u r n e d a b ou t a H o r i z o n t a l L i n e i n i t t i l l t h e P l a n O f a n
O p p o s i t e A n gl e i s e q u a l t o a gi v e n An gl e — L e t AB C D d e n ot e
t h e gi v e n fi g ur e A C t h e h o ri z on t a l li n e ab o ut wh i c h i t i s t urn e d
,
nd ,
a

B t h e an gl e wh os e pl an i s t o b e e qu al t o a g i v e n n gl e a .

Con s t ru c t t he fi g u r e a B c D (Fi g 539) e qu a l t o t h e gi v e n fi g ur e

, , .

AB C D On a c d e s c r i b e a s egm en t of a c i r c l e (Ar t 1 4 p 1 8 ) t o
. .
, .

con t ai n a n a n g l e e q u al t o th a t i n to wh i c h

t h e an gl e B i s t o b e pr oj e c t e d .

A s t h e fi gu r e r e v olv e s ab ou t A C t h e
p oi n t B w i ll d e s c ri b e an ar c of a ci r c l e
wh os e pl an i s a s t rai gh t l i n e thr ou gh B ,

p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o ac Le t t h i s p e rpe n d i c ul a r
.

m ee t t h e a r c of t he s e gm e n t of a c i r c le
wh i ch h as be en d e s c r i be d on ac at t h e
p oi n t b J oi n ab an d be Th e n abc i s t h e
. .

pl an of t h e angl e B wh e n t he fi gur e h a s
b ee n t urn e d as r e qui r e d .

D ra w X Y at ri ght a n gl e s t o ac m e e ti ng ,

a c pr od u c e d at a D r a w B b at r i g h t
'
.
, ,
’

a n gl e s t o K Y t o m ee t i t at Wi th
c en tr e a n d radi u s a b d e s c r i b e t h e ar c
' ' ’
a ,

a n d t hr o u h b dr a w a p e rp e n d i c ul a r
g
t o KY t o m ee t th i s ar e at b
' ' ’
a b i s t he .

v e r ti c al tr ace a n d aa i s t h e h ori zon tal t ra ce

'

of t h e pl an e con ta i ni n g t h e fi g u r e AB C D

wh e n i t oc c u p i es t he pos i t i on r e qui r e d FIG .

Fr om D dr a w D d pe rp e n d i cu la r t o K Y
, , ,
’

t o m e e t i t at W i t h c e n t r e a an d r a d i u s a d d e s c r i b e t h e a r e d d' ’ ’ ’ ’

, ,

t o m e e t t a pr odu ce d a t d D ra w d d p e rp en d i c u l a r t o X Y t o m e e t
' ' ’ '
.

a l i n e t hr ou g h D p aralle l t o X Y a t d J oi n ad an d cd abcd i s t he
, . .

pl an an d d b i s a n e l e v ati on of t h e fi g ure AB C D as r e qu i re d
’
.

2 3 6 P r oj e c t i o n s o f a S o l i d w h e n a P l an e F i gu r e o n i t
—
.

an d a L i n e i n
. t h a t F i g r h a v e gi v e n I n cl i n a t i o
u e n s T he
pl an e fi gur e m y b e a fac e o f t he s ol i d o r i t m ay b e a s e c ti on of i t
a .

Con s i d e r i n g t h e m os t ge n e ra l c as e t h e fir s t s te p i s t o d e t e rm i n e t h e ,

pr oj e c ti on s of t h e pl an e fi g ure a i n Ar t 232 p 27 2 O n t h e r b t s .
,
. . a a

me n t Of t h e pl a n e fig ure on t h e h or i z on ta l p l an e t h e fe e t of t h e
 SP E CI AL P R OJ E C T I O N S 27 5

pe rp e n d i cu l ars from t h e an gul ar poi n ts of t h e s ol i d on t he pl an e of

t he fi g ur e m u s t n e x t b e l oca t e d T h e ?proj e c ti on s of t h e fe e t of t h e e
. s

pe r pe n di c ul rs r e n e x t fou n d a n d t he proj e c ti on s of t he p e p e n
a a , r

di c u lar s c n th e n b e dr a w n
a . T h e pr oj e c t i on s o f t h e a n gul a r p oi n t s of
t h e s o l i d a e th e r e for e d e t e rm i n e d
r .

T wo e x am pl e s ar e i llu s tr a t e d by F i gs 540 an d 541 . .

I n t h e firs t e x am pl e (Fi g 540)a ri g h t s qu r e pri s m s i d e of b as e

. a ,

1 5 i n ch e s a lt i t ud e 1 8 i n c h e s i s s h o w n wh e n i t s b as e i s i n c l i n e d at 50
°
, ,

a n d on e s i d e o f t h a t b as e i s i n c l i n e d a t T h e pl an a bcd n d e l e v a a

t i on of t h e s qu a r e b a s e a r e fir s t d e t e rm i n e d as i n Art 232 p 27 2 .
, . .

I n t h i s c as e t h e fe e t of t h e p e rp e n d i c ul a r s fr om t he a n g u l a r p oi n t s of
t h e s ol i d on t h e p l a n e of t h e b as e a r e a t t h e a n gul a r p oi n t s o f t h a t b as e .

H e n c e i t i s n ow on ly n e c e s s ary t o dr a w from a b c an d d p e r p e n '

,
’
,
'
,
’

di c u l r s t o t he v e rt i c l tra ce of t h e pl an e of t h e b a s e a n d m k e t h e m
a a a

1 8 i n c h e s l on g i n o rd e r t o O bt ai n t h e e l e v a ti on s e f g a n d h o f t h e
' ' ’ ’
, , ,

o th e r a n g ul a r p oi n t s of t h e s ol i d T h e pl a n s of t h e s e p e r p e n d i c ul a r s
.

ar e a t r i g ht a n g l e s t o t h e h or i z on ta l t r ace of t h e pl an e O f t he b a s e an d
a r e t h e r e for e p a ra ll e l t o X Y .

FIG . 540 . FIG . 541 .

I n t he d e x am pl e (Fi g 541 ) a cu be of 1 5 i n c h es e d ge is
s e c on .

s h ow n wh e n t h e pl a n e of t wo d i a on a l s of t h e s o li d i s i n c l i n e d a t 6 0
°
g
an d on e of t h es e d i o n al s i s i n c l i n e d at T h e pl an e of t h e t w o
g a

di agon al s d i vi d e s t h e c ub e i n to t w o r i ht t ri an g ul a r pri s m s t h e
g ,

tr i an gul a r e n d s of wh i c h ar e e ac h e qu l t o on e h al f Of a fac e of t h e
a

c ub e. T h e c om m on fa c e of th e s e t w o t r i n g ul a r p r i s m s i s a r e c ta n gle
a
of wh i c h t wo oppo s i te s i d e s a r e e d e s o f t h e c ub e wh i l e t h e o t h e r t wo
g
27 6 P RA C T I C AL G E O M ETRY

si d es ar e d i agon a l s of o ppos i te face s of the c ub e an d t he d i a gon al s ar e

d i a go n a l s o f t h e s o l i d .

T h e pl a n a bde n d e le va ti on a of t h e r e c t an g l e whi c h i s t h e

s e c t i o n of t h e c ub e by t h e pl an e O f t w o O f i t s di a gon a l s ar e d e t e rm i n e d

by Ar t 232 p 27 2 I n th i s c as e t h e fe e t of t h e p e rpen d i c ul ar s from

.
,
. .

t h e o t h e r a n g ul r p oi n t s of t he c ub e on t o t h e p l an e O f t w o d i ag o n a l s
a

a r e a t t h e m i ddl e oi n t s o f t h e l on e r s i d e s o f t h e re c ta n l e AB D E
p g g
a n d t h e l e n g t h s of th e s e p e rp e n d i c ul r s a r e e ac h e qu a l t o t h e h a l f of a a

d i agon l o f a face of t h e c ub e H e n c e p e rp e n d i c ul a r s t o t he ve rti c l

a .
, a

tra ce of t h e pl n e of t he a b o ve m e n t i on e d r e c t n g l e fr om t h e m i dd l e
a a

p oi n ts of a b a n d d e n d e qu al t o h al f O f a d i gon a l of a face of t h e
’ ' ’ '
a a

c ub e d e t e r m i n e s t h e e l e v a t i on s c o th e r c or n e rs of
' ’ ’
c f an d
f of t h e , , ,

t h e c ube T h e p l n s of t h e s e p e rp e n d i c ul ar s r e p a r a ll e l t o X Y
. a a .

2 3 7 P r oj e c t i o n s o f a S o l i d w h e n t w o I n t e r s e c t i n g L i n e s
—
.

c o n n e c t e d w i t h i t h a v e gi v e n I n cl i a t i o n s D e t e rm i n e by
n
Ar t 1 8 7 t h e p l an e con tai n i n g t h e i n t e rs e c t i n g l i n e s wh os e i n
.
,

c li n a t i on s ar e gi v e n R b a t th i s pl an e w i th t he l i n e s up on i t i n to
. a

t h e h or i z on ta l pl an e by t u r n i n g i t ab o u t i t s h o r i z o n t a l tra ce On .

th e s e l i n e s thu s br ou gh t i n to t he h or i z on tal p l an e c om pl e t e t h e
pl an of t h e s ol i d n d th e n proce e d e x ac tly s i n Ar t 236
a a . .

2 3 8 P r oj e c t i o n s o f a S o l i d w h e n t h e H e i gh t s O f t h r e e
—
.

P oi n s i t n i t a r e gi v e n D e t e r m i n e by Art 23 4 t h e p lan e co n .
,

t a i n i n g t h e thr e e poi n t s wh os e h e i g h t s ar e gi v e n R ab a t th is pl an e .

w i th t h e p oi n ts u pon i t i n t o t he h or i zon ta l pl an e by t ur n i n g i t ab out

i t s h o r i z on t a l tr c e Abou t t h e s e p oi n t s t hu s br ou gh t i n to t h e h ori
a .

z on t a l pl a n e c om pl e t e t h e pl a n O f t h e s ol i d a n d t h e n pr oc e e d e x a c t ly as

i n Ar t 236 . .

2 3 9 P r oj e c t i o n s O i a S o li d w h e n t w o F a c e s A a n d B
'

,
.

w h i c h a r e a t R i gh t An gl e s t o o n e a n o t h e r h a v e gi v e n
cl
I n i n a i on st — I f on e of t h e t wo fa ce s r e fe rr e d t o i s a b a s e d e n ote i t
,

by A Fi r s t d e te rm in e L MN t he p l an e Of t h e face A t h e h or i zon t a l
.
’
, ,

t r ac e MN be i n g pe rp e n d i cu l a r t o X Y N e x t d e t e rm i n e by Ar t 1 94 . .
,

p 226 a pl an e L P N p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e pl an e L MN an d i n c l i n e d at
.
,
’ ’

a n a n g l e e qu a l t o t h e gi v e n i n c l i n a t i on of t h e fa ce B .

Fi n d LN t he l i n e of i n te rs e c ti on of t h e s e t wo plan e s N ow r ab at .

t h e pl an e L MN w i th t h e l i n e LN up on i t i n to t h e h o r i z o n t a l pl an e by
'

tur n i ng i t ab ou t MN On t h i s l i n e thu s br ou gh t i n to t h e h or i z on t al
.

pl an e c on s t ru c t t he fa ce A t h a t s i d e of t h e f c e A wh i c h i s adj ac e n t
,
a

t o t h e fac e B b e i n g m a d e t o coi n ci d e w i t h t h e l i n e a n d th e n pr ocee d ,

e x ac t ly a s i n Ar t 236 . .

2 4 0 P r oj e c t i o n s O f a S o l i d w h e n t w o F a c e s A a n d B
. ,

w h i c h a r e n o t a t R i gh t An gle s t o o n e a n o t h e r h a v e gi v e n
—
,

cl
I n i n a i on st I f on e of t h e t w o fac e s i s a b as e d e n o te i t by A
. .

F i rs t d e t e rm i n e L MN t h e pl an e Of t h e fac e A t h e h or i zon ta l trac e

’
, ,

MN b ei n g p e rpe n d i c ul a r t o X Y Ne xt d e te rm i n e by Art 1 94 p 226 . .

,
.
,

a pl a n e L P N h a vi n g a n i n c l i n a t i o n e q u a l t o t h t of t h e fa c e B
'
nd a a

m a k i n g w i th t h e pl n e L MN a n a n g l e e qu a l t o t h e a n gl e be tw e e n t h e
'
a

fa c e s A an d B T h e p r oc e dur e i s n ow t h e s am e a s i n t h e s ec on d
.

p a r ag raph of t h e pr ece d i n g Ar ti c l e .
27 8 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY
19 Dr w t h pl f t h li d giv i n Fi g 37 2 p 196 wh t h b i i
. a e an o e so en .
, .
,
en e as e s n
c li n e d t 50 ad di g l f t h b i i li d t
°
an on e F m thi pl
a on a O e as e s nc ne a ro s an

p j t
ro ec l v t i n gr un d l i p r ll l t t h pl f t h d i g l wh i h
an e e a on o a o ne a a e o e an O e a on a c
i i
s li n d t
nc e a

20 A i ght p yr m i d h
. r f b rg l rp tg
a f wh i h t h d i g
as l or as e a e u a en a on o c e a on a s
m u 25i h
e as re T h v rt x i 2 i n h
nc es b v th b
. Dr w t h pl
e e d e s c es a o e e as e . a e an an

l v ti
e e a f t h py r m i d wi th i t b a
on o e i pl i l i d t 55 t t h v ti l
a , s se n a an e nc ne a
°
o e er ca

pl n d t 60 t t h h i z t l pl ;
a e an a
°
o d i g l i n li d t
e or d on a an e on e a on a c ne a an on e

e n d f th t d i g n l i
o a t h v ti
a l pl
o a n e er ca an e .

2 1 T w di g . l f ub f 2 i h d g
o a on a s O i l i d t 35 t t h h ri
a c e o nc es e e ar e nc ne a
°
o e o
t l pl
z on a Dr w t h pl f t h ub
an e . a e an O e c e .

22 A ri ght pri m 3 i n h
. l g h f i t n d r gul r h x g
s cf 125 es on as or s e s e a e a on s O
inc h i d AB i
es s e, dg f d d EH i
s an e f th l g dge o Dr w t h
on e e n an s on e O e on e es . a e
pl n f thi pri m wh t h h i ght f t h p i t A B d H b v t h h i
a O s s en e e s O e o n s , ,
an a o e e or

z en t l pla 02 i h 1 i h d 2 5 i h r p ti v l y
an e a r e nc ,
nc ,
an nc es es ec e .

2 3 AB C i t h b
. f py m i d d V i t v t x AB 2 5 i h AC
s e as e O a ra an s er e . nc es ,
2i h BC
nc es, i h AV CV 3 i h d BVnc 25 i h
es, Dr w nc e s , an nc es . a

t h ple f t h py m i d wh
an O eAi in h
ra B 25 i h d C 1 in h b v
en s c es , nc es an c a o e

t h h ri z
e o t l pl on a an e .

24 Dr w t h pl n f ub f 2 i n h dg wh n n f i i n li d t 55 °
. a e a O a c e O c es e e e o e ac e s c ne a

a nd th r f i i n li d t
an o e ac e s c ne a
25 O f
. f ne r gu l r t t h dr n f 2 5 i n h dg i i li d t 45 d
ac e O a e a e ra e o o c es e e s nc ne a
°
an

a n tho f er i i n lin d t
ac e s Dr w t h pl f t h t tr h dr
c e a a e an o e e a e on .
 CH AP TER XX
HORI Z ONT AL PROJ ECT I O N
24 1 F i gu r e d P l a n s
. .
—
I f t h e pl an O f a p o i n t i s g i ve n , a n d
a ls o i t s d i s t an ce fr om t h e h o ri z on ta l p l a n e , t h e p os i ti on of t h e
p o in t i s fix e d w i th out s h ow i n g a n e l e v a tion of i t T he d i s tan ce of .

t h e p oi n t fro m t h e h o ri zon ta l pl a n e i s s h o w n by p l ac i n g a n u m b e r
or i n d e x a dj a ce n t t o i t s pl an F or e x a m pl e , i f t h e p oi n t i s 6
.

u n i ts a b ov e t he h ori z on ta l pl an e t he fi g ur e 6 i s pl a ce d adj a c e nt t o i t s
pl a n , a nd i f t h e pl an i s a ls o l e t t e r e d t h e fi g ur e i s pl ace d t o t h e r ig ht of
t h e l e t te r a n d at a s l i ghtly l o w e r l e v e l thu s , a, I f t he n e ga t i v e o r .

m i n u s s i gn b e p l a c e d i n f r o n t of t h e i n d e x th i s d e n o te s t h a t t he gi ve n
d i s t an c e i s be low t h e h or i zon ta l pl an e Thu s , a po i n t wh os e pl an i s
.

m a rk e d 6 o r a 6 i s 6 u n i ts be l o w t h e h or i z on t a l pl a n e
. A p l an .

s u c h as h a s be e n d e s c r i be d i s c a ll e d a fi gu r e d p la n o r i nde x e d lan
p
o
.

I f t h e pl a n o f a s t r a i g ht l i n e i s gi ve n a n d a l s o t h e fi g u r e d
pl an s of t wo poi n ts i n i t , i t i s obvi o u s th at t he l i ne is c om pl e t e ly
fix e d .

t
I n hor i z ont a l p r oj e cti on p o i n s a n d l i n e s a r e s h o w n by h e i r fi gu r e d t
t
pl a n s T he fo r m a n d po s i i on o f a c u rve d l i n e c a n on ly be s h o w n i n
.

t t
h or i z on a l proj e c i on by g i vi ng t h e fi gur e d pl an s of a s u ffi c i e n t n u m b e r
o f po i n s i n i t t .

24 2 S c a l e s o f S l op e
. I t h as a lr e a dy be e n s h ow n h a t pl a n e s
.
-
t
t
m ay be r e pr e s e n e d by th e i r tr a c e s o n t h e c o o rd i n a e pl a n e s In -
t .

t t p
h ori z on a l proj e c i on , pl an e s ar e r e res e n t e d by h e i r s cales of s lop e t .

T h e s c ale of s l op e of a pl an e i s r e a lly t h e fi g ur e d l an of a s r ai g h p t t
l i ne lyi n g i n t he pl an e a n d pe rpe n d i c u l ar t o t he h or i zon t a l race Of t he t
t t
pl an e I f a s ra i gh l i n e be gi ve n a n d i t i s u n d e r s ood h a t a l an e
. t t p
t t p
wh os e h or i zon a l r ace i s e rpe n di c ul a r t o t he l in e con ai n s t h e l i n e t
t
th e n i t i s O bv i ou s th a t he pl an e i s c om pl e e ly t
fix e d T o S h o w th a t he gi ve n l i n e r e pr e s e n t s a
. t
p l an e an d n ot s i m ply a l i n e a s e c on d a n d th i c k e r
l i n e i s rul e d n e a r t o a n d p a ra ll e l t o i t I t i s .

u s u al t o pl a ce t he th i c k e r Of t h e t wo l i n e s t o t h e
l eft of t h e o th e r wh e n l ook e d at by a p e rs on
as ce n d i n t h e pl n e
g a .

F i g 542 s h o w s t h e c on n e c i on b e w e e n t h e
. t t
s ca l e of s le e a b a n d t h e
p r a c es L
'
M ,
MN t
o f a

pl an e T h e n um b e r s at t h e d i ffe r e n t poi n s of
.
FIG 542 t . ,

t t
t h e s c al e d e n o e t h e d i s a n c e s of h e s e p oi n s t t
fr om t h e h or i z on a l pl a ne t .
 80 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY

2 4 3 A p p l i c a t i o n s o f H o ri z o n t a l P r oj e c t
. i on —Mos t of t h e

pr obl e m s on poi n ts , l i n e s a n d pl an es c an b e w ork e d a s c o n v e n i e n tly by

h or iz on ta l pr oj e c ti on a s by o rd i n a ry pl an an d e l e va t i on , bu t i t m ay b e
ob s e rv e d th a t a l t h o u g h t h e s o lu t i on of a pr obl e m m a y b e g i v e n b y a

fi gu r e d pl an on ly t h e work i n g m ay i n v o lve c on s t ru c ti on s wh i c h ar e
e qu i va l e n t t o t h e dr a w i n O f o n e or m or e e l e va t i on s
g .

As t h e pr i n c i pl e s i n v olv e d i n t h e s o l u ti on o f pr obl e m s o n poi n ts ,

l i n e s , a n d pl an e s ar e ge n e r a lly t he s am e wh e th e r t h e y a r e s olve d by
p l a n a n d e l e vati on or by h or i z on ta l pr oj e c ti on , a s e le c t i on Of a fe w
p r o bl e m s o nl y w i ll b e t a k e n i n t h i s c h a p t e r t o i llu s tr a t e t h e m e t h od of

h ori z on tal p r oj e c ti on
—
.

2 4 4 S i m p l e P r o b le m s o n t h e S t r a i gh t L i n e
.
Le t a 4b,3
fi ur d pl s tr a i h t l i n e AB F rom a a n d b
( g
F i .5 4 3) b e t h e g e a n o f a g .

dr a w p e rp e n d i c ul a r s t o a b, a n d m ak e t h em
r e s p e c ti v e ly e qu al t o t h e i n di c e s of a a n d b .

T h e l i n e A ,B , j oi n i n g t h e top s of t h e s e p e r
p e n d i c u lar s w i l l h a v e a l e n g t h e qu al t o t he

t r u e le ngth of AB . T h e a n g l e be t w e e n A , B 1
a n d a b w i ll m e a s ur e t h e i ncli na t i on o f AB ,

a n d t h e p oi n t wh e r e A , B 1 m e e t s a b w i ll be

t h e hori z on ta l t r a ce of AB . I t i s e vi d e n t th a t FIG 543

t h e i n d e x o f t h e h o r i z on t a l t r a c e o f a l i n e i s
. .

0 . I f on e of t h e i n d i c es i s pos i t i v e a n d t h e o t h e r n e g at i v e t he p e r
e n d i c u la r s a A 1 a n d bB 1 m u s t b e dr a w n o n opp os i t e s i d e s of a b
p .

I n t h e a b ove con s t r u c t i on A , B , m ay b e l oo k e d up on a s a n e l e vat i on

o f AB o n a b a s a r u n d l i ne , or i t m a b e t a k e n a s t h e l i n e AB
g o y
r e b a t t e d o n t o t h e h o ri z on t a l p l a n e a bo u t a b a s a n a x i s .

T h e t ru e l e n gt h a n d i n c l i n a ti on of AB m ay a l s o b e fou n d by
dra wi n g bP p e rp e n d i c ul ar t o a b a n d e qua l t o t h e d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n
t h e i n d i c e s o f a an d b . T h e l i n e a P w i ll t h e n b e t h e t ru e l e n g th of
AB , a n d t h e an gl e P a b wi ll be t h e i n c l i n a ti on of A B .

T o d e t e r mi n e a p o i n t e i n a b wh i c h s h a ll h a v e a g i v e n i n d e x , say
6 5, m ak e bQ e qu a l t o 6 5 , dr a w Q C, p a r a ll e l t o a b t o m e e t A , B , a t
C, . A p e rp e n d i c ul a r C, c t o ab d e te r m i n e s t h e p oi n t r e qu i re d .

T o d e t e rm i n e t h e i n d e x O f a gi v e n p oi n t e i n a b, dra w c C, pe r
n di cu lar t o a b t o m ee t A ,B , at C 1 T h e l e n g t h of c C, i s t h e i n d e x
p e .

r e qu i r e d .

T o dra w a l i n e thr ou g h a g i ve n p oi n t c5 ( Fi g 544) p a r a ll e l t o a

.

g i v e n l i n e a z bg , dr a w thr o u g h c a l i n e c d p a r a ll e l t o a b, an d m a k e

at ab . T h e i n d e x O f d w i ll b e 7 g r e a t e r th a n
5 t h e i n d e x o f c be c a u s e t h e i n d e x o f b i s 7
r e a t e r t h a n t h e i n d e x of a I f t h e l i n e cd b e
g .

pr o du c e d i n t he opp os i te d i re c ti on , a n d c c b e
m a d e e qu a l t o ba , th e n t h e i n d e x of e w i ll be 7
l e s s th a n 5 t h e i n de x of c b e c a u s e t he i n d e x
of e w i ll th e r e fo r e b e —
o f a i s 7 l e s s t h a n t h e i n d e x of b . T h e i n de x
2, or t he p oi n t e i s 2 F I G 544

—
. .

u n i t s b e l ow t h e h or i z on t a l p l a n e .

2 4 5 I n c li n at i o n o f 9 G i v e n P l an e
. . Le t a b ( Fi g 545) be .
28 2 P RAC T I C AL G E O METRY
Wh e re cd c u ts l p e d e t e r m i n es a p oi n t on i t h a vi n g
t he s c a e of s o l
t h e s am e i n d e x a s c o r d I f thro u g h a a l i n e b e dr wn p a r a ll e l t o cd
. a

t o m e e t t h e s c l e o f s l op e a p oi n t i s d e t e rm i n e d o n t h e l t te r h v i n g
a , a a

t h e sa m e i n d e x as a T h e s e t wo poi n t s on t h e s c al e of s l op e h a vi n g
.

b ee n fou n d t he s c l e m ay be gradu at e d i f r e qu i r e d
,
a .

2 4 8 I n a G i v e n P l an e t o p l a c e a L i n e h avi n g a G i v e n
.

I n cl i n a t i o n s o t h a t i t s h a ll c o n t a i n a G i v e n P o i n t i n t h e
P l a n e —L e t a b (F i g 549) b e t h e gi v e n pl a n e .

an d t h e gi v e n p oi n t Throu gh r an y p oi n t .
,

i n t h e s ca l e o f s l op e n o t h av i n g t h e s am e i n d e x
a s
p dra w r q p e rpe n d i c ul a r t o a b
, D ra w p Q .

i n a n y c on v e n i e n t d i r e c t i on s ay p a r a ll e l t o r
g , ,

an d a l i n e P at r i ht a n l e s t o Q M k
p g , g p e ,.
a

p Q ,e qu l t o t h e a d i ff e r e n c e b e tw ee n t h e i n d i c e s

of
p a n d r a n d dr, a w P Q m a k i n
g t h e a n gle , ,

P Q p e qu l t o t h e gi v e n i n c l in a ti o n
, , a W i th F g 549 .
x . ,

c e n t re an d r di u s Q d r i b n u tt i
p p e
a s c e a a r e c
, n
g
r
q at
q . i s t h e l i n e r e qu i r e d Ex ce p t wh e n t h e g i v e n i.n c l i n a t i o n
i s t h e s a m e s t h e i n c l i n a t i on of t h e g i v e n pl an e th e r e a r e o bv i ou s ly
a

t wo tr a i g ht l i n es wh i c h w i ll s a t i s fy t h e g i v e n c on d i t i on s
s

24 9 I n t e r s e c t i on O f T w o G i v e n P l a n e s —L e t a b n d cd
.

'

. a

( F i g 5. 5 0 ) b e t h e g i v e n p l a n e s Thr o u g h a a n d b a n y t w. o p o i n t s i n ,

t h e s ca l e o f s le p e a b dr a w t h e l i n e s ap a n d ,

bg t r i gh t a n g l e s t o
a b Thr ou gh p oi n t s a .

c a n d d i n ed h a v i n t h s a m e i n d i ce s r e
g e
,

s e ct i e l
p y v as a n d b dr w a l i n e s
pe r p en
,
a

di c u lar t o e d T h e l i n e ap i s t h e pl a n of
. a

h ori zon ta l li n e ly i n g i n t he p l an e a b cp i s b .

t h e pl n o f a h or i z o n t a l l in e ly i n g i n t h e
a

pl n e e d S i n c e th e s e l i n e s h a ve t he s m e
a . a

i n d i c e s t h e y a r e i n t h e s am e h or i zon t l
, F m 550 a , ,

pl n e th e r e fore th e y w i ll i n te r s e c t at a
a ,

p oi n t of wh i c h p i s t he p l an Th e r e for e p i s a p oi n t i n t he i n te r .
20

s e c t i on of t h e t w o pl a n e s I n l i k e m an n e r is . p oi n t i n t h e ,
a

i n t e r s e c ti on t h e r e for e t h e l i n e
,
i s t h e i n t e r s e c ti on of t h e gi v e n
pl n es
a .

I f t h e g i ve n s cal e s of s l op e ar e p a r a ll e l t h e ab ov e c on s t ru c ti on w i ll ,

e v i d e n t ly f i l b e c a u s e t h e h o r i z on t l s o f b o th pl n e s w i ll b e p ar a ll e l
a ,
a a ,

a n d th e r e fo r e n e v e r m e e t I n th i s c as e a t h i rd pl n e m y b e t k e n
. a a a ,

n ot p a ra ll e l t o e i t h e r o f t h e g i v e n pl n e s a n d i t s i n t e r s e c t i on w i t h
a ,

e c h O f t h e m fo u n d by t he m e th o d ju s t gi v e n
a Th i s d e te rm i n e s t wo .

l i n e s wh os e i n te rs e c t i on w i th on e n oth e r w i ll be a p oi n t i n t he a

i n t e r s e c ti on r e qu i r e d I t i s e v i d e n t t h at t h e i n te r s e ct i on of t he gi v e n
.

pl n e s i n th i s c as e w i ll b e a h or i z on t al l i n e t h e r e for e a l i n e pe rp on
a ,

di c u lar t o t h e g i v e n s ca l e s of s l op e thr ou g h t h e p oi n t fou n d d e te rm i n e s

t h e i n te r s e c ti on O f t he gi v e n pl a n e s
‘

I f t he t hi rd pl an e m e n ti on e d abo v e b e t ak e n pe rp e n d i c u l a r t o e ac h
of t h e i v e n pl a n e s i t w i ll b e a v e r t i c l pl a n e a n d t h e pl a n s of i t s a
g , ,

i n t e r s e c t i on w i th t h e gi ve n pl a n es wi ll c oi n c i d e an d n e l e va ti on of ,
a
 H O R I Z O N T AL P R O JE C T I O N 28 3

th e m m u s t b e dra w n t o d e te r m i n e t h e p oi n t wh e r e th e y m ee t Th i s .

e l e v t i on i s b e s t t a k e n on t h e t h i rd pl an e i t s e l f
a .

I f t h e gi ve n s c a l e s o f s l op e a r e n e rly p a ra ll e l t h e h or i z on t l s o f a ,
a

t h e pl n e s w i l l m e e t a t a v e ry c ut e n g l e
a n d i t i s m ore c c ur t e t o
a a ,
a a a

fi n d t wo p oi n t s i n t h e r e qu i r ed i n te r s e c ti on by t h e m e t h od e x p l i n e d a

for pl a n e s wh os e s c a l e s o f s l o p e r e p a r a ll e l t h a t i s by c u tt i n g e a c h of a , ,

t h e g i ve n pl a n es by t w o o th e r p l n e s a .

2 5 0 I n t e r s e c t i o n O f a L i n e an d P l a n e
. Le t a t (F i g 5 1 )
5 .
-

g ,3 .

b e a gi ve n l in e n d ed g i v e n pl n e
a T hr o u gh a n
y t w o p oi n t s a a nd . a . a

b i n t h e gi v e n l i n e dr a w t h e p r a ll e l l i n e s a r n d ,
a a

bq i n n y c on v e n i e n t d i r e c t i on
a Thr ou gh c n d 6 . a

d po i n ts o n t h e s c l e of l op e h av i n g t h e s m e
,
a s a

i n d i c e s as a a n d b r e s pe c t i ve ly dr a w t h e h or i ,

on t ls e r nd d m e e t i n g t h e p a r a ll e l s a r
a nd b
q a
z a
q ,

r e s pe c t i ve ly t r an d q J oi n r g T h e po i n t P
a . .

wh e r e t h e l i n e r q o r r q pr odu c e d m e e ts a b or a b
pr odu ce d i s t h e p l n of t he p oi n t wh e r e t he gi ve n a

l i n e m e e ts t h e gi v e n pl a n e .

T h e t h e ory of t h e b ov e c on s tru c ti on i s a s a

fo o sll w — a nd b
g a r e h o r i z on t a l s of a pl n e
28
r 28 a u “,
a

c on t ai n i n g t he gi ve n l i n e T he l i n e r n is F m 551
. . ,

e vi d e n t ly t h e i n t e r s e c ti on o f t h i s p l a n e w i th t h e

i v e n pl an e T h e p o i n t P i s th e r e fo r e a p oi n t i n b ot h pl a n e s a n d a l s o
g .

i n AB th e r e for e i t i s t h e i n t e r s e c t i on r e qu i re d
,
.

T h e i n t e r s e c t i on m y a l s o be fo u n d by t k i n g a n e l e va t i on of t h e
a a

l i n e an d pl n e on gro u n d l i n e p r ll e l t o t h e c l e of l o pe
a a a a s a s .

2 51 T h e N o r m a l t o a gi v e n P l a n e t h r o u gh a gi v e n P o i n t
—T he pl n of l i n e wh i ch i s p e rp e n d i c ul r t o a pl n e i s t ri gh t n gl e s
. .

a a a a a a

t o t h e h o r i z on t a l t r ac e o f t he pl a n e a n d w i ll th e r e fo r e be p r ll e l t o i t s ,
a a

s c l e o f s l op e
a .

T o fi gure t h e pl an of t h e l i n e ( wh i c h of c o ur e p as s e s t hr o u gh t h e s

fi gur e d pl n of t he p o i n t) d e te r m i n e t h e t race of t h e pl an e n d t he
'

a ,
a

e l e v t i on
a o f t he p oi n t on v e r ti c al p l n e p r ll e l t o t h e s c l e o f a a a a a

S l op e Throu gh t h e e l e v ti on o f t h e p oi n t dr a w a p e rpe n d i c ul a r t o t h e
. a

tr c e o f t h e pl n e t h i s p e rpe n d i c ul a r w i ll be t h e e l e va ti on of t h e
a a ,

n or m l a n d f r om i t t h e p l n m y be fi g ur e d
a a a .

2 5 2 T h e P l a n e t h r o u gh a gi v e n P o i n t p e rp e n di c u l ar t o a
—
.

g i v e n L i n e T a k i n
g t h e fi g ur e d p la n o f t h e line s
g r ou n d l in e a a ,

d e te rm i n e t h e e l e v ti on s of t h e p oi n t an d l i n e Thr ou g h t h e e l e v t i on
a . a

of t h e p oi n t dr w a l i n e p e rpe n d i c u l r t o t h e e l e v a t i o n o f t h e g i v e n
a a

l in e Th i s p e r p e n d i cul a r w ill b e t h e v e r ti c l t rac e O f t h e r e qu i re d

. a

pl n e T he s c al e of mpe Of t h e p l an e w i ll b e p r all e l t o t h e gi ve n
a . a

fi gure d p l an of t h e l i n e an d i t m y h e gr adu ate d fr om t h e v e r ti c a l t rac e

,
a

fou n d s ab o v e
—
a .

25 3 C on o u t .r Lin s e T h e pl an o f a p or ti on of t h e e a rth s
.
’

s ur fa ce i s m a d e t o S h o w t h e fo rm of t h t s urf c e v e ry c l e a r ly by a a ,

dr w i ng on i t t h e s e c t i on s of t h e s ur f c e by
a s e ri e s of h o r i z on t l a a a

p l n e s t e qu l d i t n c e s fr om on e an oth e r Th e s e s e c t i on s r e c ll e d
a ,
a a s a . a a

co nt ou s r c ont u r li ne s
r o I t i s e vi d e n t t h at t h e r e l t i v e c l os e n e s s of t he
o . a
28 4 P RA C T I CAL G E O ME T RY
t ur l i n e s s h ow s t he r e l a ti ve s te e pn e s s of t h e d i ffe re n t pa rts of t he
c on o

s ur f ce t h e s ur fa c e b e i n
a s tee pe s t wh e r e t h e c on t o ur l i n e s r e c l os e s t a
, g
t oge th e r I t i s u s u a l t o a ffix t o t he c on tour l i n es th e i r h e i gh ts bove
. a

s om e fix e d h o r i z on ta l pl an e .

2 5 4 I n t e rs e c t i o n O f a P l a n e a n d a C o n t ou r e d S u rfa c e
. .

F i g 552 s h ow s t h e s c al e of s l ope of a pl n e a n d t h e c on t ou r e d pl an of
. a

FIG . 552 .

a s u rf a ce T o d e te rmi ne t he i n te rs e c ti on of t he pl an e a n d t he s u r face
.
,

dr w t h e pl an s Of a n u m b e r of h or i z on ta l l i n e s ly i ng i n t he p l an e an d
a ,

h a vi ng t he s am e i n d i c e s a s t he c on t our l i n es T h e p oi n ts wh e r e t h e s e
. .

l i n e s m e e t t he c on to ur l i n e s h a vi ng t h e s a m e i n d i c e s ar e p oi n ts i n t h e ,

i n te r s e c t i on s r e qu i r e d T h e c om pl e t e i n t e r s e c t i on i s o b t ai n e d by dr a w i n g
.

fa i r c urv e t hrou gh t h e p oi n t s t hu s fou n d

—
a .

25 5 C o n
. t o u r i n g a S u r fa c e fr o m i t s E q u a t i o n A f o rm ul a

o r e qu a t i o n wh i c h c on t a i n s thr e e v a r i a bl e s i s r e pr e s e n t e d g r a ph i c lly a

by s ur face an d i n r e pr e se n ti n g t h i s s urfac e on p p e r a s y s te m
a a

of c on t o ur l i n e s m ay b e n e ce s s a ry A s n e x am pl e tak e t h e . a

form ul a H ,

h o rs e p o w e r H t r n s mi tte d by cotton r ope an d t he d i am e te r d of

-
a a

t h e r o p e i n i n c h e s a n d t h e v e l oc i t y u of t h e r op e i n fe e t p e r s e c on d ,

a ll o w i n g for t h e s t r e s s i n t h e r op e du e t o c e n t r if u l f o rc e
g a .

F o r e ac h d i m e t e r o f r op e t h e r e l a ti on b e t w e e n H a n d u i s s h o w n
a

by a pl n e c urve an d i f t he c urve s fo r r op e s of d i ffe re n t d i am e te r s b e

a ,

c on s t ru c te d t h e s e c urv e s w i ll b e c on to ur s of t h e s urfac e wh i c h
r e pr e s e n t s t he o ri gi n l for m ul T h e con t ours of t h e s urfac e c orr es pon d
a a .

i n g t o d i m e te r s of 5 n ch 1 i n ch 1 n c h es n c h e s 1 5 i n ch e s an d
; %
1 }
a i ,
i ,1 i ,
-

2 , ,

2 i n c h e s a r e S h o w n a t ( )F i g 553 b e tw e e n t h e l i m i t s 1
a . 0 an d c 1 20 ) ,
.

T o c on s t ru c t t h e s e c urve i t i s firs t n e c e s s ry t o c on s t ru c t by c a l c ul t i on
s a ,
a ,

t h e t abl e g i v e n o n t h e O ppo s i te p age .

28 6 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

IO 20 30 40 50 60 70 8 0 ? 90 mo "0 I20

0 IO 20 30 40 so so 70 so: 90
835-

FIG . 553
.

FIG . 554 .
 H O R I Z ONTAL P R OJ E CT I O N 28 7

p j t
A n O bl i qu e p ar all e l r o e c i on of t h e s urfa c e wh i c h h a s ju s be e n t
c on s i d e r e d i s s h ow n i n F i g 554 T h e s ud e n t s h o uld h a v e n o d iffi c ul y
. . t t
p
i n m a k i n g s u c h a r oj e c t i on a f e r h e h a s s ud i e d Ch ap e r X X I t Th i s t t .

pr oj e c ti on m ay b e v e ry re a d i ly dr aw n on s qu a r e d p ap e r, ak i n g t h e a x i s t
for d a t 45 t o t h e a x i s for v
°
.

t t
Wh e n t h e s ud e n dr a w s t he O bl i qu e p ar all e l pro e c i on s h ow n i n j t
F i g 554 h e s h ould p u t i n t h e add i t i on a l c on t ou r s s u gges e d w i h
. t t
r e fe re n ce t o F i g 553 . .

E xe rc i s e s XX

No te . Un less ot her wi s e s ta ted t he u n i t for t he i ndi ces i s or of an i nc h , so

t ha t an i n dex 25 denot e s a hei gh t of 2 5 i nc he s a bov e t he hor i z on ta l p la ne .

1 . p t
T wo o i n s a an d b i n t h e tr ht l pl h p rt
an O f a s ai g i n e ar e 2 i n c e s a a -

T he
dx Dt dx dx p t
.

i n e o f a i s 3 an d t h e i n e O f b i s 1 1 e e rm ine , 1
( )t h e i n e O f a oi n c i n
.

ab wh h h r pl
i c i s é i n c f o m a ; (2)a oi n d “ , i n t h e p t
l p t an o f t h e i n e
; (3)a oi n e “
i n t hepl l
an o f t h e i n e ( )
4 a pl
o i l p t
n f 2 in t he tru l th an o f t h e i n e ; ( 5 t h e
.

) e e ng
Of E F .

Dr w t
2 . a l
a r i an g e a 2 b 4 h ( a b .h i h
n c e s , be i n c e s , ca i nc es )
F d p t wh dx hw fi r d pl
.

in a oi n d i n be os e i n e i s 8 , an d s o the gu e an s of t wo
s tr ht l
ai g p thr u h B
i n e s as s i n g o g p r ll l A D
an d C , an d a a e to
A tr t l l
.

3 . s ai gh w th
i n e m aki n g an an g e O f 30ru dl th h r
°
i t he g o n i n e i s bo o i
v rt l tr
z o n t al an d e i ca pl hw
ac e O f a l
an e l p th pl
S o t h e s c a e of s o e o f
. is an e
hw l lp p r l l pl l d d t
.

4 S o t h e s c a e s O f s o e o f t wo a a l e
. an e s i n c i n e at t h e i s an c e
be tw pl
een t h e h
an e s b e i n g 07 i n c .

Dtr
5 . l lp p
e e m i n e t h e s c a e o f s o e of t h e tr l v xr
lan e o f t h e i ang e gi en i n e e c i s e 2,
l
a so t he tru h p tr l
e s a e of t h e i an g e .

u l t l tr l
6 An e q i a e r a
. h d
i an g e O f 2 5 i n c e s s i e h as
lrp t dxd
i t s an gu a oi n s i n e e hw
3, 1 2, an d 1 5 S o t he .

fi u d pl
g r e a n tr l
s o f t h e b i s e c o s O f t h e an g e s O f t h e
tr l wh h
i an g e O f ic v tr l
t h e gi e n pl i an g e i s t h e an .

Dr w la ll p wh h
a so t he e i se plic is t he an of t h e c i r
rl tr l
c u m s c r ib i n g c i c e O f t h e i an g e .

Dr w
7 . a l lp pl
t h e s ca e o f s o e of a wh an e os e
l t hw
i n c i n a i on i s 50 an d S o
0
fi ur d pl t he g e an O f a
t l wh h l
r i an g e AB C ic th pl
ies in is l an e T he inc ina .

t AB
i on s O f an d B C ar e 30 an d 45r p tv l
0 0
es ec i e y ,
t h e i n di c e s o f a , b an d c ar e 3, 24, an d 8 r e s p e c
t i v e ly .

8A pl . l d
an e i s i n c i n e h rz t l
at 35
°
to t he o i on a ,
l t p t upw rd
t he ines Of s ee es a t
s le p e go i n g du e E as .

A d pl
s e c on l t
an e h as an i n c i n a i o n O f t h e di r e c
l upw rd l p
.

t i on o f t h e i n e s of a rth
s o e be i n g du e N o .

pr t
R e e s en t h e pl l lp u t
an e s b y s c a e s O f s o e , ni for
h ht
eig s h h w fi u d pl
i nc S o t he g re
. tr an of t h e i n e
t pl
s e c i on o f t h e F d
an e s ur l
i n an d m e as e t h e an g e
.

be tw pl
een t he an e s .

9 F i g 555 i s a
. pl dr w
. an , l h
a n t o a s c a e of 1 i n c
t hw
t o 200 fe e , s o i n g at a , b t wo p A B lac e s on a 555 FIG
h l d ru d l d
,

u
. .

il s i e , t h e s r fac e O f t h e g o n be i n g an i n c i n e
-

pl p td
an e r e r e s e n e l l h ht dx
by a s c a e of s ope , e i g s b e i n g i n e e i n fe e da Fig t Dr w
l pl z p th
.

h t t
.

555 t o a s c a e o f 1 i n c t o 1 00 fe e an d add t h e an o f a z i g ag a c on n e c i n g
A B d up th
an d , ma
e tr ht l th
of r ee s t
ai g eng s of a c on s an t
i n c i n a i on e q a t o l t u l
hl t t
a f h ll dv t u ll h d
h a O f t h e i , an d e i a i n g e q a y o n e ac s i e o f a s ai g ine trr o gh ht l th u
A B A rt
an d s ce . u t t t l l th
ai n an d m e as r e i n fe e t he o a eng of is a th p th .
28 8 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

l AB d CD gi v by th i r fi gur d pl i n F i g 556 Dr w
1 0 T wo i n es
. an ar e en e e an s a
l f l p f pl whi h wi ll
. .

th e sca e o s o e o a an e c
t i t h l i CD d m k
c on a n e
gl
ne f an a e an an e o
1 5 wi th t h l i AB
°
e ne .

1 1 T h pl f i p i t
. e b an s o s x o n s a o, ,,
02 0, d fan t k in dr 25 , i tu t d t
a en or e ,
ar e S a e a
th e g l r p i t
an f u a
g l r hx g f
o n s O a re u a e a on o
15i h id Fi d th i t r t
nc es s e f th
. n e n e s e c i on O e
pl t i i g A C d F wi th t h pl
an e c on a n n
, ,
an , e an e
t i i g B D d E d t t it i
c on a n n
, , an ,
an s a e s n
c li ti
na on .

12 D w qu . b ra d f 2i h
a s ar e a 2 0 , 5 c , , o
o nc es
sid eD t rm i t h pl f t h ph r
. e e ne e an O e s e e on
wh urf t h p i t A B C d D
os e s ac e e F G 556
o n s an ar e I

i tu t d
, , ,
s a e .

1 3 Dr w t h fi g r d pl
. af th mm p rp di ul r t t h tr i ght l i
e u e an o e co on e en c a o e s a nes
AC d B D f t h pr
an di g x r i o e ece n e e c se .

14 b .
( g 557 )i t h fi gu d pl
F i
as o a,
06 0 f tr i ght r dw y whi h . s e re an o a s a oa a c
i t s b m d p rtly b y utti g
o e a d p rtl y b y m b km
e, a t th gr u n d c n ,
an a e an en , on e o

FIG 557 . .

wh u f i gi v n by i t
os e s t ur d pl
r ac e Th l pi n g f
s f th eutti g s c on o e an . e s o ac e s O e c n
and m b n km n t e t b i li d ta Dr w t h pl f t h i t r ti
e ar e f o e nc ne a a e an O e n e s ec on s O
th f ef th utti g d m b km nt wi th t h u f
ac e s o e c f th g u d n an e an e e s r ac e o e ro n .

Sh w l gr u d li v rti l ti
N B —
EF o a s o , on t LL MM nd N N as o n ne , e ca sec on s a , , a
F i g 557 i t b
. l rg d f ur ti m T h u i t i thi x r i i 1 f t
. . s o e en a e o es . e n n s e e c se s oo .

FIG . 558 .
 CH AP TER X X I
PI CT ORI AL J
PRO ECT I O NS
256 Pi o
. c t r i a l P r oj e c t i o n s — Si n c e t he o r t h ogr aph i c pr oj e c t i on
.

of a l i n e o n ly s h o w s i t s t ru e l e n gt h wh e n t h e l i n e i s p a r a ll e l t o t h e

pl an e of pr oj e c ti on i t i s u s u al i n m a k i n g wor ki ng dr awi ngs of a n obj e c t

, , ,

t o a rr a n ge i t s o t h at a s m an y o f i t s l i n es a s p os s i bl e ar e p a r a ll e l t o a t
l e as t on e of t h e c o o rd i n at e pl a n e s T h e O bj e c t i s t h e n i n a s i mpl e
~
.

p os i ti on Fi g 56 1 s h ow s a pl an an d t wo e l e va ti on s of a r e c t an g ul a r
. .

s ol i d wh e n t h e s ol i d i s i n t h e s i m pl e s t p os s i bl e p os i t i on i n r e l t i on t o a

t h e pl an e s o f pr oj e c ti on Th e se proj e c t i on s ar e v e ry e as i ly dra w n bu t
.
, ,

al t h o u g h th e y r e pr e s e n t t h e s o l i d c om pl e t e ly t h e y r e n ot at ll
,
a a
“
pi c tori al an d a s pe ci al tr ai ni n g i s n e ce s s ary b e fo re t he ob s e rve r
,

for m f rom t h em a c orr e c t m e n t al p i c t u r e of t h e Obj e ct .

FRONT ELEVAT ION . END ELEVAT ION

PLAN

FIG . 56 1 . FIG . 56 2 .

N ow le t t h e s o l i d b e t i l te d O v e r as s h own by t h e pl an a a n d e l e v a
ti on a , Fi g 56 2, an d le t a n e w e l e va t i on a , be dra w n i n t he m ann e r
'
.
’

e xpl ai n e d i n C h ap X I V . I t w i ll n o w b e ob s e rv e d t h a t t h e e l e va t i on
.

a , by i t s e l f g i v e s a m u c h b e tte r i d e a of t h e for m o f t h e O bj e c t th a n
’

an
y of t h e o t h e r pr oj e c t i on s s h o w n i n F i s 56 1 a n d 56 2, bu t u n l e s s a
g .

t t
m u c h s i m pl e r m e h od of dr a w i n g s u c h a p i c or i a l pr oj e c t i on th an h a t t
s h ow n i n F i
g 5 6 2 c
. a n b e d e v i s e d , a n d u n l e s s s om e s i m pl e m e h od o f t
 P I C T O R I AL P R O JE C T I O N S 29 1

m uri ng t he v ri u d i m
e as a o s t he O ec e n s i on s o f
i e c f om t h e bj t d r t r
aw i n
g dr
v
u h
c a n be gi e n , s c a i c o ia p t r l pr j t
o e c i on o b e of i e a w uld
e as a l t tl v lu
‘

sub t t u t
s i rd
e for o ina o ki n g ry w r
a i n gs dr w .

ub qu
I n t he s se en a i c e s of t rt l th h p t r th d
i s c a e , m e o s a r e de s c i e rb d
wh h bl
i c en a e t he dr a
g s m u ht
an t o m a e i k p t r l pr j t
c o ia o e c i on s esem i ng r bl
th t h w
a s o
’
n a t a , i n F i g 56 2 w i a m os . th l
as it l ttl t r ubl
e o e as i s e i e r qu r d
pl pr j
for t h e s i m e o e c i on s of t h e t k d h w
i n s o n i n F i g 56 1 , an d i t i be . w ll
u d th t
fo n a d
t h e i m e n s i on s of t h e o e c e bj t r pr
es en e td
m ay be e e m i n e d tr d
r
f om th p t r
es e ic o ia l pr j t
o e c i on s a s e as i asly r
f om t h e o i n a rd ry
pr j t
o e c i on s .

. h w
Fi g 563 s o s an i s ome tr i c p roj e cti on of t he s o i e es e n e in l d r pr t d
F i gs 56 1 an d 56 2, a n d Fi g 564 s o s a n obli qu e p a a lle l p oj ecti on of
. . h w r r

FIG . 563 . FIG . 56 4 .

t he sa m e so li d , an d a th e r of th e s e p i c to r i al proj e c ti on s
g l a n ce at ei

c on v e y s t o t he m i n d t o n ce c l ea r p i c t ur e of t he o bj ec t
a a S i n ce n o .

l in es ot h e r t h n t h os e s h ow n re qu i re t o b e dra w n an d s i n ce t he
a ,

d i m e ns i ons of l e ngth bre a dth an d th i c k n e s m y b e m e s ure d d i re c t ly

,
s a a

on t h e s e pr oj e c t i on s i t w i ll be s e e n t h a t s u c h dr a w i n g s m ay Of te n be
,

m os t u s e fu l .

T he t h eo r e m s u pon wh i c h t he m e t h od s of t h i s c h ap t e r d e pe n d

( )
1 P ar a lle l li ne s have
p a a lle l
p j o e cti ons r r .

) ar a lle l li nes ha ve e u a l i n cli na t i ons t o t he s a me p lane

( 2 P q .

( )
3 P a r a lle l li n e s a nd li ne s whi ch a r e e u a ll
q y i n c li ne d t o t he
p la ne of
r
o e c ti on have t he le n ths o
p j g f t he i p j r
r o e c t i ons to t he s a me s ca le .

t t
I n s a in g t he a o e b v th r e o e m s i t i s as s u m e d th ta t he pr j t r
o ec o s

ar e p r all e l
a t o on e a n o th e r
2 5 7 I s o m e tri c P r oj e e t i o n
.
.

—
Wh e n a s o l i d i s r e c ta ngu l a r e ach
.

e d e i s p a r a lle l
g t o o n e o r o t h e r of t hr e e l i n e s o r a x e s wh i c h re a

m u t u ally p e rpe n d i c ul r an d wh e n t h e s ol i d i s pl ac e d s o t h a t t h e s e
a ,

a xe s ar e e qu a lly i n c l i n e d t o t h e pl a n e of pr oj e c t i on t h e i r proj e c t i on s

m ak e an gl e s of 1 20 w i t h on e a n o t h e r °
n d t h e pr oj e c t i on s o f t h e
,
a

e d e s of t h e s ol i d m a
g y b e m e a s ur e d w i t h t h e s a m e s ca l e s i n c e t h e e d ge s
a r e p a r ll e l t o l i n e s wh i c h a r e e qu a lly i n c l i n e d t o t h e pl a n e of
a
p j
r o ec

t i on H e n ce foll o w s t h e s i m pl e con s tru c ti on s h ow n i n F i g 565 for

. .

m a k i ng n i s om e t r i c pr oj e c ti o n o f a r e c t an g ul a r s ol i d
a T he e d ge s o f .

t h e s ol i d m e e t i n t n e a n g u l a r p oi n t ar e t a k e n as a x e s a n d t h e i r
g a O
292 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

pl an s oa ob an d ac ar e dra w n by t h e ai d of
, , t he T s qu ar e an d 30
°
s et

s qu a r e a s h o w n T h e l e n gth s of t he pl an s
s .
of t he ed es
g ar e ma rk e d
off w i th t h e i some t r i c s ca le t h e ,

c o n s tr u c ti o n of wh i c h i s e xpl i n e d a

i n t h e n e x t a r ti c l e .

T h e a x e s r e fe rr e d t o i n t h is
a r t i c l e a r e c a ll e d i o m t r i c a x es s e

a nd a pl an e con t i n i n g a ny t w o a

o f th e m o r pl an e p ar ll e l t o
a a

t h i s pl n e i s c ll e d an i s ome tr i c
a a

la ne T h e w o rd i s ome t r i c m e n s a
p .

e qu a l m eas ur e I t s h o uld b e .

n o te d t h t o n ly t h os e l i n e s wh i c h
a

a r e p ar a ll e l t o on e o r o th e r of

t h e i s om e t r i c a x e s ar e i s ome tr i c
li ne s .
FIG . 565 .

25 8 T h e I s om e tri c S c a l e
—
. .

Le t oa , ob, a n d ac (F i g 56 6)be t h e proj e c t i on s Of t hr ee l i n e s OA ,

.

O B , a n d 0 0 wh i c h m e e t a t O a n d ar e m u t u ally p e rp e n d i c ul a r a n d
wh i c h ar e e qu a lly i n c l in e d t o t h e pl an e of pr oj e c ti on i t i s r e qu i re d t o
fi n d t h e r a t i o of s ay ob t o C B .

D ra w be at r i gh t a n gl e s t o c a O n bc as d i am e te r d e s c ri be a .

s e m i c i r c l e c u t t i n g oa a t O , O, b i s t h e t ru e l e n gt h o f t h e l i n e O B of
.

wh i c h ob i s t h e proj e c ti on For t h e pr oof of th i s c on s t r u c ti on s ee Ar t

. .

1 99, p 229, on t h e pr oj ec t i on of a s ol i d ri g h t an g l e
. .

IS OMET RIC SCALE .

ORDINARY SCALE .

FIG . 56 6 . FIG . 567 . F I G 568. .

If prod u ce d t o c ut be at d th e n i t i s e as y t o s h ow that
ao b e , ,

a n gl e dhO an gle dO b al s o th a t a n gl e dbo an d

°
,
45 ,

an l e
g d ob 6 0 h e n c e an l e
g
0
obO Th e n i t fo ll o w s t h at
,

ob O b ,J 2 J 3 th a t i s t h e l e ng th of t h e is om e t ri c pr oj e c ti on of a
, ,

l i n e i s t o t he tr ue l e n gt h of t h e l i ne as J 2 i s t o J 3 H e n c e t o draw .

a n i s om e t ri c s c a l e c orr e s p on di n g t o a gi v e n o rd i n a ry s c al e i t i s n e c e s s a ry

t o ge t t wo i n t e rs e c t i n g li n e s wh os e l e n g t h s ar e t o on e an o t h e r as
b

J 2 t o J 3 .

F i g 56 7 s h ow s on e c on s t r u c t i on for t h e i s om e t ri c s ca l e
. E F i s t he .

o rd i n a ry s ca l e A n gl e F EH . A n gl e E F E EH i s t he a

i s om e tri c s c a l e t h e s u b d i v i s i on s of wh i c h a r e o bt i n ed by d r a w i ng l i n e s
,
-
a

thro u gh t he s u b d i vi s i on s on EF p arall e l t o EH as, ghown I t will be .

.
294 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY
t o OZ I n t h e i s om e i c
.
tr proj e c ti on a oc t h e pr oj e ct i on of t he d i me te r
, , a
A O G W l ll e i e n be v d t ly p e rpe n di c ul ar t o y t h e t h i rd i s om e t ri c xi s
o a .

FIG 57 1 . . FIG 57 2 . .

a oc i s t h e r e fo r e t h e pr oj e c t i on of t h e h or i z on t a l d i a m e t e r of t h e c i r c l e

a n d w i ll t h e r e fo r e h a v e a l e n t h e qu a l t o t h e t r u e d i a m e t e r C o n
g .

s e q u e n t ly a oc m u s t b e t h e m aj o r a x i s of t h e e ll i p s e wh i c h i s t he
proj e c ti on of t h e c i r cl e Al s o bod m u s t be t h e m i n or a xi s of t h e e ll i ps e
. .

I t i s e as y t o s h o w t h a t t h e a n g l e bo w i s
H e n c e h a vi n g fou n d 0 t he i s om e t ri c proj e c ti on of t h e c e n t re of t he
,

c i r c l e t h e m aj o r a n d m in o r a x e s o f t h e e ll i p s e wh i c h i s t h e i s om e t ri c

o
,

pr j ec t o of e rcl e r e fou d
i n t h c i a n a s fo ll ow s — D r a w aoc pe r p e n d i c ul r a

t o t h e th i rd i s om e tr i c a x i s a n d m a k e 0a e qu l t o 00 e q u a l t o t h e tr u e
,
a

r a d i u s of t he ci r c l e D r a w a b i n c l i n ed a t 30 t o c a or dra w a b p a r all e l
.
°
,

t o t h e i s om e t ri c a x i s 0x D r a w bod p e rpe n d i c ul a r t o a oc t o m ee t a b at b
. .

M ak e 0d e qu a l t o 0b a oc an d bod ar e t h e r e qu i r e d a x e s of t h e e ll i p s e
. .

I f t h e e ll i p s e i s t h e proj e c ti on of a c i r c l e c onn e c t e d w i t h an obj e c t

wh i c h i s t o b e pr oj e c te d i s om e tr i cally w i t h ou t u s i ng an i s om e t ri c s ca l e ,

t h en 00 m u s t be m a d e g re ate r th an t h e t r u e ra d i u s of t h e ci rc l e i n t he
.

r ati o of t he ord i n ary s ca l e t o t he i s om e t ri c s c a l e th a t i s i n t he rati o of

, ,

J 3 J 2 .

FIG . 57 3 . FIG . 57 4 .

26 1 I s om e
t r i c P r oj e c t i o n o f a n O bj e c t w h i c h i s n ot
—
.
.

R e c t an gu l a r I f t hr ee x es m u t u lly p e rp e n d i c ul a r b e ta k en i n
. a , a
,
 PI C O T R I AL P R OJE C T I O N S 295

re l ti on t o any obj e c t t he obj e c t i s sai d t o be proj e c te d i som e t r i c ally

a ,

wh e n t he thre e s e l e c te d a x e s ar e p roj e c te d i s om e t ri cally ; bu t on ly

th o e li n e s on t he obj e c t wh i c h ar e p a ra ll e l t o t he s e l e c t e d ax e s w i ll
s

be pr oj e c ted t r u ly i s o m e t r i c a lly .

T h e ge n e r a l c on s t ru c ti on i s t o l oc a te a s u ffi c i e n t n u m b e r of p oi n t s
on t h e ou t li n e of t h e obj e c t by p e r p e n d i c ul a r s fr om t h e m on t o t h e
pl an es con tai n i n g t he a x es r e fe rre d t o b o ve an d th e n fi n d t he i som e tri c a ,

proj e c ti on s of th e s e p e rp e n d i cul a rs F or e x am pl e ta k e t he cas e of t he.

,

pyram i d s h o w n in Fi g 57 4 by ord i na ry pl an an d e l e va ti on T ak e a
. .

ve r ti ca l axi s OZ thr ou g h t he v e r te x V a n d t wo ax e s OX an d OY at
ri ght an gl e s t o on e an o the r an d i n t h e h ori z on ta l pl an e of pr oj e c ti on .

F i g 57 3 s h o w s t h e s e t hr e e a x es pr oj e c te d i s om e t r i ca lly an d t h e p r oj e c
.

ti on of t h e pyram i d bu i l t up on t h e s e a x es
2 6 2 Ax o m e r i P r o
. t c j e c t i o n — I n ax ome tr i c p r oj ecti on t h e t hr e e
.

p ri n ci pa l axe s of a re c tan gul r obj e c t a r e n ot ll e qu ally i n cl i n e d t o

a a

t h e pl n e of p r oj ec ti on a n d a l t h ou gh a ll t h o s e l in e s wh i c h a r e pa ra ll e l
a ,

t o on e ax i s h av e t h e i r p r oj e c ti on s dr avvn t o t h e s am e s c a l e th os e wh i c h
’

a r e p a r a ll e l t o a n ot h e r x is w i ll i n ge n e r a l h v e t h e i r pr oj e c t i on s
a , ,
a

dr aw n t o a d i ffe r e n t s c l e Thu s i n t he a xom e tri c proj e c ti on of a

a .

re ctan gul ar bo i f n o t w o ax e s h ave t he s ame i n c l i n ati on t o t he pl an e

x,

of proj e c t i on on e s ca l e i s r e qu i r e d for m e as ur i n i t s l e n gt h a n o t h e r
, g ,

for i t s br e a dth an d a t h i rd for i t s d e p t h

,
Th es e thr e e s c al e s ar e .

de t e r m i n e d i n a m an n e r s i mi l r t o th a t for t he i s om e t ri c s c al e s h ow n
a

i n F i gs 56 6 n d 56 7 T h e an g l e s at E a n d F Fi g 56 7 m u s t of c ou r s e
. a .
,
.
,

be fou n d fr om t h e fi g ur e c o rr e s p on d in g t o F i g 56 6 T h e n gl e a t E
. . . a

( F i g 5 6 7.
) m u s t b e m a d e e qu a l t o t h e a n
g l e O l bo F i
g 5 6 6 a n d t he ,
.
,

a n l e at F e qu a l t o t h e n l e bO o T h e l e t hu f o u n d w i ll b e t h e
g g a s c a , s .

s c a l e for m e as ur i n
g n e s p a ra ll e l t o ob
l i .

I t w i ll b e o b s e rv e d t h a t i s om e t ri c pr oj e c ti on i s a p ar t i cu l ar c as e of
a x om e t r i c pr oj e c t i o n

2 6 3 O b l i q u e P a r a ll e l P r oj e c t i o n —I n p a r a lle l p roj e cti on t he

.

proj e c tors from t he d i ffe r e n t p oi n ts of an obj e c t t o t he pl an e of

proj e c t i on ar e p ar all e l t o on e n ot h e r I n or thogr ap hi c p roj ecti on t he
a .

pr oj e c tors a r e p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e pl a n e of pr oj e c t i on n d a r e th e re for e a

p r all e l t o on e an oth e r ; h e n c e or t h og rap h i c pr oj e c ti on i s a p r ti cul a r

a ,
a

c as e of p a r a ll e l pr oj e c t i on I t i s u s u a l h o w e ve r t o r es t r i c t t h e te rm
.
, ,

p a a lle l
r
p jr o e c t i on t o t h e c a s e wh e r e t h e p a r a ll e l pr oj e c to r s r e i n c l i n e d a

or o bl i qu e t o t h e pl an e of p r oj e c t i o n By p a r a llel p roj ecti on i s th e r efo re

.

m e an t obli qu e p a r a ll l p r j ct i on e o e .

A s p e ci a l an d u s e ful c as e of p ar a ll e l pr oj e c ti on i s t h at i n wh i c h
t h e pl an e of pr oj e c t i o n i s p r a ll e l t o o n e of t h e pr i n c i p a l fac e s of t he
a

obj e c t t o b e pr oj e c t e d a n d t h e pr oj e c t or s a r e i n c l i n e d a t 45
°
, t o t he
p l n e of proj e c ti on I t foll o ws th at a ll fa ce s of t h e s ol i d w hi c h ar e
a .

p ra ll e l t o t h e pl n e of pr oj e c ti on w i ll h a ve for t h e i r proj e cti on s

a a

fi gure s wh i c h ar e of t he s m e s i ze an d s h ape as t h e face s th e m s e lve s

a ,

a l s o a ll l i n e s on t h e obj e c t wh i c h a r e p e rpe n d i c ul a r t o t he fa c e s ju s t

m e n t i on e d w i ll h a v e t h e i r pr oj e c ti on s of t h e s a m e l e n g t h s a s t h e l i n e s
th e m s e lve s .

I n F i g 57 5 a b i s t h e ord i n a ry or or t h ograph i c pl a n an d a b t h e '

’
,
.
,
29 6 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

co rr e s p on d in g e l e v ati on of a r e c ta ngu l ar s o l i d pl ac e d w i th t wo p ar all e l

f c e s p a ra ll e l t o t h e v e r t i ca l pl an e of pr oj e c t i on an d w i t h t w o o th e r
a

p a ra ll e l f ce s h or i z on t al T h e s ol i d b e in g i n th i s s i m pl e pos i ti on i n
a .

r e l t i on t o t he plan e s of pr oj e c ti on n oth e r proj e c t i on of i t A B i s

a ,
a
,
’ '
,

m a d e on t h e v e rt i c l pl an e of r oj e c t i on t he p r oj e c tor s b e i n g p a r ll e l
a .
, a

t o on e a n o t h e r bu t i n c l i n e d a 45 t o t h at pl an e of p r oj e c t i on
°
T he .

e l e v a t i on s of t h e e pr oj e c t or s
s r e s h o wn i n c l i n e d t o X Y a t
a bu t
t h e y m ay b e in c li n e d at an y o th e r an gl e H av i n g fix e d t he i n cl i n a t i on s
.

o f t h e e l e va ti on s of t h e pr oj e c to r s t o X Y t h e d i r e c ti on of th e i r pl a n s i s

fo u n d f r om t h e f ur th e r c on d i ti on th a t t h e t ru e i n c l i n a ti on of t h e
pr oj ec tors t o t h e pl an e of proj e cti on i s 45 °

FI G . 57 5 . FI G . 57 6 .

I t wi ll b e s ee n th at t h e pr oj e c ti on A R m ay b e dra w n d i re c t ly
' '
n ow
w i th ou t any pr e li mi n a ry pl an a n d e l e v a tion T he r e ctan gl e A D i s .
' ’

firs t dr aw n , b e i n g of t h e sa m e s i ze a n d s h ape as t he fron t fac e of t he

s ol i d A C i s t h e n dr a w n a t 30 ( or a n y o t h e r c on v e n i e n t a n gl e ) t o
' ' °
.

A E , a n d i t s l e n g t h i s m a d e e qu a l t o t h e t r u e l e n g th of t h e e d ge of
’ ’

wh i c h i t i s t h e p roj e c ti on T he proj e cti on m ay n ow b e com pl e te d by

.

dr a wi n g p a r all e l li n es a s s h o wn .

F i g 57 6 s h o w s p a r all e l pr oj e c ti on s of s ol i d s dr a w n as d e s c r i be d
.

a b ov e , a n d t h e s t ud e n t s h ou ld dr a w t h e s e , f ull s i z e , t o t h e d i m e n s i on s ,

i n i n c h es , m a rk e d on t h e m .

I f d e s i r e d , t h e proj e c ti on s of t h os e l i n e s on t h e obj e c t wh i c h ar e
p e rpe n di c ul a r t o t h e fr on t fac e , wh i c h i s p a r all e l t o t he pl an e of
pr oj e c ti on , m ay b e dra w n t o a s c a l e whi c h i s e i th e r
s m a ll e r or l a r e r t h a n th a t u s e d for t h e pr oj e c ti on
g '
of t h e fr on t fa ce , a n d t h e r e s u lt i n pr t n w i ll
g oj e c i o A
b e a corr e c t p a r a ll e l pr oj e c t i on of t h e obj e c t Th i s .

s i m ply m e a n s th a t t h e i n c l i n a t i on o f t h e p a r a ll e l

p roj e c tor s t o t h e pl an e of pr oj e c ti on i s ta k e n e i th e r F m 57 7 , ,

g r ea t e r o r l e s s t h a n F or e x a m pl e ,
r e f e rr i n g
t o F i g 57 7 if t h e fa c e A D i s dra w n f ull s i z e t h e l e n gt h A O m ay b e
' ’ ' ’
. .

dr a wn h al f full s i ze a n d t h e c om p le t e pa r a ll e l pr oj e c t i on of t he s ol i d
298 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY

FIG . 58 7 . FIG . 58 8 . FI G . 58 9 .

— pr t j t hw
1 3 24 R e e s e n t h e ob e c s s o n i n
. F i gs 57 8 t o 58 9 i n a om e i c p r o
. x tr
j e c t i o n , t x
h e a e s r
t o bd hw
e a r an ge a s s o n i n F i g 590 . .

-
pr t . t hw
25 3 6 R e e s e n t h e ob j e c s s o n i n F i gs 57 8 t o 58 9 i n ob i q e
. l u p r ll l
a a e
pr t x rr
oj e c i o n , t h e a e s t o b e a d hw an ge as s o n
i n F i g 59 1 . l
T h e s c a e i s t o be t h e s am e
.

x p t
fo r all t h e a e s o f r oj e c i o n .

x u l l d
3 7 T h e a e s of t wo e q a c y i n e r s (2
.

h d tr
i n c e s i n i am e e )an d th r ei c om m on p e r
‘

t
p e n di c u lar ar e i n i s om e r i c pr t o j e c i on .

hw tr t l d r w th
S o t h e i n e s e c i on o f t h e c y i n e s i
ou t u ux l
s i n g an a pli i ar y lvt an or e e a i on , F i g 590 F m 591
wh th r x tr t wh
, . , .

(a ) en ei a es i n e s e c , b) en
th r x
ei h p rt wh r t
a e s ar e 5i n c a a e e r t t th r
e y ar e n ea es oge e .

xr
3 8 T h e s am e as e e c i s e 37 e c e
. x pt th t p t a the r o j e c i on o f t h e a i s o f o n ex
l d r p r ll l
cy in e is a a e to pr j t
an d t h e x
o e c i on of t h e a i s o f t h e o e th r p r ll l
is a a e to
oy , F i g 590 . .

pr t l dr rr d xr
3 9 R e e s e n t h e c y i n e s r e fe e t o i n e e c i s e 37 i n ob i q e a a e p r o
. l u p r ll l
pr t x l dr p
j e c t i on T h e oj e c i on o f t h e a i s of on e c y i n e t o b e ar a e t o one an d t h e
. ll l
pr t x th r
o j e c i on o f t h e a i s o f t h e o p ll l e t o be ar a e t o oy , F i g 59 1 S o the in e
. . hw tr
t l d
s e c i on o f t h e c y i n e r s l T h e sc a e i s t o be t h e s am e for all t h e a e s of
. x pr t
oj e c i on .

40 . A l d d up
so i ma e h ph r
of a p rt
em i s e e an d a o f a c i c la ru r l dr
cy in e is
hw
s o n i n F i g 592 tr
. h ph r
T h e c e n e o f t h e b as e of t h e e m i s
. x
e e i s on t h e a i s o f t h e
l d r Dr w
cy i n e . a tr pr t
a n i s om e ic th l d
oj e c i on of i s so i .

. hw l . tv r
4 1 F i g 593 s o s a ocom o i e c an k a e xl w th i t he
fill t u t v r u l dr l p rt w th
e s a t t h e j n c i o n s of t h e a i o s c
y i n i ca a s i
o n e an o th r e w th
an d i r l t Dr w
t h e c r an k a m s e f ou t . a an
tr pr j t
i s om e i c th xl
o e c i on o f l h
i s a e t o a s ca e of 1 5 i n c e s t o
a foo t .

42 Dr w
. a l u p ll l pr t
an o b i q e ar a e r
oj e c i on of t h e c an k
axl h w l
e s o n i n F i g 593 t o a s c a e o f 1 . h t% i n c e s t o a foo .

x
T h e a e s of pr j t rr
o e c i on t o b e a hw an ge d as s o n i n F i g .

pr j t
59 1 , on b e i n g t h e x x
o e c i on o f t h e a i s of t h e a l e .

. lt
4 3 T h e r e a i on b etw pr ur
een t h e ess e , P ( i n lb p e r .

u
s q ar e i n c h v lu u t
), t h e o m e , V ( in c b i c fe e ), an d t h e ab s o
l ut t p r tur
e em e a d
e, T
( i F h
n t
e gr e e s a r e n h e i )of 1 lb o f ai r .

v ut
i s gi e n b y t h e e q a i on P V 0 37 Thw . F i g 594 s o s ,
.

F
2
l u p r ll l pr t
i n ob iq e a a e tu th u
o j e c i on , c o n o r s o f i s s r fac e ,
IG 5 9 ‘

tw pr ur u h t rv l r
.

be om
°
ee n e ss e s o f 1 0 an d 1 00 lb .
p e r s q a r e i n c ,
a t i n e a s o f 50 0 f
°
500 t o 2500 , t h e 0
pl th an e s o ftu p r ll l
e s e c on o r s b e i ng ,
a a e t o t h e f on r t pr u
ess r e
 P I CT O R I AL P R O JE C T I O N S 299

v lum pl
o e an e . Dr w thi F i g
a s . ll w
t o t h e fo o i ng s c a e s l —P r ur 1 i h t 20
e ss e, nc o

lb .
pe r sq u ar e in h cV l um . o e, 1 inc h
t o 4 c bi c fe e u t T m p r tur 1 i h
. e e a e, nc
°
t o 500

—
H —
7 -
* l< 9
* 4* 9 7

FIG . 593 .

Add t h nt u r wh pl e co o s ose an es ar e p r ll l t a a e o tt
t h e bo om o m e v lu t m p r tur
-
e e a e
pl n t I t rv l f 20 lb p
a e a n e a s o . er s qu r i h
a e Al nc . t u wh pl n
s o , add t h e c on o r s os e a es

FIG . 594 .

ar e p r ll l to t h l ft h n d pr u t m p r tu pl n t i nt rv l
a a e e e a e ss re -
e e a re a e a e a s of 4 cub i c

fe e t
.

N t th t t h
o e r i F ig 594
a r t ngul r hyp rb l p i nt
e cu v e s n . ar e ec a a e o as o s on whi h c

ma y b f un d by t h
e o ns tru ti gi v n i A t 50 p 47
e co c on e n r .
, . .
 CH AP TER XX I I

PERSPECT I V E J
PRO ECT I ON

26 4 D i ffe r e n c e b e t w e e n P e r s p e c t i v e a n d O rt h o gr a p h i c
—
.

P r oj e c t i o n I n p e r sp e cti ve , c oni ca l, or r a di a l p r oj e c t i on a ll t h e p r oj e c
to rs c on v e rg e to poi n t wh i l e in or thogr ap hi c pr oj e c ti on t h e y ar e pe r
a
,

p e n d i c u lar t o t h e pl a n e of pr oj e c t i on T he e r s p e c t i v e pr oj e c t i on o f

a s i t w o uld a c t u a lly g e a r t o t h e e e of
.

a n obj e c t r e pr e s e n t s i t
pp y
ob s e rve r pl a c e d a t t h e poi n t t o wh i c h a ll t h e proj e c t or s c on v e r e
g .

I n p e rs p e c t i v e pr oj e c ti on t h e pl a n e of pr oj e c t i on c a ll e d t h e p i c tur e
, ,

p la ne m a, y be s i tu a te d an y wh e r e but i t s h ou ld m e e t all t h e pr oj e c to rs ,

o th e rw i s e t h e pr oj e c t i on o r i c tu r e as i t i s c ll e d w o uld b e i n c om pl e t e
p a .

Ge n e r a lly t h e p i c t ur e pl an e i s as s u m e d t o b e pl a c e d i n v e rt i c l
a a

p os i ti on b e t w e e n t h e e y e of t h e ob s e rve r an d t h e obj e c t n d p e r pe n
,
a

di c u la r t o t h e d i r ec t i on i n wh i c h t h e ob s e rv e r i s l ook i n g .

T h e p oi n t t o wh i c h ll t h e pr oj e c t or s c on v e rg e i s ca ll e d t h e s ta ti on
a

oi nt o r oi nt o
p p f s i ght .

2 6 5 D i r e c t M e t h o d o f dr a w i n g a P e rs p e c t i v e P r oj e c t i o n
—
. .

T h e foll o w i n g m e th od of dra w i n g a p e r s p e c t i v e pr oj e c t i on of an
o bj e c t fo ll o w s d i r e c t ly fr om t h e d e fin i t i on of p e r s p e c t i v e pr oj e c t i on ,

a n d i t w i ll b e s e e n t h a t i t i s s i m ply t h e d e t e r m i n a t i on of t h e pl a n e

s e c t i on of a pyr a m i d or a c om b i n a t i on of pyr a m i d s wh i c h h av e a
c om m on v e r t e x .

Fi rs t dr a w t he or th ogr aphi c proj e c t i ons of t he obj e c t , s ta ti on point,

a n d p i c tur e pl a n e s o t h a t t h e l a t t e r i s p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e r u n d
g o

l i n e X Y, as s h ow n i n Fi g 595, wh i c h i llu s tr ate s t h e m e th od ap p l i e d

‘
.

t o a s u a r e pr i s m s t a n d i n g on t h e gr o u n d 00, o c i s t h e p i c t ur e pl a n e
’ ’

q
.

a n d s s i s t h e s t a t i on p oi n t
’
.

Con s i d e r t h e d e ab, a b of t h e pr i s m
' '
D ra w t he pl an s s a, 8 b and
e g
.

t he e l e va ti on s s a , s b of t h e c on i c a l o r r a d i a l pr oj e c tor s o f t h e e x t r e
’ ' ’

m i t i e s of t h e e d ge u n d e r c on s i d e ra t i on Th e s e r ad i al proj e c tors m e e t
.

t h e p i c t ur e pl an e a t po i n t s of wh i c h a a n d ,8 ar e t h e pl a n s a n d a a n d ,B
’ '

t h e e l e v a t i on s . Thr ou gh a p oi n t 0 i n ac dr a w on par a ll e l t o X Y Wi th .

c e n t r e 0 a n d r a d ii o u a n d dr a w a r cs of ci r c l e s t o c u t on at a 1 an d ,8 ,
r e s pe c ti ve ly F r om a 1 an d ,8 1 dr a w p e rpe n d i cul a rs t o X Y t o m e e t
.

l in e s t hr ou gh a an d ,8 p a r a ll e l t o X Y at A a n d B r es pe c ti ve ly A
’ ' ' '
.

s tr a i ht l i n e A B w i ll b e t h e p e r s p e c t i v e pr oj ec t i on of t h e e d g e a b, a h
' ' ' '
g
o f t h e pr i s m . I n l i k e m an n e r t h e p e r s p e c ti v es of t h e o t h e r e d ge s m ay
b e o b ta i n e d a s s h o w n .

I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t by t h e fir s t p a r t of t h e fo re goi n g co n s t r uc t i on
 02 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

pr oj e c ti on d e s c ri be d i n t h e pr e ce d i n g Art i c l e i s e x ce e di n gly s i m pl e i n
, ,

pri n c i pl e an d m ay b e qu i c kly l e arn e d an d i s e as i ly u n d e r s t ood by a

, ,

s tud e n t po s s e s s i n g a l i ttl e k n o wl e d e o f e l e m e n ta ry s o l i d m try

g g e o e .

T h e d i r e c t m e th o d m y be a ppl i e d t o dr a w t h e p e r s p e c ti ve of n y s o l i d
a a

i n a n y p os i ti on a n d i n s om e c a s e s i t i s t h e b es t m e th od t o u s e bu t i f
, ,

t h e s o l i d h as m an y p a r a ll e l l i n es on i t t h e co n s tru c t i on c a n b e m u c h
s i m pl i fi e d a n d g r e a t e r a c c ur a c y o b t a i n e d by m a k i n g u s e o f a n u m be r

of p r i n c i pl e s wh i c h a r e e xpl a i n e d i n s u c c e e d i n g rt i c l es Th e s e pri n a .

c i p le s a r e a ppli e d i n wh a t m a y b e c a ll e d t h e S c h oo l of Ar t m e th od
o f m a k i n g a p e r s pe c t i v e dr a w i n g Afte r ward s a c om b i n a ti on of t he
.

t w o m e t h o d s v e ry c om m on ly u se d i n pr ac ti c e w i ll b e d e sc r i b e d
—
.

26 7 .T o d e t e rm i n e t h e P e r s p e c t i v e o f a G i v e n P o i n t T he
p oi n t i s gi v e n by s t at i n g i t s d i s tan ce s from t h e g r ou n d an d from t he
'

v e r ti cal a n d pi c t ur e pl an es T he firs t an d s e c on d of th e s e d is t an ces

.

d e te rm in e t h e p os i ti on of t h e or th ogr aph i c proj e ct i on of t he p oi nt o n

t h e p i c t ur e pl an e .

I n F i g 596 t h e pl an e of t h e p ap e r i s t h e p i c t u r e pl an e C i s t he
.
,

c e n t r e of v i s i on C H i s t h e h or i z on t l l i n e C L i s t h e v e r t i c a l l i n e a n d
,
a , ,

s t h e o r t h og r a ph i c pr oj e c t i o n of t h e g i v e n p oi n t on t h e p i c t u r e
’

p i
pl an e O n CH m ak e C D e qu a l t o t he d i s t a n c e of t h e s ta t i on poi n t
.

f r om t h e p i c t ur e pl an e D r a w p K p ara ll e l t o CH an d m a k e p K ' '

.
,

e qu a l t o t h e d i s tan ce of t h e g i v e n p oi n t P fr om t h e p i c t u r e pl a n e .

J oi n D K an d p C T h e p oi n t P wh e r e t h e s e l i n e s i n t e rs e c t i s t h e
'
.

p e rs pe c t iv e of t he poi n t P I t i s evi d e n t t h a t CP : P p : C D : p K
.
’ '
.

FIG . 596 . FIG . 597 .

R e fe rri n g n ow t o Fi g 597 wh i c h i s a d i s tor te d pe rs pe c ti ve p r oj ec

.

ti on of t h e l i n e s of Fi g 596 toge th e r wi t h t he p oi n t P an d t he s ta t i on
.

poi n t S Si n ce S C an d Pp ar e p e rpe n d i c ul a r t o t h e p i c ture plan e t h e y

.
'

ar e t h e r e fo r e p a r a ll e l t o on e a n ot h e r a n d t h e t r an l e s S CP a n d P
'
P
’ ’

g p ,
i

a r e s i m i lar H e n c e CP : P p : : SC : Pp ; bu t C D 1 8 e qu a l t o S C an d
.
' ' ' '

p
'
K i s e qu a l t o P
p t h e r e fo r e
'
CP : P p : : C D : p K But P
'
i s t h e p o i nt
’ '
.
'

wh e re SP c u ts t h e pi c tu r e pl an e an d i s t h e r efor e t h e pe rs pec ti ve of
t h e p oi n t P .

T h e po i n t D F i g 596 i s c all e d t h e p oi nt of di s ta nce

, .
,
.

2 6 8 T h e P e rs p e c t i v e s o f P ar a ll e l L i n e s c o n v e rge t o a
P oi n t —
.

Le t A R a n d C D ( Fi g 598 ) be t h e pe r s pe c t i ve s of t he
’ '
.

pa ra ll e l l i nes AB a nd C D r es pe ct i ve ly Le t S V be a li ne p ar alle l t o .
 P ER S P E C TI V E P R O JE CT I O N 303

AB an d C D, an d i f i t m e e t t he p i c t ur e p l a n e at a ll, le t i t m ee t i t a t V .

S V wi ll be t h e l i n e o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e p l a n e s A B S a n d C D S .

S i n ce ea c h of t he po i n t s A , B , an d V a r e i n t h e p i c t ur e pl a n e ,
’ ’

an d a l s o i n t h e pl a n e A B S V t h e y m u s t a ll li e on t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of

th e s e t wo pl an es th e re
fo re A , B , a n d V ar e i n
‘ ’ ’

t h e s a m e s tr a i g h t l i n e .

S i m i l a rly C , D , an d V
' ’

ar e i n a s t r ai ght l i n e
th e r e fore A B a n d C D ,
’ ‘ ' '

t h e p e r s p e c t i ve s of t he
pa ra ll e l l i n es AB an d C D ,
c on v e r ge t o t h e po i n t V .

T he poi n t t o w ard s
wh i c h t he pe rs p e c ti v e s of
p a ra ll e l li n e s c on ve rge i s
ca lle d t h e v a ni s hi ng p oi nt

of t h e s e l i n e s .

T h e foll ow i n g pa r t i e n F I G 598
. .

lar cas e s a r e w or t hy of n oti ce

( )
a W h e n t h e l i n e s a r e p e rp e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p i c tu r e pl an e , S V w i l l

a l so b e p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h a t pl a n e , a n d V w i ll co i n c i d e w i t h t h e c e n tr e

of vi s i on . H e n ce , the p ersp ecti ves of li ne s whi ch ar e p e rp en di cular to the

l a ne , conve r e t owa rds t he c e ntr e o i
i c tur e
f i
”

p p g v s . o n
Wh e n t h e pa r a ll e l l i n e s a r e p a r a ll e l t o t h e p i c t u r e pl an e , S V
( )
b
w i ll al s o b e p ara ll e l to th at pl an e ; th e r e for e V wi ll b e at an i n fi ni te
d i s ta n ce f rom _S_, an d A B an d C D w i ll be p a r a ll e l t o on e an oth e r
’ '
.

H e n ce , the p er sp ecti ves of p a ra lle l li nes whi ch ar e als o p a r a lle l to t he

i ct u r e l ane , a r e a r a lle l t o one a not her
p p p .

()
c W h e n t h e p a r a ll e l l i n e s ar e h or i z o n ta l , S V wi ll a l s o b e h or i
‘

z on t a l ; t h e r e fo r e V m u s t b e on t h e h o r i z o n t a l li n e . H e n c e , t he p er
'

s ec ti v e s o a lle l hori z ont a l li nes conve r e r oi n t on t he

p f p a r
g t o w a d s a
p
hor i z on t a l li ne .

d Wh e n t h e p a r a ll e l li n es a r e p a r a ll e l t o t h e v e rt i ca l pl a n e , S V
( ) .

wi ll be i n t h e ve rt i c a l pl an e t h e r e fo re V w i ll be on t he v e r ti c al li n e .

H e n ce , the p er sp ecti ves of p ar a lle l li nes whi ch a r e also p ar allel to the

ver t i c a l la n e , conv er e t owar ds a oi n t on t he v e r t i ca l li n e
p g p .

T he p e r sp ecti ve s of ve r ti ca l li ne s ar e p ar a lle l to t he ver ti cal li ne .

T he p er sp ecti ves of hor i z onta l li nes whi ch a r e p a r a lle l to the

l a ne a r e a r a lle l t o t he hori z ont a l li ne
p p .

( g) T h e
p er s
p e c t i v e s of p a r a ll e l h or i z on t a l li ne s whi c h ar e i ncli ne d a t

45 to t he p i ctu r e p la n e conver ge t owa rds t he p oint of di s ta nce

°
.

2 6 9 T o D e t e r m i n e t h e V an i s h i n g P o i n t o f a L i n e
. .
.

T a k e t he p i c tur e pl an e an d t he h ori zon ta l pl an e con tai ni n g t he “

s ta t i on p oi n t for cc o rd i n at e pl an e s a n d on t h es e dra w a pl a n a b an d
-

e l e va t i on a b of t h e l i n e wh os e va n i s h i n p t r qu r d
’ '

g o i n i s e i e
( g
F .i
H O, t h e h ori z on t al l i n e , w i ll be t h e g r o u n d l ine for t h i s pl a n a n d
e l e v a t i on .

D raw Cs p e rpe n di cu l ar t o H 0 a n d eq u al t o t he d i s tan ce of t h e

304 P RA CT I C AL G E O METRY

s t a t i on j
p oi n t p i ctur e pl an e 3 w i ll be t he pl an of t he s tati on
fr om t h e ,

poi n t n d C i t s e l e va t i on Throu gh s dra w s v p ar all e l t o a b m ee ti ng

a .
,

H C at Throu g h C dr a w C V p a r ll e l a

t o a b t o m e e t t h e pe rp e n d i c ul r from v
' '
a

t o H C at V T h e p oi n t V i s t h e r e qu i r e d
.

v an i s h i n g poi n t be cau s e V i s th e p oi n t i n
,

wh i ch a l in e t hr ough t h e s t ati on poi n t

p ar ll e l t o t h e or i gin al l i n e AB m e e ts t he
a

p i c t ur e pl a n e .

I f t h e o r i gi n a l l i n e i s h o ri z on t a l C V
w i ll coi n c i d e w i th H C t h e h ori z on t al l i n e ,

th e r e for e V i s on t h e h or i zon tal l i n e a n d FIG 599 ,

t h e pl an s v (or s V ) m a k e s a n a n g l e wi th
t h e h or i z o n t a l l i n e e qu a l t o t h e i n c li n at i on of t he or i i n a l l i n e t o t h e
g
p i c tu r e pl an e .

2 7 0 T o m a r k o ff o n t h e P e rs p e c t i v e o f a L i n e a P a rt
—
.

w h o s e T ru e L n gt h i s gi v e n
e L e t T V (F i g 6 00 be t h e p e r
) .

s p e c t i v e of a l i n e wh os e t ra c e on t h e

p i c tur e pl an e i s T an d wh os e van i s h i n g ,

po i n t i s V A s i n F i g 599 s i s t h e
. .
,

pl an of t he s t ati on poi n t an d s v t h e ,

pl an of t h e l i n e wh i c h p as se s throu gh
t h e s ta t i on p oi n t a nd i s p a r all e l t o t he ,

l in e o f wh i c h T V i s t he p e r s pe c ti v e .

W i t h c e n tr e v an d r a di u s vs d e
s c r i be t h e a r c s S m e e ti n g t h e h o r i
'

z on t a l l i n e H C a t S V S i s t h e r ea l z .
2

d i s tan ce of t h e van i s h i n g p oi n t V fr om FIG 600 . .

t h e s t a t i on poi n t Through V dr aw .

V M p a r a ll e l t o H C an d w i th c e n t r e V an d r ad i u s V S d e s c ri be t he
, 2

ar c e2 M .

D r w T Q p ar all e l t o H C Le t A be a gi ve n p oi n t i n T V D raw
a .
’
.

MA an d pr odu ce i t t o m e e t T Q t P M a k e P Q e qu l t o t he gi v e n
'
a . a

l e n gth D r w Q M m ee t i n g T V t B T h e t ru e l e n g th of t h e p r t
. a a
'
. a

wh os e pe r s p ect i v e i s A B wi ll be e qu l t o t h e gi ve n l e n gt h' '

a .

T he c on s tr u c t i on i s m u c h s i m pl i fi e d wh e n t h e o r i gi n a l l i n e i s h or i
on t l for t h e n V i s on t h e h o r i z on t a l l i n e a n d sv i s e u l t o t h e tru e
z a , q . a

d i t an ce of V fr om t he s tat i on p oin t
s

T h e c on t ru ct i on for t hi s c as e i s s h o w n
s

i n F i g 6 01. .

T h e th eo ry o f t h e c o ns tr u c i on t
s h own i n F
i gs 6 00 an d 6 01 w i ll b e .

t
u n d e rs ood by r efe r en c e t o F i g 602, .

wh i c h i s a p e rs pe c ti ve v i e w of t h e
g r ou n d a n d p i c ur e pl an e s , a n d t h et
v ar i ou s l n es n i s i
i th e i r n tu r l po t on s
FIG 601
a a 1 .

I n Fi gs 6 00 601 an d 6 02 t h e s am e
. .

.
, , ,

l e tte r s d e n ot e t he sam e po i n ts S i s t he s ta ti on poi n t TAB t he l i n e .

,

wh os e pe rs pe c ti v e i s T V an d V i s i t s v ani s h i n g p oi n t T i s t he t r a c e .
306 P RA C T I C AL G E OMETRY

Bu t P Q is in t he p i c tu re pl an e an d m ay th e r efor e be m e as u re d
d i re c tly
—( l ) A
.

27 1 E x am p l e s s ua r e
q r i s m 2 i n ches x 2 i nche s x 4
.
p ,

i nches , r es ts wi t h on e r e ct a ng ula r f a ce on t he g r o und N e a r es t c or ne r

‘

i nch t o lef t of ve r t i ca l p la ne a nd 1 i nch be hi nd p i c t u r e p la ne Lo ng .

°
e dge s i ncli n e d a t 50 t o i c t ur e la ne a nd va ni s h t o le t
f S t a t i n i t
p p o
p o n .

3% i nches a bove gr ou nd a nd 6 if i nc he s f r om p i ctur e p la ne .

FIG 604 . .

Fig 604 s h o w s t h i s e x am pl e w o rk e d ou t by t h e
. S ch ool of Ar t “

m e t h od .V a n d V a r e t h e t wo v an i s h i n g po i n t s for t h e h or i z on t a l
I 2

e d g e s d e t e rm i n e d by t h e c on
,

s tru c ti on e xpla i n e d in Ar t .

26 9, an d M1 an d M2 ar e t he
r
co r es p on d i ng m e a s u r i n g
p oi n ts (s ee Art D is.

t h e p oi n t of d i s t a n c e ( Art .

26 7 )
p '
t
T he oi n O , t h e p er s p e c
tv r t r
i e of t h e n e a e s cor n e on
r u fi td t r
t h e g o n d, i s r s de e m i ne

( Ar t . J '
o i ni n g O t o V I

an d V 2 d r e t e m i n es t h e di r e c

t i on s of t h ep rp tv e s e c i es of

t he h rz t l d
o i on a t
e ge s m e e i n g

at O . l th
T h e e n g s O P an d
’ '

’ '
O Q of t h e p rp tv e s ec i e s of

th es e d e ge s th ar e en de
t e r m in edArt ( A2 7 .

v rt l l
e i ca thr u h
i ne w ll
o g O
'
i
b e t he dr t i e c i on of t h e p e r
v r l d
s p e ct i v e o f t h e e t i ca e
g e

wh h l w r x tr ty
i c h as i t s o e e e mi

at O . l th
T he e n g
'
O R is
'

F IG 605
rk d by t ru t
. .

m a e off t h e con s c i on

e xpl d
ai n e l t r p rt
i n t he a t e a of Ar t . 27 0
. T he r e m ai n d e r of t he
 P ER S P E C T I V E P R O JE C T I O N 307

tru c t i on
c on s is o bv i ou s . All the c on s tru c ti o n l in es ar e s h own i n t he
fi gur e .

h w
. x pl w rk d
Fi g 6 05 s o s t h e s a m e e a m e by b t o e ou t a c om i n a i on of

t he h l Art
S c oo of th d d r t th d x p l d Art
m e o an d t he i e c m e o e ai n e in .

26 5 . h rz t ll t k pl p tur pl
B C , t h e o i on a i n e , i s a e n a s a an of t h e ic e an e ,

pl
an d a l d dr w
a n p g of t h e so i ldb
is a pl d pr p r
n , t he s o i ein
g ace i n i ts o e

p t r l t
os i i on i n p t r pl
e a i on t o t h e v rt l pl
ic u e an e an d e i ca an e 8 is t he .

pl t t p t L
a n o f t h e s a i on r
oi n ul r p t pl
i n e s f om t h e a n g a
. oi n s of t h e an

t r t p t wh h
t o s i n e s e c H C at oi n spl ul r p t
i c ar e t h e an s of t he an g a oi n s

p tur
of t h e ic e p tur pl
on t he ic rt l l
e thr u h th
an e V e i ca
. ines o g ese

p t w ll
oi n s on H C t ul r p t
i c on a i n t h e a n g ap t r wh h oi n s of t h e ic u e ic is
dr w b l w
t o be a n e o H0 .

T h e v a n i s h i n g p oi n t s V I a nd V ( V 2
i s o u t s i d e t h e fi g ur e
) ar e

d e te rm i n e d a s b e for e P r o du c e p o t o m e e t H C a t t an d thr ou gh t
.

dra w t h e v e rt i c al tT t o m e e t t he g r ou n d l i n e of t h e pi c tur e pl a n e a t
T T i s obv i ou s ly t h e p e r s p e ct i v e of t h e po i n t wh e re P O pr o du ce d
.
 8 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY
mee ts t he p i c t ure pl n e n d i s al s o t h e p oi n t i t s e l f T he l in e T V
a ,
a .
I
w i ll th e r e fo re c on t i n t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of O P T h e p oi n ts 0 n d P
a .
'
a
'

are d e t e r m i n e d by v e rt i c l li n e s f rom o nd
p t o m e at T V as s ho w n
’
a
’
e
1 .

J i n i n g O t o V d e te rm i n e s t h e l i n e c on t i n i ng t h e pe r s p e c t i ve of O Q
o
'
2 a
,

an d t h e p oi n t Q i s fou n d by dr opp i n g
'
v e rt i c al l i n e from g t o m ee t a
'

O NQ
’
.

T hep e r s pe c ti v e s of t h e v e r ti c a l e d ge s ar e of c our s e v e r t i cal l i n e s .

T h e l e n g th O R i s d e t e r m i n e d a s i n F i g 6 04 an d t h e r e m ai nd e r of
’ ’
.

t h e c on s tru c t i on i s obv i o u s .

( )
2 A s e con d e x a m pl e i s s h o w n w o rk e d o u t i n F i g 606 by a c o m .

b i n t i on of t h e Sc h oo l o f Ar t a n d d i re c t m e th od s T h e pe r
a
“ ”
.

s p e c t i e s o f t h e c i r c ul a r a r c s ar e of c o u r s e d e t e r m i n e d by fir s t fi n d i n g
v

t h e p e rs p e c t i v es of n u m b e r of p oi n t s i n t h e m
a n d th e n j oi n i n
g a

by f i r c urv e s T h e con s t ru c t i o n l i n e for a p oi n t P on on e of t he

a . s
'

c urv e s a r e f ully s h o w n o th e rs a r e om i t t e d ,for t h e s ak e of g i v i ng

c l e a r n e s s t o t h e fi g ur e
—
.

27 2 S a h d o
. w is n P e r s p e c t i v e Wh en s o l i d wh i c h i s dr a w n a

i n p e r s p e c ti v e c s t s a s h a d o w t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e s h d o w m y be
a , a a

dra w n i n t h e o rd i n a ry w y fr o m t he s h a d o w a s d e t e r m i n e d from t h e
a

o r th og r ph i c pr oj e c t i o n s o f t h e s ol i d a s s h o w n i n C h p XX V I I
a an d i n a . .
,

c s e s wh e r e t h e s h a d ow i n v olv e s t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of c ur ve d s ur f c es
a a

t hi s i s g e n e r a lly t h e s i m l e s t m e th o d t o a d op t I n m an y c a s e s h o w .

e v e r t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t e s h a d o w can e as i ly b e d e te r m i n e d f r om t h e

p e r s p e ct i ve of t h e s ol i d by a pply i ng t h e con s t ru c ti on s e xpl ai ne d i n

,

t h e r e m ai n d e r of t h i s a rt i c l e .

I t w i ll o n ly b e n e c e s s a r t o c on s i d e r t h e p e r s p e c ti v e of t h e s h a d o w
of a p oi n t A t fi rs t all t 8 l i ght w i ll b e a s u m e d t o c om e fr om a
. s

poi n t t h e m od i fi cati on s of t h e con s t r u ct i on s for p a r ll e l ray s of l i ght

,
a

b e i n g afte rw ard s d e s c r i be d .

L e t P b e t h e p e r p e c t i v e of t h e p oi n t from wh i c h ll t h e r ay s of
’
s a

l igh t d i ve rge an d le t A be t h e p e rs p e c ti ve of a poi n t wh os e s h d o w

,
’
a

i s t o be d e t e r m i n e d T h e p os i t i on s of t h e p o in t s P n d A i n s p ac e ar e
. a

s upp os e d t o be k n o w n .

T o de t e r mi ne t he p e r sp e c ti ve of t he s ha dow c a s t by t he o i n t A on
( ) a
p
L e t M a n d N (Fi g 6 07 )b e t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s of t h e fe e t
' ’
t he gr ou nd . .

o f t h e pe rp e n d i c ul a r s fr om A a n d P o n

t h e g rou n d J oi n M N an d pr odu ce i t
’ '
.

t o m e e t P A pr o du c e d at Q
' ' ' ’
Q i s t he .

p e rs p e c t i v e of t he tr a ce of P A on t he
g r o u n d ,
a n d i s th e r e f o r e t h e p e r s p e c t i v e

of t h e s h a d o w o f A o n t h e g r o u n d .

o de t e r mi ne t he e rs e c t i ve of the
( )
b T p p
s ha dow c a s t by A o n a hor i z ont a l p la ne

whi ch i s a t a gi ve n he i ght a bov e the gr ou nd .

P r o du c e M N ( Fi g 607 ) t o m e e t t h e
’ ’
.

g r o u n d l i n e a t T a n d t h e h or i z o n ta l l i n e F I G 6 07 . .

at V D r a w t h e ve r t i c a l l i n e T T l a n d
.

m a k e T T l e qu a l t o t h e g i ve n h e i gh t of t h e h ori z on t a l pl an e a b ove t h e
g r o u n d D r a. w T , V t o c u t P
'
A
’
pr o du c e d a t Q ,
’
i s t h e
pe r s p e c t i v e
310 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY

E x erci s e s X XI I .

l . pr t p r p t v p t A
Re esen in e s ec i e a oi nr u d pl t
on t h e g o n an e , 1 fo o t o t he
r ht
ig p ttr
of t he s ec a o t r
an d 2 fe e u d l l
f om t h e g r o n p tB t
i n e ; a s o a oi n 4 fe e
l t p ttr t
t o t h e e f o f t h e s e c a o , 2 fe e fr o m t h e i c p tur pl t v e an e , an d 3 f e e ab o e t h e
r u d pl
g o n an e . AB AB
Jo i n . r t d r t l wh h
i s t h e n e a e s s i e o f a e c an g e o f ic t wo
o th r de s i e s ar e h rz t l o i on a tl
a n d 4 fe e pl t on g p p tv
Co m e e t h e e r s e c i e r e p r e s e n
.

t l
t at i o n o f t h e r e c an g e t. t r p tur pl
P os i i o n o f e y e , 1 1 fe e f om t ic e an e an d 5 fe e
ru d
fr om g o n . l Sca e h t
i n c t o 1 fo o .

2 A r t ul r t
. e c an g a l tl
s o n e s ab , 1 0 fe e t wd on g , 8 fe e h th i e , an d 6 i n c e s i ck,
l w th
i es i ru d
on e fa c e o n t h e g o n l t d r d r p tur
T h e o n g e s e ge s e c e e f o m t h e ic e at
l
.

an a n g e o f 60 t w rd
°
o a r hts t he r t r t l
i g , an d t h e n e a e s c o r n e i s 1 fo o t o t h e e ft o f
p ttr t
t h e s e c a o , an d 2 fe e fr o m t h e g o n ru dl hr u ine t T l
o g h t h e c e n r e o f t h e s ab
.

i s c u t a c ir cu a lrhl t d
o e , 6 fe e tr in pr t
i am e e l . p r p tv
R e e s e n t h e s ab i n e s ec i e
t l x
.

P os i i on o f e y e an d s c a e a s i n e e r c i s e 1 .

r t ul r l hw
3 T wo e c an g a b o c k s a r e s o n at E x 3, F i g 6 1 2
. lwr l .
T h e o e b oc k
l d D w th l p rp tv p t r r
. .

i e s o n t h e gr o u n . ra e s e b o c ks i n e s ec i e r oj e c i on T he co ne
l t p ttr
.

d a 1 8 t o be é i n c h t o t h e ef o f t h e s e c a o , an d
inch r ru dl
f om t h e g o n d
i n e T h e e ge a b , a b i s t o
.
' ’

r ece ed tw d o ar s t h er ht ig l
a t an a n g e o f 6 0
°
t o t he
p tur pl
ic e an e . tP o s i i on o f e y e , r i n c h e s f om t h e
p tur pl
ic e h }
v
a n e an d 23 i n c e s abo e t h e ru d g o n .

4 .A l d l tt r
so i e e hw
R i s s o n at E x 4 , F i g 6 1 2 . .

p rp tv
.

D w th
ra is in e s ec i e r r
. T h e c o n e aa i s t o b e
’

on t h e g o n ru d h
1 inc t p ttr
t o t h e r i gh of t h e s e c a o
h r
an d 3 i n c e s f om t h e g o n ru dl i ne . T h e fac e o f t h e
l tt r
e e i s t o be i n a v t l pl wh her i ca an e dic i s t o r ece e
fr o m t h e p tur pl
ic e l
an e a t an a n g e o f 50tw d °
o ar s
t he efl t . t
P os i i on o f e y e , h p tu
i n c e s fr om t h e i c r e
pl h v
an e a n d 24 i n c e s a bo e t h e ru d g o n .

5 P ut in o
. t p r p tv p t
e s ec i e a ru d
oi n on t h e g o n
pl a n e 5 fe e t r ht
t o t h e ig p ttr t
o f t h e s e c a o , an d 3 fee

w th i in t h e p tu r d r
i c r e , an d, ec e i n g f om t h e p t oi n ,
dr w la a t l
i n e 1 0 fe e r ht
on g at l w th
ig an g e s i the
p tur pl
ic e an e h l. lw t d
T i s in e i s t o b e t h e o e s e ge
ur l
o f a s q a e s ab 1 fo o t th h v u
i c k , a i n g i t s s q a r e fa c es
l d u d t w rd
i n c i n e t o t h e gr o n at 60 o a s t h e r i g °
ht On .

t he upp r e l r rl
fac e o f t h e s ab i n s c i b e a c i c e , an d,
t ll w th
c en r a y i dr w th r r l
it, a an o e tc i c e 4 fe e i n di a
t r wh h
me e , ic ht
i s t o be t h e b a s e o f a r i g hv c on e a i ng

an a i lt tud t
e o f 2 fe e . t
T h e e y e i s t o b e 1 4 fe e fr om
p tur pl
t he ic e t u d
an e , an d 8 fe e fr om t h e gr o n l Sca e,
.

h
i n c t o a foo t .

6 A ht pr
. r ig h h h
i s m 3g i n c e s ig h as i t s bas e ,
wh h ic r t
i s a e gula r o c agon of 1 i n c h d s i e , on t h e F I G 61 0
ru d A l d l l
g o n . h
c y i n r i c a s ab 4 i n c e s i nd tr i am e e an d
1 inc h th r t p x ld l
i c k e s s on t h e r i s m , t h e a e s o f t h e t w o s o i s b e i n g i n i n e R epr e .

s ent ld p rp tv
t h e t wo s o i s ln e s e c i e r r . pr
On e c o n e o f t h e b as e o f t h e i sm i s t o b e
h
i n c t o t he r ig ht p ttr
of t h e s e c a o h r u dl
an d 2 i n c e s f om t h e gr o n i n e , an d o n e
d d
o f t h e e ge s o f t h e b as e a j ac e n t th t r r to v h t w rd
a co n e ht
i s t o an i s o a s t he r ig at
l
a n a n g e o f 50 w th
°
i u dl
t h e gr o n htine . v
H eig ru d h
of e y e ab o e t h e g o n , 25 i n c e s .

D t r p tu pl
i s an c e o f e y e f om i c r e h an e , 6 i n c e s .

v lvt
7 F i g 6 1 0 g i e s t h e e e a i o n an d a f
. . h l pl j t t d an of an ob e c s an i n g on t h e
r u d pl
g o n an e . wh l
Put the t t p p t v w th
o e o bj e c d
i n o er s e c i e , i t h e s i e s o f i t s b as e
l d l
i n c i n e at an g e s o f 45 t o t h e i c r e p tu pl
°
r tv t l d t
an e , an d i t s n e a e s e r i c a e ge 2 fe e
t o t h e ig r ht p ttr
o f t h e s e c a o , a n d 2 fe e t wt p tur i hi n t h e ic e T he eye i s t o
.

t ru d
b e 5 fe e fr om t h e g o n , an d 1 2 fe e f om t h e i c r et r p tu l h S ca e 3 .; in c to a
t
d

fo o .
[a n ]
 PE R S P E CT I V E P R OJ EC T I O N 31 1

A v rti l ti f q r i li g i h w i F g 6 1 1 t h upp r p t
8 e ca s ec on o a s ua e c e n s s o n n i .
, e e ar

ll p d l p p
°

f t h f rm f h w u r m i P t t h i i i t r t i v
.

b g
ei n o q e y o og a s a o s a e ra . u e ce n n o e s ec e

wi th t h ri z t l d g i li d
i s o on a e es nc ne

t t h p i tur pl
o e t gl c f e an e a an es o

i ght d 60 t t h °
30 t
°
th o e r an o e

l ft i t
e t r b i g 12
s n e ar e s co ner e n

f t v rt i ll y v r pi t
,

ee e ca o e a o n on

t h g u d pl
e ro3 f t t n th an e ee o e

l ft f t h p t t r d 1 f t
e o e S ec a o ,
an oo

wi thi t h pi tur T h y i
n e c
F 61 1
e . e e e s
IG‘
to b 1 2 f t fr m t h pi tur
e ee o e c e,

an d 5 f t fr m t h g u d ee S l 2i ht f t
o e [ n]
ro n . ca e ; nc o a oo . a

9 Dr w b y t h m th d f A rt 26 5 t h p
a p t i v pr j t i f t h l i d
e e o o .
, e er s ec e o ec on o e so

gr u d d p r ll l t
.
,

s h w t E 9 F ig 6 1 2 T h dg AB i t b
o n a x th . e e e s o e on e o n an a a e o

t h pi t pl xi f t h li d i t b i l i d t 50 t t h gr u d
. .
,
°
e Th
c ur e an e e a s o e so s o e nc ne a o e o n ,

r t p i t C i t b i t h pi tur pl h t t h i ght
.

an d th e n ea es d 15 i
o n s o e n e c e an e , a n nc es o e r

o f th p t t r S t ti p i t 4 i h fr m t h pi tur pl
e s ec a o . d 2 i h
a on o n ,
nc es o e c e an e , an nc es

b v t h gr u d
a o e e o n
1 0 Dr w t h p r p ti v pr j t i
.

a f th li d h w t E 1 0 F ig 6 1 2
e e s ec e o ec on o e so s o n a x .
,
. .

lid i t t d t h gr u d wi th t h dg AB i t h pi tur pl
.

Th e so s o s an on d e o n e e e n e c e an e , a n

15 i h t t h ri ght f t h p t t r T h f AB C i t b i l i d t 40
nc es o e o e s ec a o . e ac e s o e nc ne a
°

FIG . 61 2 .

In r ep r odu ci n g the a bove di agr ams t h e s i de s of t he s m a ll s qu ar es ar e to be

ta ken e qu a l to ha lf an i nc h .

to the pi tur pl c e an e .ht f t ti n p i t 2 i h

H ei g T h p i ti n f
o s a o o n nc es. e os o o t he
cen r e o t f vi i s on , a n d t h di t f th
e t ti p i t f m t h pi tur pl
s an c e o e s a on o n ro e c e an e is
to b d t rm i
e d e e ne f m th
ro furt h r d i ti th t t h d i t n b tw
e e c on on a e s a ce e een t he
v an s i hi g p i t f
n o n s or th h i t l dg i t b 7 % i h
e or z on a e es s o e nc es.
 P RA CT I C AL G E O METRY

11 Dr w . a p rp tv
t he ld hw
e s e c i e of t h e s o i s o n at E x 1 1 , Fi g 612 T h e b as e . . .

of th e s o ild u d t d AB h h d
i s t o b e o n t h e g r o n , an d t h e n e ar e s e ge 3; inc be i n the
p tu pl
ic re h ht
a n e an d 1 % i n c e s t o t h e r i g l d
T h e fa c e AB C i s t o be i n c i n e at 30 °
.

to t he icp tur pl e an et p t h r p tu pl
S t a i on oi n 3 i n c e s f om
. h
ic re an e an d i n c es
r
f o m gr o nu d .

12 A lt u. hw
s k e e o n c be i s s o Dr w th
n a t E x 1 2, Fi g 6 1 2 t a i s o bj e c i n p e r . . .

sp ect ive wh r tv t l d
en t he nea es e r i ca p tur pl
e ge i s i n t h e ic h e an e , a n d 1 i n c to the
l t t
e f , an d a fac e c on a i n i n g th t d a l d
e ge i s i n c i n ep tu pl
a t 35
°
to the ic re an e .

tt p t
T h e s a i on o i n t o b e h p t pl
i n c e s fr o m t h e i c u r e v an e a n d 1 i n c h abo e t h e t op

t
fac e o f t h e o b j e c .

13 Dr w . a p rp tv t hw d
t h e e s e c i e o f t h e o b j e c s o n a t E x 1 3, F i g 6 1 2 T h e e ge . . .

AB v t l p tur pl
t o b e e r i c a , an d i n t h e i c e l t
an e , a n d in c h t o t h e e f T h e fac e AB C .

l d
t o be i n c i n e a t 30 t o t h e°

p tur pl
ic e an e tt S a i on .

p toi n h r
t o be 4 i n c e s f o m
t he p t r pl
ic u e an e a n d 1 %
h v
i n c e s ab o e t h e p tB oi n .

14 D w ra . t h e p er s p e c
tv t hw
i e of t h e o b j e c s o n
at E x 1 4, F i g 6 12
. T he . .

d AB
e ge v t l
t o b e e r i c a an d
in the p tur pl
ic e an e , a n d
d r tl pp t
i e c y o os i e t o t h e
tt p t
s a i on oin p t
T he oi n .

l p t
0 a so t o be in t h e ic u r e
pl an e tt p t
S a i on
. o i n , 1 7}
h v lvl
i n c e s abo e t h e e e o f
p t i
o n C ,
a n h
d 33 i n c e s
}

r
f om t h e i cp tur pl e an e .

15 A .l r
g ab e c o s s i s
hw
s o n a t E x 1 5, F i g 6 1 2 ; . .

d w th
ra is inp r tv e s pe c i e .

d AB
T h e e ge v t l
t o be e r i c a
an d i n t h e p tu pl i c re an e

an d 5 i n c h l t
t o t he ef .

T h e fac e AB C t o b e i n FIG 61 3 . .

c li n e d at 4 5 t o t h e
°
p u ict re
pl an e tt p t h lw p tA
S a i o n oi n , l j i n c es be o t h e oi n
. h r a np t r
d 4 i n c e s f om t h e i c u e
pl
,
an e .

1 6 T h pl . d l v ti
e f wh lb r w t d i g
an an th gr u de e a on o a ee ar o s an n on e o n ar e

s h w i Fig 613 t t h
o n n l i .ht f t R p t thi bj t i
o e s ca e , nc o a oo . e r esen s o ec n

p r p tiv u i ng t h
e s ec l 1 i h t f t T h li AB i t h h i z t l t
e s e s ca e , nc o a oo e ne s e or on a r ac e

t l v rti l pl wh lb r w T h p i nt A i t b 1 f t
.

o f th e ce n r a f th e ca an e o e ee a ro . e o s o e oo

t tho l ft f t h p t t r d 1 f t fr m t h gr u d li n
e e o e s d t h li
ec a o AB i an oo o e o n e , an e ne s

t ov i h t w rd t h ri ght t 40 t t h pi tu pl
an s o a s Th y e i t b a
°
o e c re an e . e e e s o e

6 f t byee l fr m t h pi tur pl
, s ca e , d 2} f t b v t h gr u d pl
o e c e an e a n 7 ee a o e e o n an e .

17 R f r i g t . x r i 1 4 l t t h t ti p i t h m v d 1 5 i h
e e r n o e e c se e e s a on o n e o e nc es

r r t t h bj t d l t t h pi tur pl b m v d p r ll l t it lf
,

nea e o e o ec an e e c e an e e o e a a e o se a
,

di t s an c ef 5i he th t t h t ti p i t m b tw n t h li d n d t h
o nc s, so a e s a on o n co es e ee e so a e

pi tu plc re an e .

1 8 W k th . x m pl h w i F i g 606 p 307 t t h di m i giv

or e e a e s o n n .
,
.
,
o e e n s on s en .

Th t k p i n t 3 i h t t h l ft 5 i h b v t h gr u d d 3 i h
en a e a o nc es o e e ,
nc es a o e e o n ,
an nc es

b hi d t h p i tu
e n pl eC i d r thic l um i u p i t d d t m i t h
re an e on s e s as a no s o n an e er ne e

p r p t iv f t h h d w t b y t h li d i t l f d t h gr un d ; ll t h
.

e s ec e o e s a o c as e so on se an on e o a e

ra y f li ght t
s o m fr m t h l m i u p i t o co e o e u no s o n .
31 4 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY
T h e t w o s i m pl e w a y s i n wh i c h t h e s ur fa c e of a ri g h c i r c ul a r c on e t
t t
m ay be g e n e r a e d a r e : ( 1 )by a s r ai g h l i n e w h i c h p a s s es hr ou g h a t t
t t
fix e d p oin (t h e v e r e x of t h e c on e ) a n d m ov e s i n c o n a c w i h t h e t t t
c i r c l e wh i c h i s t he b a s e o f t h e c on e a s s h o w n i n Fi by
g 6 1 6 ( )
2 a .

c i r c l e of c h an i n
g g r a d i u s wh i c h m o v e s w i h i t s c e n r e o n t h t
e a x i s and t
i t s pl a n e p
e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e a x i s , t h e r a d i u s of t he c i r c le be i n g
p t t
r opo r i on al t o i t s d i s an ce fr om t he v e r e x of t he c on e as s h own i n t
F ig 6 1 7
. .

A s ur face wh i c h m ay b e ge n e r a e d by a l i n e , s ra i gh or c urv e d , t t t
t t t
r e volvi n g ab ou a fix e d s ra i gh l in e i s c all e d a s urf a ce of r evolu ti on .

t t t
T h e fix e d s r ai gh l i n e a b ou wh i c h t h e ge n e r a i n g l i n e r e v o lv e s i s t
c a ll e d t h e a x i s of t h e s u r fac e S e c t i on s o f a s ur fac e of r e vo lu i on by
. t
t
pl a n e s a t ri g h a n gl e s t o i t s a x i s a r e c i r c l e S e c i on s by l an e s t p
t
c on a i n i n g t he a x i s ar e c a ll e d me r i di a n s e c t i ons All m e ri d i an s e c i on s . t
a r e e x ac l t
y al i k e .

A s urfa c e wh i c h m ay be ge n e ra e d by t he m o i on of a s r ai gh t t t t
l i n e is c all e d a r ule d s u rf a ce Rul e d s urf ac e s m ay be d i v i d e d i n o t
—
.

t w o c l as s e s deve lop a ble s u rf a ce s a n d twis t e d s urf a c e s A d e ve l op a bl e .

-

s ur fa ce m a
y b e fo ld e d b a c k o n o n e pl a n e w i th o u e a r i n g or c r e a s i n g tt
a t an y p oi n t t
T he ge n e r a i n g l i n e o f a d e v e l op a bl e s u rfa c e m o v es
.

t t
i n s u c h a m a n n e r h a a n y t wo o f i t s c on s e c u i ve po s i i on s a r e i n t he t t
sa m e pl a n e All rul e d s urfac e s wh i ch ar e n ot d e v e l op abl e ar e w i s e d
. t t
s ur fa c es
—
.

27 4 . P l an e S e c i o n s o f C u t ed S u r fa c e s rv
T h e w ay i n
wh i c h a c urve d s urfa ce i s ge n e r a e d b e i n g k n o wn t h e pr o e c ion s o f t j t
t
t he g e n e ra i n g l in e i n a n y n u m b e r o f po s i t i on s ca n b e dr a w n T he .

t t
i n e r s e c i on s of a g i v e n pl an e w i th t he ge n e r a t i n g l i n e i n e a c h
of t t
h e s e p os i ti on s c an h e n be d e t e rm i ne d T h i s w i ll gi v e a n u m be r .

t
of p oin s on t h e i n e r t
s e c t i on o f t he pl a n e w i t h

t he s urf ac e , a n d a fa i r
c urv e t
hr ou gh h e m wi ll t
b e t h e c om pl e t e i n e r t
t
s e c i o n r e qu i r e d .

Wh e n t he c u rve d s u r
fa c e c an be g e n e ra e d i n t
a n u m b e r of s i m pl e w ay s ,

t t h a m od e of g e n e r a i on t
s h o uld b e m a d e u s e of
wh i c h h as t he r o e c i on s p j t
of i t s
g e n e r a i n gt l i n e t h e

s im le s p t
p os s i bl e .

E X A LE 1 A s u r
MP .

fa c e i s ge n e ra e d by a t
t
h ori z on al l i n e wh i c h
m o v e s i n c on ac t w i h t t
t h e l i n e AB
d
( g
F i 6 1 8
FI G 61 8
a n d t h e s ur fa ce o f t h
. '

c o n e V OD .T o fi n d t h e s e ct i on o f h i s s u r fa c e by t he pl an e LMN
. t .
 C UR V E D S UR FA CE S AN D T AN G ENT P LANE S 31 5

Tak e a s e c ti o n of t h e g i ve n c on e n d pl n e by h o r i z on t l a a a a

plan e c u tti ng b b t tt
a ,
a
’ ’
T h e p l n of t h e s e c t i o n of t he c on e i s
a
’
. a

a c i rc le an d tan ge n ts t o th i s c i r cl e fr om t ar e t h e pl an s of t wo
pos i tions of t h e ge n e r ti n g l i n e T h e p oi n t s r n d
a . i n wh i c h a s

th e se tang e n ts c u t as t h e p l n of t h e i n t e r e c t ion of t h e s u m e d
a s a s

p l n e o f s e c ti on wi t h t he pl an e LMN a r e t h e pl n s of p oi n ts o n
a a

t he s e c t i on r e qu i re d P r oj e c tor s from r n d s t o m e e t t h e
. a

h ori z on ta l thr ou g h t d e t e r m i n e
’
nd s I n a s i m i l a r m a nne r
r
’
a
’
.

a ny n u m b e r o f po i n ts on t he r e q u i r e d s e c t i on m b e fou nd
y a .

E X AMP LE 2 R e fe r r i n g t o Fi g 6 1 9 b b i s h or i zon t l c i r c l e
. .
,
a ,
a
’ ’
a a

3 i n c h e s i n d i am e t e r c d c d i s a n ot h e r h o r i z on ta l c i r c l e 1 n c he s
‘

' ’
.
, 5 i

FIG . 61 9 .

in d i am e te r T h e l i n e j oi ni n t he c e n tr e s of t h e s e c i r c l e s i s v e r ti c l
.
g
a
a nd 2
k i n c h e s l on
g .T w o p o i n ts m ov e on e o n e a c h ci r c l e wi th e qu al
, ,

a n ul r v e l o c i t i e s i n o p p o s i t e d i re c t i o n s A s urf ce i s g e n e r te d by
g a . a a
a t r i g h t li n e wh i c h c on t a i ns t h e a bo v e m e n t i on e d m o v in
s a p oi n t s
g .
31 6 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T R Y
T we lve p os i ti ons of t h e ge n e ra ti ng l i n e ar e s h o w n i n plan nd i n t wo a

e l e v a t i on s .

I t w i ll be fou n d t h a t h o r i z on t a l s e c t i on s of t he s urf c e t a a

l e v e l s 1 5 i n c h e s n d 4 l i n h e s b o v e t h e p l n e of t h e l a r g e r c i r c l e
a . c a a

s t r a i ht l r p v ly Th t r h t
' ’
f f
’
a re g i n e s c 6 a n d g h g h
, e s e c t i e e s e ,
s a i g .

l i n e s r e of d e fini te l e n gth s a n d r e t r i g h t n g l es t o on e an oth e r

a a a a .

I t w i ll a l s o be fo u n d t h a t h or i z o n t a l s e c ti on s t l e v e l s o th e r t h an a

t h a t of t h e c i rc l e s or t he t r i gh t l i n e s r e e lli p s e s T w o of th e ses a a .

e ll i pt i c ar e s h o w n t t h e l e ve l m n n d t h e ot h e r
' ’
s e c t i on s on e ,
a t a a

t he l e ve l p q T he s tu d e n t s h o uld w ork o u t th i s e xam pl e f u ll

’ ’
.
,

S i ze .

T he s u rfa ce d e s c ri b e d i n t h i s e x m pl e i s on e t h t oc c ur s i n a a

t h e s c i en ce of op t i cs I t i s o bvi ou s th a t t h e s urf c e m y
. ls o a a a

b e ge n e r t e d by a s t ra i g h t l i n e m o v i n g i n c on t a c t w i t h t h e l i n e s
a

cd c d a n d o n e o f t h e c i r c l e s o r o n e of t h e e ll i p s e s
' ' ’ ’
ab a b
, , ,
.

E X AMP LE 3 A s urfac e i s ge n e r a t e d by a ci r c l e wh os e pl an e i s
.

h or i zon ta l an d wh os e c en t re m oves l on g t he s t rai ght l i n e A D a

( g
Fi . T h e r a d i u s o f t h e c i r c l e v r i e s so t h at t h e ci r c l e a

V T . . OF PLANE

FIG . 6 20 .

in te r s e c ts t h e s e m i ci r c l e AB C I t i s r e qu i re d t o fi n d t he s e c ti on .

of t h i s s urf c e by t h e gi ve n pl n e wh i c h i p r ll e l t o X Y
a a s a a .

T k e h ori z o n t a l pl n e i n te r e c t i n g t h e r c A B C t M t he s t r i g h t
a a a s a a , a

l i n e A D t N n d t he g i v e n pl n e i n t h e s tr ai gh t l i n e P Q Wi th
a a a
zD
.

n a s c e n t re n d r d i u s nm d e
a ri be c i rc l e t o c t p g t
a nd s sc a u a r a .

P e rp e n d i c ul rs t o X Y from r n d s t o m ee t p g d e te r m i n e t h e po in ts
a a
”
31 8 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY
27 8 T a n ge n t P l a n e t o a C o n e t h r o u gh a G i v e n E x t e r n al
—
.

P oi n t V ( F i g 6 22)i s t h e v e r t e x o f t h e c o n e a n d R t h e g i v e n p o i n t
.
.

J oi n V R T h e r e qu i r e d pl an e w i ll c on t a i n t h e s tr a i g h t li n e V R , an d
.

t h e h o r i z on t a l t r a c e of t h e p l a n e w i l l p as s t hr o u g h T t h e h o r i z on ta l
trace of V R T he t an ge n t T Q t o t h e h o r i z on t al tra ce of t he con e i s
.

t h e h or i z on t a l t r a c e of t h e r e qu i r e d tan ge n t p l a n e an d i t s v e rt i ca l t r a ce

n l f u n d f r m t h n d i t i on t h a t t h e pl a n e c on t ai n s t h e s t ra i h t
{ ge
a
y o o e c o
g
me x i
I f Q i s t h e p oi n t of con t ac t of t h e t a n ge n t f r om T t o t h e h o r i z on ta l
tr a c e of t h e c on e , th e n t he s t rai gh t l i n e V Q i s t h e l i n e of c on ta c t
b e twe e n t h e c on e an d pl an e .

Wh e n T t h e h o r i zon t a l tra ce of V R fa ll s ou ts i d e t he h ori z on ta l

t r ace of t h e con e t h e r e w i ll b e t wo tange n t p l an e s t o t he co n e p as s i n g
thr ou gh t h e gi ve n p oi n t R Wh e n T fall s on t h e h or i z on t a l trac e of
.

t h e c on e t h e r e w i ll b e o n e t a n g e n t pl an e o n ly c on t ai n i ng t h e gi ve n
poi n t I f T fa ll s i n s i d e t h e h or i zon t al t r ac e of t he con e t he p robl e m
.
’

i s i m p o s s i bl e but i n t h a t c a s e t h e p oi n t R w o uld be i n s i d e t h e c on e .

N n t h e pr e c e d i n a r t i c l e s on t a n e n t pl a n e s t o t h e c on e , u s e
[ ot e I g g
h as b e e n m ad e of t h e h or i z o n t a l t r a c e of t h e c o n e bu t i n pr a c t i c e
i t m ay oft e n b e m or e c on v e n i e n t t o ta k e a v e rt i c al t r a c e of t h e c on e ,
a n d fir s t d e te r m i n e t h e v e r t i c a l t r a ce of t h e t an e n t pl a n e , wh i c h w i ll
g
b e a t a n ge n t t o t h e v e r t i c a l t rac e of t h e c on e . F or e x a m pl e , i f t h e
b as e of t h e con e i s c i r c ul a r a n d i n a v e rti c a l pl a n e , t ak e t h i s v e r t i ca l
p lan e or a pl an e p ara ll e l t o i t a s o n e of t h e pl an e s of pr oj e c ti o n an d
, ,

u s e t h e tr a c e o f t h e c on e o n t h is p l a n e i n d e t e r m i n i n t h e tan e n t
g g
pl a n e Th e s e r e m a rk s a l s o a p p ly t o pr obl e m s wh i c h foll o w on tan ge n t
.

pl a n e s t o c on e s a n d c yl i n d e r s ]
2 7 9 T a n ge n t P l a n e t o a C o n e P ar a ll e l t o a G i v e n S t r a i gh t
—
.

L i n e Throu gh t he v e r te x of t h e con e dr a w a l i n e pa r a ll e l t o t he
i v en line By t h e co n s tru c t i o n d es c ri be d i n t h e pr e ce d i n g a r t i c l e ,
g .

d e te r mi n e t h e pl an e s t o c on tai n t h e for m e r l i n e a n d to u c h t he c on e .

T h e s e pl an e s ar e t h e pl a n e s r e qu i re d . I n t h e p a r t i c ul a r c a s e wh e r e
t h e g i ve n l in e i s p a r a ll e l t o a ge n e r a t i n g l i n e o f t h e c on e , th e r e w i ll be
o n ly on e t a n g e n t pl a n e t o t h e c on e p a r a ll e l t o t h e g i v e n l i n e . I f t he
l i n e t hr ou g h t h e v e r t e x of t h e c on e p ar all e l t o t h e g i v e n l i n e fall s
w i th i n t h e con e , t h e p robl e m i s i m p os si bl e
—
.

2 8 0 T a n ge n t P l a n e s t o R i gh t C i r c u l a r C o n e s
. T h e m e t h od s
d es c r i be d i n t he pre c e d i n g a r ti c l e s on tan ge n t pl a n e s t o t h e c on e ar e
a ppl i c a bl e t o a n y fo r m of c o n e , i t be i n g a s s u m e d th a t t h e tr a ce of t he

s ur fa c e o f t h e c one o n o n e of t h e pl a n e s of pr oj e c t i on i s g i v e n . If a
tra ce of t h e s urfa c e of t h e c on e i s n ot g i ve n th e r e w ould n e c e s s a ri ly be
s u ffi c i e n t d a t a i v e n t o e n abl e a t r a c e o n on e of t h e pl an e s of pr oj e c t i on
g
t o b e fo u n d .

Wh e n t h e con e i s a ri g ht c i r c ul a r c on e a n d i t s ax i s i s i n cl in e d t o
o n e of t h e pl a n e s of pr oj e c t i o n i t s tr a c e o n t h a t p l a n e w i ll be o n e of

t h e c o n i c s e c ti on s wh i c h m ay b e draw n a n d t h e m e t h o d s o f t h e
pre c e d i n g a rt i c l e s m ay th e n be a p p l i e d Bu t t h e dra w i n g of t he c o n i c
.

s e c t i o n wh i c h i s t h e t r a ce of t h e c on e m ay i n g e ne r al b e a v oi d e d by t h e

a d op t i on o f s p e c i a l c on s t ru c t i o n s .
 C UR V ED S UR F A C E S AN D TAN G ENT P LANE S 31 9

F or e x am pl e ,
le t pp
’

( F i g 6 23) " g
b e a .i ve n po i n t on t he s urface of a
r i gh t c i i cu lar c on e wh x os e a i s v0, v o i s
to i n cli n e d t h e pl an e s o f
p roj e c ti on ( I n
g e n e r a l o n ly
.

o n e proj e c t i o n of P w i ll b e g i ve n

a n d t h e o th e r w i ll h a v e t o b e

fo u n d a s e xpl i n e d i n Art 228 a .

,

p . D r w t h e pr oj e c ti on s a

of a s ph e r e i n s c ri b e d i n t h e
c on e J oi n t he v e r te x cv t o
.
'

pp
’
an d fi nd t h e p oi n t rr
'

wh e re t h e l in e vp vp t ou c h e s ,
’ '

t h e s ph e r e A t a n ge n t pl an e .

t o t h e sph e r e a t r r w i l l b e a
’

t n ge n t p l an e t o t h e g i ve n con e
a

n d t he l i n e v v p w i ll b e t h e
' '
a
p ,

l i n e of c on t c t b e tw e e n t he a

c on e a n d p l a n e T h e ta n ge n t .

pl n e t o t h e s ph e r e at r r w i l l
a
'

be pe r pe n d i c ul a r t o t h e r d i u s a

and i t s t
’ ' '
or o ,
r c e s m ay be ra

d e te r m i n e d as e x Plai ne d i n Art F m 6 23
.

183 p
. .

.
,

F ur th e r e x am pl e s of pe c i al c on s tru c ti on s t o a voi d dra w i n g t h e n on

s

c i r c u l r t ra c e o f
a r i ght c i r c ul r co n e t o wh i ch a tan ge n t pl ne i s
a a ,
a

r e qu i r e d w i ll be fou n d i n s ub s e qu e n t ar ti c l e s of th i s c h p te r I t
,
a .

s h ou ld h ow e v e r be n o te d th at i n m n y c s e s t h e dr w i n g of t h e n on a a a

c i r c ul a r t r a c e of t h e con e i s t h e m o s t s tr a i gh t fo rw a rd c o n s t ru c t i on t o

a d opt a n d p a r t i c ul a rly wh e n t h e t r a ce i s an e ll i p se i t w i ll of t e n b e
, , ,

fou n d qu i c k e r n d m ore a cc ur te t o dr w t h e tr a c e t h an t o
a d op t
a a a

m o r e o r l e s s e l a bo r a te con s t ru c t i on s i n v olv i n g s t r a i ght l i n e s a n d

c i r c l e s on l y .

2 8 1 P l a n e s T an ge n t i a l t o a G i v e n C o n e a n d h a v i n g a
—
.

Gi v e n I n cl t
i n a i on Le t 6 b e t h e gi v e n i n c l i n at i on of t h e pl a n e s
wh i c h ar e t o be t n ge n t i a l to t he con e a .

R efe rri n g t o F i g 6 24 t he con e i s g i ve n by i t s v e r te x v v an d i t s

.
,
'

h ori z on t l tr c e a D e te rm i ne a r i gh t c i r cul a r c on e h v i n g i t s v e r te x
a . a

t ou i t s b a s e on t h e h o r i z on ta l pl a n e a n d i t b s e a n gl e e qu a l t o 0
'
a , ,
a .

P l an e s t an ge nt i l t o t h e s e t w o c on es ar e t h e p l an e s r e qu i r e d
a In .

F i g 6 24 t h e r e a r e four s u c h pl a n es t h e i r h or i z on t a l t r a ce s b e i n g
.
,

c om m on t a n e n t s t o t h e b s e s o r h o r i z on t a l t r ac e s of t h e con e s T h
g a e .

ve r t i ca l tr ac e s of t he pl n e s ar e fou n d fr om t he con d i ti o n t h a t t h e a

p l n e s con t i n t h e c om m on v e r te x of t he t w o c o n e s T h e v e r t i c a l t rac e
a a .

of t h e fo urth pl an e i s o u t s i d e t h e l i m i t s of t h e fi ur e
g .

I n F i g 6 25 t h e g i v e n c on e i s a r i g ht c i r c ul r c on e wh os e a x i s
. a

i s i n c l i n e d t o bo th p l n e s of p r oj c t i on T h e h or i z on ta l tra c e o f
’ ’
cc v , o a e .

th i s c on e m ay b e fo u n d as i n Ar t 227 p 26 3 an d t h e con s t ru c t i on j u s t .
,
.
,

g i v e n fo r F i g 6 2 4 ppl i e d A m.u c h s i m p la
e r c o n tru c t i o n
. h o w e v e r i s s

a s fo ll o w s D r w s ph e re i n s c ri be d i n t he g i v e n c on e i t s c e n t re
. a a ,

b e i ng oo D e t e rm i n e a c on e e n ve lop i n g th i s s ph e re h av i n g i t s b a s e
’
.
,
3 20 P RA C T I C A L G E O METRY

on h r z t l pl an e an d i t s b s e an gl e e q u a l t o 0 aa i s t he
t he o i on a , a .
'

ve r te x of th s con e D e te r m i n e al s o a r i gh t c i rc ul r c on e h avi n g i t s
i .
a

FIG . 6 24 . FIG . 625 .

v e r te x at b as e on t he h o ri z ont al pl an e an d i t s b as e angl e e qu al
vv
'
,
it s ,

to 9 T he t wo pl an e s ( 1 ) n d ( 2)t an ge n t i a l t o t h e s e t wo a ux i l i a ry
. a

c on e s a r e t wo o f t h e pl a n e s r e qu i r e d th e i r h or i zon ta l t r ac e s be i n g
,

c o m m on t n g e n t s t o t h e c i r c l e s wh i c h a r e t h e b as e s o r h ori z on t l tr c e s
a a a

o f t h e a ux i l i a ry c on e s .

I f t h e a ux i l i a y c on e e n v e l op i ng t he s ph e r e b e t a k e n w i th i t s v e r te x
r

u u , , b e l ow t h e c e n tre of t h e s ph e r e i n s te a d of ab o v e i t t h e oth e r
’
,

a ux i l i a ry con e b e i n g as b e fore t wo ot h e r t an ge n t pl an e s 3)an d (4)t o,

t h e g i v e n c on e a n d h av i n g t h e i n c l i n a t i on 0 a r e fo u n d I n th i s c e . as

h o w e v e r i t i s t he p ai r of t n ge nt s t o t h e t r ce s o f t h e ux i l ia ry con e s
a a a

wh i c h c ros s o n e an oth e r b e t w ee n t h e c i rc l es whi c h m u s t b e t ak e n .

T h e v e rt i c l tr a c e of pl n e ( 4)i s n ot s h ow n
a a .

2 8 2 T a n ge n t P l a n e t o a C y l i n d e r a t a G i v e n P o i n t o n i t s
—
.

r
S u fa e c Le t t h e c yl i n d e r b e g i v e n by i t s h ori z on ta l t r a ce a n d t h e
d i r e c ti on of i t s ge ne ra t i n g l i n e ( Fi g a n d le t t h e g i v e n p oi n t o n i t s
.

s ur f c e b e gi v e n by i t s pl n Thr ou h dr aw r p r ll e l t o t he pl n a
a
p g p a
pq . a a

o f t h e d i r e c t i on of t h e n r t i n l i n u t t i n t h h o ri z on t a l tr ce o f t h e
g e e g e c g e a ,
a

c yl i n d e r a t nd r I f P i
a s on t h e u n d e r s u rfa c e o f t he c yl i n d e r p g
g .

w i ll b e t h e pl an of t h e ge n e r ati n g l in e throu gh P an d g w i ll be i t s
h o r i z on t al tra c e I f P i s on t h e u pp e r s urfac e of t he cyl i n d e r p r w i ll
.

b e t h e pl n of t h e g e n e r at i n g l i n e t hr o u g h P
a n d r w i ll be i t s h o r i z on t l
,
a a

tr ac e T he e l e va t i on s of th e s e ge n e r ati n g l i n e s ar e fou n d as s h o w n
. .
322 P RA C T I C AL G E OMETRY
t n ge n t s t o
a ti on of t h e cyl i n d e r t p oi n ts on t h e ge n e r ti n g l i n e s
a sec a a

t hr ou gh t h e t w o p o s i bl e po s i ti on s of P m u s t li e on t h e pl n e o n e on
s ,
a s,

e c h wh i h
a , e t n g e n t i l t o t h e cyl i n d e r
c ar a l on g th e s e ge n e r t i n g li n e s
a a a .

2 8 3 T a n ge n t P l an e s t o a C y l i n d e r t h r o u gh a gi v e n e x t e r n a l
P oi n t —
.

Thro u g h t h e gi ve n p oi n t dr w l i n e p r ll e l t o t h e ge n e r ti n g
. a a a a a

l i n e of t he cyl i n d e r L e t Q be t h e tr e of th i l i n e on on e of t he
. ac s

p l n e s o f p r oj e c ti on Thr o u gh Q dr w t he t n g e n ts t o t h e t r ce of
a . a a a

t h e c yl i n d r o n t h e pl n e of pr oj e c t i on c on t i n i n g Q
e a Th e e tan ge n t s a . s

w i ll b e t h e tr e s o n on e o f t h e pl n e s of pr oj e c ti o n of t h e pl n e s
ac a a

r e qu i re d nd t h e o th e r tr ce s m y b e fou n d fr om t h e c on d i t i on t h t
a a a a

t h e pl n es c o n t a i n t h e gi v e n po i n t
a .

I f t h e c yl i n d e r i s a r i gh t i r c ul r cyl i n d e r t h e dr a w i n g of i t t r c e c a s a ,

wh e n th t tr ce i n ot c i rc l e m y be voi d e d by s l i g ht m od i fi c ti on
a a s a ,
a a a a

of t h e c o n s t ru c t i o n s h own i n F i 6 27 p 321 L e t t h e li n e t hr o u gh
g .
, . .

t h e g i v e n p oi n t p r ll e l t o t h e g e n e r t i n g l i n e of t h e cyl i n d e r i n t e r s e c t
a a a

t he p l n e U V W a t L n d t h e h or i z on t l pl n e of pr oj e c t i on a t K
a a a a .

Fi n d l t he r b t m e n t o f L on t h e h ori z on t l pl n e Fr o m l dr w
, a a a a .
1 a

t n ge n t s t o t he r b t m e n t f t h e c i r c l e wh i c h i s t h e s e c ti on of t h e
a a a o

c yl i n d e r by t h e pl n e U V W Le t th e s e t n ge n ts i n t e rs e c t V W a t
a . a

s a nd t K s n d K t a e t h e h or i zon t a l t r ces o f t h e pl a n e s r e qu i r e d
. a r a

a n d t h e v e r t i c l tr c e s m b e f o u n d fr om t h e c on d i t i on t h t t h e pl an e s
a a
y a a

c on t i n t h e g i v e n p o i n t
a .

2 8 4 P l an e s T a n ge n t i al t o a C y li n d e r an d P a r alle l t o a
—
.

g i v e n S t r a i gh t L i n e L e t AB b e t h e g i v e n tr i g h t l i n e s a .

Le t t h e c yl i n d e r b e g i v e n by i t s t r ce o n o n e of t h e pl n e s of a a

pr oj e c t i on n d t h e d i re c t i on of i t s ge n e rat i n g l i n e Throu gh n y
a . a

po i n t C i n AB dra w C D p r ll e l t o t h e ge n e r ti ng l in e of t h e c yli n d e r a a a .

D e te rm i ne t h e t r c e s of t h e pl n e c on t in in g AB n d C D T h e
a a a a .

pl n e s re qu i r e d w i ll be p r ll e l t o thi s pl n e T n ge n ts t o t h e t r ce
a a a a . a a

o f t h e cyl i n d e r p r ll e l t o t h e c orr e p on d i n g t r ce of t h e pl n e c on
a a s a a

t i n i n g AB an d C D w i ll be t h e t rac e s on on e of t he pl n e s of
a a

p roj e c t i on of t h e pl n e s r e qu i r e d T he oth e r tr ce s m y b e fo un d
a . a a

f r o m t h e c on d i t i on t h t t h e r e qu i r e d pl n e s a r e p r ll e l t o t h e pl n e
a a a a a

c on t i n i n g AB
a nd C D a .

I f t h e c yl i n d e r i s r i gh t c i r ul r cyl in d e r t h e dra w i n g of i t s
a c a ,

t r ce wh e n th t tr c e i s n ot a c i r c l e ma y be v oi d e d by m od i fi c ti on
a ,
a a ,
a a a

o f t h e c on tru c t i on s h o w n i n F i
s 6 2 7 p 3 2 1 A i n t h e ca s e ju s t s
g .
,
. .

c on s i d e r e d dr w C D t o i n t e r s e c t AB
,
a n d b e p r lle l t o t h e ge n e r a t i n g a a a

l i n e of t h e c yl i n de r n d fi n d t h e t r e s of t he pl n e con t i n i n g AB
a ac a a

a n d CD F i n d t h e i n t e r s e c ti on of thi s pl n e w i th t h e pl n e U V W
. a a .

L e t EF b e t h i s i n t e r s e c t i on D r w t h e r b tm e n t e f of EF on t h e . a a a l ,

h or i z on t l pl n e D r w p r ll e l t o f t n g e n t t o t h e r b t m e n t of
a a . a a a e, l a s a a

t h e c i r l e wh i c h i t h e e c t i on of t h e c yl i n d e r by t h e pl n e U V W Le t
c s s a .

th e s e t n ge n t s me e t V W t n d t Li n e s throu gh
a n d t p r ll e l
a s a . 3 a a a

t o t h e h o r i z on t l tr c e of t h e pl n e c on t i n i n g AB
a a n d CD e t he a a a ar

h or i z on t l tr ce s of t he pl n e s r e qu i re d T h e v e rt i c l tr ce m y b e
a a a . a a s a

fo u n d f r om t h e on d i t i on th t t h e r e qu i r e d pl n es ar e p a ra ll e l t o t h e
c a a

pl n e c on t in i n g AB n d C D
a a a .

2 8 5 P l an e s T a n ge n t i al t o 3 C y l i n d e r a n d h a v i n g a gi v e n
. .
 C UR V ED S UR F A C E S AN D TAN G ENT P LANE S 323

I n cl i n a t i o n —L et 0 b e t h e gi v e n i n cl i n a t i on , sa
y t o t h e h ori z on t l
a

p la n e .

. yl d r v by
I n Fi g 6 28 t h e c i n e i s g i e n h r z t l tr it s o i on a a c e an d t h e

dr t r t l T k
i e c i on o f i t s g e n e a i n g i n e s . r t
a e ab, a h al ’ ’
g e ne a in
g i n e ,
a

b h r z t l tr
e ing i t s o i on a T k a ce p t a e a
. oi n v rt x
’ ’ '
v v i n a b, a h a s t h e e e

of a r ht r u r
ig c i c la h b
c on e w os e h r z t l pl
a s e i s on t h e o i on a an e a n d

wh b
os e l
a se a n
g qu l
e is e A t
a t o 0 t . b
an en
g tha L t o t he a s e of i s

c one w ll h r z t l tr
i be t h e o i on a pl t
a c e of a t l an e an ge n i a t o t h e c on e a n d
t r t l
c on a i n i n g t h e g e n e a i n g i n e a b, a b v rt l tr
’ '
th
T h e e i ca
. a c e L M of is
pl u d r
a n e i s fo n dt th t
f om t h e c on i i on pl at t he p t a n e c on a i n s t h e oi n vv
'
.

h pl
T is w ll l h v
an e i a so v
a e t he l t g i T t
e n i n c i n a i on 0 . an e n s t o t he
g
h r z t l tr
o i on a yl d r p r ll l
a c e of t h e c in e w ll
a a e rz t l
to d L i b e t he h o i on a
tr pl
a c e s of t w o of t h e r qu r d
an e s e t h r v r t l tr
i e and w ll
ei e i ca ace s i be
p r ll l
a a e t o LM .

th r pl
T wo o e h w
an e s
( ulfill
n ot s o n ) f v dt
i n g t he
g i e n con i i o ns m a
y
be fo nu d by u t
s in g t he t an e n
g b aN t o t he a s e of t h e con e i n t he s a m e

wa y
.
th t a u d
a L w as se .

T he pl an e su d fo n b v w ll v d t ly h v
as a o e i e i en r qu r d a e t he e i e
l t
i n c i n a i on a n dth y ll l e wi a so con ai n e a c a ge n e a i n g i n e of t he
t h r t l
c yl d r wh h r z t l tr
in e os e o i on a p t wh r
ac e i s at t he h rz t l
oi n e e t he o i on a

t r a ce o f t h epl t u h
an e h r
o c e s t he t l tr o i z on ayl d r ac e o f t h e c in e . In
.
’ ’
l "
t t w th
F i g 6 28 , cd, c d a n d ef , e ff a r e t he i n e s of c on a c yl d r i t he c in e
of pl an e s r p t v ly
1 )a n d 2) e s e c i e .

FIG . 6 28 . FIG . 6 29 .

Wh e n t h e g i v e n cyl i n d e r i s a ri gh t c i r c u l ar cyli n d e r t h e con s t r u c

ti on s h o w n in F i g 6 29 m y b e u s ed I n t h i s c as e t rac e of t h e
. a . a

c yl i n d e r i s n ot r e qu i r e d T k e r r n d se t wo p oi n t s on t h e a xi s of
. a
’
a
’ ‘

t he c yli n d e r as t h e c e n tr e s o f t w o s ph e r e s i n s c r i be d i n t h e cyl i n d e r .

E n v e l op t h e s e s p h e re s by c on e s Whose b as e s ar e on t he h or i zon tal

“
324 P RA CT I C AL G E O ME T RY

pl an e an dwh os e b as e a n g l e s a r e e qu a l t o 0 T a nge n t pl an e s t o t h e s e .

c on e s are t w o o f t h e pl a n es r e qu i r e d T h e v e rt i c l t r c e of t h e e c on d
. a a s

p l n e fa ll s o ut s i d e t h e l im i ts of t he fi g ur e cd c d n d f e f t h e
a .
,
' ’
a e ,
' ’
,

l i n e s of c on t c t of t h e t an ge n t pl an e s w i th t h e c yl in d e r p as s t hr ou gh
a

t h e po i n t s of c on t a c t of th e s e pl an e s n d t h e s p h e r e s a .

T wo o th e r pl a n e s s a t i s fy i n g t h e gi v e n c on d i t i o n s m ay be fo u n d by
'

dra w i ng t wo i n v e r te d c on e s e n ve l opi n g t h e s ph e r e s a n d c o n s tru c ti n g

t h e t n ge n t pl a n e s t o t h e m
a T h e b as e a n g l e s of th e s e i n ve rt e d c on e
. s

m u s t of c o ur s e b e e qu a l t o 9 .

T h e g i v e n a n g l e 9 m u s t n ot b e l e s s t h an t h e i n c l i n a t i on o f t h e
e n e r a t i n g li n e s of t h e cyl i n d e r
g .

2 8 6 P l a n e s T a n ge n t i a l t o a S p h e r e a n d c o n t a i n i n g a gi v e n
L i n e —F i r s t s olu ti on
.

0 i s t h e c e n t r e of t h e s ph e r e a n d AB t h e g i v e n
.

l i n e D r w a n e l e v a t i on o f t h e
. a

s ph e r e an d i v en l i n e o n a v e r t i c a l
g
p l n e p ar a ll e l t o t h e l i n e (F i g
a .

Ta k e a pl an e pe rp e n d i c ul r a

t o AB a n d c on t ai n i n g t h e c e n t r e
o f t h e s ph e r e L M t h e v e rt i c a l
.

t r ace of th i s pl an e w i ll be a t ri gh t
an l e s t o a b a n d w i ll b e ed e
' '
g n g a

vi e w of t h e pl n e Th i s p l n e a . a

i n t e r s e c t s t h e g i v e n l i n e at C a n d
t h e s ph e r e i n a g r e a t c i r c l e T he .

pl an of th i s g r e at ci r c l e wh i c h ,

i s an e ll i p s e i s s h ow n but i t n e e d
,

n o t be dr a wn I n t h e pl a n e L M
.

t ak e t h e h ori zon t a l l i n e O S
thr ou gh t h e c en t r e of t h e s p h e re .

O b t ai n t h e r a b a t m e n t o f t h e
s e c ti on of t h e s ph e r e by t h e pl a n e FIG 630 . .

L M an d a l s o t h e p oi n t C by
r ot ati n g t he pl an e L M abou t O S u n ti l i t b e com e s h ori zon t a l T h e .

r a batm e n t of t h e s e c t i on of t h e s ph e re w i ll be t he c i r c l e wh i c h i s t he
“

pl an of t h e s ph e r e a n d t he ra b tm e n t of C wi ll b e c Thr ou g h c a l. 1
dr a w t h e t an g e n t o e t o t he ci r c l e wh i c h i s t h e pl n of t h e s p h e re e
l 1 a , 1

be i n g t h e p oi n t of c on t ac t R e s tor e t h e pl n e L M t o i t s ori gi n a l
. a

p os i t i on ta ki n g w i th i t t he p oi n t e d e t e r m i n i n g e a n d e s s h o w n 1
’
a .

CE i s a t an g e n t t o t h e s e c t i on of t h e s ph e r e by t h e pl a n e L M nd t he ,
a

pl an e c on tai n i n g C E an d AB w i ll b e a t an g e n t pl an e t o t h e s ph e re
at E . T h e h o ri z onta l n d v e r t i c l t ra ce s of t h e ta n ge n t pl an e w i ll be
a a

p e rp e n d i c ula r t o 06 a n d o e r e s pe c ti v e ly ' '

.

S i n c e a s e co n d tan ge n t c a n b e dra wn from 0 t o t h e c i rc l e t h e 1 ,

a b o v e c on s t ru c t i on a ppl i e d t o t h i s s e c on d t a n ge n t w i ll l e ad t o a
s e c on d pl an e t a n g e n ti l t o t he s ph e r e a n d con ta i n i n g AB
a This s e con d .

pl an e i s n ot s h o w n .

S e cond s olu ti on E n ve l op t he s ph e r e by a c one h a vi n g i t s ve r te x

.

i n t h e g i ve n l i n e AB T h e pl a n es t a n ge n t i l t o t h i s co n e a n d co n
. a

t ai ni n g A B wi ll a l s o b e t an ge n ti a l t o t h e s ph e r e T h e h or i z on ta l .
3 26 P RA C T ICAL G E O METRY
t
a n d c on ai n i n
g t h e l i ne P V Th e s e pl n e s w i ll l s o be tan ge n ti l t o
. a a a

t h e o th e r s p h e r
—
e .

9 l
2 0 P a n e s T a n ge n i al o T h r e S p
. t t e h e e
r s D e te r m i n e t he
v e r te x of c on e e n ve l op i ng an y t w o of t h e s ph e r e s l s o t he v e rte x of
a , a

a c on e e n v e l op i n n ot h e r t wo A pl n e c on t i n i n g t h e s e t wo v e r ti c e s
a a
g a .

a n d t ou c h i n g an o n e of t h e s ph e r e s w i ll l s o tou c h t h e o t h e r t w o a
y .

I f t h e s p he re s e e n t i re ly e x t e r n l t o on e
ar n oth e r n d n o t wo
a a a

t o u ch on e n oth e r th e r e w i ll be e i g h t pl n e s wh i c h w i ll to u ch ll three
a a a

s p h e r e s T w o of th e s e w i ll h v e ll t he s p h e r e on t h e s m e i d e
. a a s a s ,

while t h e oth e r s w i ll h ve on e ph e r e on on e s i d e n d t wo on
a s a

t h e oth e r .

2 9 1 T a n ge n t P la n e t o a S u r fa c e o f R e v o lu t i o n a t a gi v e n
—
.

P oi n t on t h e r
S u fa c e L e t t h e x i s of t h e urf c e ( Fi g 6 33 n d
a s a s . a

6 34)b e v e r t i c a l n d le t pp b e t h e g i ve n p oi n t on t h e s ur f c e
'
a a .
,

FI G . 6 33 . FIG . 6 34 .

All t an g en t p lan e s t o t h e s urface at p oi n ts on i t at t he s a m e l e v e l

pp w'
i l l h v e t he s am e i n c l i n t i on
a n d t h e n o r m l s t o t h e s urfa c e
a ,
a t a a

t h e e p oi n t s w i ll m ee t on t he a x i s t t he s am e poi n t H e n ce i f p r be
s a .
' '

dra w n p r all e l t o X Y t o m ee t t he o u tli n e of t he e l e v ti on (or pl an e

a a

r at ri x of t he s ur fa c e l dr w p r p d ul r
' ’ ’
g e n e
) t r a n d i n e q ar b e , n e a e n i c a a

t o t h e t an ge n t at r m ee t i n g t h e e l e v t i on o f t h e a x i s a t q q p w i ll b e
' ’ ' ’
a ,

t h e e l e va t i on of t h e n or m l t o t h e s ur f c e a t pp T h e pl n of th i s
'
a a . a

n o r m a l w i ll be t h e l i n e j o i n i n w i t h t h e c e n t r e o f t he c i r c l e wh i c h i s
gp
t he pl n of t h e urf c e
a s a .

A pl an e LMN thr ou gh t he poi n t p p an d pe rpe n d i c ula r t o t h e l i n e '

w ll e t h e t a n e n t pl n e t o t h e s urf ce
’ ' ' '

pq p q
, i b g ta
pp T h i s
p l an e i sa a .

a l o t n e n t i a l t o t h e r i g ht c i r c ul a r con e wh i c h e n ve l op s t h e s urfa c e
s
g a
 C UR V ED S UR F A C E S AN D TAN G ENT P LANE S 327

of r e volu ti on n d h as for i t s l in e o f c on tact t he h or i zon t l c i r cl e

a a

throu g h pp MN t h e h or i z on ta l tr ce of t h e tan ge n t pl n e LMN i s

'
.
,
a a ,

a t an ge n t t o t h e c i r c l e wh i c h i s t h e h o r i z on t l t r ce of t h e b ov e a a a

m e n ti on e d co n e .

I n F i g 6 33 t h e t an ge n t pl an e m e e t s t h e s ur fa c e of r e v olu ti on t
. a

on e p oi n t o n ly wh i l e i n Fi g 6 34 t h e t n ge n t pl n e a l s o c u ts t h e
'

, . a a

s urf c e

2 9 2 C y l i n d e r E n v e l o p i n g a S u r fa c e o f R e v o l u t i o n —
a .

. T he .

ve r ti c a l l i n e ab a b (F i g 635) i s t he ax i s o f a s ur f ce of r e volu ti on
,
’ ’
. a

FI G . 635 .

whos e ou tl n e i s gi v e n cd c d i s l in e wh i c h i s p arall e l t o t h e
i .
,
' ’
,
a

v e r ti c al pl n e of p r oj e c ti on bu t i s i n c l i n e d t o t h e h or i zon t l p l an e I t
a a .

i s r e qu i r e d t o de te r m in e t h e c yl i n d e r wh i c h e n v e l op s t he s u f c e of
r
a

r e volu ti on n d h as i t s ge n e r at ri ce s p r ll e l t o cd c d T he cy l n d e r i
a a a ,
’ '
. i s

d e te rmin e d wh e n i t s l i n e of c on t ct w i t h t h e urface of r e volut i on i s

a
s

fou n d . T h e con s t ru c ti on i s s h o wn for fi n d i n g t wo p oi n t s o n th i s l i n e

of con t ac t on e
, on t h e u p p e r o r c on c v e p r t of t h e s urf ce of
a a a

r e volu ti on an d t h e oth e r on t h e l ow e r o c on ve x p ar t
,
r .

Tak e a p oi n t r r on t h e m e r i d i an s e c ti on of t h e s urfa ce of r e v olu ti on

'

wh i ch i s p a r ll e l t o t he v e r ti cal pl n e of pr oj e c t i on D r w r o t he
a a . a
' '

n orm a l t o t h e e le v a t i on of t h e ou t l i n e of t h i s m e r i d i an s ec t i on a t r
’
,
328 P RA CT I CAL G E O METRY

an d le t r o mee t W i t h 0 a s c e n t r e a n d o r a s r ad i u s d e s c r i b e
a
’
b
’
at o
’
.
' ' ’

a c i r cl e . c i r c l e i s t h e e l e v a t i on o f a s p h e r e i n s c r i b e d i n t h e
Th i s
s ur f c e
a of r e v olut i on T h e l i n e of on t c t of th i s s ph e re an d t h e
. c a

s ur fa c e of r e v o lu t i on i s a h or i z on t a l c i r c l e wh os e e l e v t i on i s t h e s t r a i h t a
g
l i n e q r A cyl i n d e r wh i c h e n ve l op s th i s ph e r e n d h as i t s x i s
' '
. s a a

p ara l l e l t o cd c d wi ll tou c h t h e s ph e r e i n a c i rc l e of wh i c h
,
' '

p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o c d i s t h e e l e v a ti on L e t o t i n te rs e ct q at p
' ’
, . s
' '' ' ’
r
'
,

t h e n p i s t h e e l e vati on of a p oi n t on t h e l i n e of c on t c t of t h e s urfac e
'
a

of r e v olu t i on n d t h e r e qu i r e d e n v e l op i n
a c yl i n d er T h e pl an of
g p .

t hi s poi n t i s fo un d by an obvi ou s c on s t ru c ti on wh i c h i s s h own .

A l i n e mn m n throu gh pp p ar al le l t o cd c d i s on e of t h e ge n e ra t r i ce s
,
’ ’ '
,
’ '

o f t h e c yl i n d e r wh i c h e n v e l op s t h e s ph e r e n d i s t n ge n t i a l t o t h e a a

s ph e r e a t t h e p oi n t e s ur fa ce of t h e s ph e r e i s t an e n ti a l t o
'
pp b u t t h g
t h e s u rfac e of r e volu t i o n a t th i s p oin t t h e r e fo r e t h e l i n e mn m n i s
’ ’
, ,

e n e ra t ri x o f t h e e n v e l o p i n c yl i n d e r r e qu i r e d
a
g g .

T h e ou tl i n e of a p r oj e c ti o n of t h e s ur fac e o f r e vo lu ti on by pr oj e c t ors
p ar all e l t o cd c d w i ll b e t h e proj e c ti on of t h e l i n e of c on tac t of t h e
,
' '

FIG . 636 .

en ve l opi n g cyl i n d e r d e te rm i n e d a s b ove S u c h a pr oj e cti on i s s h ow n a .

at
( )
I o,
n a p l a n e p e r p e n d i c ul r t o t h e pr oj e c to r s
a .

T h e pr oj e c t i on of a s urfa ce of r e v olut i on on pl an e i n c l i n e d t o i t s a

a x i s m y al s o be ob tai n e d d i r e c tly by fir s t dr w i n g t h e proj e c ti on s of

a a

a s u ffi c i e n t n u m b e r o f s ph e r e s i n s c r i be d i n t h e s urf c e a n d t h e n a

dr a w i n g t h e b ou n d ry l i n e of all th e s e pr oj e cti on s T h e a n ch o r
a .
“

ri n g s h o w n i n Fi g 6 36 i s s ol i d wh i c h i s e as i ly pr oj e c te d by th is
”
. a

m e thod T h e a n c h o r r i ng m y b e c on s i d e r e d a s g e n e r a te d b y ph e re
‘

. a a s

r ot ti ng ab ou t t h e a x i s of t h e r in g a n d t h e proj e c ti on s of t h is s ph e r e
a ,

i n a s u ffi ci e n t n u m b e r of p os i t i on s b e i n g dr a w n t h e c urv e s b o u n d i n g ,

th e m form t h e p r oj e c ti on of t h e r i n g
—
.

2 9 3 G o n e E n v e l o p i n g a S u r fa c e o f R e v o l u t i o n
. T he ve rti c al
l i n e a t a b (Fi g 6 37 ) i s t h e a x i s of a s urfa ce of r e volu ti on wh os e
,
' '
.

o u t l i n e i s g i ve n v e n p oi n t a m e d i t n c e f r om t h e
'
cc i s
g i . t t ha e a s s a

v e r ti c l p l n e of pr oj e c t i on as a b a b I t i s r e qu i re d t o d e te rm i n e
a a ,
’ '
. a

c on e wh i c h e n v e l op s t h e s ur f c e of r e v o lut i on n d h s i t s v e rt e x
'
a t cc a a a .

T h e c on e i s d e te r m i n e d wh e n i t s l i n e of c on t c t w i t h t h e s ur f c e o f a a

r e v olu ti on i s fo u n d T he c on s tru c t i on i s s h o wn for fi n d i n g t wo p oi n ts

.
330 P R A CT I C AL G E O METRY

h pl
F i g 6 38 s o ws t h e
. an a n d e e a i o n of a l v t
o a e s pr l t ph r d wh
e oi os e

x v rt l E h
a is i s e i ca . rd t v r ul r t
i g t m e i i an s e c i on s a n d s e e n c i c a s e c io n s a t
u l t rv l
eq a in e ha s a r e s o wn A
se c i o n b y a
. t
a n e LM pl
e p rp d u r
e n i c la to
pl
t h e y e r t i ca l pr j
an e of t
o e c i on an d i n c in e t o t he l do i on a h r z t l pl
an e i s

l h w
a so s o All p l
n . a n e s e c i o ns o f a s t e oi ot e ph r d h r t h t
an s e c i o n s a t

r ht
ig l x
a n g e s t o i t s a i s ar e e i s e s ll p .

h w
F i g 6 39 s o s t h e s a m e s
. e oi ph r d t t d v r
il e o e so at i t s a is i s th x
l d
i nc ine at h
°
45 t o t h e o i on a rz t l p
lan e but r
e m ai n s a a e t o t he p r ll l
v rt l pl
e i ca pr j t
a n e of o e c i on rd
T h e s am e m e i ia n a n d c i c a s e c i on s
. r ul r t

PROLAT E sp usa
o m

FIG . 6 38 . FIG . 689 .

wh i c h a r e s h o w n i n F i g 6 38 a r e s h own i n F i g 6 39 T he s t ud e n t
. . .

s h o u ld dr w th e se pr oj e c t i on s f ull s i z e t k i n
a t h e m j o r an d m i n o r a x e s
a
g a

o f t h e g e n e r a t i n g e ll i p s e 4 i n c h e s a n d 3 i n c h e s l o n g r e s p e c t i ve ly T he .

p l n i n F i g 6 39 m y be pr oj e c t e d di re c tl y fr om t h e e l e v a t ion i n
a . a

F i g 6 38 by tur n i n g t h e g r ou n d l i n e thr o u g h
. Th i s w i ll s ve t h e a

l abo ur of r e dr w i n g t h e e l e v ti on i n t h e i n c l i n e d p os i ti on
a a .

I t h ould be n o t e d t h t ll t h e c urve i n t h e pl an F i g 6 39 i n c lud

s a a s , .
,

i n g t h e b o u n d ry l i n e ar e e ll i p s e s
a T h e bo u n d ry e ll i p s e i n t h e pl n
. a a ,

F i g 6 39 i s t h e h o r i z on t a l t r c e of a v e r t i c a l c yl i n d e r e n v e l o p i n g t he
.
,
a
 C UR V ED S U R F A CE S AND TA NG ENT P LANE S 331

s ph e roi d t h e s tr i gh t l i n e b e i n g t h e l e v t i on of t h e l i n e of c on t ct
,
a 27
. e a a

b tw e e n t h e s ph e r i d n d t h e n ve l op i n g c yl i n d e r
e o a e .

T h e x e of t h e v r i ou s e ll i p s e s h v i n g b e e n fo u n d t h e c urv e s m y
a s a a a

be dr w n by t h e p p r tr m m e l m e th od
a a e a .

Wh e n t h e t wo xe s of t he r e volvi ng e ll i p s e r e e qu l t h e s p h e r oi d
a a a

be com e s s p h e r e
—
a .

29 5 T h e H y p e r b o l o i d o f R e v o lu t i o n
. T h e hyp e b l i d f r o o o

r olu ti on m
ev b e e n e r t e d by t h e r e v o lut i on of n hyp a rb l b out on e
y g a e o a a a

of i t xe s I f t h e xi s
a s . a

of r e v o lu ti o n i t h e c on s

ju g te x i s BB of t he
a a ,

hy pe rb ol ( Fi g 640)e c h a . a

br n ch of t h e hyp e rb ol
a a

d e c ri b e t h e sa m s r
s s e u

f c e wh i h i s t h e hyp e
a c r

boloi d of r e volu ti on of one

s he e t I f t h e a x i s of r e
.

t t
vo lu i on i s t h e r a n s ve rs e H yp er bo loi d of r evolu ti on H yp er boloi d of r evolu
a X I S A A , of t h e hyp e r of one s hee t t i on of two s he e t s . .

bo l a (F i g 6 4 1 ) t h e t w o .
FIG 6 40 FIG 6 41 . . . .

bran c h e s of t he hype r
p t
b ol a d e s c r i be s e a r a e s urface s an d t h e t wo s u rfac e s form t h e hyp e r
boloi d of r e volu ti on of two s he e ts O f th e s e t wo hyp e rbo l o i d s of r e v o .

lu t i on t h e on e o f o n e s h ee i s t h e m or e i m p o rt an t , a n d wh e n a n t
p t
hy e rb ol oi d of r e vol u i on i s r e fe rr e d t o t he on e of on e s h e e w i ll b e t
u n d e r s tood .

I n F i g 642, a a 1 i s t h e hyp rb l wh pl
a n s e s e a i s of an e tr
o a v r x
os e ane is

p r ll l
a a e v rt l pl
t o t he e i c a a n e of wh ju t x
o e c i on a n d os e c on pr j t
g a e a is
’ ’
v rt l ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
y pt t
b bl i s e i c a , m o m a n d n o n a r e t h e as m o e s of t h e
’
hyp rb l e o a , an d
’ ’
f a n d f , a r e t h e foc i hy p rb l
A s t he e y p t t r v lv
o a a n d i t s as m
. o es e o e

b t
a ou v rt l ju t x hy p rb l d r b
t he e i c a c o n g a e a i s , t h e e h p rb l d
o a e s c i e s an y e o oi

r v lu t
of e o y pt t rb wh h
i on a n d t h e a s m o e s de s c i e a c o n e y pt t ic i s as m o ic t o
t he hyp rb l d
e o oi xt p t v hy p rb l
S i e e n os i i on s o f t h e m o i n g
. h w e o a ar e s o n

i n t he pl an
( l v t
u )a n d e e a i on
( )
v .

t
S e c i on s of t h ehy p rb l d by pl
e o oi p rp d ul ra n es e x en ic a t o t h e a i s of
r v lu t
e o r l ll wh h
i on a r e c i c e s t h e s m a e s t o f d t r qu l
i c h a s a i am e e e
.
a t o t he
t v r x
r an s e s e a i s o f t h e hy p rb l e ll d
o a and is ca e t h e colla r o r t hr oa t o r
or e o f t h e
g g hy p rb d e oloi .

At h w
i n F i g 6 42 i s s o n apl hy p rb l d wh
. a n of t h e e o oi en t he

x
a i s of r v lu t
e o l d h rz t l p
0
io n i s i n c i n e a t 30 t o t h e th
o i on a la n e In is .

n ew pl ly
a n on v bl rd r ul r t h w
t h e i s i e m e i ia n a n d c i c a s e c i on s s o n i n t h e
pl an
( )
u l v t
an d e e a i on h w
( )v ar e s o n .

A t h p rb l d
s e c i o n of t h e
y e pl
o o i b y a a nk d
e i s of t h e s a m e i n a s t he .

t y pt t
s e c i on of t h e a s m th t p
o i c c on e b
y a pl l p r l l
an e or by a an e a al e t o

it . x pl p ut y pt t l p
F or e am e i f a la n e c s t h e a s m o i c c on e i n a n e li s e a ll
pl an e sp r l th t p l
a a lle to wl
a an e h rb d l p
i l c u t t h e y pe o lo i i n e li s e s T he .

s am e is tru p r l
e fo r hyp rb l
a ab o i c an d t e v u y
o i c s e c i on s , a n d i t i s o b i o s l

tru r ul r t
e fo r c i c a s e c i on s .

A pl t
an e c on a i n i n x g t r v lu t
h e a i s of ute o hyp rb l d
i on c s t he e o oi i n an
 2 P RA CT I C AL G E O METRY

hy pe rb ol a a n d t h e a s y m p t oti c c on e i n t wo s t ra igh t l i nes wh i c h ar e t h e

a s y m p t o t e s of t h e hy p e rb o l a .

A p l an e p r ll e l t o t h e ax i s of re volu t ion a n d t n ge n ti l t o t h e
a a a a

c o ll a r of t h e hy p e rb ol oi d c u t s t h e s y m t o t i c c on e i n
p a n hy e rb ol
p n d a a a

t h e hyp e rb o l oi d i n t w o s tr a i gh t l i n e s P n d Q wh i c h i n te r s e c t on t h e
a

c oll a r a n d wh i c h a r e t h e a ym p t o te s o f t h e hyp e rb o l
s Th es e t w o a .

s t r ig ht l in e s P
a a n d Q ar e ls o p r ll e l t o t h e s tr i g h t l i n e s P a n d Q
a a a a I 1

re s p e c t i ve ly i n wh i c h t he s y m pt oti c c on e i s c u t b y a pl n e c on t i n in g
a a a

t h e a x i s o f r e v o lu ti on n d p r ll e l t o t h e p l an e of P n d Q
a a a Al o all a . s

t h e s e s t r ai gh t l i n e s P P Q an d Q r e i n c l i n e d at t h e s am e an gl e t o
, , a

FIG . 6 42 .

t he a x i s o f r e vo lu ti on bu t if P an d P s l op e forw a rd s Q an d Q s l ope
I 1

b ac kw ar d s .

I t foll o w s th a t f rom a n y p oi n t S on t h e s ur f ce of t h e hy p e rbo l oi d a

t w o t r i gh t l i n e s c an be dr w n o n t h e s u r f c e be c a u s e t wo p l n e s c an
s a a a ,
a

b e t a k e n p r ll e l t o t h e x i s of r e v oluti on n d c on ta i n i n g S a n d t o u c h
a a a a

i n g t h e c o l la r n d e a c h of t h e s e pl n es w i ll i n t e rs e c t t he s urf c e i n
a a a a

p i r of s tr i g h t l in e s n d o n e of e a c h p ai r w i ll p s s throu gh S
a a a a .

Th e r e r e th e r e fo re t wo y s t e m s of s trai ght l in e s wh i c h c n be
a s a

dr a w n on t h e s ur fac e of t h e hy p e rb ol oi d N o t w o l i n e s of t he am e . s

s y s t e m a r e i n t h e s a m e pl a n e b u t n l i n e o f t h e on e s t em n d an y a
y ,
a
y s

l i n e of t he o th e r ar e i n t he s m e pl a n e T h e pl n e wh i c h co n t i n s
a . a a a

l i ne o f o n e s y s t e m n d a l i n e of t he o th e r i t h e t n ge n t pl an e t o t h e
a s a

s ur fa c e a t t h e po i n t o f i n t e rs e c t i on of t h e l i n e s .
 34 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

pl an e o proj e c ti on bu t i s i n cl i n e d t o t he h or izon ta l pl ane T he po i n t 0

f .
'

i s t h e e l e v a t i on a n d 0 0 i s t h e pl a n of t h e c om m on pe rp e n d i c ul a r t o th ese
1 2

t wo xe s o c is t h e
a .
' ’

e l e v a t i on a n d 00 i s t h e

pl an o f a s tr i gh t l in e a

wh i c h i s p r a ll e l t o t h e a

v e rt i c al p la ne of p r oj e c
ti on c c m k e s an a n g l e
.
’ '
a

a w i th o an d an an g l e’
a
'

8
, w i th ob
' '
.

I f a n hyp e rbo l oi d o f
r e volu ti on be d e s c ri b e d
by t h e r e v olu ti on of C C
a bo ut t h e v e r t i c a l axi s

a n d a n o th e r hy p e rbo l o i d

b e d e s cri b e d b y t h e r e
v olu ti o n of C C ab ou t
t h e i n c l i n e d a x i s th e s e ,

t wo hyp e rb ol oi d s w i ll b e
i n c o n t a c t l on g t h e l i n e
a

CC ,
n d i f o n e hyp e r
a

b oloi d b e m a d e t o r o t a te
a b o u t i t s a x i s t h e o th e r
F G 6 44 I
w i ll l s o ro t te i f t h e
' °

a a

f ri c t i on a l r e s i s t a n c e be t w e e n t h e hy p e rb ol oi ds i s s u ffi ci e n t .

T h e c on s tru c t i on of t h e hy p e rb o loi d s wh e n t h e a x e s an d t h e l i n e o f
con ta c t a r e g i ve n i s c l e a rly s h o w n i n F i v
g 6 44 T h e i e w ( )
w i s a
p ro . .

c t i on of t h e i n c l i n e d h y p e rb o l oi d o n a pl a n e p e rpe n d i c ul r t o i t s a x i s
j e a .

T h e c om m o n n o rm a l t o t h e s ur f c es of t h e hyp e rb o l oi d s a t C w i ll a

be t ri g h t a n gl e s t o t h e t an g e n t pl an e t C a n d th i s t a n ge n t pl a n e
a a

w i ll c on tai n t h e l i ne C C S i nc e t h e l i n e C C i s p a rall e l t o t h e ve r ti c l
. a

p l an e o f pr oj e c t i on t h e v e rt i ca l tra ce of t h e t an ge n t pl an e c on tai n i n g
C C w i ll b e p r ll e l t o o c t h e r e fo r e t h e e l e v ti on o f t h e c o m m on
' '
a a
, a

n o r m a l w i ll b e p e rp e n d i c ul r t o c c Bu t th i s c om m on n orm a l m u s t
a
’ ’
.

i n te r s e c t t h e a x i s of e a c h hyp e rb ol oi d H e n ce l i n e m c n at r ight ' ' ’

. a

a n l e s t o o c an d i n t e r s e c t i n o u a t m an d o b a t n w i ll b e t h e e l e v a
' ' ’ ' ' ' ' ’

g g
t i on of t h e c om m on n orm l t o t h e s urf ce s at C T h e pl a n men of t h i s
a a .

n o rm a l i s e s i ly fo u n d as a h o wn s .

T he r e l a t i v e n g ul r v e l oc i ti e s of t h e t wo hype rbo l oi d s wh e n on e
a a ,

r ota te s t h e o th e r w i ll n ow b e d e t e rm i n e d T o fa c ili t a te r e fe r e n ce
, .

d e n ote t h e v e rti ca l hy pe rb ol oi d by A an d t h e i n cl i n e d hyp e rb o l oi d by

B Le t an d b e t h e a n g ul ar v e l oci t i e s of A n d B re s pe c ti ve ly
. a, ( 02 a .

L e t V b e t h e l i n e a r v e l oc i ty of t h e p o i n t 0 c on s i d e r e d as
, poi n t on a

t h e t hr o t o f A a n d le t V b e t h e li n e r v e l oc i ty of t h e p oi n t 0 c on
a , ,
a

s i de e d a r p oi n t on t h e thro t of B Le t r an d r be t he rad ii of t h e
s a a .
1 2

t hro ats of A n d B r e s pe c t i ve ly a .

D ra w o D o E a n d o F at ri ght an gl e s t o o a o b an d c c r e s pe c
’

,
’
,
’ ' '
,
' '
,
''

t i e ly
v M k e c D e qu l t o V an d dr w D EE a t ri gh t n gl e s t o o F
. a
'
a 1 a a
'

m e e ti n g o F at F a n d o E t E Th e n o E w i ll be e qu l t o V b e c u se
' ’ '
a a a
.
2
 C UR V ED S UR F A CE S AN D TAN G ENT P LANE S 335

o
'
F an d FD
vi d e n tly t h e c om pon e n ts of V along n d p erp e n
ar e e I a

di c u l r t o C C r e s p e c t i v e ly
a n d s i n c e t h e r e i s r o ll i n m o t i on t O t h a
g , e a

com p o n e n t of V at ri h t an gle s t o O C m u s t l s o b e e qu a l t o o F
'
g 2 In a .

a dd i t i o n t o t h e r o ll i n g o f t h e o n e hyp e rb o l oi d on t h e o th e r th e r e i s

a l s o a s li d i n m o t i on a l on g t h e l i n e of con t ac t a n d t h e v e l o c i ty of th i s
g
s l i d i n g i s r e p r e s e n t e d by D E .

D D
’ ’ ’
E
o o o
r ?
Bu t t he t ri an l Do E i s
’
s i mi a l r to the
g e
”

T)
’

r1 r2 5 r,
I I
D
I
2
11 7
t rian gl e t h e r efor e ZE Al s o fro m pl an (u )
’ ’ ’
mon ' ’ ’ t he
ou
I I I I
on o m cu sm
H e n ce on
' '
0

8 77
7
7

m ake dra w H K pa r all e l t o o b t o m e e t o c a t

'
On 0a o H ml , an d
' ' ’ ’

2 ? 6
1

;
0
K . Th e n an g e o l ’
KH fl and ,
bu t t h i s h as be e n s h o w n
11 ,

t o be qu al t o i t h e r efor e s rn ce o H w H K m u s t b e e qu al t o
e
“t
,
'
l, (9 2.
w e

Th i s gi v e s t h e s oluti on of t h e m os t com m on probl em i n c on n e c t i on

w i t h r oll i n g hype rb ol o i d s wh i c h i s gi v e n t h e t wo a x e s a n d t h e r e l a ti v e ,

an g ul a r v e l oc i t i e s t o fi n d t h e l i n e of co n ta c t a n d th e n c o n s tru c t t h e

hype rb ol oi d s F or i f on o a o H i s m d e e qu l t o w a nd H K i s dr aw n
.
' ' ’
a a ,

p a ralle l t o o h a n d m ad e e qu al t o th e n 0 be i n g j oi n e d t o K t he e l e va
’ '
a)2
’

t i on of t h e l i n e of c on t ac t i s fo u n d T o fi n d t h e pl n 00 dra w m c n . a
'' ’

p e rpe n d i c u la r t o c c t o m e e t o a a t m a n d o h at n A proje c to r fr om
’ ’ ' ’ ’ ' ’ '
.

n t o o b fix e s n a n d run b e i n g dr a w n a pr oj e c to r f rom c t o m e e t mn
’ '
z

d e te r m in e s 6 Th e n co p a ra lle l t o o b i s t he pl an r e qu i r e d an d t h e
.
z
hyp e r b ol oi d s m ay b e dr a wn as s h o w n .

Th e s e hyp e rbo l oi ds r e t h e p i t c h s urfa ce s of wh at a r e c all e d s he w

a .

be ve l whe e ls wh i c h ar e u e d t o t r n s m i t m ot i on d i r e c tly fro m on e s h af t

,

,
s a

t o n ot h e r w h e n t h e a x e s of t he h f t s do
a s a

n ot i n t e rs e c t a n d a r e n o t p r a ll e l t o on e a

a n o th e r I n pr a c ti ce ge n e r a l l y on ly c om
.

r a t i v e l s h o r t f ru s t a of t h e hyp e rbo l oi d s
p a
y
ar e u s e d as t h e p i t c h s urf c e s of t h e a

whe e l s s s h ow n i n F i g 6 45 I f t he
a . .

f ru s t ar e t a k e n a t t h e b as e s of t he hyp e r
a

b oloi ds as A an d B t h e y ar e app r ox i
, ,

m a t e ly c on i c l n d if a t t h e thr oa t s a s
a ,
a ,

A an d B t h e y a r e a p p r ox i m a t e ly cy li n
I 1,

dr i c a l I n th es e wh ee l s t h e t e e th h ve a
.

l in e c on t ac t FIG 645 . .

2 9 7 T h e G e o m e try o f C r o s s R o l ls —R e fe rr i n g g i n t o F i g
.

.
-
. a a .

6 44 if t h e a x e s o f t he hy p e rbo l oi d s a r e g i v e n an d i t i s a l s o g i v e n th a t
,

t he l i n e of c on ta c t C C i s p r l l e l t o t h e xi s of t h e i n c l i n e d hyp e r a a a

boloi d th e n c c w ould c oin c i d e w i th o h n d t h e i n c l i n e d hyp e rb o l oi d

’ ’ ' '
, a

w ould b e c om e a cyl i n d e r Bu t t h e p oi n t nu w ould c oi n c i d e w i th t h e .

'

poi n t cc n d t he cyl i n d e r w oul d h av e n o d i am e te r th t i s i t w ould

'
a
,
a ,

be c om e a s tr a igh t l i n e on ly .
336 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

If it is d e s i r e d th a t t h e hy p e rb ol o i d wh i c h h as b ec om e a s t rai gh t
l i n e s h ould b e a cyl i n d e r of d e fi n i te d i am e te r th e n a n oth e r s ur fa ce of ,

r e volu ti on w i ll h v e t o t k e t h e pl ace o f t h e oth e r hype rb ol oi d I t

a a .

w i ll n o w b e s h o w n h ow th i s oth e r s u rface of r e v olut i on m ay be d e te r

mine d .

R efe rri n g t o Fi g 6 46 bob i s t h e pl an an d b o b i s t h e e l e va t i on of

.
,
'
z
' '

t he x i s o f t h e c yl i n d e r wh i c h i s a s s u m e d t o b e h or i z on t l
a a oa i s t h e a .

pl n a n d o i s t h e e l e va t i on of
a ,
’

t h e a x i s o f t h e o t h e r s ur fa c e o r
s ol i d wh i c h i s as s u m e d t o b e
h or i z o n t l an d p e r p e n d i c ul ar t o
a

t h e v e r t i c a l pl an e of pr oj e c t i on .

Th i s o th e r s ol i d w i ll be c a ll ed
t he r oll 0 i s t h e pl a n
. nd a

i s t h e e l e v ti on of t h e c om m on
a

p e rp e n d i cul r t o t h e t w o gi ve n
a

ax es . M ki ng a e qu l t o t h e a

r a d i u s of t h e cyl i n d e r d e t e rm i n e s
o o t h e r d i u s of t h e r oll a t t h e
' ’
a
l

thr oa t T h e pl n e of t h e thr oa t
.
a

c i r c l e of t h e r oll i n t e r s e c t s t h e

cyl i n d e r i n a n e ll i p s e wh i c h
tou ch e s t he thro t c i r c l e a t oo a
'
.

A n y o t h e r pl an e p r ll e l t o t h e a a

p l an e of t h e t hro t c i r c l e w i ll a

i n t e r se c t t h e c yl i n d e r i n a n
e ll i p s e a n d t h e r oll i n a c i rc l e ,

a n d t h e e ll i p s e n d c i r c l e w i ll
a

t o u c h o n e a n o t h e r M o r e ov e r .

a ll s u c h s e c t i on s o f t h e cyl i n d e r
'

w i ll b e e xa c tly al i k e .

H T i s t h e h o r i z on ta l t r c e a

of a pl n e p a r ll e l t o t h e pl a n e
a a

o f t h e t hr oa t c i r c l e o f t h e r o ll .

Th i s pl n e i n te rs e c ts t h e cy li n
a

de r i n n e ll i p s e of wh i c h m n
’ ’
a F m 6 46 , .

i s t h e e l e va t i on A c i r c l e w i th
.

s c e n tr e dr w n t o t ou c h t h e e ll i p s e m n i s t h e e l e v t i on of t h e
’
o a a a
,

c i r c ul a r s e c t i on of t h e r oll by t h e p l an e H T a n d th i s d e te r m i n e s t h e
,

p oi n t s e n d f on t he h ori z on ta l m e ri d i an s e c t i on of t h e r oll A p r o
a .

e c t or f r om s e p o i n t of c o n t c t of t h e e ll i p s e a n d r cle t o H T
'
h i
j t , a c ,

d e t e r m i n e s s p oi n t on t h e pl an u ov of t he c urve of c on t ac t b e t w e e n
a

t h e cyl i n d e r a n d r oll .

T h e r a d i u s o f t h e c i r c ul a r s e c t i on of t h e r oll a t HT an d t h e p o i n t
o f c on t a c t 8 3 m y b e fo u n d w i t h ou t dra w i n g t h e e ll i p s e m n
' ’
’
a I t is .

e v i d e n t th a t i f t h e e l li p s e m n b e m ov e d t o t h e r i gh t a d i s t n c e e qu l
’ ’
a a

t o w on t h e p l n i t w i ll th e n c oi n c i d e w i th t h e e ll i p s e c d wh i c h i s t h e
' '
a

e l e v t i on of t h e s e c t i on of t h e cy l i n d e r b y t h e pl n e o f t h e thr o t
a a a

c i r c l e of t h e r o ll A n d i f t h e c i r c l e c if b e m ov e d an e qu a l d i s t an ce t o
’
.
 38 P RA C TI C AL G E O METRY

t o t he ve r ti ca l pl an e of proj e c ti on t h e e ll i pti c s e c t i on of t he e ll i ps o i d
,

by th i s pl an e w i ll h av e on e s e m i a x i s e qu a l t o o g an d t h e oth e r -
’ ’

s emi -
a x i s e qu l t o c a I f o g i s e qu a l t o c a th en t he s e c ti on i s
a .
' ’

e v i d e n tly a c i r c l e T h i s s u g ge s t s t h e c on s t ru c t i on for fi n d i n g t h e
.

pl an e c on t i n i n g t he c e n tre of t h e e ll i p s oi d n d c ut ti n g t h e e ll i p s oi d i n
a a

a c i rc l e . Th e r e a e e vi d e n t ly t wo s u ch p lan e s
r .

All pl n e s e c t i on s p ar a ll e l t o on e c i r c ul r s e c t io n ar e c i r c l e s
a a .

I n F i g 6 47 g o d i t h e e l e v t i o n o f on e c i r c ul a r s e c ti o n o f t h e
' ’ '
.
,
s a

e ll i p s oi d t h e c h o rd s of t h e e ll i p e p ar a ll e l t o g o d e t h e ' ’
nd
’
a s ar

e l e va t i o n s of o th e r c i r c ul a r s e c t i o n s T h e e l e v t i o n s of t h e c e n t re s
. a

o f t h e s e c i r c l e s li e o n t h e d i a m e t e r m o n wh i c h i s c on j u at e t o t h e
' ’ ’

g
d ia m e t e r 9bd .

A s t h e pl a n e of a c i r c ul a r s e c t i o n m ov e s a w ay from t he c e n t r e o f
t h e e ll i p s oi d t h e c i r c l e ge t s s m ll e r an d s m a ll e r u n t i l t h e pl n e b e com e s
a a

t n ge n t i al t o t he e ll i p s oi d t mm o r nu wh e n t h e cir l e b e com e s a
a a
’ ’
c

p oi n t wh i c h i s c a ll e d an u mbi li c Th e re a r e e vi d e n t ly four u m bi li c s on
.

a n e ll i p s oi d .

A t (w)i n Fi g 6 47 i s s h o wn a pr oj e c ti on of t h e e ll i ps oi d on a pl an e
.

p r ll e l t o pl n e s of ci r c ul r s e c ti on s On th i s pr oj e c ti on n i n e ci r c u l a r
a a a a .

s e c ti on s a r e s h o w n .

T h e c urv e of c on t a c t b e t w ee n a n e ll i p s oi d a n d a n e n v e l op i n g
c yl i n d e r o r n e n v e l op i n g c on e i s a pl n e s e c t i on of t h e e ll i p s oi d
a T he
a .

o u t l i n e of t he proj e c t i on s t h e t r c e of a c yl i n d e r
( )
w i n Fi g 6 47 i . a

wh i c h e n v e l op s t h e e ll i p s oi d an d i s pe rp e n d i c ul r t o t he pl n e of t h e a a

proj e c t i on t h e d i am e t e r i o i of t h e e ll i p s e ( u )i s t h e e l e v ati on of t h e
’ ’ ’

c urv e of c on ta c t .

T h e t n g e n t pl a n e t o t h e e ll i p s oi d a t a n y po i n t on i t c on ta i n s t h e
a

t an ge n t s t th t p oi n t t o any t w o pl an e s e c ti on s of t he e l l i ps oi d
a a

t hr ough t h e p oi n t Wh e n t wo of t he t hr e e a x e s of n e ll i p s oi d a r e
. a

e qu a l i t b e c om e s a s ph e r oi d

3 00 T h e H y p e r b o l o i d o f O n e S h e e t —T h e hyp e r bolo id of
.

. .

o ne s he e t m y b e e ne r ted by v a r i a bl e e ll i p wh i h m ove s so
a
g a s e a c

th at i t s pl a n e i s a lw ay s p r l le l t o fix e d pl an e an d h s t h e
a a a a

e xtr e m i t i e s of i t s a xe s on t w o fix e d hyp e r b o l a s wh os e p l n e s re a a

p e r pe n d i c ul a r t o on e a n oth e r a nd t o t h e fix e d pl an e an d wh i c h h a ve a
c om m on c o nju ga te xi s ’

a .

R e fe rr i ng t o F i g 648 O A a n d O B a r e t h e s e m i tran s v e rs e ax e s
.
,
-

of t w o fix e d hyp e rb ol s nd CC is c om m on s e m i c o nju a te a x i s
a a
g a -
.

OA an d O B e h ori z on t a l a n d C C i s c o n s e qu e n t ly v e r t i c l
ar OA a .

i s p r a ll e l t o t h e pl a n e o f t h e e l e v a t i on
a T h e m ovi ng v r i bl e a a

e ll i p s e i s i n th i s c s e a lw y s h o r i z on ta l a n d i t w i ll be s m ll e t
a a ,
a s

wh e n i t s pl n e c oi n ci d e s w i t h A O B an d i t i s th e n t h e thr oa t
a ,

e llip s e or p r i n ci a l
p llip t i c s e c t i on e of t h e hyp e rb ol oi d I n t h i s .

a r t i c l e wh e n h y p e rb ol oi d i s m e n ti on e d hyp e rbo l o i d of on e s h e e t ”

w i ll b e u n d e r t oo d s .

T h e m o v i n g e ll i p s e r e m ai n s s i m i l r t o t he thr oa t e ll i p s e h e n ce i f a ,

D D n d E E ar e t he a x e s of t h e m o vi ng e ll i p se i n on e p os i t i on de i s
a

p r ll e l t o b
a a a .

At ( w) i s s h ow n an e l e vati on of t h e hyp e rb ol oi d on pl a n e a
 C UR V ED S UR F A C E S AN D TAN G ENT P LANE S 339

p r all e l
a t o OB . T h e t ru e for m of on e fix e d hype rbo l i s h ow n
a s

i n t h e e le a i o n v t ( )
v a n d t h e t ru e for m of t he o t h e r i s s h ow n i n t h e
l v t
e e a i on
( )
w .

y pt t hyp rb l d
T h e a s m o i c c on e o f t h e r t d by v r bl
e o oi i s ge n e a e a a ia e

ll wh h
e i ps e v
ic th t
m o es so pl ap r ll l
its t hr t ll p
an e i s a a e to t he oa e i se

an d ha s xtr t
t he e x y pt t fix d
e m i i e s of i t s a e s o n t h e as m o e s o f t he e

hy r l
pe b o as v r t x th
T h e . e e of i s c on e i s a t 0 C G a n d H H a r e t he .

x th
a es o f v v r bl ll p p t
is m o i n g a i a e e i se i n o ne h r tos i i on T i s ge n e a i n g .

lp l r
e l i se i s s im i a thr t ll p h
t o t he oa e p r ll l
i s e , e n c e gh i s a a e t o a b T he .

ll p wh h
e i se t y pt t pl p r l l
i c i s t h e s e c i o n of t he a s m o i c con e by a
'
an e a a le

,
, HY PERBOLOID ,
f
I

or ONE S HEET/

FIG . 6 48 .

t o t he pl n e of t h e throa t e ll i p s e a n d at a d i s ta n c e fr om i t e qu a l t o
a

00 i s e vi d e n t ly e qu l t o t he t hroa t e ll i p s e
a .

S e c t i o n s o f t h e hy p e rbo l oi d n d of t h e as y m p t oti c co n e by t h e sa me
a

or by p r lle l pl n e s e c urve s of t he s a m e k i n d
a a a ar .

I f t h e t r n v e r s e x e s of t h e fix e d hy p e rb o l s a r e e qu l t he hyp e r
a s a a a

bo loi d be c om e s n h y p e rbo l oi d o f r e volu ti on

a .

T h e p l n e of c i r c ul a r s e c t i on of t h e hy p e rb ol o i d m b e fo u n d as
a
y a
*
a

foll o w s . L e t O A be g r e te r th a n O B a T h e n o n t h e e l e va t i o n (w)
.

ta k e o as c e n tre n d w i t h r d i u s e qu l t o oa d e c r i be an c t o c u t
'
a a a a s ar

t h e hy p e r bo la b k e a t h th e n h k i s t h e v e r ti l tr c e o f p l n e
' ’ ' ' ’ ’ ’
o ca a a a ,

pe rpe n d i c ul r t o t h e pl a n e of t h e e l e v t i on ( w ) wh i c h w i ll cu t t he
a a ,
340 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY

hype rbol oi d i n a c i rc l e wh os e r d i u s i s e qu l t o o h All s e c ti o n s

a a
' '
.

by p lan e s p r ll e l t o th i s p l n e w i ll b e c i r c l e s T h e r e r e e vi d e n t ly
a a a . a

t wo s y s te m s of p a r a ll e l pl an e s wh i c h w i l l c u t t h e hyp e rb ol oi d i n
c irc l e s .

T h e hyp e rb o l oi d of o n e s h e e t m y a l o b e ge n e r t e d by am ov i ng s a a

v r i bl e hyp e rb ol a h v i n g a fix e d c on ju ga t e ax i s an d h v i n g t h e
a a a ,
a

e x t r e m i t i e s of i t s t r n ve r s e a x i s o n
a s fix e d e ll ip s e w h o e pl n e b i s e ts
a s a c

a t r i g h t a n g l e s t h e fix e d c o n ju g t e x i s of t h e m o v i n g hyp e rb o l a
a a T he .

fix e d e ll i p e i s t h e thr oat e lli p s e of t h e hyp e rb oloi d

s .

R e fe rr i ng t o t h e pl an (u )a n d e l e v at i on (v)F i g 6 48 t h e s tr ai gh t .
,

l in e s R S R a n d T S T li e on t h e hyp e rb o l oi d Th e s e l i n e s e i n a . ar

v e rt i c l pl an e a n d th e i r pl n s c oi n c i d e n d e t n ge n t i l t o t he pl n
a a a ar a a a

o f t h e thr oa t e ll i p s e T h e hyp e rb ol oi d m ay th e r e for e b e g e n e r t e d by

. a

t h e m oti on of o n e o r o th e r o f th e s e s tr i g ht l i n es T h e s e t wo l i n e sa .

b e l o ng t o t wo d i ffe r e n t y s t e m s A l i n e of o n e s y s t e m w i ll n e v e r m e e t
s .

a n y o th e r n e o f t h t s y t e m but i t w i ll i n t e r s e c t e v e ry li n e o f t h e
li a s

o th e r s y s t e m if t h e l i n e a r e pr o du c e d f r e n o u h
s H e n ce if s tr i ht
g a a
g a .

l i n e m o ve s i n c on t ac t w i th a ny thre e l in e s of on e of t h e s y s t e m s i t w i ll
.

n e r a t e t h e hyp e rb oloi d

3 01 T h e H y p e r b o l o i d o f T W O S h e e t s —T h e hyp e r boloi d of
e
g .

t wo s he e ts m y be g e n e r a t e d by a v ar i abl e e ll i p s e wh i c h m o v e s s o
a

th a t i t s plan e i s lw y s p r alle l t o a fix e d pl n e an d h s t h e e x t r e m i
a a a a a

t i es of i t s a x e s on t w o fix e d hy p e rb ol as wh os e pl an e s e p e rpe n di c ul r ar a

t o on e a n ot h e r a n d t o t h e fix e d pl an e a n d wh i c h h a v e a c om m o n
t ra ns ve r s e x i s a .

FI G . 6 49.

R efe rr i ng t o F i g 6 49 w h i c h i s pi c tor i al pr oj e c ti on of on e q u ar t e r
.
,
a

of n hyp e rb ol oi d o f t w o s h e e t s O B
a n d Q C a r e t h e s e m i c onju g t e
a a
-

a x e s of t w o fix e d hyp e rb ol s a n d C A i s c om m on t ran s ve rs e ax i s
a a .

O A a n d O B ar e h or i z on t l a n d 0 0 i s v e rt i c l a T h e p lan e c on t i n i n g a . a

O B a n d O C i s t h e fix e d pl an e r e fe rr e d t o i n t h e a b ov e d e fi n i t i on .

A D E i s p a rt of o n e br n c h o f o n e fix e d hy p e rb ol h a v i n g CA for i t s
a a

s e m i tr a n s v e r s e a x i s a n d O C fo r i t s s e m i c o n ju g a t e a i s ; t h e pl a n e o f x
-
-

th i s hyp e r b o l i s ve r ti c l A F H i s p art of on e b r n c h o f t h e o th e r fix e d
a a .
a

hyp e rb ol a h a vi n g OA for i t s s e m i t ran s v e r s e a x i s a n d OB for i t s se m i

-
3 42 P RA C T I C AL G EO METRY

S e c t i on s ll i p t i c p a rab o l o i d by p l a ne s p e rpe n d i c ul a r t o AN
of the e

ar e e lli p es s Fo ur s u c h s e c t i on s r e s h ow n a t
. a and T h es e
e ll i p s e s ar e s i m i l r t o on e a n o th e r s o t h a t l i n e s s u c h a s B C a n d E D
a

a r e p a ra l l e l H e n c e t h e e ll i p t i c p a ra bo l oi d m ay a l s o be g e n e r t e d by
. a

a v r i bl e e ll i p s e
a a wh i c h m o v e s w i t h i t s c e n tre o n an d i t s pl n e ,
a

pe rpe n d i c ul a r t o t h e c o mm on a x i s AN of t w o fix e d p a r b ol as A B E
,
a

a n d A CD wh os e pl an e s a e p e rp e n d i c ul r t o on e n o th e r t h e
r a a ,

e x t r e m i t i e s of t h e a x e s o f t h e e ll i p s e b e i n t h e p a r a b ol as
—
g o n .

30 3 . Th e H y b e r b o li c P a r a b o l o i d T h e hyp er boli c p ar a bolo i d

.

m ay b e ge n e r t e d by a p a r a b ol a wh i c h m ov e s w i t h i t s v e rt e x o n a
a

fix e d p a rabo l a t h e t w o p r ab ol as h av i n g th e i r x e s p r all e l th e i r
, a a a ,

pl n e s a t r i g ht a n gl es t o on e an o th e r an d th e i r c on c a v i ti es tur n e d i n
a ,

o pp os i te d i r e c t i o n s .

F i g 6 5 1 i s a p i c t or i a l pr oj e c ti o n of o n e qu a r t e r of a hype rbo l i c
.

p r ab ol oi d A P C i s t he fix e d p a ra b ol a of wh i c h t he v e rt i ca l l i ne AN
a .

i s t h e a x i s a n d wh o s e
pl n e i s t h e v e r ti ca l pl a n e
a

V P . . 1 , 2, 3, e t c ar e .

d i ffe re n t p os i ti on s of t h e
m o vi n g p a r a b ol a wh os e
pl a n e i s a t r i g ht an gl e s
t o t h e pl an e V P a n d . .

wh os e a x i s i s pa ra l le l t o
AN, a nd wh os e v e rte x
i s on t h e p a r a bo l a A P C .

A s e c t i on o f t h e a r a p
b e l oi d by a h ori zon ta l
p la n e through A , t he
t
v e r e x of t h e fix e d p a r a
b ol a , i s t w o s rai ght l in e s t
of wh i c h AL i s on e .

t
V e r i c a l pl an e s c o n ta i n
i n g th e s e t w o s tr a i g h t
l i n e s ar e a s y m pt ot i c
p l an e s of t h e pa rab ol oi d .

All o th e r h o ri z on a l s e c t ¢

t i ons of t h e p a ra bo l oi d FIG 6 51
ar e hype rb olas t he . .

a s y m pto t e s of wh i c h a r e t h e l i n e s of i n t e rs e c t i o n of t h e pl an e s of
‘

s e c t i on w i th t h e a s y m pt o i c pl a n e s t
H o r i z on a l s e c t i o n s a r e s h o w n
. t
a t t h e l e v e ls C , P , A , a n d B I t w i ll be fo u n d th a t t h e hyp e rb ol i c
.

s e c t i on s a bo v e A a r e on O ppo s i t e s i d es of t h e as y m p o t e s t o th os e t
b elow A .

T h e proj e c ti ons of t h e h o ri z on t a l hyp e rb ol i c s e c t i on s on a h ori z o n t a l

pl an e r e hype rb ol as of wh i c h t he h ori zon t a l tr ace s of t he s y m p to t i c
a a

pl a n e s a r e t h e as y m pt ote s .

I t fo ll ow s th a t t h e hyp e rb o l i c p a r ab ol oi d m ay be g e n e r a te d by a
v ari abl e hyp e rbol a wh i c h m o ve s w i th i t s c e n tr e o n a n d i t s pl n e ,
a

pe rp e n d i c u l r t o t h e l i n e a AN c on t ai n in g t he a xes o f t he t wo fix e d
a ,
 C UR V ED S UR F A C E S AN D TAN G EN T P LANE S 343

p r abo l s A P C n d A T E wh os e pl n e s ar e t r i ght an gl e t o on e
a a a a a s

a no th e r w ho e as y m pto t e s a r e i n fix e d p l n e s
,
s an d h vi n g t h e a ,
a

e xtr e m i t i e s of th e i r t ra n s ve r se a x e s on t h e co rr e s p on d i n g fix e d
pa r bo l asa .

Se c ti o n s of t he hype rbol i c p a r ab ol oi d by p l n e s p rall e l t o t h e a a

as y m p t o t i c pl an e s a r e s t r i g ht l i n e s R S n d RT a r e t w o s uc h
a . a

s e c t i on s r s t h e pr oj e c t i on of R S o n t h e p l n e H P i s p r a ll e l t o a l
. a . . a

t h e h o r i z on t l tr ce of o n e of t h e a s y m p t o t i c p lan e s a n d i t w i ll b e
a a

fo u n d t h a t R s t h e pr oj e c ti on o f R S o n t he pl n e V P i s t n ge n t i a l t o
’
a . . a

t h e p ar b ol a A P C a t R
a Al s o r t t h e pr oj e c ti on of RT on t h e pl n e
.
, a

H P i s p a r ll e l t o t h e h or i z on t l t r c e of t h e o th e r as y m p t ot i c pl n e
. . a a a a

a n d R t t h e pr oj e c t i on of RT on t h e p l a n e V P i s a l s o t n g e n t i l t o . . a a

t h e p a r b ol a A P C t R
a I t w i ll a l s o b e fo u n d th a t t h e p r oj e c t i o n s of
a .

th e s e s tra i ght li n e s R S an d RT on t h e pl a n e of t h e p ra bol a AT E a r e a

tan ge n ti l t o th a t p a ra bol
a a.

H e n ce t h e hype rb oli c p r abo l oi d m ay al s o be ge n e r a te d by e i th e r

a

of t w o y s t e m s of s t r i gh t l i n e s o n e s y s t e m b e i n g p a r ll e l t o on e fix e d
s a ,
a

pl n e an d t h e o th e r p r ll e l t o an o th e r fix e d p l n e N o t wo l i n e s of
a a a a .

t h e s am e sy s te m i n t e r e c t but eac h l i n e o f on e s y s te m w i ll i n te r s e c t
s
,

e v e ry l i n e of t h e ot h e r s y s te m i f th e y r e pr o du c e d fa r e n ou g h a .

Th e s e r e s ul ts l e d t o t he follo w i n g d e fi n i ti on T h e hype rboli c p r a

a . a

be lo i d m ay b e g e n e r a te d by a s tr i gh t li n e wh i c h m o ve s p ra ll e l t o a a a

fixe d pl a n e an d i n te rs e c t s t wo t raigh t li n e s wh i c h ar e n o t p ar ll e l s a

a n d do n o t i n t e r s e c t Fr o m th i s m od e of ge n e rati on t he hype rb ol i c
.

p a r ab ol oi d h as b e e n c a ll e d t he t wi s te d p la n e
—
.

3 04 T o r t u o u s C u
. rv e s A tor t ous cu rve i s o n e i n wh i c h n o
. u

d e fi n i te p r t i s i n a pl a n e
a .

If Q P n d R be p oi n t s on a t o rt u o u s c urv e P be i n g b e tw e e n Q
, ,
a ,

a n d R a pl n e m y be fo u n d c on t i n i n g th e s e thr ee p oi n t s
,
a a I f Q an d
a .

R b e m o ve d n ea re r t o P th e n s Q an d R m ov e up t o P t h e ul t i m ate a

pos i t i on of t h e pl an e c on tai n i n g Q P n d R i s t he os cu la ti ng p la ne of , ,
a

t h e t o r t u ou s c urve at P a n d t h e ult i m t e p os i t i o n of t h e s tr i g ht l i n e
,
a a

j oi n i n g Q n d R i s t he ta nge nt t o t he to rtuo u s c ur v e at P T h e
a .

t an ge n t a t P i s e vi d e n t ly i n t h e os c ul t i n g plan e at P a .

A pl an e throu g h a poi n t P o n a to rtu o u s c urve t r i gh t an gl e s t o a

t h e tan ge n t t P i s c a ll e d t h e n or m a l p l ne t o t h e c urv e a t P
a A ny a .

s t ra i gh t l i n e p s s i n g thr ou g h P n d ly i n i n t h e n o r m a l p l an e t o t h e
a
g a

c urve a t P i s a n o mal t o t h e c urve r t P T h e l i n e o f i n t e r s e c t i o n of

a .

t he n or m l n d o c ul a t i n g p l a n e s o f t h e c urv e
a a s t P i s c a ll e d t h e a
r
o i nc ip l n or ma l of t h e c urv e
r a t P T h e n o rm l thr o u gh P wh i c h i s
a . a

pe r p e n d i c ul a r t o t h e os c ul t in g pl an e i s c ll e d t h e bi nor ma l t o t h e
a a

c urv e t P a .

T h e pr oj e c ti on of t h e t ang e n t a t a p oi n t P of a t o r t u ous o r pl an e .
a

c urv e i s t h e t a n e n t t o t h e p r oj e c t i o n o f t h e c urv e t p t h e p r oj e c t i on a
g
of P .
344 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY

E x e rci s e s X XI I I

A l
1 h d t
ci r c e 4 i n c e s in A v rt l tr ht l
i am e e r i s i n t h e V P h e i ca s ai g . i ne i s 4 i n c es
.

r t lvt tuh lvt l A

.

i n f on o f t h e V P an d i t s e e a i on o c e s t h e e e a i on o f t h e c i r c e
. .

h r z t l t ht l w h v
.

sur fac e i s ge n e r a te d b y a o i on a s r ai g t t w th
in e h i c m o e s i n c on a c i t he
g iv l
e n i n l Dr w
e a n d lvt
ci r c e a t t
h . u pl
e e e a i o n o f t h e s e c i o n o f t h e s r fa c e b y a an e

p l l h .t
ar a l e t o t h e V P an d 2 i n c e s i n fr o n
. of i t .

Ar t r r
2 h d tr lt ud h
i gh c i c ul a c on e b as e 4 i n c e s i n i am e e , an d a it
,
e 4 i nc es ,

t d wt A r ht r ul l dr h d tr
.

s an s i h i t s b a s e on t h e H P ig ci c ar c y i n e
. 2 i nc es i n i am e e
h l t d w th
a n d 4 i n c e s on g s a n s i x h w
it s b as e on t h e H P an d i t s a i s 3 i n c e s a ay . .

r x A
f o m t h e a is o f t h e c on e rtd h z t l t ht l
s u r fac e i s ge n e a e b y a or i on a s r ai g in e
wh h v t t w th u x l dr
.

i c m o e s i n c o n ac i t h e s r fa c e o f t h e c on e an d t h e a i s of t h e c y i n e .

Dr w a lvt l tr t t u w th u
t h e e e a i on o f t h e i n e o f i n e s e c i o n o f hi s s r fac e i t h e s r fac e o f
l dr pl
t h e cy in e , t h e lvt l d pl
an e o f t h e e e a i on t o b e i n c i n e a t 45 t o t h e
°
an e o f t h e

x l dr
a e s of t h e c y i n e a n d c on e .

t ht l AB
3 T h r e e s r ai g ines v ,
C Dth r p
,
a n d E t
F a r e g i e n b y e i r oj e c i on s i n Fi g .

A u td l wh h v
.

6 52 . s r fa c e i s ge n e r a e t t w th
b y a s t z ai gh t i n e i c m o e s i n con ac i eac h

FIG . 6 52 .

of v l rw lvt tr t th u
t h e gi e n i n e s D a t h e e e a i on of t h e i n e s e c i on o f
. w th i s s r fac e i t he
v t l pl
er i ca h h z t l tr
an e w os e or i o n a ur
a ce i s H T urd
T ak e t h e s q a e s of t h e s q a e
. .

ru d h d
bac kg o n i n F i g 6 52 a s o f 5 i n c s i e
. .

rl pr j t
4 T h e s e m i c i c e s a bc an d a b c (F i g 653)ar e t h e
.
' ’ ’
h l o e c i on s of t h e
. a f o f an
ll p
e i se . pr t
de an d cl e ar e t h e
'
v rt l l
’
A h r z t l tr ht
oj e c i o n s o f a e i ca i ne o i on a s a ig
.

l v t t w th
i n e m o e s i n c on a c i v l D w pl
t h e c ur e AB C an d t h e i n e D E ra t he an an d
.

lvt uv tr t th u
e e a i o n o f t h e c r e o f i n e s e c i on o f pl wh tr
is s r fac e an d t h e an e os e ac e s

v
a r e gi e n F d l
. p t tr t l w th
i n a s o t h e o i n o f in e s e c i o n o f t h e i n e m n , m n
’ '
i t h e su r
rtd
face ge n e a e as ab o e v ur urd ru d
T ake t h e s q a e s of t h e s q a e bac kg o n i n F i g 653
. .

h d
a s o f 5i n c si e .

. l
5 T h e c i r c e s a bcd an d pl
( g
Fi 6 5 4l v t r p tv l
) a r e t h e .an an d e e a i o n e s e c i e y
ll p
o f an e i s e A . l ur
c on i c a s rtd tr ht l wh h v
fac e i s ge n e a e b y a s ai g i ne ic m o es i n
t t w th
c o n ac i ll p p thr u h
t h e e i s e an d as s e s fix d p t o g Dtr
t he e o i n vv
'
e e mine t he .

h r z t l tr
o i on a l u hw l
a c e o f t h e c o n i c a s r fac e tr pl
S o a so t h e w h
. ac e s of t h e an es hi c
ar e t t l ur
an ge n i al t o t h e c on i c a s t p t
face an d c on ai n t h e oi n r r
'
.
 346 P RA C T I CAL G E O M E TRY

18 . F i g 6 59 i s t h e
.
gu e fi r d pl an of a s tr i ght li
a ne AB an d a s ph r wh e e ose
cen tr e is C a the.
ac e s Dr w tr f o t he p l an e s wh 1 c h
'

t
c o n ai n t he k ne an d ar e
t an ge n t l
ia to the s ere ph .

FIG . 6 57 . FIG . 6 58 . FIG . 659 .

In r ep r odu ci n g the a bove di agr am s t he s i des of t he s ma ll s qu ar es ar e to be ta ken

e qu a l to a q u a r ter of a n i nc h T h e u n i t for t he i ndi ces i s 01 i n ch
. .

Dr w t w i r l
19 . 2 i
a h d th th r 1 i h i n di m t r T h
o c c e s , on e nc es an e o e nc a e e . e
ce n tr f t h i r l t b 2 i h p rt T h
es o e c ir l
c es t h pl
o ef tw nc es a a . ese c c es ar e e an s o o
s ph r The es . t f t h m ll r ph r i 1 i h d t h
e cen r e o tr f t h l rg r e s a e s e e s nc an e c en e o e a e
S ph i 25 i h b v t h h i t l pl
er e s nc Dr w t h
es a l o f l pe f ll e o r z on a an e . a e s ca es o s o e o a
t h pl e whi h an e st g t i l t t h t w ph r s d c ar e i li d t 7 0 t t h
an en a o e o s e e an ar e nc ne a
°
o e
h ri z t l pl
o on a an e .

2 0 AB i tr i ght li n wh pl i 3 i h l g A i
. s a s a i h dB i e ose an s nc es on . s on e nc an s
2i h b v t h h i z t l pl
nc es a o R pr
e t pl whi h p
e or on a b tw A an e . e esen a an e c as s e s e e en
an d B i i n li d t 60 t t h h ri z t l pl
, s c ne di at p rp di u l r di t
°
o e o on a an e , an s a e en c a s an c es
o f 1 i h d i h fr m A d B p ti v ly
nc an nc es o an res ec e .

21 h nd h . twu tr i ght li
a t i ght gl
e are t th n d h 3
o s a nes a r an es o on e an o er a e ac
i nch l g V i t h v rt x d V H t h xi f ri ght i r ul r
es on . s e e wh e an e a s o a c c a c on e os e
v rti l gl i
e ca H i
an d V i thr
e s i h b v t h h ri z t l pl s o n , an s ee nc es a o e e o on a an e .
C i th s tr f ph r 2 i h i d i m t r whi h t
e c en e o a s th
e e h iz t l nc es n a e e c res s on e or on a
pl an eR pr . t pl whi h i t g ti l t t h
e e s en a d ph an e c s an en a o e c on e an s er e .

22 b i tri gl
. a c b 1 5 in h
s a b 1 3 i h
an d d e . 25 i a h c es , e
-

nc e s , an o nc es,
A i 25 i h B i 1 i h n d C i 24 i h b v t h h ri z t l pl
s nc es, s nc ,
AB a s nc es a o e e o on a an e .

i ths xi f i gh t i r ul r y l i d r 1 6 i h i d i m t r C i t h
e a s o a r c c tr f
a c n e nc es n a e e . s e c en e o
a s ph i h i d i m t r Dr w t h
er e nc l f l p f pl whi h p
es n a e e . a e sca e o s o e o a an e c as s e s
o v r t h y l i d r d un d r t h p h
e e c n d i t
e g t i l t b th
an e e s e r e an s an en a o o .

23 A B dC. th ,
tr f thr ph
,
an wh r di iar e 0 8 i n h 04
e c en es o ee s er e s os e a ar e , c ,

in h c d 06 i
,
h p ti v ly b
an i h b 13 i h
nc r es ec d 12 e . a nc es , e nc e s , an ac
i nch Th es h i ght f A B d 0 b v t h h i z n t l pl
. e e s o O8 i ,
h an a o e e or o a an e ar e ,
°

nc ,

h d 1 6 i h r p tiv ly R pr t pl whi h p
,

06 i nc ,
an nc es v r th
es ec e . e e s en a an e c as s e s o e e
s ph A d C d un d r t h ph B d i t g ti l t ll th
er es an an e e s ere an s an en a o a r ee .

Th l v ti f l i d f r v luti wh
e e e a xi M N i p r ll l t t h
on o a so o e o on ,
os e a s s a a e o e
v rti l pl
e ca f p j ti i gi v
an e o i F i g 66 0 D w t h h ri z t l tr
ro ec on , f s en n . . ra e o on a ac e o a
v rti l yli d r whi h v l p thi l i d d h w t h l v ti f t h urv f
e ca c n e c en e o s s so ,
an s o e e e a on o e c e o
t t i t h l v ti f p i t t h f t f
c on a c . s
'
s e e e f th a l i d R pr t
on o a o n on e r on s u r ac e o e so . e esen
a pl t ng ti l t t h urf
an e a t S
en a o e s ac e a .

25 T h ir l
. b (F i g 66 1 )i t h pl n f
e c c e a pr l t ph r i d wh . xi i s e a o a o a e s e o os e a s s
v rti l d 3 i h l g i t l w r d b i g t h h ri z t l pl
e ca an nc es on ,
d i th s o e en e n on e o on a an e . c s e
pl f tr i ght li 0 b i g 4 i h b v d D t h h i z t l pl
an o a s a ne , e n A nc es a o e an on e or on a an e .
c y li nd wh erxi i p r ll l t CD v l p t h ph i d S h w i pl
os e a s s a a d
e o en e o s e s ero . o n an an

l v ti t h urv f t t b tw t h yli d r d t h ph r i d
e e a on e c e o c o n ac i th e een e c n e an e s e o . r s e

pl f p i t t h l w r urf
an o a o n f th ph r i d Dr w t h tr
on e o f t h pl
e s ac e o e s e o . a e ac e s o e an e

whi h i t g n ti l t t h sph r i d t R
c s an e a o e e o a .
 C UR V ED S UR F A CE S AN D TAN G ENT P LANE S 347

26 T ak i n g t h e s e r oi ph d d th p i t C
an e o n as in the pr ece di g x rn e e ci s e , dr w i a n
pl lvt ph r i d
.

an an d e e a i on the c urv f t t e o c o n ac be tw een the s e o an d a c on e

FIG . 660 . FIG . 66 1 . FIG . 662 .

In r ep r odu ci n g the abov e di agr am s t he s i des of t h e s ma ll s qu a r es ar e to be ta ken

e qu a l to ha lf a n i n c h .

en v l pi g i t t h v rt x f t h n b i ng t C Dr w l t h tr
e o n ,
e e ef pl o e co e e a . a a so e ac e s o a an e

t i i g t h p i t C t u h i g t h ph r i d
c on a n n e d i li d t 7 0 t t h
o n ,
o c n e s e o , an nc ne a
°
o e

h i z t l pl
or on a an e .

t h pl
'
d
’ ’
d d th
’
27 I F i g 6 63
. n bb . bb ,
aa , ,
an co ar e e an s an a a , ,
an c c ar e e
l v ti bf th
e e a on s tr i ght l i pp i p i t n
ree sAA D t r m i ap i t qq nes .
'
s a o n o . e e ne a o n
'

on BB u h th t t h li P Q h ll b 1 5 i h
s c a e ne s a e nc es
l g d l pi g d w w rd fr m P t Q F i d
on an s o n o n a s o o . n
a pi t o n i CC u h th t P R + Q R = 3 5
rr
'
n s c a
°

in h c es .

28 b ( F i g 6 6 2) i t h pl
. ao f tr i ght. s e an o a s a
li i li d t 45 t t h h ri t l pl
ne nc ne a d °
o e o z on a an e an
l pi g upw rd fr m A t B
s o n a i t h pl s f o o . o s e an o
a v rti l xi A twi t d urf
e ca a s f r v lut i
. s e s ac e o e o on
i g
s r t d by t h v luti f ACB b ut t h
ene a e e re o on o a o e
v rti l xi t whi h i t i
e ca a s t d by h i
o c s c o nn e c e a or
z on t l li a f wh i h i t h pl
ne o f t h p i ti c 00 s e an or e os on
o f AC B h w Dr w i pl
s o d l v ti
n . 16 a n an an e e a on
p i ti
os f th gon s o r t i g l i t q u l i t rv l
e ene a n ne a e a n e a s.
r i t h pl
s fe p i t t h l w r p rt f t h
an o a o n on e o e a o e
s urf g r t d Dr w t h tr
ac e ene a e f t h pl . a e ac e s o e an e

whi h i t g ti l t t h twi t d urf

c s an en t R a o e s e s ac e a .

d i t h pl
e s f e h ri z t l li wh h i ght
an o a o on a ne os e e
a b v th h iz
o e t l pl i 1 5 i h
e or Sh w on a an e s nc es . o
i n pl d l v ti
an anth p i t f i t r ti
e e a on e o n s o n e sec on
o f D E wi th t h twi t d urf e s e s ac e .

29 d d (Fi g 66 4) t h pl n f tw
s tr i ght li
a
. a b, a n
Th p i t B nes d D .
-

th
c
FIG
e
66 3
o n
.

s
ar e

an
e a
ar e
s o
on
o
e
h ri z t l pl
o on a Ai 3i h d C i 2 i
an e h b v t h h ri z t l pl
. s nc e s an s nc es a o e e o on a an e .

A h y p rb l i d i g
n e r t d by t h v luti
o o f CD b ut AB
s S h w t h tru
e ne a e e re o on o a o . o e e
s h p f th
a e o ti f t h h yp b l i d b y
e se c v rti l on o e er o o a e ca
pl f wh i h H T i t h h ri z
an e o t l tr
c i th s e o on a ac e . r s e
pl anf pi t o th l w r u f
a o n f t h h yp r on e o e s r ac e o e e
b l id
o o T ki g H d .
gr u d l i
a n dr w t h tr as a o n ne a e ac e s
o f t h pl wh i h i t g ti l t t h hy p b l i d
e an e c s an en a o e er o o
a t R .

30 T h x f t w hyp rb l i d A d B whi h 0
. e a es o o e o o s an c
ar e i r ll i g l i
n o t t nh ri z t l T h xi n e c on ac ar e o on a . e a s
o f B i 12 i h b v th t f A T h
s nc
g l r es a o e a o . e an u a
v l i ty f B i
e oc ti m th t f A T h
o s d fA FIG 66 4 es a o . e en s o
h 2 i h d i t t f m i t th r t i r l
. .

ar e e ac nc es s an ro s oa c c e .

D w t h pl f t h hyp rb l i d d n l v ti n n pl n p rp di ul r t
ra e an o e e o o s an a e e a o o a a e e en c a o
th i r li f t t
e ne o c o n ac .

3 1 T h th . t f r r ll (F i g 646 p 336)i 35 i h i di m t r T h
e r oa o a c os s -
o .
, . s nc es n a e e . e
e ff tiv l gt h f t h r ll i 7 i n h T h y li d r i 25 i n h i d i m t r d
ec e en o e o s c es . e c n e s c es n a e e an
348 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

its a xi l d s x ll Dr w h l z
i s i n c i n e at 45 t o t h e a i s o f t h e r o pl °
a a f si e , a an o f t h e .

ll l d r th x z tl hw urv t t
,

ro an d c y i n e , e i r a e s be i n g h o r i on a , s o ing t he c e o f c on a c
x l p d
.

3 2 C A, O B , an d 00 a r e t h e s e m i a e s o f a n e li s o i
.
0A 1 7 5 i n ch e s - -

h h h rz t l p p d ul
.

OB i n c e s , an d C C 1 inc 0A i s o i on a an d O B i s er e n i c
.
ar
:
t o the v rt l pl
e i ca t
a n e o f p r oj e c t l o n T h e c en r e 0 i s .

h v h z t l pl
1 i n c abo e t h e or i o n a pl an e hw The an i s s o n .

i n F i g 66 5 Dr w p . a t a . l p d
r o j e c i o n o L t h e e li s oi on a
pl p ll l
an e ar a e pl
t o t he ul r t
an e o f a c i r c a s e c i on .

pl
m n (F i g 66 5) i s t h e tr ht l wh h
.an o f a s ai g in e ic
p thr u h
as s e s o g l d
0 an d i s i n c i n e at 4 5
°
t o t h e h or i
z o n t alpl an eA l dr vlp c y in e ll p d
e n e o i n g t he e i s oi
. h as
t l p r ll l
i t s ge n e r a i n g i n e a a e t o M N w pl Sh o i n a n an d .

lvt
e e a i on t h e c urv t t tw
e of c o n ac l dr
be e en t h e cy in e
ll p d
an d e i s o i .

c
(F i g 6 6 5 )pl
i s t h e p t
. a n h
of a o i n w
FIG h i c i s 35
665
h v
i n c e s abo e t h e h r z t l plo i on a A hvan e c on e a ing i t s .

v rt x
e e vlp ll p d D w pl
at V e n e o s t h e e i s o i lvtra in urv an an d e e a i on t h e c .
e of

t t tw
c on ac be ll p d
e e n t h e c o n e an d e i s o i .

t r tr ht l
3 3 C A, O B , an d 00 ar e h e e s ai g
. utu ll p p d r
in e s m a y e r e n i c ul a , 00 b e i n g
v t l
er i ca OA h . h
i n c e s , OB h
1 i n c , an d C C 0 75 inc O B an d 0 0 a r e .

t x -
h p l hv
t h e s e m i co n j uga e a e s o f t wo y e r b o a s tr v
a i n g 0 A a s a c om m on an s e r s e

x
a is h. p l x t hpr l d
T e s e h y e r b o as ar e a i al s e c i on s o f an h t l y e b o oi o f t wo s e e s y i n g

be tw pl
e e n t wo p p d ul r
an e s er en i c h h r
a t o C A an d e ac D w i n c e s f om 0 ra a .

pl th
an o f b o t hpr l d
s h e e s of t h e y e lvt
b o o i pl p r ll l
a n d a n e e a i o n o n a an e a a e t o CA .

D w l
ra lvt
a s o an e e a i o n o n apl p p d ul an e e r en i c pr t ar t o C A On e ac h oj e c i on .

hw
s o ll pt t pl
t h e e i i c s e c i on s b y p p d r
an e s t rv l
e r e n i c ul a t o C A at i n e a s o f , s ay ,
i nc h hw l h pr t
S o a s o on e ac
. u r x l t
o j e c i on a n m b e o f a i a s e c i on s .

ll pt p r l d v lvt
3 4 An e i i c a ab o o i i s gi e n i n F i g 6 6 6 b y t wo e e a i on s on
. pl an e s at .

rig ht l t r D w th
an g e s t o o n e a n o h e lvt ra d v
e s e e e a i on s t o t h e . i m e n s i o n s gi e n , an d

FIG . 6 66 . FI G . 6 67 .

f r m t h l v ti n p j t pl n S h w n h pr j ti t h p r b li
o e e e a o ro ec a a . o o e ac o ec on e a a o c a nd
e llipti ti i d i t d V T i t h v rti l tr
c sec on s n ca e f pl whi h i p
. . . s e e ca ac e o a an e c s erp en
di l c u ar t t h pl n f th
o l v ti e a h w t h pl
e o e e e a on s o on e an

an d th
on l v ti (w)t h e e e ti n f t h p b l i d by thi
a on e sec o o e ar a o o s
pl an e .

3 5 A h yp rb li p rab l i d i gi v n i F i g 6 6 7 by t w
. n e o c a o o s e n . o

l v ti
e e a pl on s t i ght on gl t an e s a th r Dr w r an es o on e an o e . a

th ese l v ti t
e e th dim i
a on s gi v o d fr m th e e n s on s en an o e

l v ti
e e a pr j t pl
on Sh w h p j ti t h
o ec a an . o on e ac ro ec on e

p r b li
a a d h yp b l i
o c an ti i di t d erSh w l o c se c on s n ca e . o a s o on

eac h p j ti um b r f tr i ght li
r o ec on a n y t w h i h a e o s a nes , sa en , c

li e n th
o p r b l i d h lf t h n m b t b l g t
e a a o o ,
a e u er o e on o one

s y t m
s e d t h th r
an h l f t b l g t t
e 'oh th er y t m fa o e on o e o e s s e o
s tr i ght g r t
a f th p r b l id
e n e a or s o e a a o o .

3 6 A t rtu u . urv AR C i h w i pl n nd l v ti n
o o s c e s s o n n a a e e a o

i nF i g 66 8 Dr w t h pr j ti
. . f th a t g nt t t h e o ec on s o e an e o e

c ur t t h p i t R S h w t h tr
ve a e o n f th m l
. d
FIG 6 68
o e ac e s o e n or a an
os c u l ti ng pl a f th urv t R Dr w l t h p
an es o e c e a . a a so e ro
. .

j t
ec i n f t
o s o h p ri i p l n m l n d t h
e b i m
nc l t t h aurv t R or a a e n or a o e c e a
350 P RAC T I CAL G E O METRY

i n t h e s am e w ay a n d c on s e c ut i v e p oi n s b e i ng j oi n e d a s s h o w n , t h e t
t
r e qu i r e d d e ve l op m e n i s d e e r m i n e d t .

t t
T h e s ud e n s h ould n o w h a v e n o d iffi c ulty i n fo ll ow i n g t h e c on
t t
s ru c i on s h o w n fo r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p a r of t h e d e v e l o m e n t wh i c h t p
t
m u s be r e m o v e d du e t o a h o l e i n t h e r is m , t h e e l e va t i on o f t h e h o l e p
b e i n g t h e tr i a n gl e t
O b s e rve h a t s i x a dd i i on a l v e rt i c a l l i n e s a r e t
p t
r e qu i r e d on t h e fa c e s of t h e ri s m h e s e li n e s as s throu g h t he po i n t s p
t
wh e r e t h e h ori zon a l i n t e rn a l e d ge s of t h e h ol e m e e t t h e fa c e s of t he
p t t
r i s m , an d h e i r e l e va i on s c oi n c i d e i n ai rs T h e po s i t i on s of th e s e p .

a dd i t i o n a l l i n e s o n t h e d e v e l o m e n p t
a r e e a s i ly fou n d , a n d th e y c on t a i n

i m p o r an t tp t
oi n s i n t h e c o m l e t e d e v e l o m e n p p t .

I f a ny l i n e or fi g ur e b e dra w n o n t h e d e v e l op m e n of t h e s urfac e t
o f t h e pr i s m , i t i s ob v i ou s how t h e e l e v a t i on of t h e l i n e o r fi g ur e wh e n

FIG . 6 69 .

t he d e ve l opm en t i s wr app e d r ou n d t he s ol i d ,
t
m ay b e ob ai ne d by
w ork i n g b c kw ar ds fr om t h e d e v e l op m e n t t o
a t
t h e e l e v a i o n of t h e
r lsm
p .

Aga i n by th e i r proj e cti on s t wo p oi n ts on t he s urface of t he

, g i v e n , ,

pr i s m t h e pr oj e c ti on s of t h e s h ort e s t l i n e lyi n g on t he s urfac e of t he

,

pri m n d j o i n i n g t h e gi v e n poi n ts ar e e as i ly Ob tai n e d wh e n i t i s

s a ,

n o t i ce d th a t t h e r e qu i r e d l i n e w il l on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t be a s tr a i ht
g
l i n e I t i s n e ce s s ary t o ob s e rve h ow e ve r th a t th e re r e t wo w ay s of
. a

j oi n i n g t he gi v e n poi n t s by l i n e s wh os e d e ve l op m e n ts r e s t rai gh t l i ne s a ,

on e l in e
g oe s r o u n d t h e s ur fa ce i n o n e d i r e c t i o n a n d t he o th e r i n t h e

o t h e r bu t on e of th e s e w i ll g e n e r lly b e s h ort e r t h a n t he o t h e r

3 07 D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e S u r fa c e o f a P y r a m i d —Ex c ludi n g
,
a .

t h e b e t h e s urfac e of a pyr m i d i s m d e up of a n u m be r of t ri n gle s

as ,
a a a

h av i ng a c omm on v e r te x n d i f t he tru e form s of t h e se tri an gl e s be

,
a
 D E V EL OP MENT S 351

foun d an d pl a c e d t oge th e r s o t h at th os e an gu l a r p oi n t s wh i c h ar e
m ad e t o c oi n c i d e c oi n c i d e wh e n on t h e s urfa c e of t h e s ol i d , t h e r e s ul t i n g
fi gur e w i ll b e t h e de v e l op m e n t of t h e s ur fac e of t h e pyr am i d All t h e .

tri a n gl e s wh i c h m ak e u p t h e d e ve l op m e n t w i l l h av e a c om m on v e r te x .

T h e p l a n a n d e l e v a t i on o f a pyr a m i d a r e gi v e n i n Fi g 6 7 0, t h e .

b as e of t he s o l i d be i n g h ori zon t a l T h e tru e l e ng th s of t he s l op i n g .

e dge s a r e c on v e n ie n tly fo u n d as fo ll o w s O n t h e e l e va t i on of t h e b as e .

produ c e d m ak e vl a l , vl bl , vl cl , e t c e qu a l t o va , vb, vc, e t c re s p e c t i v e ly

. . .

D r a w t he v e rt i c a l vI V 1 eq u a l t o t h e a lti t ud e of t he pyra m i d J oi n .

b
dl , l , l ,
c e t c t o V I,
. t h e n V ,
a l,
V , b1, V 1 01 ,
e t c a r e o bv i o u s ly e qu a l t o .

t h e t ru e l e n g t h s of V A , V B , V C , e t c r es p e c t i v e ly T h e t ru e for m s . .

FI G . 67 0 .

of t he t ri n gul ar fac e s of t h e pyr m i d m y n o w be fo u n d n d put

a a a a

toge th e r s h o wn t o fo rm t h e d e ve l op m e n t B C D E A V a
a s al l l l l l l ,.

Con i d e r i n g t h e l i ne p q on t h e e l e v t i on of t h e pyr m i d as t he
’ '
s a a

e l e v t i on of pl n e e t i on of t he s l i d t h e c on s t ru t i on i h o wn for
a a a s c o ,
c s s

fi n d i n g t h e bo u nd ry l i n e b e t w e e n t h e d e v e l op m e n t s of t h e ur f c e s
a s a

o f t h e t wo p r t s of t h e a ol i d i n t o whi h i t i
s d i vi d e d by t h e pl n e of c s . a

s e c t i on. Con i d e r t h e n g ul a r p oi n t of t h e s e c t i o n wh i c h i s o n t h e
s a

e d ge V B n d wh i c h h s t h e p oi n t fo i t s e l e v t i o n D r w t h e h o ri ’
a a r r a . a

z on t l
a r r,
'
t o m ee t V e t Wi t h c e n t r e V n d r d i u V d s c ri b e
, l
a r] .
I a a s lr 1 e

t he ar e r l R t o m e e t V E at R
1
R i t h e p o i t i o n of t h e p o i n t R on
I 1 1. I
s s

t he d e ve l p m e n t o T h e p o i ti n s of t h e o t h e r
. s n ul r p oi n t s o f t h e
g o a a

s e c t i on e d e te r m i n e d i n l i k e m n n e r
ar a .

A tr i ght l i n e MI SIN i s dr w n on t h e d e ve l op m e n t n d t h e
s a ]
a a

con s tr u c t i on i s h ow n f fin d i n g t h e pl n n d e le v t i on of t h i l i ne
s or a a a s
352 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY
wh e n d e v e l op m e n t i s wr pp e d ro u n d t h e s ol i d Con s i d e r t he
t he a .

p oi n t wh e re t h e § t r i gh t l i n e c u ts V B Wi th c e n tr e V n d rad i u s
SI a
I I .
I
a
V S d e c r i be n ar e c ut ti n g V 6
l 1
s a t 8 D r w t h e h or i z o n t l
1 1 to
a 1 . a a s ls
'

m eet v b t s A v e r t i l thro u g h 8 t o m e e t vb at 8 d e te r m i n e s t he
’ ’ ' ’
a . ca

p lan of S O r 8 m y be fou n d s follo ws M t s s m e e t V v t 0

. a a .
l
'
l 1 a .

M k e vs e qu l t o
a T he l t te r c on s t ru ct i on for fi n d i n g t h e pl n o f
a a a
a p oi n t o n o n e o f t h e s l o i n
p g d ge s o f t h e p y r a m i d i s t o b e p r e fe rr e d
e

wh e n t he pl n of t h t e d ge i n e rly p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t h e g r o u n d l i n e
a a s a .

I n d e t e r m in i n g t h e p oi n t m o b s e rve t h t M m i s a l i n e p a r a ll e l t o
’
a l 1
a B an d i s n o t
l 1 n a r c of a c i r c l e w i th c e n tr e V
a

3 08 D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e S u r fa c e o f a C y li n d e r —
I .

.
Si n c e a .

c yl i n dr i c l s ur f c e i s o n e d e s c r i be d by
a a s tr a i h t l i n e wh i c h m o v es so a
g
t h at i t i s lw y s p r a ll e l t o a fix e d l i n e i t i s
a a a
,

e v i d e n t t h t t h e d e v e l op m e n t of
a s t r i p of t h e a

s ur fac e ly i n g b e t we e n t wo p o i ti on s of t he s

e n e r t in a l i n e wh i c h a r e n o t f r a p a r t w i ll b e
g g a

a fo ur s i d e d fi gur e of wh i c h t w o o pp o i t e s i d e s
-

a r e s t r a ig h t n d p r l le l a n d t h e o t h e r t wo o pp o
a a a

s i t e s i d e s w i ll b e e i t h e r s t r a i h t o pr xi m t ly
g a
p o a e r

s tr a i ght T h e t w o opp o i t e s i d e s wh i c h a r e e i t h e r
. s

FIG . 67 1 .

s tr aig ht ppr ox i m a te ly s tr i gh t a r e e qu al t o t he a r c s of t he e n d s
or a a

of t h e c yl i n d e r l i n b tw t h t w o p os i t i on s o f t h e r t i l
y g e e e n e
g e n e n
g ine a

c on i d e re d
s T h i s s u g ge s t s t h e m e t h o d of fi n d i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
.

o f t h e s ur f c e of c yl i n d e r
a wh i c h i s t o d i vi d e t h e s urf c e i n to a
a
, ,
a

n u m b e r of s t r i p s by n u m b e r o f p o i t i on s
a of t h e e n e r t i n l i s
g a g n e
a n d t h e n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e tru e fo r m s o f t h e s e s t r i p s wh i c h a dd e d
0

t oge th e r g i ve t he r e qu i r e d d e ve l opm e n t .

I n t h e c as e of a r i ght cyl i n d e r t h e e n d s ar e p e rp e n d i c ul r t o t h e a

g e n e r t i n
a
g l i n e a n d e c h of t h e s t ri p s m e n t i on e d b o v e i
a r e c tan gl e a s a

a n d a ll t h e s t ri p s wh e n p u t t o e t h e r o n a pl a n e fo r m r t n l
g e c
g e a a

wh os e h e i ght i s e qu l t o t h e h e ig ht of t h e cyl i n d e r a n d wh os e b s e
a a

h as l e ng t h e qu a l t o t h e c i r c u m fe re n ce of on e e n d
a .

R e fe rri n g t o F i g 6 7 1 ( a )i s t he pl n a n d ( a )t h e e l e vat i on of
. .
a
'
a

ri gh t c i r c ul r cyl i n d e r wh o e x i s i s v e rti ca l T h e c i r c u m fe r e n ce of
a s a .

t h e c i r c l e wh i c h i s t h e p la n of t h e c yl i n d e r i s s h o w n d i v i d e d i n t o
 54 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY
s urface of a c on e m ay b e d e s c r ibe d by s tr i ght l i n e wh i h w h i l e a a c ,

m o v i n g p a s s e s thr ou g h
, fix e d p oi n t wh i c h i s t h e v e rt e x of t he c on e
a
,
i t i s e v i d e n t th a t i f t wo s t r ai gh t l i n e s b e t a k e n wh i c h ar e t w o p os i t i on s
of t h e g e n e r t i n g li n e i n c lud i n g a s m ll
a n le t h e po r t i on o f t h e
g a a ,

s u rfa c e of t h e c on e ly i n g b e t w e e n t h e s e s t r ai g h t l i n e s w i ll wh e n
d e ve l op e d b e a t hr e e s i d e d fi gu re of wh i c h th e s e s tr i g h t l i n e s w i ll b e a

t w o s i d e s a n d t h e t h i rd s i d e o b s e w i l l b e n e rly s t r i g ht
r a n d of a a a a

l e n g th e qu al t o t h e a r c of t h e b s e of t h e con e ly i n g b e t w e e n t h e t wo
a

pos i t i on s of t h e g en e r atin g l i n e
c on s i d e r e d . T h e s urf c e of t h e a

c on e m a
y t h e r e fo r e b e d i v i d e d i n to

a n u m b e r of p art s wh os e d e v e l op

m e n t s a r e v e ry a pp r o x i m a te ly t r i
an l e s
g . T h e t ru e l e n g th s of t h e

s i d e s o f t h e s e t r i n gl e s a r e e a s i ly
a

fo u n d n d t h e t ri n gl e s b e i n g dr w n
a a a

a n d pl a c e d t o e t h e r w i t h t h e i r er v
g
t i ce s a t t h e s am e p o i n t an d th os e
s i d e s c oi n c i d i n g wh i c h c o rr e p on d s

t o th o s e wh i c h c o i n c i d e on t h e s u r
fac e of t h e c on e t h e d e v e l op m en t
,

o f t h e s u r fac e i s d e t e r m i n e d .

T w o e x am pl e s w i ll s e rve t o
i llu s tr a t e t h e pr oce dure i n d e te r
m i n i n g t h e d e v e l op m e n t o f t he s u r
fac e of a c on e .

t
I n t h e fir s e x am pl e ( Fi g 6 7 3) .

t h e c on e i s a r i g h t
c i r c ul a r c on e .

T h e b as e i s h or i z on t a l an d i t s pl a n
t
i s h e r e fo r e a c i r c l e wh o s e c e n tr e v
i s t h e pl an o f t h e v e r e x of t h e t
c on e . T h e e l e va t i on i s t h e i s os ce l e s
t r i an g l e S i n c e t h e l i n e wh i c h
d e s c ri b e s t h e s ur fa c e of h i s c on' e t
t t
h as a c on s a n l e n g th e qu a l t o v a
'

t t
i t i s e v i d e n th a t h e d e v e l op m e n t
o f t h e s ur fa c e w i ll b e a s e c t o r o f a FIG 67 3 . .

c i r c l e v a F H wh os e r ad i u s i s v a
' ' ' f

a n d h a v i n g t h e ar e a F H e qu a l i n l e n th t o t h e c i r c u m fe r e n c e of t h e
’

g
t
b a s e of t he c on e T h e l e n g h o f t h e a r e a F H i s con v e n i e n ly l ai d off
.
'
t
t p
w i t h s u ffi c i e n t a cc ur acy for pra c i cal urp os e s by d i vi d i n g t he c i r c u m
t
fe r e n ce o f t h e b a s e of t h e c on e i n o, s ay , tw e lv e e qu a l a r c s a n d s t e pp i n g
t
t h e c h ord of on e of h e s e a r cs ou t w i h t h e d i v i d e r s on t h e a r c a F Ht '

t we lve t i m e s .

I f a l i n e on t h e s urfa c e of t h e c on e i s gi v e n , t h e fo r m an d os i t i on p
of th i s l i n e o n t h e d e v e l op m e n t
i s fo u n d by a m e h o d s i m i l a r t o th a t t
p
u s e d i n t h e c a s e of t h e yra m i d For e x am pl e le t b c b e t h e e l e va t i on
' '
.

of a pl a n e s e c t i on o f t h e c on e , i t i s r e qu i r e d t o s h o w t h e fo r m a n d
t t
p os i i on of t h e ou l i n e of t h e s e c t i on on t he d e ve l op m e n ra w t h e t . D
 D E V E L O P MEN T S 355

l vat i on s
e e l i n e s wh i c h jo i n t h e ve rt e x of t h e con e t o t h e p o in t s
of t he
1 2 3 e t c wh i c h d i v i d e t h e c i r c u m fe r e n c e o f t h e b s e i n t o s y
, , ,
. a ,
a ,

tw e lve e qu l p rt s ( T h e p l n s of th e s e l i n e s n e e d n o t b e dr w n )
a a . a a .

Joi n v t o t h e p oi n t s 1 2 3 e t c wh i c h d i vi d e t h e r c a F H i n t o t h e
'
, , , . a
'

s m e n u m b e r o f e qu l p a rt s
a t h e c i r u m fe r e n c e o f t h e b e i s d i v i d e d
a as c as

i n to Co n s i d e r t h e p oi n t r wh i c h i s t h e e l e v t i o n of t h e p o i n t s o n t h e
’
. a

s e c t i o n wh i c h li e on t h e l i n e s f r o m t h e v e r t e x t o t h e po i n t s 5 n d 9 on a

t h e ba s e D r w r r p a r ll e l t o b a t o m e e t v a t r v r i e vi d e n tly
. a
’
1 a
' ' ' '
a ,.
'
l
s

t h e tru e d i s t n c e of t h e p oi n t s of wh i c h r i s t h e e l e v t i on f ro m t h e
’
a a

v e rt e x of t h e c on e H e n c e i f w i th v c e n t re s r di u s
’ '
. nd v n as a rl a a a

a r e b e d e s c ri b e d t o c u t t h l i n e s v 5 a n d v 9 on t h e d e ve l opm e n t p oi n t s ' '

e ,

RR o n t h e r qu i re d c u v e a r e fou n d I n l i k e m n n e r t h e p oi n t s wh e re
e r . a

t h e r e qu i r e d c urv e c u t s t h e o th e r r a d i a l l i n e s o n t h e d e v e l op m e n t e ar

fou n d n d a f i r c urv e thr ou g h t h e m i s t h e c urv e r e qu i r e d

a a T h e fi gur . e

ly i n g b e t w e e n th i s curve n d t h e a r e a F H i s t h e d e ve l opm e n t of t h e
a
'

s urfa ce of t h e fru s t u m of t h e c on e ly i n g b e t w e e n t h e b s e n d t he a a

pl an e of s e c t i on I f t h e pl an e of s e c t i on i s p ar ll e l t o t h e b as e a n d
. a

h s fo r i t s e l e v t i on t h e l i n e d e th e n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t he s ur fa c e
’ '
a a

of t h e fru s t u m i s t h e fi g ur e ly i n g b e t w e e n t h e
'
r c a FH n d t he a r c a a

e K L s t ru c k f r om t h e c e n tr e v T h i s fi g ur e i s t h e d e v e l op m e n t of
' '
. a

lam p s h ad e wh os e e l e v a ti on i s
Fi g 6 7 3 a l s o s h o w s h o w t o d e t e r m i n e p q t h e e l e v a t i on of a l i n e on
.

t h e s ur fa c e of t h e c on e wh i c h on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t i s s tr a i ht l i n e P Q
g a .

T h e c on s tru c t i on i s s i m p ly t h e c on ve r s e of th a t a lr e dy gi v e n fo fi n d a r

i n g on t he d e ve l op m e n t a l i n e wh os e e l e va t i on i s gi v e n a n d wh i c h l i e s
on t h e s ur fa c e of t h e con e .

I n t h e s e con d e x am pl e n e w t o b e c on s i d e re d t he c on e i s a n obl i qu e
T h e p l an n d e l e v a t i on of t h e c on e ar e v l t
1
c on e . a
g i e n t o t h e e f in
Fi g 6 7 4 . T h e h ori z on t a l t ra c e of t h e s urf c e of th i s c on e i s a c i r c l e
. a

bu t t h e pr oc e dur e w o uld b e t he am e i f thi s h o ri z on ta l trac e w e re n s a

e ll i p s e o r a n y o t h e r c urv e D i vi d e t h e h o r i zon t l tr ce of t h e s urface

. a a

of t h e c on e i n t o a n u m be r of e qu a l p rt s s ay t w e lv e a t t h e p oi n t s 1 a
, ,

2 3 etc
, ,
D raw t h e pl n s an d e l e va t i on s of t he s trai ght l i n e s j oi n i n g
. a

W t h e v e r t e x of t he c on e t o t he p oin ts of d i vi s i on on t h e h o ri z on t l a

trace T he n e x t s te p i s t o fi n d t he true l e n g th s of th e s e l i n es Th i s
. .

i s c on v e n i e n tly d on e as fo ll o w s L e t v be t h e foo t of t h e p e rp e n d i c ul r
.
1 a

fr om v o n X Y S e t off on X Y t o t h e r i gh t o f v t h e d i s t an ce s v l
’
.
1 l ,

v 2 v 3 e tc
1 , e qu a l t o t h e d i s t n c e s v 1 v2 v 3 e t c r e s p e c t i v e ly on t h e
1 ,
. a , , , .

pl an J oi n v t o t h e p oi n t s 1 2 3 e t c on X Y t o t h e ri g ht of v
.
’
, , , .
] .

Th e s e l i n es gi ve t h e t ru e l e n gth s of t h e l i n e s j oi n i n g t h e v e r te x of t he
c on e t o t h e p oi n t s of d i vi s i on o n t h e h o ri z on t a l tr a ce o f i t s s ur fac e .

Wi th c e n tr e v an d th e s e t ru e l e n g t h s s r ad i i d e s c ri be a r c s a s s h ow n
’
a .

No w s e t t h e d i vi d e r s t o on e of t h e e qu l d i v i s i on s on t h e h o r i z on ta l
'

tr ce o f t h e s urfac e of t h e con e (s h ow n on t h e plan )an d s t art i n g a t

a ,

sa
y t h
,
e p o i n t A o n t h e r c wh os e r a d i u s i s t h e tru e l e n th v l s t e p
a
g
'

o u t from a r e t o a r e a s s h o w n a n d o b ta i n t h e p oi n t s 2 3 4 e t c wh i c h , , , .

w i ll li e on t h e c urve A B C wh i c h t oge th e r w i t h t h e s tr ai gh t l i n e s v A ’

n d v C fo r m t h e ou t l i n e of t h e d e v e lo p m e n t of t h e s ur fa ce of t h e c on e
’
a .

1
T mi
o e con o p t h pl h b pl d b v t h l v ti i F i g 6 7 4
se s ac e e an as e en ac e a o e e e e a on n . .
356 P RAC T I C AL G E O METRY

I t i s n ot a s o b lut ly
e ry th t
n e ce s s a p rt
a t h e a s 1 2, 2 3, 3 4, e t c on t h e.

pl an b e e qu l
a an d i t m a
y h pp t h t
a e n a lu t
i n t h e s pr bl
o i o n of s om e o em

o n t he c o n e , s a , t h e
y d t r t t r t w h th r
e e m i n a i on o f i t s i n e s e c i on it a no e

pl
c on e , an e s e c i on st thr u h
o g v rt x
t he e e h v b
of t h e co n e m ay a e e en

u d v
se
g i i n
g a s e i r
e s of li neswh h r z t l tr
o s e o i o n a dvd a c e s d o n ot i i e t he

h r z t l tr
o i on a a ce of t h e s ur t qu l p rt
fa c e of t h e c on e i n o e u h a a . s In s c
a c a s e i t i s n ot n e c e s s a ry dr w
to r h
a a f es l rr d
s e t of i n e s a an ge as i n
Fi g 6 7 4,
. bu t t he p rt
a s 1 2, 2 3, 3 4, e t c urv ut
on t h e c
. e ABC m s be
m ade e qu l r
a p t v ly
e s ec i e p rt pl
t o t he a s 1 2, 2 3, 3 4, e t c on t h e . an.

ELEVAT ION

FIG . 67 4 .

F i g 6 7 4 a l s o s h o w s t h e c u rv e E F H , wh i c h i s t he fo r m a n d po s i t i on
.

o f t h e ou t l i n e o n t h e d e ve l op m e n t of a cyl i n dr i ca l s e c t i on of t h e s u rfa c e

of t h e c on e .T h e c on s t ru c ti o n l i n e s for t wo poi n ts R I a n d R 2 on ly on
th is c urv e ar e s h ow n T h e c on s tr u c ti on i s obvi ous an d nee d s n o
.

d e s c ri p ti on .

3 1 0 A p p r o x i m a t e D e v e l o p m e n t s o f U n d e v e lo p a b l e S u r
—
.

fa c e s I t h as alre ady b e e n s ta t e d ( Ar t 27 3, p 31 3)t h a t a d e v e l op abl e

. .

s urf ac e m u s t b e c ap abl e of g e n e r a t i on by a s tr a i g ht l i n e a n d th a t a n y

t wo con s e cu ti v e p os i t i o n s of t he g e n e r a t i n g l i n e m us t b e in t h e s a m e
pl an e A s ur face wh i c h i s u n d e v e l opabl e m ay h ow e ve r b e d i vi d e d
.

i n t o p a r ts of wh i c h a ppr o x i m a te d e v e l op m e n ts m ay b e dr a w n , t h e
d e gr e e of appr ox i m ati on b e i n g gre a t e r t h e m ore n u m e rou s t h e par ts
i n to wh i c h t h e s urfa ce i s d i v i d e d . Thr e e e x am pl e s w i ll be tak e n t o
i ll u s t r a te t h e m e th od of d e te r m i n i n g a ppr o x i m a te d e ve l op m e n t s of
u n d e ve l op abl e s urfa c e s .

T h e s ph e re w i ll be ta k e n a s t he firs t e x am pl e T he s urfac e of a
.
 358 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

trai g h t l i n e s j oi n i n g t he
s on t he g ht l
s i tr
n e tai
o t he p oi n ts on
t h e c urv e d l i n e s s ho w n a t he s ur face i n to a n u m be r of thr ee
s i d e d fi ur e s wh os e tru e
g
fo rm s a r e fo u n d i n t h e
us u l w y n d r e p u t
a a a a

t og e th e r t o fo r m t h e
a p p r ox i m at e d e v e l op
m e n t A E LF .

E x e rc i s e s X X I V
N ote tud t i . T he s en s
a dvi d t se t t th d o cu ou e e
ve ol pm t i t h f ll wen s n e o o
i g x r i
n e ft r h h
e c se s , a e e as
dr w th m H h u ld
a n e . e s o

th f ld th m up
en o t e s o as o
e xhi bi t t h f rm f t h e o s o e
so l i d Wh r d v l p
s . e e a e e o
m t h t b f ld d t
en as o e o e o

gi v h rp d g t h l i
e a s a e e, e ne
co rr p di g t th t dg
es on n o a e e
on t h d v l pm e t h uld
e e o F G 67 7
en s o 1 .

b r t h d wi th
e sc a c dl e a n ee e
or p rf r t d t h t i t v l S tri p m y l b l ft d j i i g rt i
e o a e a
'

s or n er a s . s a a so e e a o n n ce a n of t he
e dg f t h d v l pm t t f rm v rl p f g m mi g t g t h r wh
es o e e e o en o o o e a s or u n o e e en
d v l pm t i f ld d up t t h f rm f t h li d
e e o en s o e o e o o e so
d v l pm t f t h
.

I n F i g 6 7 8 wh i h i t h
.
, c s e e e o en o e
s urf f
ac e ub t h tri p r f rr d t
o a c e, e s s e e e o ar e
s hw t o n a a, a
1 A pl . d l v ti an f i ght pri m
an an e e a on o a r s
ar e s h w i F i g 6 7 9 p q i t h l v ti f
o n n . .
' ’
s e e e a on o a
pl an e ti n f t h li d Dr w t h d v l p
sec o o e so . a e e e o
m t f t h urf
en o f th p i m e s d h w it ac e o e r s an s o on
t h b u d ry l i
e o f th n tia Dr w l t h ne o e se c on . a a so e
l v ti f t h h rt t l i lyi g t h urf
e e a on o e s o es ne n on e s ac e
o f th p i m e d j i i g th p i t M
r s dN
an
FIG
o n n
67 g e o n s an .

2 Tw i t r ti g p i m h w i F ig
. .

. o n e se c n r s s ar e s o n n .

68 0 , b i g v rti l
on e d the n th r i li d Dr w t h d v l pm nt
e ca an e o e nc ne . a e e e o e of t he
s uf f th t p rt f t h i n l i
r ac e o d pri m whi h li ut i d t h th r
a a o e c ne s c es o s e e o e .

FIG . 67 9 . FIG . 6 80 . FIG . 68 1 . FIG . 68 2

.

In r ep r odu ci n g t he a bove di a gr a m s t hes i de s of t he s m a ll s qua r es ar e to be

t a ken e qu a l to h a lf a n i n ch .
 D E V ELO P MEN T S 359

3 li qu p i m t d i g
. An ob q u r b i eh w i F
r s i g 68 1 Th r
s an n on a s a e as e s s o n n . . e e

i t gu l r h l i thi pri m whi h i h w i t h l v ti

s a r e c an a o e ly D w
n s s c s s o n n e e e a on on . ra

t h d v l pm
e t f th u f
e e o f t h pri m h wi g
en o it th utli e f th s r ac e o e s s o n on e o ne o e
hl o e .

4 Dr w t h . d v l pm t f t h fru tum f
a e q u p y
e r m i d
e o h w i en o e s o a s ar e a s o n n
F i g 68 2 . .

5 A pyr m i d i. h w i F i g 68 3 p q i t h l v ti f pl
a s s o ti f n n . . s e e e a on o a an e s e c on o

th li d D w t h d v l pm t f t h urf
e so . ra f t h py m i d wi th t h
e e utli e o en o e s ac e o e ra e o ne
o f th ti it
e sec o n on .

6 F i g 68 4 h w
. pyr m i d i pl
. d l v tis A qu r h l i t h
o s a a n an an e e a on . s a e o e n e
so li d i h w i t h l v ti
s s ly Dr w t h d v l pm t f t h urf
o n n e e e f th a on o n . a e e e o en o e s a ce o e
py m i d wi th t h utl i f t h h l
ra it e o ne o e o e on .

FIG . 68 3 . FIG . 68 4 . FIG . 68 5 . FIG . 686 .

In r ep r odu ci n
g t he a bove di agr a m s t he s ides of t h e s m a ll s qu ar es ar e a be
ta ke n e qu a l to ha lf a n i nc h .

7 . d v l pm t f t h urf
Dr w a t he f t h p yr m i d g iv
e i
e o F i g 68 5 en o e s ac e o e a en n . .

r s -

i th sl v ti fe pl ti
e e f th a l i d S h w t h utli
on o f tha an e sec on o e so . o e o ne o e
sec ti th
on d v l pm t Dr w i pl
on e d l v ti
e th
e o h rt t l i en . a ,
n an an e e a on , e s o es ne
lyi g t h urf
n on f t h py m i de s d j i i g th p i t M
ac e o dN e ra an o n n e o n s an .

8 A li d i h w i pl
. so d l v ti i F i g 686
s s oTh b f th
n li d
n an a n e e a on n . . e as e o e so
i
s a s qu r d ll t h th r f
a e an tri gl a D w t h d v l pm t f t h
e o e ac e s ar e an es . ra e e e o en o e
s uf f th i
r ace o li d s so .

9 Th h d d p rt f F i g 68 7 i t h l v ti f p rti f ri ght i r u l r
. e s a e a o . s e e e a on o a o on o a c c a
c y l i d r wh
n xi i v rti l Dr w t h d v l pm t f t h
e ose a s f s f th i e ca . a e e e o en o e s ur a ce o s
p ti f t h y li d r
or on o e c n e .

F IG . 68 7 FIG . 68 8 .

1 0 Fi g 68 8 sh w t w vi w f h t m t l pi p B wi th t w h t m t l
. . o s o e s o a s ee e a e o s ee e a
r h A
b an c e s an d 0 D w q u rt r f fu ll i z t h d v l p m
. t f t h u f ra ,
on e a e o s e, e e e o en o e s r ac e

o f B .

1 1 T w pi p A d C Fig
. f i ul r r
o es ti d h vi g th ian . o c rc a c os s sec on an a n e r
a x p r ll l
es t d y thi rd pi p B
a a e , h w Dr w t
ar e c o n n e c e l f1 a e as s o n . a o a s ca e o
i h t 2 f t t h d v l pm t f t h u f
nc o ee f t h pi p B e e e o en o e s r a ce o e e .
 60 P RA CT I C AL G EO ME T RY

FIG 689 . FIG 690 .

FIG 6 91 . .
. .

1 2 Dr w t . l f 1 i h t 2 f t th
a o a s ca e o nc o ee e

d v l pm t f t h urf
e e o en f t h p rt f
o e s ac e o e a o a

s h t m t l upt k f b i l r h w i n F i g
ee e a a e or a o e s o n .

690 .

13 Th pl . d p rt l v t i
e an f an a e e a on o a

d m h ri z t l ti
o e, o f wh i h
on a r gu l r s ec on s o c ar e e a

oc atg h w i n F i g 691 C m pl t
on s , ar e s o n . . o e e
th e l v tie e D w d v l pm t f
a on . ra a e e o en o on e
o f th i ght e urv d f
e f th cdm e ac e s o e o e .

S l 1 i h t 5f t
ca e nc o ee .

1 4 F i g 6 92 r pr. t pi p m d fr m
. e e sen s a e a e o
s h t m t l Dr w t
ee e a l fl d
. a ,
o a sca e o , a e
ve ol pm nt f t h pi p
e h wi g t h h p f
o e e s o n e s a e o
th h t f m whi h i t i b t
e s ee ro c s en .

1 5 A i ght i r ul r
. r i t by c pl c a c on e s cu a an e
whi h bi t i t xi
c d i i
sec s l i d t 45 s a s an s nc ne a
°

t o it D w t h d v l pm t f t h urf
. ra e e e o en o e s ac e
o f t h fru tum e Di m t r f b
s f . n a e e o as e o co e
3 i h lti tu d 3 i h
nc es , a e nc es .

16 Th l v ti
. f e e egv m a on o a c an 18 i en
F i g 6 93 . Sh w t h .h p t whi h t h o e s a es o c e

s h t m t l mu t b
ee t wh
e a fl t t f rm s e cu , en a ,
o o

th tw e i l p t f th
o c on c a Om i t t h ar s o e c an . e
a ll w o f v l p t th
an c e s m
or o er a a e sea s .

1 7 Fi g 694 h w th . l v ti f s o s e e e a on o a
r i ght i l r wh
c r cu a xi i v rti lc on e ,
FIG 69 os e a s s e ca ,

p t ti n g t w i u l r y li n d r wh
ene ra o c rc x a c e s os e a es
. .

ar e p rp di l r t t h xi f t h
e en cu a o e a s o e c on e .

Dr w t h d v l pm t f t h u f
a e e e o f th t p rt f t h en n o e s r ac e o a a o e co e

whi h l i b tw t h t w y li d
c es e e en e o c n er s .

1 8 F i g 6 95 h w t h
. .l v ti f t w fru t
s f tw o s e e e a on o o s a o o

co n f r v l ut i n n v l pi g t h
es o e o m ph r Dr w t h
o e e o n e sa e s e e . a e

d v l pm t f t h urf
e e o en s o f t h fru t e s ac e s o e s a .

1 9 T w v rti l i r u l r pi p
. o e f d i ff r t d i m t r
ca c c a es o e en a e e s ar e

c onn e c e t d by th r whi h i i l
an o h wn i pl n d e c s c on c a , as s o n an a

l v ti n i Fi g 696 Dr w t h d v l pm t f t h u f
e e a o n . . a e e e o en o e s r ac e

o f th i l pi p
e c on c a e .

20 T h li d h wn i pl
. e sond le v ti i F i g 6 97
s o n .
an a e a on n .

h as a b whi h i q u d n t f i r l Of t h m i n
as e c s a FIG a ra o a c c e . e re a 6 93
f ur pl n t i gl i l
. .

i g i f
n s x ac e s , o d tw ar e a e r an e s an o ar e c on c a su r

f ac e s Dr w t h m pl t d v l pm t f t h urf
. a e co f th i li d e e e e o en o e s ac e o s so .
 CH AP TER XX V

HE LI CE S AN D SCR EWS

3 11 T h e H e l i x
. .
—
T he he li x i s t h e c urv e de s c ri b e d by a po i n t
wh i c h m ov e s w i t h u n ifo rm v e l oci ty a l on g a ge n e ra ti n g l i n e of a r i g h t
c i r c u la r c y l i n d e r w h i l e t h e e n e r a t in g l in e r e v o lve s w i t h u n i fo r m a n ul a r
g g
ve l oc i ty a b o u t t h e a x i s of t he cy l i n de r .

T h e a x i a l p i t ch of a h e l i x I s t h e d i s t an c e be t w e e n o n e t ur n of t he
h e l i x a n d t h e n e x t , m e a s ure d p a rall e l t o t he a x i s of t he c yl i n d e r u p on
wh i c h i t i s t ra ce d Or , t h e ax i a l p i t ch i s t h e d i s t a n ce tra v e ll e d by t h e
.

d e s c r i bi n g p oi n t a l on g t h e cyl i n d e r wh ile i t m ov e s on ce r o u n d t h e
c yl i n d e r .T h e nor m a l p i t ch of a h e l i x i s t he d i s t an c e b e t w e e n on e t urn
a n d t h e n e x t , m e a s ur e d a l on t h e s h o rt e s t l i n e on t h e s ur fa c e o f t h e
g
c yl i n d e r .I f s e v e ra l h e l i ce s of t h e s am e p i t c h b e t r a c e d o n t h e s ur fac e
of t he s a m e c yl i n d e r , a t e qu a l d i s t an c e s a p a r t , t h e d i s ta n c e be t w ee n t wo

a dj a c e n t h e l i c e s i s c a ll e d t h e di v ide d
p i t ch Wh e n t h e t e rm
. p i t ch
”

i s u s e d w i t h o u t an y qu al i fi c a t i on , “
a xi al pi tc h i s u n d e r s t ood T he .

di a me t e r of a he li x i s t h e d i am e te r of t he c yl i n d e r u p on wh i c h i t i s
tra ce d .

T he tr u c ti on for dr wi n g t h e p roj e c ti on of h e l i x on a pl n e
c on s a a a

p r ll e l t o t he xi of t he cyli n d e r follo w t on ce from t h e d fin i ti on of

a a a s s a e

t h e c urv e n d i s h o w n i n t h e r ig h t h an d po r t i on of F i g 7 00
a s T he . .

a x i s of t he yl i n de r i s s u m e d t o b e p e rp e n d i ul r t o t h e ve rt i c l
c as c a a

p l n e of proj e c ti on D i v i d e t h e c i r c l e wh i c h i s t h e e l e vati on of t he
a .

cyl i n d e r i n t o n u m b e r of e qu l p r t s t w e lv e t t h e p oi n t s
sa a
a
y a a , ,

1 , 2, 3, e t c .

d t r
I t i s e vi e n f om t h e e n i i on of a e i d fi t ah l x th t
i f t h e gen e a i n g r t
p t v r u d
oi n r t r u r
m o e s o n a n y f ac i on of t h e c i c m fe e n c e of t he c i n e , i t yl d r
w ll t v dr t
i a t t h e s a m e i m e m o e i n t h e i e c i o n of t h e a i s o f t h e c i n e x yl d r
a d t qu l
i s an ce e a r t
t o t h e s a m e f a c i on o f t h e i c p t h Thu
s , i f t he. oin p t
v r u d yl
m o e o n t he c in e a d r d t h w
i s a n ce s o n i n t h e e e a i on l v t by t he ar e
1 2, t h t t hr u h
a i s, o g r u r
l l 2t h o f t h e c i c m f e e n c e , i t
-
w
i ll a t t h e s a m e i m e t
v p r ll l
m o e a a e t o t he a i s a i s a n c e e x d t qu
a l t o 1 1 2t h of t h e pt h
i c -
In i e . lk
r v r u d th r
m an n e , i n m o i n g o n a n o e 1 1 2t h of t h e c i c m fe e n c e , i t
-
r u r i w ll
v p r ll l
mo e a a e t o t h e a i s an o e x th r d t u l
i s an ce e q a t o 1 l 2t h of t h e i c -
pt h .

H ll w
e n c e t he fo o i n
g s i m e c on s c ipl
on t ru t .

Dvd pt h
i i e t h e i c a b i n o a s m an e t a ay qu l p r t r l
s a s t he c i c e I n t h e

l v t dvd d
e e a i on I s i i e i n o, i n i s c as et eth t w lv
e , a t t he p t
oi n s 1 , et c .
 HELI C E S AN D S CREW S 36 3

Thr u h th p
o g t dr w p r p d u r
ese oin s a e t pr j t r r
e n i c la s t o a b t o m e e o e c o s f om

p t r l h w
t h e o i n s on t h e c i c e as s o n p t tr th
T h e o i n s of i n e s e c t i o n o f
. ese

t l rry
t wo s e s o f i n e s c a u b r t pl
i n g t h e s a m e n m e s a r e p o i n s on t h e an of

t heh lx e i r urv thr u h t h

a n d a fa i c e o
g pr j t e m r qu r d
i s t h e o e c i o n e i e .

p
a e b i s t he tur
la n of on e h lx
n of t h e e i pl xt
an d b d i s t he
f a n of t h e n e

tur n . pl
T he d t ur
a n of t h e s e c o n h lx n of t h ebt de i m ay b e o a i n e i n t h e
s am e fir t
w ay a s t h e d t r
s , or i t m a
y d r
b e fir t by
e e m ine f om t h e s

m e asur r l pl
i n g f om i t , a o n g t h e r t l
a n s of t h e
g e nt t
e a i n g i n e s , a con s a n

l t h qu l
eng e pt h
a t o t he h lx
i c of t h e e i .

d v l p t ur l d r h l xb
O n t h e e e o m e n o f t h e s f a c e of t h e c y i n e t h e e i e com e s

a s tr h t l
ai
g i ne I n Fig
. tr h t
7 0 0 t.
h e s ai
g li n e

d v l p t
A E B i s t he e e o m e n o f o n e tur h lx n o f t he e i

an d t he str h t ai
g li p r ll l
ne CFD a a e t o A ER is

t he d v l p t
e e o m en x t tur
of t h e n e A tr h t n s ai
.
g
li ne MN r ht
at igl AB
an
g e s t o a n d CD is t he

d v l p
e e o m ent h l x r ht
of a e i atl ig an
g e s t o t he o n e

a lr dy
ea d r d
c on s i e e p rp d ul r d t
T he e e n i c a
. i s a n ce

t
R S b e w ee n t h e l i n e s AB a n d C D i s t h e n o r m a l p i c h o f t he fir s t t
he l i x.

T h e i ncli na t i on of t h e h e l i x o r t h e p i t ch a ngle o f t h e h e l i x i s t he
a n l e 9 on t h e d e v e l o p m e n
g i t
n Fi g 7 00, a n d i s t he c om l e m e n
.
of t h e p t
a n l e wh i c h t h e
g g t
a n e n t t o t he h e l i x a t a n y oin m a k e s w i th t h e p t
g e n e r a t
i n
g l i t
n e of t h e c y i n d e r l
hr ou gh t tp
h a oi n I f d i t
s t he d i am e e r t .

?
1
o f t h e yl i n d e r n d p t h e p i t ch of t h e h e li x t h e n t n 9
c a If a a

s e con d h e l i x o n t h e s m e c yl i n d e r i s pe rp e n d i ul r t o t h e fir t
'
nd i s
a p c a s a
2

d
77
i t s p i t h n d 6 i t s p i t c h n gl t h e n 9 90 0 n d p
' ' 0 ’
c a a e, a

T h e h e l i x h o w n i n F i g 7 00 i
s i ght h nde d
. s r I f t h e full n d d otte d
-
a .
a

p r ts of t he pl n of t h e he l i x s ho w n i n F i g 7 00 b e m d e d otte d an d
a a . a

ful l r e p e c t i v ly t h e h l i x w o uld b e om e l f t h nd d
s e e c e
-

a e
—
.

3 12 H e l i x o f I n c r e a s i n g P i t c h
. A p oi n t wh i c h m o ve s r ou n d
.
36 4 P RA C T I CAL G E O METR Y
a c yl i n d e r th u n i fo rm n gul a r ve l oc i ty a n d a t t he sa me ti m e m o ve s
wi a

a lon g t h e c yl i n d e r w i t h a n i n c r e a s i n g v e l o ci ty d e s c r i b e s a c urve wh i c h
i s g e n e r lly c ll e d
a he li x of i ncr e a s i ng p i tch
a a T h e c urve i s h o w e ve r
.

n ot a he li x T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a h e l i x of i n c r e a s in g p i tc h i s
. a

c urv e d l i n e wh i l e t h e d e v e l op m e n t of a tru e h e l i x i s a s t r ai h t l in e
g .

A h e l i x of i n c re s i n g pi tc h i s s h o w n i n F i g 7 01 I n t hi s e xam pl e
a . .

t h e d e s c ri b i n g p oi n t i s s upp os e d t o m o v e a l on g t h e c yl i n d e r w i t h

FIG . 7 01 .

u n i fo r m l ra ti on wh i l e i t s an g ul a r ve l oci ty a b o u t t he a x i s o f t he
a cc e e

c yl i n d e r i s c on s tan t .

T h e d e ve l op m e n t of t h e c urv e i s t h e p a r ab ol a KP M h a v i n KN (
g ,

fo r i t s x i s an d K for i t s v e r te x
a I f a t an ge n t P Q be dra wn t o t h e
.

p r b ol a a t P th e n 0 t he i n c l i n ati on of P Q t o K L i s t h e p i tc h a ngl e
a a
,

o f t he h e l i x of i n c r eas in
g p i t c h a t t h e p oi n t wh os e e l e v ti on i s p a n d
’
a

t h e c o rr e s po n d i n g p i t ch i s NR ob t ai n e d by dra w i n MR p r ll l to
g a a e
P Q t o m e e t N K at R
S c r e w S u rf a c e s —
.

313 . A s c r e w s u r f c e i s g e n e r a t e d by a
a

s t r a i h t l i n e wh i c h s l i d e s w i th u n i fo r m v e l oc i ty a l on a fix e d s t rai h t
g g g
l i n e or x i s w i th wh i c h i t m ak e s a c on s tan t angl e a n d t t he s am e
a
, a

ti m e re volv e s b ou t th t ax i s w i t h uni form an gul a r v e l oci ty I t i s

a a .

obv i o u s th t a n a p i n t i n t h e ge n e ra ti n g l i n e d e s c ri b e s h e l i x
y o a .

F i g 7 02 s h o w s t h e p o r ti on of a s c r e w s urfa c e e n e r te d by a
.
g a
s t rai h t l i wh i h tar ts from t h e p os i t i on a o in pl n an d d i n ' ’
g n e c s a a

e l e v ti on
a n d m a k e s h lf a
a r e vo lu ti on b ou t a ve rti ca l ax i s T h e
a a .

g e n e r a ti n g li n e i s s h o wn in thi rt e e n po s i ti on s i n p la n n d e l e va ti on a .

T h e o u t e r e n d of t h e ge n e r a ti n g l i n e d e s c ri b e s t he h e l i x wh os e
e l e v t i on i s
a

T h e c urve b s c i s t h e e l e va t i on of t h e s e c ti o n of t he s c r e w s u r f c e
' ’ '
a

by t he v e r ti c a l pl an e wh os e h ori zon t al t ra ce i s LM a n d r e i s t he plan ,

o

o f t h e s e c t i o n o f t h e s c r e w s ur fa c e by t h e h ori z on ta l pl an e wh os e
v e rt i ca l trace i s P Q T h e c on s tru c ti o n s fo on e poi n t s s i n t he for m e r
. r
'

s e c t i on a n d o n e p o i n t r r i n t h e l a t te r r e s h own
'
a .

I t s h ould be ob s e rve d t h a t t he b o u n d a ry l i n e of t h e e l e va t i on o f
36 6 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

r e pr e se n t e d i n a con v e n t i on a l w ay on t e ch n i c l dra w i n gs T h e h e li ce s o f
,
a .

s u ch s c r e w s r e of s u c h s m ll p i t c h c om p a r e d w i t h th e i r d i a m e t e r th a t
a a

th e i r p r oj e c ti on s on a pl n e p ra ll e l t o t h e a xi s of t h e s cr e w a e app r ox i
a a r

m a t e ly s tr i ght l i n e s
a I t i s on ly w h e n t h e p i t c h n gl e of t h e h e l i x of
. a

a s c r e w i s c om p r t i v e ly l a r g e t h t t h e p r oj e c t i on o f t h e h e l i x i s dr a w n
a a a

c o rr e c tly . F o c on v e n t i on a l m e th od s o f r e p r e s e n ti n g s c r e w thr e d s t h e
r a

s tu d e n t i s r e fe rr e d t o a n y te x t b o o k o n m c h i n e dr w i n g
-
a a .

F i g 7 04 s h o w s a t (a ) a pr oj e c ti on of a r i g ht h an d e d V t h r e a d e d
.
- -

s c r e w on a p l an e p r a ll e l t o i t s a x i s
a T h e s e c t i o n o f t h e t hr e a d b y
. a

pl n e c on t ai n i n g t h e a x i s i s a n e qu il at e r a l tr i an gl e T h e t 0p a n d
a .

b ot tom e dge s of t h e thr e a d a r e h e l i ce s of t h e s am e pi tch on t w o co

FIG . 7 04 . F IG . 7 05 .

a x ial cyl i n d e rs Alth ou gh t h e ou te r e dge of t h i s thr e a d i s qu i te s h ar p

.

i t w i ll b e ob s e rv e d t h a t i n t he pr oj e c t i on ( a )i t h s a t t h e r i gh t a n d
a

l e ft of t h e fi g ur e t h e a p pe ar n ce of b e i n g r ou n d e d T h e b ou n d ry l i n e
a . a s

c onn e c t i n h pr j t ut r i r h l
g t e o e c i o n s o f t h e o e a n d n n e e i c e s a t ( ) e
a a r

t an g e n ti al t o th e s e p r oj e c ti on s an d th e y ar e p rac ti c lly s t r i g ht l i n e sa a .

A s e ct i on of t h e n u t for th i s s c r e w by a pl an e con t ai n i n g i t s ax is i s
s h o w n at
( )
b .

Fi g 7 05 s h o w s a t (c)a pr oj ec t i on of a r i gh t h an d e d s qu ar e t hr e d e d
.
- -
a

s c r e w on a p l an e p a r ll e l t o i t s a x i s
a T he s e c t i o n of t h e thre d by a pl n e
. a a

c on ta i n i n t h e x i i s qu r e T h e t o n d b t t o m e d e o f t h e thr e ad
g a s s a a .
p a o g s

for m fo ur h e l i c e s of t h e sa m e p i t ch t wo on on e c yl i n d e r an d t wo on
,
 HEL I C E S AN D S C REW S 36 7

an o th e r t h e cyl i n d e r b e i n g c o a x i al A s e c ti on of t he n u t for t h i s
,
s -
.

s c r e w by a pl a n e c on t i n i n g i t s
a x i s i s s h ow n at (d)
a .

A s cr e w thr e d of r e ct n gul r s e c t i on i s h own i n F i g 7 06 I n

a a a s . .

th i s c as e t h e t hre a d i s th i n c om p a r e d w i th i t s d e p th an d pi t c h .

A qu adrup l e thr e d e d s c r e w o r w orm i s s h ow n i n F i g 7 07 A t t h e

-
a . .

t O p l e ft h n d c or n e r of t h e fi g ure i s s h ow n t h e fo r m o f t h e s e c t i on of
-
a

t h e t hr e a d s by a pl n e c on t i n i ng t h e a x i s of t h e s c r e w
a a .

FIG . 7 06 . F IG . 7 07 .

315 . P i t ch an d L e a d o f a M u l t i p l e t h r e ad e d S c re w
-
I t is —
u s u a l t o t a k e t he p i tc h of on e o f t h e t hr ea d s of a m ul t i pl e t hr ea d e d -

s cr e w a s t h e p i t c h of t h e s c r e w, an d t he d i s tan ce be t w e e n t he c e n tr e s
of t wo a dj a c e n t t hr e a d s e a s ur e d p a r a ll e l t o t h e a x i s of t he s c r e w
( m ) i s

th e n c all e d t h e d i vi d e d p i t c h of t h e s c r e w , as alr ea dy s ta t e d for

“ ”

h e li ce s ( Art 31 1 , p
. . I n Am e ri c a h o w e v e r i t i s a c om m on
practi c e t o c all t h e p i t c h of on e o f t he thr e ad s of a m ult i pl e thre a d ed -

s c re w t he
“
l e a d of t h e s c re w an d r e s e rve t he te r m pi t ch t o wh a t“ ”

has be e n c a ll e d t h e d i vi d e d p i tc h T h e l e ad of a s c r e wi s of c o ur s e
“ ”
.

t he a x i a l d is t an c e t hr ou g h w hi c h t h e n u t m ov e s for on e r e v olut i on of
t he s c re w
—
.

3 16 H e li c al S p ri n gs
. . Wh i l e a s c r e w h as a s c r e w thr e ad i n on e
pi e ce w i t h a cy li n d e r from wh i c h i t p r oj e cts , a he li ca l sp r i ng i s a s c re w
thre a d w i th ou t t h e a tt a c h ed cyl i n d e r I t th e re fo re fo ll o ws th a t i n t h e
.

c as e o f t h e s p ri n t h e b n f t h yl i n d r w i ll e xp os e t o v i e w a
g a s e c e o e c e

r e a te r p a rt of t h e t hr e a d t h a n i s s ee n on a s c r e w
g .

F i g 7 08 s h o w s a h e l i c a l s pri n g of wh i c h t h e s e c t i on by a pl an e
.

c on t a i n i n t h e x i o f t h e pri n g i s a s qu ar e
g a s s .

A h e l i c al s p ri n g m ad e of rou n d w i r e i s r e pr e s e n te d i n Fi g 7 09 . .

T h e c e n tr e l i n e of t h e w i r e fo rm s a h e l i x an d t h e b ou n d a ry l i n e s of t h e
proj e c ti on s of t he S p ri n g ar e ob tain e d by c ons i d e ri n g t he Spri ng as t h e
36 8 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

en v e l ope of a s ph e r e wh os e d i am e t e r i s e qu a l t o th at of t h e w i r e an d
wh i c h m o v e s w i th i t s c e n t re on t h e h e l i x O n t h e h l f p l n of t h e
. a a

s pr i n g i s s h o w n a s e c t i o n by h or i z on t l p l n e wh o e v e r t i a l t r c e i s
a a a s c a

LN T he ou tl i n e o f t h e s e c ti on i s t n ge n t i l t o t h e h or i z on tal s e c t i on s
. a a

o f t h e m ov i n g s ph e r e by t h e gi v e n p l n e of s e c t i on a A s e c t i on of t h e .

s pr i n g b y a pl a n e c on t i n i n g t h e a xi s i s n e a rly bu t n ot qu i te c i r c u l r
a a .

FIG . 7 08 . FIG . 7 09 .

3 17 . Ax i al an d N o rm al S e c t i on s S c r e w T r
of
h ad
e s — By
a n a x i l s e c t i on of a s c r e w t hr e a d i s m e n t a s e c t i on by a pl an e c on ta i n
a a

i n g t h e a x i s a n d by a n or m a l s ec ti on i s m e an t a s e c ti on by a p l an e at
ri g ht an g l e s t o t h e ce n t ral h e li x of t h e t hr e ad Wh e n t h e pi tch of a .

s c r e w t hr e a d i s s m a ll c om p a r e d w i t h i t s d i a met e r t h e r e i s l i tt l e d i ffe r

e n ce b e t w e e n a n a x i a l s e c t i on a n d a n or m a l s e c t i on bu t wh e n t he p i t c h ,

i s l a r ge t h e d i ffe r e n ce i s con s i d e r a bl e .

F i g 7 1 0 s h o ws a proj ec t i on of a p a r t of a s c r e w th r e a d or h e l i c a l
.

s pr i n g wh os e c e n t r a l h e l i x h s a l arg e pi tc h an gl e t h e p roj e c ti on
a ,

b e i n g on a p l an e p a ra ll e l t o t h e ax i s I t i s e v i d en t t h a t wh e r e t he
.

pr oj e cti on s of t he v r i ou s h e l i ces c u t t he proj e c t i on of t h e a x i s t h e s e

a

proj e c ti on s ar e s t r ai gh t an d a r e i n cl i n e d t o t h e pr oj e c tion of t h e ax i s
a t a n g l e s wh i c h ar e t h e c om p l e m e n t s of t he p i t c h a n l e s of t h e h e l i ce s
g .

Al s o a t t h e poi n ts con s i d e r e d t he h e l i ce s ar e p a rall e l t o t h e p l an e of

proj e c ti on .

S ti ll r e fe rr i n g t o F i g 7 1 0 t h e a x i a l s e c ti on of t h e t hr e a d i s t h e
.
,

s qu a r e S oa b i s t h e pr oj e c t i on of t h e c e n t r al h e l i x of t h e t hr e a d an d at
, ,

i s i t s t an g e n t a t o L oN at r i gh t a n g l e s t o ml i t h e e d ge V i e w of
.
,
s a

pl n e wh i c h i s p e r p e n d i c ul r t o t h e h e l i x at O T h e fi gur e E FH K i s
a a .

t h e t ru e fo rm of t h e n o r m a l s e c t i on a t LN T h e e d ge s EF an d K H
.

ar e n e a rly s t r a i g h t bu t r e a r c s of e ll i p s e s b e i n g p a rt s of a n o bl i qu e
a ,

s e c t i on o f t w o c yl i n dr i c l s ur fa c e s
a T he e dge s E K a n d F H a r e s e c t i on s
.

of s c r e w s ur fa c e s n d ar e v e ry a ppr o x i m te ly s t r a i gh t l i n e s
a a I t w i ll be .
37 0 P RA C T I C AL G E O M E T R Y

poi n t tt an d i n t he e x am ple c on s i d e r e d t h e tan ge n t s r e e qu lly i n c l i n e d

’
a a

t o t h e h or i z o n t l p l a n e a .

T h e c e n t r e l i n e of t h e wr e at h l i e o n t h e s urfa ce o f ve rt i c al s a

c i r c u l r c yl i n d e r n d t o t h e l e f t o f t h e e l e v a t i on U s s h ow n t h e
a ,
a
( ) i
d e v e l opm e n t of t he ve rt i c l s urfac e c on tai n i n g t h e ce n tr e l i n e of t h e
a

wr ea th a n d t h e t n ge n ts A Bl n d C D b e i n g t h e d e ve lop m e n t s of t he
a , l 1 a , 1
t n ge n t
a T h e d e v e l op m e n t of t h e ce n t r e l i n e o f t h e wr e th i s s h o w n
s . a

a s a s t r i gh t l i n e E C
a bu t i t w i ll b e s e e n th t A B n d C D e n ot
l l, a , ,
a , 1
a r

i n t h e s a m e s t r i gh t l i n e w i th B C
a T o pro du c e g r c e f ul c e n tr e l i n e
l l
. a a

e as i n
g c urv es s h o uld b e i n tr o du c e d b e tw e e n t h e c e n tr e l i n e of t h e
”

wr e ath a n d t he t n ge n ts T h e e e s i n g c urv e s m y b e e n t i r e ly on t h e
a . s a a

s ur f c e of t h e c yl i n d e r o r e n t i r e ly o u t s i d e of i t or th e y m a b e p a r t ly
a
y
o n t h e c yl i n d e r n d p r t ly on t s i de of i t
a a .

FIG . 712 .

T ak i n g t he s tr ai gh t li n e B C a s t h e d e ve l opm e n t of t h e ce n t r e l i ne
I 1

of t h e wr e a th t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h i s c e n t r e l i n e w i l l b e a h e l i x obt ai n e d

by t h e u s u al c on s tru cti on or by pr oj e c tors fr om t he pl an an d t he

d e ve l opm e n t a s s h ow n T he pl an e c on t ai ni n g t he t an ge n t s a b a h a n d
.
,
’ ’

n i m p o rt n t on e I f a b b e p r o du c e d t o m e e t X Y a t h a n d
’ ' ’
ed c d i s
’ ’
,
a a .

a p e rp e n d i cul ar h h b e dr a w n t o K Y t o m e e t a b pr odu c e d t h t he
’
a ,

h ori z on t l trace of t he tan ge n t a b a b on p l an e at t h e l e ve l of cc i s

a ,
' ’
a
’

d e te r m i n e d an d he i s t h e h o ri zon t l trac e of t h e p l n e of t h e t n ge n t s
, a a a

A n y l i n e i n t h e pl n e of t h e t a n ge n t s wh i c h i s
’ ’ ’ ’
a b a b a n d ed c d
, , . a

p r all e l t o he w i ll b e a h o ri zon ta l o r l e ve l l i n e of t h e p l a n e Wh e n t h e
a .

t n ge n ts r e e qu lly i nc l i n e d t o t h e h o ri zon t al i t i s e as y t o p ro v e th at
a a a

he s p a r ll e l t o t o n d th a t t o b i s e c t s t h e an gl e b c
i a a Th i s i s t ru e o .

wh ate v e r he t he m g n i t ud e of t he an gl e boc pr ovi d e d t h e t n ge n t s

a a

i n te r s e c t an d h a v e e qu a l i n c l i n a ti on s t o t h e h o ri z on t a l .
 HEL I C E S AN D S C REW S 37 1

An l v ti on of t h e t an ge n t s on a p lpn e pe rp e n d i c ul a r t o he o r to
e e a

w i ll s h ow t he t wo t n ge n t s i n on e s t r i gh t li n e s i n c e th i s e l e va ti on i s
a a

a n e dge v i e w of t h e pl n e c on t i n i n g th e m a S u ch n e l e v t i on i s
a . a a

s h o w n t o t h e r i gh t i n F i g 7 1 2 t h e p l n h v i n g b e e n r e dr a w n a n d
.
, a a

tur n e d rou n d for con v e n i e n c e s o th t ot i s p e r p e n d i c ul r t o X Y T h e a a .

pl an e of t he tan ge n t s w i ll i n t e r s e c t t h e cyl i n d e r o n t he s urfac e of ,

wh i c h t he ce n t re l i n e of t h e wr e ath i s s i tu a te d i n n e ll i p e wh s e ,
a s o

m aj o r a x i s i s m n n d w h os e se m i mi n or a x i s i s t he r d i u s of t h e
’ ’
a -
a

c yl i n d e r T h e t ru e fo r m of t h i s e ll i p s e i s s h o w n w i th t h e t an ge n t s o f
.

t h e wr e a t h i n th e i r p r o p e r p os i t i on s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e e ll i p s e T he .

s t ud e n t w h o h a s r e a c h e d th i s s t ag e w i ll n ot r e q ui r e t o b e t old h o w t o

c on s t ru c t t h e e lli p s e n d t he l in e s con n e c t e d w i t h i t s h o w n t o t h e r i h t
a
g
i n Fig 7 1 2 . T h e l in e A B E CD i s t h e c e n t r e l i n e o f wh t i s c ll e d t h e
. a a

a ce mou ld o f t he wr e a t h t he u s e of wh i c h w i ll b e e xpl ai n e d l t e r
f , a .

Li n e s o B an d o C dr wn from t h e c e n t re of t he e ll i p e t o t he po i n t s B
’ ’
a s

n d C wh e r e t h e t n g e n t s m e e t t h e e ll i p s e ar e c ll e d t h e p r i ng i n
a li n
a
g s a s e

of t he wr e t h T h e p l a n e c on t a i n i n g t h e t n ge n ts w i ll n ot c o n t i n t h e
a . a a

t ru e ce n t re l i n e of t he wre a th but i n m os t ca s e s t h e t ru e c e n t re li n e of
t h e wr e a t h w i ll li e v e ry n e a r t o t h i s pl n e I n t h e c as e s h o w n i n F i g a . .

7 1 2 t h e tru e c e n t r e l i n e of t h e wr e a t h l i e s p a r t ly o n on e s i d e o f t h e
p l ne of t h e tan ge n ts an d p a r tly o n t h e o th e r c ros s i n g i t at t h e poi n t
a

I n t h e r i gh t h a n d p a r t o f F i g 7 1 2 t h e e l e vat i on o f t he t ru e c e n t r e
'
c c . .

l i n e of t he wre th i s n ot h o w n a s .

T h e c as e wh e r e t he t a ng e n t s ar e i n v e r t i c al pl an e s t r i gh t an gl e s a

t o on e an o t h e r n d o n e o f t h e a

tan ge n ts ed c d i s h or i z on ta l i s
,
’ ’

i l lu s t r te d i n F i g 7 13
a T he . .

s tud e n t s h ould h v e n o di ffi a

c ul ty i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h i s c as e

afte r h a v i n g m as te r e d t h e m or e

e n e ra l c as e wh i ch h ju st
g s a

b ee n con s i d e r e d I t w i ll b e .

n o t i c e d t h a t t h e pl n e o f t h e a

t n gen ts h s dct f or i t s h or i
a a

z on t l t r c e a n d t h e e l e v a t i o n
a a

U e v a t i on o n a p l n e
( ) i s n eal a

p e rp e n d i c ul r t o t h e pl n e of
a a

t he t n ge n t s
a AB C D t h e
c e n t r e l i n e o f t h e f c e m o uld i s a

m d e up o f t h e t w o t n g e n t s
a a

AB an d C D n d B C t he qu a r te r a

of n e l l ip s e
a B C t h e d e v e l op
.
I 1

m e n t of t h e c e n t r e l i n e o f t h e
wr e ath h as b e e n dr w n w i th a

an e s i n a
g c urv e j o i nin
g i t t o
FIG 7 1 3
C D t h e d e v e l op m e n t of t h e
, 1

h or i zon t l t n ge n t t hi s e as i n g c urve b e i n g e n t i r e ly on t h e de v e l op
a a ,

m e n t of t h e s ur f c e of t h e c y li n d e r on wh i h t h e c e n t r a l l i n e o f t h e
a c

wre th i s s i t u a te d
a .
 37 2 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY
I f t he ce n t re l i n e of uld d e t e rm i n e d as e xpl ai n e d f
t h e fa c e m o , or

Fi gs 7 1 2 an d 7 1 3 b e t a k
.
, t ru e c e n t re l i n e o f t h e wre a th t h e
e n a s t he
,

s t ud e n t s h o uld h a v e n o d ul ty dr a w i n g t he d e v e l op m e n t an d an y
i ffi c in
r e qu i r e d proj e c ti on s of i t T h e c on s t ru c ti on of th i s n e w c e n t r e l in e i
. s

s h own i n Fi
g 7 1 4 f o r t
. h e c as e i llu s t r a t e d i n F i g 7 1 2 T h e pl a n a n d . .

t h e p o s i t i on s o f t h e t an ge n t s a b a b n d ed c d ar e s u p p os e d t o b e gi ve n
’ ’ ’ ’
, a ,

a s b e fo r e T h e pl an e o f t h e t an g e n ts a n d t h e e d ge vi e w o f t h i s pl n e
. a

s h o w n t o t h e ri g h t i n F ig 7 1 4 ar e d e te rm i n e d e xac tly s i n F i g 7 1 2
. a . .

F r m t h e e d ge v i e w of t he p l n e of t h e t an ge n ts n d t h e p l an b e n
o a a

i t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t A B C D i s p r oj e c t e d s s h o w n T h e e le v t i on
, I I 1 a . a

i s pr oj e c t e d fr om t h e p l n an d t h e d e v e l op m e n t or f r o m t h e pl an
a ,

t h e e d ge i e w s s h o w n V a .

I n m aki n g wr e at h i t i s fir t fo rm e d of re c tan gul a r or app r ox i

a s

m at e ly r e c ta n g ul a r c r o s s s e c t i on n d i n t h i s fo r m i t i s c a ll e d a
-

,
a
q ua r e d s

w e ath
r .T h e s qu a r e d wr e at h i s m o uld e d t o t h e r e qu i r e d c r o s s s e c t i on -

by h an d w i th s u i t abl e to ol s T h e g e om e t ry of t h e h an dr ai l i s m i n ly
. a

t h e ge om e t ry of t h e s qu ar e d wr e a th an d t h e c o rr e c t n es s of t he fo r m o f ,

t h e fi n i s h e d wr e a t h v e ry l a r g e ly d e p e n d s on t h e s k ill n d c a r e w i th a

wh i ch t h e s qu ar e d wr e a th i s c on s t ru c te d .

T h e s qu ar e d wr e a t h r e s e m bl e s t o s om e e x t e n t t h e t hre ad of a
s qu a r e t hr e a d e d s c r e w of l a r g e p i t c h
-
I n on e s y s te m of con s t ru c ti n g .

s qu a re d wr e a t h s t h e s ur fa ce s of t h e wr ea th a r e d e s c ri b e d by t h e s i d e s

of a r e c tan gl e wh i c h m ov e s w i th i t s ce ntr e on t h e c en tr e l i n e of t he
wr e at h t h e pl n e of t h e re ct n g le i n t e rs ec ti ng t h e c e n t r e l i ne t ri ght
,
a a a

an gl e s n d t w o s i d e s of t h e r e c t n g l e
, a e h o r i z on t a l T h e h o r i z on t al
a ar .

s i d e s o f t h e m o v i n g r e c t a n g l e s w e e p o u t t he upp e r a n d l o w e r s ur f ce s a
 4 P RA C T I CAL G E O ME TRY

s h o wn U p on t h e s e ce n t re l i n e s t h e fall i n g m ould s r e c on s t ru c t e d of
. a

u n ifo rm w i d th T h e e l e v a t i on (U ) m ay n ow b e pr oj e c t e d from t h e
.

pla n n d t h e fal li n g m o uld s s s h ow n

a a .

F i g 7 1 6 s h o w s a n e l e va t i on of t h e wr e t h o n a pl an e pe rp e n d i c ul a r
. a

t o t he pl an e of i t s c e n tr a l ta n g e n t s a n d f r om th i s t h e fa c e m o uld i s
s h o wn pr oj e c t e d T h e f ace mou ld i s t h e s e c t i on o f t h e wr e a th by t h e
.

pl an e c on t i n i n g t he c e n tra l t n g e n ts T he d e te rm i n ati on of t he c e n tre

a a .

l i n e of t h e f ce m ould h s a lr e a dy b e e n c on s i d e r e d i n c onn e ct i on wi th
a a

Fi gs 7 1 2 a n d 7 1 3 T h e i nn e r a n d o u te r c urv e s of t h e fac e m ould a r e

. .

t h e e ll i pt i c s e c t i o n s of t h e i n n e r a n d o u t e r c yl i n dr i c al s u r fa ce s of t h e
wr eat h by t h e pl an e c on t a i ni n g t he c e n t ra l t an ge n ts .

f Planlt
o

F IG . 7 16 .

I t i s n ot n e c e s s a ry t o dra w t h e e l e va ti on of t he wre a t h s h ow n i n
F i g 7 1 6 i n o rd e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e fa c e m ould
. H a vi n g fou n d t h e
.

c e n tr e li n e A B E C D , a s pr e v i o u s ly e xpl a i n e d , O E b e in g t h e s e m i m i n o r -

a n d O F t h e s e m i m aj o r a xi s o f t h e e ll i p s e of wh i c h t h e c urv e B E C i s a
-

p a r t , m ak e EH e qu a l t o h al f t h e h ori z on tal w i d th of t h e wr e a th .

J oi n E F a n d dra w H K p a r a ll e l t o E F T h e n O H i s t h e s e m i m i n o r .
-

a n d OK i s t h e s e m i m aj o r a x i s of t h e e ll i p s e of w h i c h t h e i n n e r c urv e d
-

p o r ti on of t h e fa ce m o uld i s a p a rt I n like m an n e r t h e s e m i m i n or
.
-

a n d s e m i m aj o r a x e s of t h e e ll i p s e of w h i c h t h e o ut e r c urv e d po rt i on o f
-

t h e fa c e m ould i s a p a r t m ay b e d e te r m i n e d , a n d t h e e ll i p t i c a r c s m ay
th e n b e dra w n by t he tram m e l m e t hod T h e e n d s of t h e fa ce m o uld .

a r e p e rp e nd i c ul a r t o t h e t a n e n t s AB a n d C D , a n d t h e o th e r s tr a i h t
g g
 HELI C E S AN D S C REW S 37 5

edg es a r e t ange n t s t o t h e e ll i p s e s nd a r e l s o p a r ll e l t o t h e c e n tr l a a a a

t n ge n ts r e s p e c t i ve ly s h o w n
a ,
a s .

O n t h e e l e v ti o n o f t he wr e th i n F i g 7 1 6 i s s h o w n t h e t h i c k n e s s
a a .

of t h e pl a n k f r om wh i c h t h e wr e th m a b e c t a
y u .

T he wr ea th i s c u t f r om t h e p l a n e i th e r by t h e be ve l c u t s how n t a

r by t h e qu r h w l tt r
( )
m F i g 7 1 6 o . e cu t
, s o n t ( ) g
n F i 7 1 6 T h e se a a . . a

i s c on s i d e r e d t o b e t h e b e s t a s i t i n v o lv e s l e ss la b our a n d r e qu i r e s l e s s
m te ri l
a a .

T h e a n g l e m rk e d at a t (m ) a n d ( n ) i n Fi g 7 1 6 i s c a ll e d t h e
a .

“
b e ve l for th a t e n d of t he wr e th a n d th is n g l e m u s t be d e te r m i n e d a a

for e c h e n d of t h e wr e a th b e for e t h e s h n k s c a n b e form e d a n d t he

a a
“
twi s t gi v e n t o t h e wr e ath T he an gl e ct i s s i m ply t h e an gl e
”
.

be tw ee n t h e v e r ti c al face s of s h an k n d t h e pl a n e of t he c e n t r l a a a

t a n g e n t s a n d i t m ay b e c o n
,

v en ie n t l
y f o u n d as fo ll o w s R e .

fe rr i ng t o F i g 7 1 7 a t a t n d t d
’ ’
.
, ,
a ,

i n te rs e c ti n g
' ’ '
td ,
t tt ar e t he a ,

ce n tr a l t an g e n t s of t h e wr e t h a h a ,

b e i n g t h e g r o u n d l i n e for th es e
p roj e ct i ons kd i s t h e h or i zon t l . a

t ra c e n d ka i s t h e v e rt i c a l t r a c e
' ’
a

of t h e pl a n e o f th e s e t a n ge n t s .

By t h e u u l c on s tru c ti on ( Ar t s a .

1 64 p 200) ct i s t h e an gl e b e
,
.
,

t w e e n t h e pl n e of t he t n ge n t s a a

a n d t h e v e r t i c l pl a n e c on t i ni n a
g a
,

t h e t n gen t a t a t T k in g t d ’ ’
a , . a

a s a
g r o u n d l i n e t d i s a s e c on d
’
l

e l e v a t i on of t h e t a n g e n t t d t d
’ '

an d i t i s a l s o t h e n e w v e rt i ca l
t ra ce of t he pl n e of t h e tan ge n t s a .

T h e a n gl e c wh i c h i s t h e a n gl e , F m 7 17 , ,

be t w e e n t h e pl an e of t h e t n ge n t s a

a n d t h e v e rt i c l pl a n e c on t i n i n t an e n t t d t d c a n n o w b e fo u n d
’ ’
g t h
a e g a , ,

as s hown I f t h e g i v e n t a n g e n t s a r e e qu a lly i n c l i n e d t o t he h or i z on t l
. a

i t i s e v i d e n t th a t I i s e qu l t o ¢ ( ), a D
.

I n F i g s 7 1 5 a n d 7 1 6 t h e c e n tr a l i n n e r an d o u t e r fa lli n g m ould s
.
, ,

a r e a ll o f t h e s m e w i d t h m e as ur e d t r i g ht an g l e s t o th e i r c e n tr e
a ,
a

li n e s an d t he r e s ul t i n g wr e th h s e ve ry wh e r e an approxi m te ly
,
a a a

re cta n gul a r c ros s s e c ti on t h e c r os s s e c ti on b e in g ta k e n at ri ght an gl e s

-

,
-

t o t h e c e n tr e l i n e of t h e wr e a th I n n ot h e r s y s te m of con s t ru c t i on . a ,

s e c t i on s of t h e wr e a t h by p l a n e s c on t ai n i n t he a x i s of t h e c y li n d e r
g
a r e r e c t a n l e s a n d t h e s i d e s of t h e s e r e c t n gl e s wh i c h li e o n t h e up p e r a
g ,

n d l o we r s ur fa c e s of t h e wr e a th a r e h or i zo n t a l ; t h e f ll i n
a
g m o uld s a

a r e th e n o f d iffe r e n t w i dth s a s w i ll b e s e e n fr om F i g s 7 1 8 nd 7 19 Fi g . a . .

7 1 8 s h o w s t h e f ll i n g m o u ld s on t h i s s e con d y s t e m fo t h e wr e th
a ,
s ,
r a

i llu s t r a t e d by F i g 7 1 5 a n d Fi g 7 1 9 s h o w s t h e f ll i n g m ould s on thi s

.
, . a ,

s e c on d s y s t e m for t h e c as e wh e r e t h e l o w e r c e n t r l t an g e n t i s h o r i
,
a

z on t al T h e c e n t r a l f ll i n g m ould i s c ons t r uc t e d i n e a c h c as e a s
. a
37 6 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME TRY

b e fore n d from th i s t he o u t e r n d
a a i nn e r f ll i n g m oulds a r e proj e c te d
a

as s how n I t w i ll b e s e e n th t
. a a t c o rr e s p o n d i n g v e rt i c l l i n e s t h e
a

w i d t h s o f t h e mou ld me as ur ed ve s, r t i ca lly ,e t he s m e
ar H v i n g c on
a . a

FIG . 7 18 .

FIG . 719 .

s tru ct e d
t h e fa ll i n g m o uld s, a n y r e qu i re d proj e c i on s of t he wre a th t
m a y b e dr a w n a s b e fo r e t
Bu i t w i ll e as i ly b e s e e n th at on ly t h e
.

t
c e n r a l fa ll i n g m o uld n e e d b e dr a w n fo r t h e pu r pos e of ob ai n i n
g t h e t
t
pr oj e c i on s of t h e wr e a h t
—
.

r
3 1 9 S c e w P o p e ll e r s
. r
T h e g e om e ry of a s c r e w pr op e ll e r t
t t
bl a d e a n d t h e cons ru c i on of t he w ork in g dra w i n gs of i t w i ll be m ore
t
e a s i ly u n d e r s oo d a ft e r a br i e f r e fe r e n ce t o t h e u s u a l m e h od of
p re t
p a ri n g t h e m ould for a prop e ll e r i n t he fou n dry .

R e fe rri ng t o Fi g 7 20, A B C i s a t e m l e , wh i c h wh e n l ai d ou t flat

. p t
t
i s a r i gh te a n gle d r i a n g l e h a vi n g t h e r i g ht a n gl e a t B T h e t e m pl e . t
t t
A B C, h a v i ng AB v e r i c a l , form s p a r of a v e r i c a l c yl i n dri c a l s urfa ce t
o f wh i c h D t t
E i s t h e a x i s I f a s ra i g h l i n e , i n t e r s e c i n g t h e a x i s E
. t D
a n d m ak i n
g a c on s a n
g t t
a n l e w i th i t , m ov e s i n c on a c w i h t h e s lo i ng t t t p
e d e A C o f t h e t e m pl e
g A B C i t w i ll ge nte r a e a ru e s c r e w s u r face t t .

t t
A E a n d C D ar e t h e e x r e m e p os i i on s of t h e m o vi n g l i n e a n d hre e t
t t t
i n e r m e d i a e p os i i on s a r e a l s o s h o w n .

I n t h e fou n dry a r o u g h b e d of br i c kw ork a n d l oa m i s b u i l up , t h e t

u pp e r fac e o f t
h i s b e d r oug hly con for m i n g t o t he s c re w s urface r e qu i re d .

t
A v e r i c a l s p i n dl e i s fix e d s o th a t i t s a x i s c oi n ci d e s wi th E A D .

t t
s l e e v e a t ac h e d t o o n e e n d o f a h or i z o n a l a r m fi t s o n t h e s p in dl e a n d

t
ca n s l i d e o r r ot a e f r e e ly on i t T o t h e a r m i s a a c h e d a b oard , c a l e d
. tt l
37 8 P RACT I CAL G E O METRY

I t m ay h e r e be p oi n t e d o u t th t t h e h e l i ce s on t h e f ce of t he
a a

bl ad e r e appr ox i m at e l y e ll i p ti c ar c s e ac h b e i n g p o rt i on of pl an e
a a a

s e c t i o n o f t h e s ur f c e of a c yl i n d e r wh os e
a x i s i s t h e x i s of t h e s c r e w
a a ,

t h e i n c l i n t i on of t h e p l a n e b e i n g t h e s am e a s t h a t of t h e h e l i x
a T hi s .

i s m a d e u s e of i n o b t a i n i n g t h e proj e c t i on s of t h e bl d e fr om i t s a

a p pr ox i m at e d e v e l op m e n t i n t h e m n n e r t o b e s h ow n p res e n tly
”
a .

T h e s h ap e n d r e a of t h e d e v e l op e d f c e of t h e bl a d e a l so t h e
a a a ,

pi tc h of t h e s c r e w s urfa ce n d t h e g e n e r l d i m e n s i on s of t h e prop e ll e r
a a

a re s e t t l e d by t h e n a v a l a r c h i t e c t i n c on s ul ta t i on w i t h t h e m ri n e a

e n gi n e e r . I t w i ll n o w b e s h o w n h ow t h e dr a w i n gs of a pr op e ll e r m ay
b e m a d e t h e n e c e s s a ry p a rt i cu l r s b e i n g gi v e n
,
a .

T h e c s e wh e r e t he fac e of t h e bl d e i s a tru e s c r e w s u rfac e ge n e

a a

T RUE s cr ew, LEFT HAND -

PIT CH l 3 x DIAMETER
-

FIG . 7 21 .

r t e d by s t rai gh t li n e m ov i n g at r i ght a n gl e s t o t he x i s w i ll fir s t be
a a a

c on s i d e r e d R e fe rr i n g t o F i g 7 21 t h e d o tt e d c u rve A B C i s t h e gi v e n
. .
,

o utl i n e of t h e d e ve l op e d fa c e of t h e bl a d e dr a w n o n t h e e n d e l e v a t i o n
'

a bo ut t h e v e r t i c a l l i n e o z wh i c h b i s e c t s t h e d e ve l op e d s urfa c e i n t h e
' '

n e i hbo urh oo d of t h e b os s
g .

T ak e p oi n t e on o z an d w i th c e n t r e 0 an d r ad i u s o e d e s cr i b e
a
' ' ' '

h
t e r
a c e n d c u tt i n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l thr o u g h 0 t d M a k e o o e qu'
a l
a t o .
'

w h e r e P i s t h e p i t c h of t h e s c r e w s ur fa c e of t h e bl a d e J o i n 0d .
.

2 71

a n d pr o du c e i t T h e p ort i on o f thi s s t r ai g h t l i n e ad wh i c h fa ll s w i th i n
.

t h e p l n of t h e bl d e w i ll b e for all pr a c t i c l purp o s e s t h e pl a n of

a a ,
a ,

th a t p ar t of t h e h e l i x ly i ng on t he fac e of t h e bl d e a t t h e r a di u s o e a
' '
.
 HEL I C E S AN D S C REW S 37 9

Furth e r ad i s t h e h or i z on t l t r c e of ve rt i c l p l a n e wh i ch u ts
,
a a a a c

t h e s ur f c e o f t h e yl i n d e r of wh i h
a nd i p a rt e l e v ti on n d t h e
c c e
' ’
s a a ,
a

s e ti o n i
c n e ll i p s e s an of wh i h pr c ti c lly co i n c i d e s w i t h t h e
a ar c o c a
p a r

ti on of t he h e l i x j u s t r e fe rr e d t o O bv i ou ly ad i s t h e l e n g th of t h e . s

s e m i m j or xi n d c i s t h l e n g th of t he s e m i m i n o r xi s of t h i s ' '
-
a a s a c e -
a

e ll i p s e M k e o D e qu l t o d n d t k i ng D n d ’ ' ’ ’
. a s t he s em i
a 0 a a o a o e a

m j o r n d s e m i m i n or x
a a r e pe ti v e ly c on tru c t D N
-
p r t of t h e
a es s c s e
'
a a

e l l i p s e Th i s e lli p e c ut t he utl i n e of t h e d e ve l op m e n t of t h e f ce of
. s s o a

t h e bl d e t N a A h ori z on t l thro u gh N t o c t t he c i r c l e thr ou g h

a . a u e
'

t n d e t e rm i n e p oi n t on t h e e n d e l e v at i on of t he e d g e of t h e b l d e
’
a s a a ,

a nd v e rt i c l from n t o m e e t d d e te rm i n e t he pl n of th is p oi n t
a a
'
0 s a .

Th e e po i n t s n n d n m ay be m ore ac c ur t e ly fou n d s foll ow s F rom

s
'
a a a .

N dr op p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o m e e t t he h or i zon t l thr ou gh t n M k e
a a 0 a o. a

o n equ l t o on a D r a w t h e ve r ti ca l nn t o me e t t he h ori zon t l t hrou g h

o.
'
a

N at n '
.

I n s te d of dr wi n g t h e e l li p s e i t w i ll b e s u ffi c i e n t t o dr w N as
'
a a a e a

i rc ul r c s t ru c k fr om t h e c e n tr e o f c u i v t u e o f t h e e ll i p se
'
c a ar t ‘
a r a e .

T h e c o n s tru c t i on for fi n d i n g t h i s ce n t r e o f c urv tur e ha b ee n gi v e n a s

i n Ar t 51 p 48 nd is ,
h o wn t o t h e r i ght i n F i g 7 21 D F i s
.
,
a s . .

p rall e l t o
a nd F i s p r ll e l t o c D
o e
' '
a F p e rpe n d i c ul r t o
e
’
D a a
'
. s a c
'

mee ts e produ ce d t s A c i rc ul r a r c t ru c k from t h e c e n tr e 3 w i th

’
o
'
a . a s

a r d i u e w i ll prac t i lly c oi n c i d e w i t h as m u ch of t he e ll i p e l i e s
a s s
’
ca s as

wi t h i n t he d e v e l op me n t o f t h e f c e of t he bl d e a a .

O th e r p oi n ts on t he pl n n d e n d e l e va t i on of t h e e d ge of t h e a a

bl d e r e foun d i n t he s m e w y Fo r t h e s i d e e l e va t i on s h ow n t o
a a a a .

t h e l e ft i n F i g 7 21 m a k e m n e qu a l t o mn an d s im il rly fo r o th e r
' '
.
, l l a

poi n ts .

On t h e e l e v ti on t o t h e l e ft i n F i g 7 21 i s s h own t h e ma x i mu m
a .

thi ckne s s e cti on o f t h e bl d e s Th i s i s n ot a tru e pl an e s e ct i on of t he

a .

bl d e bu t i t s w i d th t ny d i s t n ce fr om t he a x is of t he s c re w i s t h e
a ,
a a a

m x i m u m th i c k n e s of t h e bl d e a t a rad i u s e qu l t o th a t d i t an c e
a s a a s .

T h e d e v e l o pe d s e c ti on of t h e bl d e t d i ffe r e n t r d ii r e s h o w n s a a a a

b e t w e e n t he t wo e l e v t i on s R e fe rri n g t o t h e e c on d s e c ti on fr om a . s

t h e x i s t h e s t r i ght b as e N H i s m d e e qu l i n l e n g th t o t h e e ll i p t i c
a , a I 1 a a

ar c N H e Th es e d e ve l ope d s e c ti on gi v e t he s i ze s n d h p e s of t he
'
. s a s a

th i c k n e s s p i e ce s u c h P LR Q ( F i g 7 20)r e fe rr e d t o i n d e c ri b i n g
s as . s

t h e m o uld i n g of p r op e ll e r Th e s e d e ve lope d e c ti ons e ge n e r ll y

a . s ar a

s up e r i m p o e d o n o n e of t h e e l e v t i o n s of t h e bl d e b u t i n Fi g 7 21
s a a ,
.

th e y h v e b e e n m ove d t o on e s i d e fo t he s ke of c l e arn e s s
a r a .

A e con d e x m pl e i s i llu s t r te d by F ig 7 22 wh i c h h ow s a d e t ch
s a a . s a

a bl e bl de w i t h fl n ge fo b ol ti n g t o bo s s k e y e d t o t h e h ft I n
a a a r a s a .

th i s e x m ple t h e bl d e i s se t ba k by i n cl i n i n g t he ge n e r ti n g l i n e of
a a c a

t h e c r e w urf c e t o t h e
s s x i s t n ngle l e s s th n
a ri gh t n gl e a a a a a a a .

T h i i s s h o w n on t h e e l e v t i on t o t h e l e ft i n F i g 7 22 by t h e t i l t i n g
s a .

ov e r o f t h e m ax i m u m t h i c k n e e c t i on P o i n t s o n t h ge n e r t i n g ss s . e a

li n e w i ll d e s c r i b e h e l i c e s j u s t s be for e bu t t h e v r i o u s h e l i c e w i ll be a a s

d i p l ce d i n n x i l d i r e c ti on e c h by d e fi n i te m o u n t d e pe n di n g on
s a a a a a a a

i t s d i ta n c fr m t h e x i s F o e x m p le t he h e li x t t he r ad i u s o e ‘ ’ '
s e o a . r a ,
a

wi ll b e d i pl ce d by t h e m ou n t d s a H en ce t he pl an of t h is h e l i x
a
'
l el
’
.
38 0 P RA C T I C AL G E O M E T RY

wi ll c u t t h e p l n f t h e x i s t s u c h th t i s e qu l t o d e
a o a a e a cc T he a 1 ] .

s l o p e 0 o f t h e h e l i x m y be o b t i n e d
a s be fo r e bu t i n F i g
a a 7 22 t h e .

t r i n gl e for fi n d i n g 0 i s s h ow n on t he e le v ati on i n s te d o f o n t he p l n
a a a .

n s t h e pl n of t h e h e l i x on t h e fa c e of t h e bl d e t ra d i u s o i s dr w n
’ '
e ,
a a a e a

t r i g h t n gl e s t o e T T h e pl n n d t h e t w o e l e v a t i on s of t h e e d ge
'
a a . a a

of t h e bl a d e r e o t h e rw i s e dr a w n a s b e fo r e t h e c on s t ru c t i on l i n e s b e i n g
a ,

c l e rly s h o w n
a .

I t w i ll be s ee n t h t for t he s m e d i m e te r o f s c r e w t h e t ru e l e n g th
a a a

|
RIGHT HANDED SCREW

PIT CH= .
°
38 X DIAMET ER

FIG . 7 22 .

of t he bla d e i s s l i gh tly i n c re as e d by gi vi n g i t s e t ba c k bu t th i s i s a ,

g e n e r a lly n e g l e c t e d i n pplyi ng t he d e v e l op e d fa ce of t he bl ad e t o t he
a

e l e v a t i on s s h ow n i n Fi
a 7 2 2
g . .

I n t h e e x m p l e s s o far c on i d e r e d ll t h e h e l i c e s on t h e fa c e of t h e
a s a

bl d e h ve ha d t he s am e p i tc h F r e qu e n tly h ow e ve r t he h e l i x a t t he
a a .

roo t h as a l e s s pi tc h th n t h e h e li x a t t h e t i p an d t he pi t c h i n c re as e s
a

u niform ly from t h e r oo t t o t he t i p T h e s cr e w i s th e n s i d t o h a ve
. a a

r a di a ll i cr e as i n i t ch F i 7 23 s h o w s c l e rly ho w t h e s l op e s of t he
y n gp .
g a
38 2 P RA C T I CA L G E O METRY

A v e ni en t c on tru c ti on fo r fi n d i n g a t t he s am e t i m e t he s l op e s
c on s

a n d t h e p os i t i on s of t h e pl a n s o f t he v r i o u s h e l i c e s on t h e f ce of t h e
a a

bl ad e i s c l e arly s h ow n i n F i g 7 24 n d n e e d s n o furth e r d e s c ri p ti on
. a .

S t i ll an ot h e r m od i fi c a t i on of t h e d e s i gn of t h e fa c e of t h e bl ad e of

|
R = Radats at Tip

FIG .

a sc er w pr op e ll e r h s t o b e m e n ti on ed T h e p a r t of t he f ce of t he
a .
a

bl d e to w a rd s t he l e a d i n g e d ge m ay h v e a l e s p i tc h th an t h e r e m i n
a a s a

i n g p a rt t o w a rd s t h e foll ow i n g e d g e T h e fa c e of t h e bl de i s t h e n
. a

s i d t o h a v e a n a x i a lly i ncr e a s i ng i t h T h e n e c e s a ry m odi fi c a t i on i n

a
p c . s

FIG . 7 26 .

t t
t h e c on s ru c i on of t h e pl an of t h e bl ad e i s s h ow n i n F
i gs 7 25 a n d
.

7 26 .I n F i g 7 25 t h e fa c e of t h e bl a d e h a s a n a x i ally i n c r e a s i n g p i c h
. t
l t t
but a r ad i a l y c on s an p i t c h an d n o s e t b a c k I n F i g 7 26 th e re i s
. .
‘

a n a x i a lly i n c r e a s i n
g p i t c h ,
a r a d i a lly i n c r e as i n g p i c h t
,
a n d a l s o a set

b ac k .
 HEL I C E S AN D S C REW S 38 3

E x e rc i s e s X X V

A ri ght h d d h lix f 2 i h pi t h d l ft h d d h lix f 1 i h

1 -
an e e o nc es c ,
an a e -
an e e o nc
pi t h tr d v rti l y li d r 2 i h i d i m t r D w t h l v ti
.

c ar e ac e on a e ca c n e nc es n a e e . ra e e e a on

o f t w tur o f t h fir t h l i x ns o d f ur tur f th e d Th l w r d f
s e an o ns o e s e c on . e o e en s o

t h t w h li
e t ob t pp i t
e c es xtr m i ti f d i m t r f t h y l i d r whi h
o e a o os e e e es o a a e e o e c n e c

i p rp d i l r t t h gr u d l i
s e en cu a o e o n ne .

2 T w h li . tr d o e th urf ces f v rti l y li d r 2 i h i

ar e ac e on e s a ce o a e ca c n e nc es n
di m t r
a T h h li
e e . t ri ght e gl t e th r t th i r i t
ces ar e ti a an es o on e an o e a e n er se c on

an d f th m wh i h i ri g ht h
on e o e dd h , pi t h f 4 i h c Sh w smu h -
an e ,
as a c o nc es . o as c

o f th tw h li
e i o t i d i 4 i h l gth f y l i d r Dr w t h
e ces as s c on a n e n nc es en o c n e . a e

e el v ti a f th t g t t th
on s o h li e t p i t wh i h
an en s 1 i h 2i h o e se e ce s a o n s c ar e nc ,
nc es ,

an d3i h b v t h l w r d f t h yli d r
nc es a o e e o e en o e c n e .

3 Sh w . tur f h lix f 3 i h pi t h
o on e v rti l y li d r 1 i h i
n o a e o nc es c on a e ca c n e nc n
di m t r
a Dr w t h l u f t h h ri z t l tr
e e . a f e m vi g t g t t t h
oc s o e o on a ac e o a o n an en o e
h lix d d t rm i t h tru f rm f v rti l ti
e ,
an e e ne f th urf d ri b d
e e o o a e ca sec on o e s ac e esc e
by t h m vi g t g t t h pl
e o n f ti t b t d i t
an en f 1 i
, h fr m t he an e o se c on o e a a s an c e o nc o e

a xi f t h y l i d r
s o e c n e .

4 A yli d r . i ch i d i m t r d 3 i h l g h thr h l i
n e nc es f n a e e an nc es on as ee e ce s o
3i h pi t h tr d i t u f
nc es c t qu l di t ac e p rt Dr w t h pl
on s s f r ac e a e a s an c e s a a . a e an o

yl i d r d h li wh t h xi f t h yl i d r i i n li d t 45 t t h
,

th e c n e an e ce s en e a s o e c n e s c ne a °
o e

h iz
or t l plon a an e .

5 W rk t h. x m pl o t h h l ix f i r i g pi t h i llu tr t d by F i g 7 01
e e a e on e e o n c e as n c s a e .
,

p 364 h vi g gi v
.
,
d i m t r f y l i d r 2 i h h i ght f y li d r 3 i h
a n en , -
a e e o c n e nc es , e o c n e nc es.

O t h d v l pm
n e t dr w t h urv w h
e e o rd i t
en q u l t t h pi t h t
a e c e os e o n a es ar e e a o e c a
e ac h p i t f t h h li x f i r i g pi t h
o n o e e o n c e as n c .

6 A tr i ght l i
. s i h a l g i t ri ght gl t fix d v rti l xi d
ne nc es on s a an es o a e e ca a s an
h as on e e n d th t xi T h i tr i ght l i d ri b
on a ar w urf s f 3 i
. h s s a ne esc es a sc e s ac e o nc es
pi t h Dr w t h l v ti
c . a f m pl t ture f th i
e e r w urf
a on h wi g o on e c o e e n o s sc e s ac e , s o n
on it th g r t i g li i p i ti wh pl
e en e a n t i t rv l
ne f nSh w os on s os e a n s ar e a
'

n e a s o o

l t h h l i d ri b d by p i t
a so e e ces th g r ti g l i whi h d ivi d i t i t
e sc e o n s on e e ne a n ne c e n o
th r qu l p rt i dd i ti t t h h li x d ri b d by t h ut r d
ee e a a s n a on o e e e sc e e o e en .

7 S m . t h pr a di g x r i x pt th t t h g r ti g l i i 2 4 i h
e as e ece n e e c se e ce a e en e a n ne s nc es
l g d i i l i d t 45 t t h x i
on an s nc ne a
°
o e a s .

8 R f r i g t th
. x m pl i llu tr t d by F i g 7 03 p 365 dr w t h l v ti n
e e r n o e e a e s a e .
, .
,
a e e e a o
f m pl t v luti f t h urf g r t d by t h qu dr t f i r l
h vi g gi v —r d i u f qu dr t 2 i h xi l dv
o on e c o e e c on o on o e s ac e ene a e e a an o a c c e,

a n en , a p
s o r v luti 3 i h a an nc es, a a a an ce er e o on nc es .
Sh w t h g
o r ti g e i p i ti wh pl
en e a n at i t rv l
ar e f Aln os on s os e a n s ar e n e a s o so,
in dd i t i
a t t h h lix d on ri b d by t h l w r d f t h g r ti ng
o e e hwesc e e o e en o e ene a ar e , s o
t h h lie d ri b d by thr i t rm di t p i t L tly dr w t h l v ti f
e ces esc e ee n e e a e o n s . as a e e e a on o
a s ec ti f t h urf by pl p r ll l t t h v rti l pl
on o e s ac e f pr j ti a d an e a a e o e e ca an e o o ec o n an
05 i h i fr t f t h xi
nc n on o e a s .

9 A .
q u i l t r l tr
n ei g l f 2 5 i ha e a i d m v w i th i d an v rt i l e o nc es s e o es on e s e on a e ca
a xi th t t h th r t w i d d i b r w urf
s so a e o e f 1 5i h pi t h D w
o s es e scr e sc e s ac e s o
-
nc es c . ra
th l v ti
e e e f th aurf on d i b d by f ur r v luti
o e s f t h tri gl
ac e s O es cr e o e o on s o e an e . n
t h l w r h lf f t h
e o e l v ti h w t h g
a o ti g l i i p i ti wh pl
e e e a on s o e e nera n nes n os on s os e an s
ar e t i t rv l
a f n e S h w t h h l i x wh i h i t h i t r
a s o ti f th tw o e e c s e n e s ec on o e o
sc erw uf s r ac e s .

10 S m .t h pr a d i g x r i x pt th t t h pi t h i 2 5 i h i t d
e as e ec e n e e c se e ce a e c s nc es ns ea
o f i h [ I thi
nc es .th tw rw uf n d t i t r t ]
s c as e e o sc e s r ac e s o no n e sec
1 1 Fu ll i z . xi l t i s f v i u e r w th d
a a h w i F i g 7 27
sec on s o ar o s sc e rea s ar e s o n n . .

In h t h d i m t r v r t h thr d i 3 i h t h r w
e ac e a e e o ll i ght
e e ea s s nc es, e sc e s ar e a r

h and d d i gl thr d d Dr w f
e an s n h pr j ti
e ea pl p ll l t e . a o r e ac a o ec o n on a an e ar a e o
th xi f t h r w h wi g m u h f t h r w f ll wi thi
e a s o e sc e ,
s o l gth f n as c o e sc e as a s n a en o

4 i h m ur d p ll l t t h xi S h w l f
nc es e as e h
ar a ti f t h e t o e a s. o a so o r e ac a se c on o e nu
by pl a t i i g t h xi H i ght f t i
an e c on a n n h 3 i h e a s . e o nu n e ac c as e nc es .

1 2 A ri ght h d d tr b l thr d d w rm 3 5 i
.
-
an h e xter l d i m t r d e e ea e o nc es e na a e e an
38 4 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY
h
4 i n c e s on g h as l thr d f t h
ea s o e d
for m an d i m e n s i o n s s o h wn by t h xi l ti e a a sec on

(d)F i g 7 27 . a . Dr w pr j ti
a o ec on of th w r
is o m on a an e pl p ll l t i t xi ar a e o s a s .

FIG . 7 27 .

. ll w p t ul r l t
1 3 T h e fo o i n g ar i c ar s e a e t o thr h l l pr — Ax l
ee e i ca s i n gs No 1 ia
t r t l h h wt l r d p r ll l
. .

s e c i on a e c an g e O 5 i n c x 0 1 25 i n c i h t h e on ge s i e s t o t he
°

a a e
axi s . xt l
E ern a t h th
di am e e r 2 i n c e s h. Ax l t
P i c 1 i nc r t No 2 i a s e c i on a e c
. . .

l
an g e h h w th
i n c x 01 25 i n c l i r d p rp d ul r
t h e o n ge s i e x e en i c a t o t he a i s
xt r l d tr h th h r l t rl
.

E e na i am e e 3 i n c e s . Pi c 1 inc .N o 3 N o m a s e c i on a c i c e 0 5
. .

inc hd tr
i am e e xt l d. E er n a tr h th
i am e e 3 5 i n c e s Pi c .

h
i nc e s .

14 A l dr
. cy i n e h d
3 i nc e s i ntr l
i am e e an d 4 i n c h e s on g
l th d d h l l r v
h as a e f an e
-
e i ca A t
g oo e c u t i n i t . s e c i on o f t h e

gr v o o e bpl
y a ar ht
n e a t l i g a n gx e s t o t l dr
h e a i s of t h e c y in e
i s 1 i nch wd hd p
i e an d 1 i n c d p r ll l
ee , t h e s i e s b ei n g a a e to
tt
an d t h e b o r ht
om at lig rd ll
an g e s t o t h e m i d a i a -
i n e of t h e
t
s e c i on D w pr t
. ra a l dr r v
oj e c i on o f t h e c y i n e an d g o o e o n

a pl p r l l
an e a a le x l dr dtr
t o t h e a i s o f t h e c y i n e an d e e m ine
the tru r x l r l t r v
e fo m s o f a i a an d n o m a s e c i on s o f t h e g o o e .

15 A p rt
. o i on o f a h tw t d ll inc hw is ri i s s o n i n F ig
l d r w th l
.

t
7 28 , c on s i s i n g of a c y i n e i w th
a c on i c a e n d, c u t i
pr l r v
t wo s i a g oo e s e ac h h pt h
of 1 2 i n c e s r
i c an d o f t h e fo m
dfi d
e ne v t l lvt
b y t h e gi e n s e c i on a e e a i on pl t . Com e e t h e
pl hw
an , s o i n g t h e c ur h
v e B B , an d t h el v e li c a
'

gr o o e s c or
pr j t d
r e c t ly o ec e d t h r l AA
for a i s an c e o f 6 i n c e s f om t h e i n e .

FIG 7 28 . .

16 A rl . ci c e 1 h d t r wh pl
5 i n c e s i n i am e e , os e an e
is v rt l v lv w th u
e i ca , r e o e s i ul r v l t
n i for m an g a e oc i y

ab out v t l x pl
a er i ca a i s i n i ts d an e , u lu
e s c r ib i n g an ann s
hr
o r an c o wh
ring du h hl
os e m e an r a i s i s 1 5i n c e s W ie.

r l r v lv p t ru r
t h e c i c e i s e o i n g a o i n P o n i t s c i c m fe en ce
v ru d
m o es o n t he ci c e r l w th u r v l t i n i fo m e oc i y T he.

p t t v l xt t
oi n ru d
P r a e s s i e en i m e s o n rl w l t h e ci c e hi e
r l r v lv thr t
t h e ci c e e o es ee ut v rt
i m e s ab o t he e i c al
x Dr w
a is . a pl the urv t d
an o f t h e c p t
e r ace b y t h e oi n
P . r ul t h w
T he es r du d l
is s o n to a e ce s c a e i n F i g 7 29 . .

t th t
No e urv
a t he c dl e i s en e ss .

. ht l d tr l
1 7 AB C i s a r i g an g e d
i an g e . T h e s i e s AC
an d B C wh h ic t r ht
c o n ai n t h e l ig h
an g e ar e 3 5 i n c e s
FIG
h r p tv l
an d 1 5 i n c e s es ec i e y tr l r v lv
. T he i an g e e o es
7 29 . .

w th u r
i ul r v l t
n i fo m a n g a ut wh h
e o c i y ab o AC i c is ver _
t l A p t
ica . oi n t rt A v l
P s a i n g at AB w th u r v l t
m o e s a on g i n i fo m e oc i y
38 6 P R AC T I C AL G E O METRY

v pl p rt
24 F i g 7 34 gi e s t h e an an d a of t h e e e a i o n o f a por i on of a h an ai lvt t dr l
t ul r r t rp d uld pl t lvt
. .

of r e c ang a c os s s e c i on (as p e ar e- fo r m o i n g) c o m e e t h e e e a i on of
t h e ra i l
S e t ou t t h e fac e m oul
“ ”
fo r i s ai a a so t he
“
d th r l Dr w l
fal i ng m o l . l ud
tr l v t l t
.

for t h e c e n a e r i c a s e c i on O O o f t h e ail DD r .

FIG . 7 33 . FIG . 7 34. FIG . 7 35

.

T he a bove F i gs . ar e to be r ep r odu ced dou ble s i z e .

t rr l
2 5 S ai
. ai
(F i g d T p rt
o b e
. m r pl
a e i n t w o a s ,
c u t f o m a n k s a n d c on
t p rp d ul r
n e c t e d at C by a j oi n e A pl
en ic a p rt l v t
t o FG an an d a .e e a i o n ar e
v
gi e n . pl t lvt tr l AB D
Com e e t h e e e a i on o f t h e c e n e i n e dr w d C E an d a a s e con
lvt th l
e e a i on o f i s i n e on X Y w pl’
lvt
S ho t he
’
. j t
an an d t wo e e a i on s o f t h e oi n at
C . Dr w a t he “
u ld
fa c e m o wr th for t h e ea vl
AB C, an d s e t o u t t h e “
be e s
”
for .

d
i ts en s .

lt
P o t he ll “
d
fa i n g m oul s tr l t ut r
for t h e c e n a s e c i o n an d t h e i n n e r an d o e
u wr th
s r fa c e s o f t h e ea pl t
AB C lvt wr th
Com e e t h e e e a i o n o f t h e
. ea AB C .

v fl x u th
26 I n F i g 7 36 ar e gi e n t h e an ge an d t h e m a i m m
. . t i c kn e s s s e c i on of
ld th l d d pr p ll r d tt d urv dvlpd
‘

on e b a e o f a ree b a e o e e ; t he
-
o e c e is t he e e o e face o f
l d
t he b a e . ld tru r ht h d d r w ur wh p t h
T h e fa ce o f t h e b a e i s a e ig an e sc e s fac e -
os e i c
u rt r t
i s on e a n d a q a e d tr pr l r D w fi ur d u l
i m e s t h e i am e e o f t h e ope l e ra t he g e o b e .

z
s i e an dth tru t pl
e n c on s c a lvt t th r w th t
an an d t wo e e a i on s o ge e i s e c i on s o f t h e “

ld hw
b a e as s o n i n F i g 7 21 , p 37 8 . . .

2 7 S am e as t he
. pr d xr pt th t ld
e c e i ng e e c i s e e x ce hv a t he b a e i s t o a e a s e t b ac k
wh h u d d tr
i c , m ea s r e at t h e t i p , i s 0 06 of t h e pr p ll r li am e e o f t h e o e e ; a so the
rw
sc e l t h d d t d r ht h d d
i s t o be e f an e -
i n s e a of i g an e -
.

fl x u th
2 8 T h e an g e a n d t h e m a i m m
. t ur
i c kn e s s s e c i on o f o n e o f t h e fo de
t h l ld r w pr p ll r
ac ab e b a e s o f a s c e hwo e e d tt d rv
ar e s o n i n F i g T h e o e cu e i s .

dvlpd l d
t h e e e o e fac e o f t h e b a e d tr pr p ll r
T h e i am e e of t h e
. o e e i s 1 9 ft 6 i n at .

r t
t h e t i p an d 5 ft 2 i n a t t h e oo
. pt h . t w rd l d d
T h e i c o f t h e fac e o a s t h e e a i n g e ge
.

r r r t p h
i n c e a s e s f om 1 9 ft at t h e oo t o 21 ft at t h e t i p , an d t h e
. . i tc o f t h e fac e
t w rd
o a ll w d
s t h e fo o i n
g e gre i n c r e as r
e s f om 1t9 f t a t t h e o o t t o 28 f e e .a t t h e t ip .
 HELI C E S AN D S C REW S 38 7

Dr w t h pl
a e an an d t wo l v ti
e e a on s o f thi ld l
b a e t o a s c a e of
s ht
on e inc o a foo t ,

and d t rm i e e ne the d v l p d ti
e e o e s ec on s ld l dri l urf
of t h e b a e by c y i n ca s ac e s of
l
al , ,
65, 7 ga n d 8
l
ft
. di i
ra .

FIG . 7 36 . FIG . 7 37 .
 CH AP TER XX V I
INT E RSECT I ON OF S URFACES

3 2 0 G e n e r al M e t h o d
.
—
T h e g e n e ra l m e t h od of fi n di n g t h e
i n te rs e c t i on of t wo s urfa ce s i s as fo ll o ws L e t A a n d B d e n o te t wo
.

i v e n s urf a ce s wh os e i n te r s e c t i on w i t h on e a n ot h e r i s r e qu i r e d Cu t
g .

t h e s urfa c e s A a n d B by a t h i rd s ur fa ce C, t h e l a tte r s ur fa c e b e i n g s o
c h os e n a n d e m pl oy e d t h a t t h e pr oj e c ti on s of i t s i n te r s e c t i on s w i th A

a n d B a r e l i n e s , s u c h as s t r a i gh t l i ne s o r c i r c l e s , wh i c h c an ea s i ly be

dra w n Le t A d e n o te t h e l i n e of i n t e rs e c ti on of C an d A , an d le t B
.
’ ’

d en ote t h e l in e of i n te rs e c ti on of C and B Le t t he l i n e s A a n d .
’

B m ee t at a poi n t P Th e n t he p oi n t P ly i n g on t he i n te rs e c ti on
’
.

of C a n d A , l i e s on A Al s o s i n c e t h e poi n t P l i e s on t he i n te rs e c t i on
.

of C a n d B , i t l i es on B T h e p oi n t P t h e re for e l i e s on A a n d B , a n d
.

t h e re for e i t m u s t be a poi n t on t he i n te rs e c ti on of A an d B By .

m ov i ng t h e s urfac e C i n to d i ffe r e n t p os i t i ons , or by c u tti n g A a n d B

by oth e r s ur face s s i m i l a r t o C, an y n u m b e r of poi n t s on t he i n t e r s e c ti on
of A a n d B m ay b e d e te r m i n e d .

On t h e i n te r s e c t i on of t wo s u rf ace s t h e r e a r e ge n e r ally c e r tai n

i m p or t an t p oi n t s wh i c h s h ould be fir s t d e te rm i n e d F or e x a mpl e i f
.

t h e pr oj e c t i on of t h e i n t e r s e c ti on m e e ts a bo u n d a ry l in e of t h e p r o
f n e of t h e s ur fa c e s , t he m ee t i n g po i n t wi ll b e a n i m po r t an t
j e c t i on o o

o n e t o d e t e r m i n e a n d i n t h e c as e of a cu rv e d s u rf ac e t h i s w i ll be a

tan ge n t p oin t .

I n m ov i n g t h e c u tti n g s u r fa c e i n on e d i rec ti on fr om a po s i t i on
wh i c h gi ve s poi n ts on t he re qu i re d i n te rs ec ti on t o pos i ti on wh i c h a

i v e s n o s u c h p oi n t s th e r e w i ll be n i n t e r m e d i t e p os i t i on wh i c h
a a
g ,

i v s t h e l as t of t h e p oi n t s ob t i n e d by m o vi n g t h e s urfa ce i n th t
g e a a

d i r e c ti on an d t h e s e p oi n t s r e u s u a lly i m p or t a n t
a .

As a ge n e r l rul e af te r t h e i m po rt n t po i n t s h a v e be e n d e te rm i n e
a a d
o n ly a fe w o th e r s a r e n e c es ry t o fix t h e r e qu i r e d l in e of i n te r s ec ti on
sa .

I t is g oo d
a p l n at o n u m b e r or l e tte r t h e c ut t i n g s u rf c e i n o rd e ra s ,

a n d t h e p oi n t d e te rm in e d by th e m e c h po in t h avi ng t he sa m e n um be r
s , a

l e tte r as t he c u t t i n g s u rfac e on wh i c h i t i s s i tu t e d
—
o r a .

r c
3 21 I n t e s e t i on o f T w o C y i n d
. l e r s T he g e n e r a l m e t h o d
of fi n d i n
g t h e i n te r s e c t i o n of t h e ur f ces of t wo c yl i n d e rs i s t o c u t t he
a s

sur fac e by pl n e s p r l le l t o th e i r xe or t o th e i r ge n e rati ng l i n e s

s a a a a s .

T h ese p lanes wi ll i n te r s e c t t h e s ur fac e of t h e c yl in d e rs i n s t rai ght

s
390 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY
T h e fo re goi n g e x am p l e m ay a l s o be w ork ed by u s in h r i z n t l
g o o a
c u tti n pl n es , an d t h e s t ud e n t w o uld do w e ll t o w o rk t h e pro bl e m i n
g a

t h i s w ay .

E X A M PLE 2 A ve r t i ca l tube , e x te rn a l d i am e te r 2 7 5 i n c h e s ,
.
-

i n te r n a l d ia m e te r i n c h e s , h a s a h or i z on t a l c yl i n dri c a l h o l e b or e d
throu g h i t 1 2 5 i n c h e s i n d i a m e te r T he a x i s of t he h o le i s 0 25 i n ch .

f rom t h e a xi s of t h e t ub e I t i s re qu i re d t o dra w a n e l e v a ti on on a
.

ve r ti ca l pl an e i n c l i n e d a t 35 t o t he a x i s of t he h o l e
°
.

Fi rs t d e te r m in e t he i n te rs e cti on of t he bo rin g cyl i n d e r w i th t he

o u t s i d e of t h e t ube e x a c t l T h e fa c t o f
y as i n t he
p r e c e d i n g e x a m pl e
. .

t he h o r i z o n ta l cyl in d e r be i n g i n c l i n e d t o
t h e v e r ti ca l pl a n e w i ll m a k e n o d i ffe re n c e
i n t h e w o rk i n g , a s t h e h e i gh ts of a ll t h e
l i ne s in wh i c h t he c u tti ng plan e s i n te r
s e c t t h e ho r i z on ta l c yl i n d e r w i ll r e m a i n

t h e s a m e wh a te v e r be i t s i n c l i n a t i on t o
t h e v e r t i c a l pl a n e .

Ne x t in l i k e m an n e r t h e i n te rs ec ti on
o f t h e bo r i n
g c yl i n d e r w i t h t h e i n t e r i o r
s ur fa ce of t h e t ube i s d e te rm i n e d I t w i ll .

b e fo u n d t h a t i n th i s e x a m pl e th i s
i n te r i o r i n te r s e c ti on con s i s t s of o n e l i n e
on ly .

t
T h e c u t i n g pl an e s wh i c h gi v e t he
t t
m os i m por a n t po in s on t he c u rv e s o f t
t t
i n e rs e c t i on i n h i s e x am l e a r e t h e s a m e p
t h os e i n e xam pl e 1 , w i th t he a dd i i on t
of t he pla n e wh i c h ou c h e s t h e i n n e r t
s u r fa c e of t h e u be t .

t t
T h e r e s ul of h i s e x am pl e i s s h o w n
t
i n Fi g 7 39, bu t he c ons r u c i on l i n e s
. t t
FIG 7 39;
h av e b e e n om i e d tt
.

Th i s e xam pl e , l i k e t h e pr e c ed i n g on e , m ay als o be w o rk e d by u s i n g
t t
h o ri zon a l c ut i n g l an e s p
—
.

E XA LE 3 (F i g
MP ' ’
a h a b i s t he
. axi s o f a c y l i n d e r wh ose

t t
h or i z on a l r a ce i s a c i r c l e 22 5 i n c h e s i n d i a m e e r cd c d i s t he a x i s
’ ’
t .

of a cyl i n d e r wh os e h o r i z on a l t t
ra c e i s an e ll i s e (m aj o r a xis 3 i n ch e s , p
m i n or a x is 2 i n ches ) ,
wh o s e m i n o r a x i s i s p a r a ll e l t o X Y I t i s r e qu i r e d .

t
t o s h o w, i n pl a n a n d e l e v a i on , t h e i n e r s e c i on of t h e s ur fa ces t t .

I n t h i s e x am pl e t h e pl a n e s wh i c h w i ll i n e r se c t h e s urfa c e s of o h t t b t
t
cyl i n d e r s i n s r a i ht l i n e s w i ll be i n c l i n e d t o b o h pl a n es of pr oj e c t i on
g t .
”

t
T o fi n d t h e d i r e c i on s of t h e r a ces of t h e c u i n g pl an e s a k e a t tt t
t
po i n p p i n a b a b Thr ou gh h i s poi n dra w p q p q a r alle l t o c’ d’ c d
’ ’ '
.
’ '
t t' ’
p .

T he l i n e a q wh i c h j oi n s t h e h o ri zon a l tr a c e s of a b a h a n d p q p q WI 11
’ ’
t
t
be t h e h ori z on a l tr a c e of a pl a n e wh i c h c on ai ns t h e a x i s of o n e t
c y l i n d e r a n d i s pa r a ll e l t o t he a x i s of t h e o h e r , a n d th i s l an e , a n d t p
t
pl an es p ar all e l t o i t w i ll , i f h ey c u t t h e cyl i n d e rs a t all, c u t he m I n t
s tr a i h
g lti n e s p a r a ll e l t o h e i r r e s pe c i v e a xe s t I n h i s t
a r i c ul a r . t p t
t
e x a m pl e t h e h or i z on a l tr a c e s o f h e s e pl a n e s a r e p a r a ll e l t o X Y t .
 I NTER S E C T I O N OF S UR F A C E S 39 1

S e v e n pl an e s w h os e h o ri zo n t a l t r ac es a r e s h o w n , a n d n u m b e r e d
from 1 t o 7 , w i ll de te r mi n e a ll t h e i m po r tan t p oi n ts , a n d n o ot h e r
pl an es n ee d be ta k e n .

FIG . 7 40
.

Con s i d e r plan e n u m be r 3 Th i s pl an e c u ts e ac h cyl i n de r i n t wo

.

s t r a i gh t l i n e s wh os e pl an s ar e p a r a ll e l t o t h e p l a n s of t h e a x e s of t h e
res pe c ti ve c y lin d e rs an d wh os e h ori z on ta l t ra ce s ar e at t h e po i n t s
,

wh e re t h e h o ri z on t l t race of t he pl an e c u t s t h e h ori z on ta l t r ace s of

a

t h e c yl i n d e rs.
-

T h e e l e va ti on s of th e s e li n e s w i ll be p a r a ll e l t o t h e
392 P R ACT I C AL G E O ME T RY

e el va ti on s of t he ax e s of th e r e s pe c ti ve cy l i n d e r s up on wh i h th e y li e c .

Th ese four l i n e s i n te rs ec t at four po i n t s in pl an and i n e le va t ion n d a

d e te rm i ne t he fo ur poi n ts on t he i n te rs e c ti on of t he cyl i n d e rs whi c h

h av e t he n u m b e r 3 a tt ch e d t o t h e m a .

I t w i ll b e ob s e rv e d t h a t pl a n e n u m b e r 1 t o u c h e s b o th cyl i n d e rs .

A s a lr e ady s ta t e d t h e h o r i z on ta l t r a c e s o f ll t h e n ec es s a ry c ut t i n g a

pl an e s ar e s h ow n bu t t h e re m ai n i n g con s t ru c ti on l i n e s ar e on ly s ho wn
,

for pl an e s l 3 a n d 6 for t he s a k e o f m a k i n g t h e fig ur e c l e re r
, , ,
a .

T h e po r t i on o f t h e c urv e wh i c h i s s e e n i n p l an a n d wh i c h m us t ,

th e r e fo re be pu t i n as a full l i n e i s fo u n d from t he i n te rs e c ti on o f th o e
,
s

l i ne s wh i c h li e on t h e u pp e r s urface of on e cyli n de r w i th those wh i c h

li e on t h e up p e r s urfac e of t h e oth e r t h a t i s fro m t h e i n te r se c t i on o f
, ,

t h e l i n e s wh os e h o ri z on ta l t r ac e s lie on t h e p a r t f y le of t he e ll i p s e w i t h
t h ose wh os e h ori zon ta l t ra ce s li e on t he pa r t lmn of t he c i rc l e T he .

r e m ai n d e r of t he c urv e i n plan wi ll be h i dd e n by o n e or o th e r or bo th
o f t h e c yli n de r s a n d w i ll t h e r e fo r e b e pu t i n a s a d ott e d l i n e
, .

I n l i k e m ann e r t he p a r t of t h e c urv e wh i c h i s s ec h i n t h e e l e va ti on
'

i s fou n d fr om t h e i n t e r s e c t i on of t h e l i n e s wh i c h li e on t h e fron t of on e
c yl i n d e r w i t h th os e wh i c h li e on t h e f r on t of t h e o t h e r t h a t i s fr om ,

t he i n t e r s e c t i on of t h e l i n e s wh os e h o r i z on ta l tr ac e s li e on t h e h lv es a

o f t h e h o r i z on t al t r a c e s o f t h e c yl i n d e r s wh i c h ar e furth es t fr o m X Y .

I n s te a d of u s in g t he h o ri z on ta l t ra c es of t he cyl i n d e r s an d t h e
h ori z on ta l t race s of t he c u tti n g pl an e s t he v e r ti ca l t r ace s m ay be ,

e m pl oy e d i f t h e v e r t i c a l t r ac e s of t h e cyl in d e rs c om e w i t h i n a c on
.

v e n i e n t d is ta n c e on t h e p p e r Wh e n on e cyl i n d e r h as a v e r ti cal tr ace

a .

but n o h ori zon ta l t r ce w i th i n a c on ve n i e n t d i s tan ce an d t he o th e r

a ,

h s a hor i z on t a l t ra c e bu t n o v e r t i cal t r c e w i th i n a con v e n i e n t

a a

d i s t n ce i t i s n e ce s s a ry t o u s e bot h t he h ori z on tal an d v e r t i c a l t rac es

a ,

o f t h e c u tti n pl n e s
g a .

3 2 2 I n t e rs e c t i o n o f C y li n d e r a n d Ge n e
. T he g e n e r l . a

m e t h od of fi n d i ng t h e i n te r s ec t i on o f a cyl i n d e r a n d c on e i s t o cu t t he
s ur f c e s by pl an e s p a r a ll e l t o t h e a x i s of t he c yl i n d e r an d p a s s in g
a

thr ou g h t he ve r te x of t he c on e Th e s e pl an es w i ll c u t t h e s u rface of
.

t h e cyl i n d e r i n s t r ai g h t l i n e s p ra ll e l t o i t s a x i s
a n d t h e s ur fa c e of t h e ,
a

c on e i n s t r a i g h t l i n e s p a s s i n g t hr o u g h i t s v e r t e x T h e i n te rs e c ti on of .

t h e l i n es on t h e c yl i n d e r w i t h t h e l i n e s o n t he c on e d e te rm i n e po i n ts
o n t h e i n t e r s e c t i on r e qu i r e d .

E X AM P LE 1 ( Fi g A r i gh t con e bas e 29 i n ch es d i am e te r ax i s
'

.
, ,

38 i n c h e s l on g h s i t s b a s e h o r iz on t a l
,
a A c yl i n d e r 2 i n ch e s i n .

d i a m e te r has i t s a x i s h o r i zon t a l an d 1 2 i n ch es abo ve t h e b as e nd 0 2 ,

a

i n c h fr om t h e a x i s o f t h e c on e I t i s r e qu i re d t o dr a w t h e pl an o f t h e
.

i n te r se c t i on of t h e su rf ac e s a n d a n e l e va ti on on a v e r ti c al pl a n e i h
c li n e d a t 30 t o t he ax i s o f t h e c yl i n d e r
°
.

T h e g e n e r a l m e th od wh i c h h as j u s t b ee n d e s c r i b e d c a n e as i ly b e
a ppl i e d t o t hi s e x a m pl e bu t i n t h i s c s e t h e c u tti n g pl n e s m y be
,
a a a

h or i zon ta l b e cau s e h ori z on tal s e c ti on s of t h e con e ar e c i r c l e s n d h o ri

,
a

z e n t l s e c t i on s o f t h e c yl i n d e r
a r e s t r igh t l i n e s aI n F i g 7 4 1 har t
a . .
,

z e n t a l cu tti n p l n e s h v e b ee n t ak e n
g a a .

D r a w n e l e va ti on of t he cyl i n d e r a n d c on e ona pl n e pe rpe n d i c ul a r

a a
394 P RA CT I C AL G E O M E TRY

l i n e s i n w hi c h t he pl n e p g c u ts t he con e ar e a l s o s h ow n a nd as
a l
’
l
'

th e se l i n e s a r e t an g e n t s t o t h e c urv e o f i n te r s e c t i on th e y ass i s t i n t he
c o rr e c t dr a w i n o f t h e c u rv e a t i m po r t a n t p oi n t s
g .

E XA MP LE 2 ( F i g . c c i s t h e v e r te x
'
n d c a c d t he a x is of a
a
’ ’

c on e wh os e v e r t i c a l a n l e i s bc b i s t h e a x i s o f a cyli n d e r 2 i n c h es
’ ’
g c

i n d i a m e te r . T he d i m e n s i on s wh i c h fix t h e po s i ti on s o f t h e a x e s o f
t h e c on e a n d cyl i n d er are
g ve n at t he t op r i gh t h an d c orn e r o f
i

FIG . 7 42 .

F i g 7 42
. . I t i s r e qu i r e d t o s h o w , i n pl an an d e l e v ati on , t he
s ec t i on of t h e s u r fa c e s of t h e c on e a n d c yl i n d e r .

Th i s e x am pl e i s w ork e d by u s in g c u ttin g pl an e s p as s m g thr ou gh

t he v e r te x of t h e con e a n d p a r a ll e l t o t h e a x i s o f t h e c yl i n d e r wh i c h ,
a s a lr ea dy s ta t ed , i s t h e n r l m t h d f fi n d i n t h i n te r s e c ti o n of
g e e a e o o g e

t h e s urface s of a c on e a n d cyl i n d e r .

T h e fir st s te p i s t o d e te rm i n e t h e h o ri zon ta l t r a c e s of t h e cyl i n d e r
a n d c on e by Ar t s . 21 9 a n d 226 r e s p e c ti ve ly T h e co n s t ru c ti on li ne s fo r
.

t hi s ar e omi tte d i n Fi g 7 42 . .

All pl an e s wh i c h a r e p a rall e l t o t he a x is of t he cyli n d e r an d p as s

 I N T ER S E CT IO N OF S URF A C E S 3 95

throu gh t he ve rtex of t h e c on e w i ll con t i n t h e l i n e vt v t dr a w n

“

a
' ’

thr ou gh cv p ar alle l t o bc b
’
H e n ce t he h or i z on t l t rac e s of all t h e
’
c
’
. a

c u tt i n g pl an e s w i ll p as s t hr ou g h t t h e h o r i z on t l t r c e of of c l
’ ’
,
a a .

Th e r e ar e e i gh t pl n e s r e qu i r e d t o d e te r m i n e ll t h e i m por tan t
a a

po in t s bu t on ly thr e e of th e s e p l an e s n u m b e r e d 1 4 an d 8 ar e s h ow n
, , , ,

i n Fi g 7 42 P l n e n u m be r 1 to u c h e s t h e cyl i n d e r a n d c ut s t h e con e
’

. . a ,

n d pl n e n u m b e r 8 t o u c h e s t h e c on e a n d c u t s t h e c yl i nd e r ; e a c h of
a a

these pl n e s w i l l th e r e fo re d e te r m i n e t w o poin ts on ly on t h e i n te r
a

s ec ti o n r e qu i r e d P l n e n u m b e r 4 c u ts b o t h s ur f ce s a n d w i ll
’

. a a
4
”

d e te r m i n e four poi n ts on t he i n te r s e c t i on r e qu i red T h e om i tte d .

pl an e s 2 3 5 6 an d 7 w i ll eac h d e te r m i n e four p oi n ts
—
, , , , .

3 23 I n t e r s e ct i on of T w o C o n e s
. T he ge n e ra l m e th od i n t h i s

F I G 7 43
. .

ca s e is t o u se c u tt i n g plan e s p as s i n g thr ou gh t h e v e r te x of eac h con e .

Th ese p lane s wi ll c u t t h e s ur fa c e of e ac h c on e i n s t r ai gh t l i n e s a n d ,
396 P RA C T I C AL G EO METRY

t h e y w i ll all c on tai n t h e lin e j oi ni ng t he ve r t i ce s of t he con es H e n ce .

t h e h or i z o n t l t r ce s of ll t h e c u tti ng pl an e s w i ll p as s thr ou gh t h e
a a a

h or i zon t l t r ce of t h e l i n e j oi n i n g t he v e rti c e s f t he c one s Als o t h e

a a o .
,

ve r ti cal t ra ce s of t h e c ut ti ng p l n e s w i ll p as s throu g h t he v e r ti c l a a

t r ac e of t he l i n e j oi n i n g t h e v e r ti c e s of t h e c on e s .

E XAMP LE (Fi g t h e v e rt e x of c on e wh ose h ori z on t l

~

’
ol ol i . s a a

t r ce i s c i rc l e 3 i n c h e s i n d i m e te r c v i s t he v e r te x of con e
a a a .
z z
’
a

w h os e v e r ti c l tr c e i s ac i r c l e 2 5 i n c h e s i n d i am e t e r
a a T he ot h e r .

d im e n i on s r e gi v e n on t h e fi gure I t i s r e qu i r e d t o s h o w i n pl n
s a .
,
a

a n d e l e v ti on t he i n te r s e c ti o n of t h e s urf ce s o f t h e t wo c o n e s
a , a .

Se ve n c u tti n g pl n e s p s i n g t hrou g h t h e v e r te x of ea c h on e
a as c

w i ll d e t e r m i ne ll t h e i m port n t poi n t s i n t h i s e x m pl e bu t i n F i g 7 43
a a a , .

on ly four of t h e se pl a n e s n u m b e r e d 1 2 3 nd 4
,
re h o w n B ot h , , , a , a s .

t r ce s of eac h c ut ti n g pl n e r e e m pl oy e d All t he h or i z on ta l t r ace s

a a a .

of t h e c u tti n pl n p s t hr o u h 71 a n d all t h e v e r ti c l t ra c e s pa ss
g e s a s g
a 2, a

t hr ou gh of .

Con s i d e r pl n e n u m b e r 1 a T hi s p lan e to u c h e s on e c on e an d c u ts
.
'

t he o t h e r T h e h or i on t l t r ac e of t h e pl n e i s dra w n fir s t an d i f t h e
. z a a ,

poin t wh e re th i s t r c e m e e ts t he grou n d l i n e com e s w i thi n t he p pe r

a a

t h e y e r t i c al t ra c e i s ob t i n e d by j oi n i n g v t o t h i s p oi n t I f h ow e v e r
’
a l .

t h e poi n t w h e r e t h e h o r i z on t al t r ce m ee t s t h e g r o u n d l i n e i s off a

t h e p ap e r t h e n t h e c on s t ru c t i on g i v e n i n Ar t 1 1 p 9 m y b e u s e d
, .
, .
,
a

fo r draw i n g t he v e r ti ca l t r ce T he i n te r se c ti on of t h e l i n e i n wh i c h
a . s

pl n e n u m be r 1 tou c h e s t he on e c on e w i th t he l in e s i n wh i c h i t cu ts
a

t h e s u r face of t he ot h e r con e d e te r m i n e t h e p oi n t n u m b e r e d 1 o n s

t h e i n te r s e c t i on r e qu i r e d I n l i k e m a n n e r t h e o t h e r p oi n ts
. e ar

d e te rmin e d .

3 24 I n t e r s e c t i o n s o f C y li n de rs an d C on e s e n v e lo p i n g
t h e s am e S p h e r e —
.

I f t w o cyl i n d e r s e n v e l op t h e s a m e s ph e r e t h e i r

FIG . 7 44 . FIG . 7 45 . FIG . 7 46

i n te rs e c t i on w i ll b e pl an e s ec t i o ns of bo t h a n d w i ll t h e r e for e he
e ll i p s e s F i g 7 4 4 s h o w s a pr oj e c t i on of t w o s u c h c yl i n d e r s on a pl a n e
. .

p a rall e l t o th e i r a x e s T he s tr a i ght l i n es a b an d cd form t he proj e c ti on

.

o f t h e i n t e r s e c ti on of t h e c yl i n d e r s .

T h e s a m e r e ma rk s a ppl y t o t he c on e a n d cyl i n d e r ( F i g
-

an d .

t o t wo c on e s ( F i g R e fe rri ng t o Fi g 7 45, i f t he v e r t e x o f t he
. .
.
'
 8 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME TRY

t h e c yl i n d e r s h ou ld b e dr a w n , a n d t h e c u i ng pl an e s be i n g ve r i c al tt t
a n d p a ra ll e l t o t h e a xi s of t h e c yl i n d e r th e y wi ll c u t t h e s ph e r e i n

c i r c l e s whi c h w i ll a pp e a r a s c i r c l e s i n t h e a ux i l i a ry e l e va i on t .

E X A P LE (Fi g
M T h e pl a n a n d e l e va t i on of a cyl i n d e r a n d
.

sph e r e a r e gi v e n , t h e di m e n s i ol s be i n g m a rk e d o n t h e fi g ur e I t is
d
.

r e qu i r e d t o s h ow , i n pl an a n d e l v at i on , t h e i n e r s e c i on of t h e s urface s t t
o f t h e c yl i n d e r a n d s ph e r e .

t t t
T h e m e h od u s e d h e r e i s h a of c u i ng t h e s urface s by h o ri z ont a l tt
pl an e s .

T he ppe r ri gh t h an d po r ti on of Fi g 7 47 i s a proj e cti on of t he

u .

c yl i n d e r a n d s ph e r e on a pl a n e p e rp e n d i c ul a r t o t he a x i s o f t h e c yli n d e r

a n d i t i s f r om th i s pr oj e c t i on t h a t t h e po si t i on s of t h e c u t t i n pl n es
g a

wh i c h gi ve t h e i mp or tan t p oi n ts o n t he r e qu i r e d i n te rs e ct i on a r e
d e t e rm i n e d .

3 2 6 I n t e rs e c t i o n o f C y l i n d e r a n d S u rfa c e o f R e v o l u t i o n
. .

I n all t h e probl e m s h i th e r t o c on s i d e r e d on t h e i n t e r s e c ti o n o f s urfac e s ,

t h e a u x i l ia ry c u tt i n g s u r fa ce s wh i c h h a v e be e n u s e d i n o rd e r t o fi n d ,

p oi n ts on t he re qu i r e d i n t e rs e c ti on h a ve bee n pl an e s T he on ly s i m pl e
, .

pl n e s e c ti on s of a s u rf ce of re volu ti on ar e i n g e n e ra l s e c ti ons at ri ght

a a , ,

a n g l es t o i t s a x i s wh i c h a r e a lway s c i r c l e s
,
N ow i t i s e vi d e n t t h at
.

on ly i n v e ry pa r t i c ul a r ca se s w ould a pl a n e wh i c h c ut s t h e s ur fa ce of

r e v olu ti on i n a c i r c l e c u t t h e s urface of t h e cyl i n d e r i n a c i r c l e or i n

s t r a i gh t l i n e s F o r i n s t an ce a pl an e wh i c h c u ts t h e s ur fa c e of r e v olu
.
,

ti on i n a ci r c l e m y cu t t h e cyl i n d e r i n an e ll i ps e a n d i t w ou ld c le arly
a ,

b e a l a bo r i ou s pr ocess t o co n s t ru c t a n e ll i p s e for e a c h c u tti n g pl an e .

Th i s o bj e ct i on m y h o w e ve r b e got o ve r i n t h e pr es e n t pr obl e m by u s i n g
a

a t r a c i n g o f t h e s e c t i o n of t h e c yl i n d e r by a pl a n e wh i c h c u t s t h e s ur f ce a

of r e v olu t i on i n a c i r c l e i n a m an n e r t o b e e xpl ai n e d a t t h e e n d of t h i s
,

a r t i c le.

I n s t e a d of c u tti n g t he gi v e n s urface s by pl an e s th e y m ay be c u t by
t h e s ur fa c e s of cyl i n d e r s an d p oi n t s o n t h e r e qu i re d i n te r s e c t i on ob t a i n e d
by m ean s of c i r c l e s an d s t ra i gh t l in e s Le t a c i r c l e whi c h i s s e c ti on
. a

of t h e s ur fac e of r e v olu t i on b e t a k e n a n d le t a s tr a i g ht l i n e m ov e i n

c on t ac t w i th t h i s c i r c l e a n d a l s o r e m a i n p a r a ll e l t o t h e a xi s of t h e gi v e n

c yl i n d e r . Th i s m ovi n g l in e w i ll d e s c ri b e t h e s urface of a c yl i n d e r wh i ch
i n te r s e c t s t h e s ur fa ce of re v olu t i on i n a c i r c l e a n d t h e s urf ace of t h e
i v e n c yl i n d e r i n s t r a i h t l i n e s a n d t h e p oi n t s i n wh i c h t h e s e s t r a i g h t
g g ,

l i n e s cu t t h e c ir cl e w i ll h e p oi n ts on t h e i n te r s e c ti on r e qu i re d .

I n o rd e r t h a t t h e pr oj e c ti on s of t h e c i r c ul a r s e c t i on s of t he s u r f c e a

of r e v olu ti on m ay b e c i r c l e s a n d s t r a i gh t l i n e s t h e a x i s of r e v o lu t i on

m u s t b e a rr an ge d pe rp e n d i c ul a r t o o n e of t h e pl an e s of pr oj e c t i on .

R e fe rrin g t o Fi g 7 48 mu m n i s t h e a xi s of a c yl i n d e r wh i c h
.
, ,
"

i n t e r s e c ts a s urfa c e of r e v olu t i on wh os e a x i s i s v e r ti c a l T h e c on .

s tr u c t i on for t he ou t l i n e of t h e e l e v a t i on of t h e s urfac e of r e volu t i on i s

s h e wn a t (c) .

T he e ll i p s e wh i c h i s t h e h ori z on t a l t r ac e of t h e c yl i n d e r i s d e t e r
m i n e d as e xpl ai n e d i n Ar t 21 9 p 253 .
,
. .

a b a b i s a c ir c ul a r s e c t i on of t h e s u r fac e of r e v o lu t i on oo be i n g t he
’ ’ ’
, ,

c e n t r e o f t hi s c i r c l e i s a l in e t hrou g h p a rall e l t o mn m
"
of o i .
, ,
 I NTER SE C T I O N O F S UR FA C ES 399

at , o
'’
t i s x i s of an au x i l i a ry cyl i n d e r of wh i c h t h e ci r c l e a b a b i s
t he a ,
' ’

o n e h o r i z on ta l s e c t i on a n d a ll h o ri z on t a l s ec t i on s of t h i s c yl i n d e r w i ll
,

b e c i r c l e s of t h e s a m e d i m e t e r t t be i n g t h e h o r i z on ta l t r a c e of t h e
'
a .

a x i s of t h i s ux i l i ry cyl i n d e r t h e h ori zon ta l tr ac e of i t s s urface w i ll be

a a

a c i r c l e wh os e c e n t r e i s t a n d r ad i u s e qu a l t o ou T h e h o ri z on t a l tr ace
.

FIG . 7 48 .

of thi s au x i l i a ry cyl i nd e r t t t
i n e r s e c t s t h e h o ri z on a l r ace of t he gi ve n
at s an d r . t t
T h e a uxi l i a ry c yl i n d e r i n e rs e c s t h e gi v e n
t
c yl i n d e r i n s r a i g h l t
i n e s 8p , s p a n d r q, r q wh i c h a r e
’ ’ ' ’
p
a r a ll e l t o ma ,

ma
’ ’
.
pp
’
an d
qq
'
t h t t
e i n e r se c i on of t he l i n e s 8 , s
p -
’

p
’
an d wi h t
400 P RAC T I CAL G E O METRY

r l ' '
t l tr t
t h e c i c e a b, a b a r e po i n s on t he i n e of i n e s e c i on of t he g i e n v
c yl d r r
i n e a n d s u fa ce of e o r v lu t
i on a i ng o By t k
e a u il i a th r x ry y d r
c li n e

s
,
.

a ny n m e u b r p t
of o i n s on t h e e r qu r d t r t
i e i n e s e c i on m ay be fo n u d .

T he s tud t h uld t
en s o n o i ce a ea c i n e of i n e s e c i on of a n
th t h l t r t
a ux i l i a ry c yl i n d e r an d t h e gi v e c yli n d e r i n te r s e c ts t h e c orr es p on d i n
n g
c i r c l e on t h e s ur fa ce of r e v o lut i on i n one p oi n t on ly a l t h ou gh i t s pl an

m ay c u t t h e p l an of t h e c i r c l e i n t wo p oi n t s .

A con v e n i en t an d prac ti ca l m e t h od of s olvi n g t he pr obl e m wh i ch

h a s j u s t be en con s i d e r e d i s t o t a k e h o ri zon t a l s e c ti on s of b ot h t h e g i ve n
s u r fa c e s T h e s e c ti on s of t h e c yl i n d e r a r e e ll i ps e s bu t t h es e e ll i p s e s a r e
.

a ll of t h e s am e s i ze a n d i f on e of t h e m be dra w n a n d a t r a c i n f i t
g o

m ade i t on ly r e m a i n s t o dra w a s u ffi ci e n t n u m b e r of c i r c ul a r s e ct i on s
,

o f t h e s urface of r e v o l u t i on an d a pply t h e t r a c i n g of t h e e ll i p s e t o e ac h

t o fi n d po i n t s i n t he r e qu i r ed i n te r s e c ti on T h e p os i t i on of t h e ce n t r e
.

o f t he e ll i p s e c o rr e s p on d i n g t o a p a rt i c ul a r c i r c ul a r s e c ti on of t h e s urfa c e

o f r e v o l u t i on i s wh e r e t h e pl an e of t h a t s e ct i on c u ts t h e a xi s o f t h e

c yl i n d e r F or t h e c i r c u l a r s e c ti on a b a b (F i g 7 48 )e i s t h e pos i ti on
’ ’
.
, .

of t h e c e n t r e of t h e e ll i p s e i n t h e pl an an d t h e t r a ci n g of t h e e ll i p se i s

pl ace d s o t h a t t he c e n t r e i s at c an d t he m aj or axi s on mn T h e poi n ts .

wh e re t he e ll i ps e c u ts t h e ci r c l e a b a r e poi n ts on t he pl an of t he i n te r
s e c ti on re qu i r e d an d t h es e poi n t s m ay be pr i c k e d t hr ou gh .
T h e e l e va .

ti ons of t h e po i n t s ar e of cours e p e rp e n di cula rly o ve r t h e i r p lan s a n d on

t h e e l e va t i on of t h e c o rr e s pon di n g c i r c ul a r s e c ti on .

3 27 I n t e r s e c t i on o f C o n e a n d S u r fa c e o f R e v olu t i o n
.

P l a ci n g t he s urfac e of r e vol u ti on s o th a t i t s a x i s i s v e rt i c a l h ori zon ta l ,

se c t i on s of i t wi ll be c i r c l e s bu t e x c e p t i n t h e s pe c i a l c as e wh e re t he
,

con e i s a ri gh t c i r cu l a r c on e an d i t s a x i s i s v e r t i c a l h or i z on ta l se c t i ons ,

o f t h e c on e w i ll n o t be c i r c l es or s t r ai gh t l i n e s a n d a ll t h e h or i z on t a l

s e c t i on s w i ll b e d i ffe r e n t T h e t r ac i n g pa p e r m e t h o d whi c h i s appl i cabl e

.

t o t h e i n te rs ec ti on of a cyl i n d e r an d a s urf ace of r e vo lu t i on a n d w hi c h

w as d e s c ri be d i n t he l a t te r p a r t of t h e pr e ce d i n g Art i s t h e r e fo r e n ot .
,

s u i t a bl e i n t h e c as e of t h e i n t e r s e c ti on of a c on e a n d a s u r fa ce of

r e v ol u t i o n .

Au xi li a ry con es ar e ta k e n wh i ch h a v e t h e i r ve rti ces at t he v e r t e x

of t h e g i v e n c on e a n d for th e i r d i r e c t r i ce s t h e y h a v e c i rc ul a r s e c ti on s

of t h e s urf ace of r e v o l u t i on T hes e au xi l i a ry c on e s w i ll i n te rs e c t t he

.

i v e n c on e i n s t r ai g h t li n es a n d t h e i n t e r s e c t i on of t h e s e s t rai g h t l i n e s
g
w i th t h e c orr e s p on d i ng c i rc l e s on t he s urface of re volu ti on w ill d e t e r
m i n e p oi n t s on t h e i n t e r se c t i on r e qu i r e d .

R e fe rri n g t o F i g 7 49 on o u i s t he ax i s of a c on e wh os e v e r ti ca l
.
, ,
' ’

a n gl e i s 30 an d wh i c h i n t e r s e c t s a s urfa c e o f r e v ol u t i on wh os e a x i s i s
°

v e rti ca l T he d im e n s i on s ar e gi ve n on t he fi gu re
. .

T h e h or i z on t al tr ac e of t h e con e i s d e t e r m i n e d a s e xpl ai n e d i n Ar t .

226 p 259 a b a b i s a c i r c ul r s e c t i on o f t h e s urfac e o f r e v o lu t i o n

’ ’
, . .
, a ,

00 be i n g t h e c e n t r e of th i s c i r c l e c t v t i s a l i n e p a s s i n g thr ou g h
’ '’ ’
oo ,
.
,

t h e c e n tr e of t h e c i r c l e a n d t h e v e r te x of t h e c on e v t v t i s t he ax i
"
s
, .
,

n a ux i l i a ry c on e of wh i c h t h e c i r cl e a b a h i s on e h o r i z o n ta l s e c t i on
' ’
of a ,
.

All h o ri z on ta l s e c ti on s of th is ux i l i a ry con e w i ll b e ci rc l es bu t the y

a

w i ll be of d iffe re nt d i am e te rs T h e poin t i f be i ng t h e h ori z ontal t race

.
402 P RA C T I C AL G E O M ET RY

t o t he a x is w i ll be p e rpe n d i c ul a r t o t he a x i s of t he o th e r a n d
of on e
,

t h pl an e i f i t c u ts b oth s ur f ce s w i ll c u t th e m i n c i rc l e s t he i n te r
is , a ,

s e c t i on of wh i c h w i t h on e

a n o th e r d e te r m i n e s po i n t s
o n t h e i n t e r se c t i on r e qu i r e d .

T h e s ur fa c e s o f r e v olu
ti on s h ould b e a rrange d s o
th a t t h e i r a x e s a r e p e r p e n
di c u lar t o on e of t h e pl n e s a

o f pr oj e c ti on T h e p r oj e c
.

ti on s of t h e c i rc l e s m e n
t i on e d a b ov e w i ll t h e n be
c i r c l e s a n d s t r a i gh t l i ne s
wh i c h a r e e a s i ly dra w n .

A n e x a m pl e i s s h o w n i n
F i g 7 50 A n n c h o r ri n g
“
. . a

wh os e s u rface i s d es c ri be d
by t he re v olu ti on of a v e rt i cal
c i r c l e a bo ut a v e rt i ca l a x i s i s

s h own p e n e t r a t e d by a con e

o f r e v o lu t i on wh os e a x i s i s

a l s o v e r t i c al O n e c u tt i n g
.

pl an e i s s h o wn i n te rs e c ti n g
t h e a n c h o r r i ng i n t w o c i r
cles
' ' ' '
ab ,
a b an d cd cd ,
.
t

Th i s sam e pl an e i n t e rs e c ts FIG 7 50
t h e c on e i n t h e c i r c l e mn
. .

mc
’ '
. F r o m t h e pl an i t i s s ee n t h a t t h e ci rc l e mn on t h e c one on ly i n te r ~

s e c t s t h e ci r c l e a b o n t h e a n c h or r i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t w o p oi n t s p
g
o n t h e pl a n of t h e i n te r s e c t i on of t h e con e a n d a n c h o r r i n g I t w i ll .

b e s ee n th a t t h e c on e to u c h e s t h e s ur fa c e of t he a n c h or r i n g a t t h e
p oi n t qq '
.

3 2 9 I n t e rs e c t i o n o f T w o S u r f a c e s o f R e v olu t i on W h o s e
.

Ax e s I n t e s e t r c — P l ace t h e s ur fac e s s o th t t h e a x i s of o n e of t h e m a

i s v e r ti c a l an d t h e a x i s of t h e o t h e r i s p a r a ll e l t o t he v e r t i c a l pl an e of
pr oj e c ti on R e fe rri n g t o Fi g 7 51 I m v n i s t he ax i s of c on e of
. .
,
’ '
a

r e v o lu t i on wh i c h i n t e rs e c t s a s u rface d e s c r i be d by t h e r e volu ti on of an
a r c of a c i r c l e a bo u t a v e r t i c a l a x i s a s s h o w n T h e a x e s of t h e t wo
.

s ur fa c e s i n te r s e c t a t c c t h e e l e v a t i on of a s ph e r e i s s h o w n t h e
’
.
,

c e n t r e of t h i s s ph e r e b e i n g at t h e i n t e r s e c t i on o f t h e a x e s of t h e gi v e n

s ur fac e s of r e v o lu t i o n T h i s s ph e r e i n te r s e c t s t h e s ur fac e wh os e a x i s i s
.

v e r ti c a l i n a c i r cl e wh os e e l e va ti on i s t h e h o ri zon ta l l i n e b an d wh ose a
' '

pl n i s t he ci r cl e a b h vi n g i t s c e n t re a t o T h is s ph e r e also i n te rs e c ts
a a .

t h e o th e r gi v e n s u r fa c e of re v olu t i on i n a c i r c l e wh ose e l e va t i on i s t he
s t r a i g h t l in e c d Th e s e t wo c i r c l e s li e on t he s ph e re a nd on e be i ng on
’ '
.

o n e of t h e gi v e n s ur fa ce s of r e v o l u t i on a n d t h e ot h e r on t he ot h e r t h e i r ,

p oi n ts of i n te rs e ct ion a e poi n t s on t he i n te r s e c t i on re q u i re d p t he
r .
'
,

p oi n t of i n t e r s e c ti on of a b n d c d i s t he e l e vati on o f t he p oi n ts o f
' '
a
’ ’
,

i n t e r s e c t i o n of t he t w o c i r c l e s a n d th e i r pl a n s e d e t e r m i n e d by aar
 I NTER S E C T I O N OF SUR F A C E S 4 03

pr oj e c to r t o i n te r s e c t t he
c i r lec b O b s e rv e t h a t t h e
a .

pl n o f t h e c i r c l e of w hi h
a c

d i s t he e l e v ti on
' ’
c nd a ,
a

wh i c h w o uld be n e lli p s e a ,

n e e d n ot be dr w n T k i n g a . a

o th e r ph e re s w i th th e i r
s

c e n tr e s at 00 n u m be r
’
n
y a

of poi n ts o n t he i n t e r
s e c t i on o f t h e i v en su r
g
fac es m ay b e fo u n d .

T
3 3 0 I n t e r s e c ti on of
wo
Sph eres
.

S i nc e t he —
s urfac e of a s ph e r e is a
s ur fa ce o f r e v o lu t i on t he
me t h o d s d e s c r i be d i n t h e
t wo pr ec e d i n g a r t i c l e s for
d e te rm i n i n g t h e i n t e r s e c
tion of t wo s u rface s of
re volu ti on ppl i cable
ar e a

t o t h e c a se of t w o s ph e r e s .

Bu t s i n c e t h e i n t e rs ec t i on
,

of t w o s ph e r es i s a c i r c l e ,

t he pr oj e c t i on s of t h i s c i r
c le m ay b e fo u n d by a F I G 7 51
. .

s i m pl e r m e t h o d .

R e fe rri n g t o Fi g 7 52 .
,

0 1
nd 0
a r e t h e pl a n s of
2 a

t he ce n t r e s of t w o s ph e r e s
wh os e ra d i i r e r n d m a , a

re s pe c ti v e ly A n e l e va ti on .

i s dra wn o n a g r ou n d l i n e ‘

X Y p a r all e l t o 0 0 T he 1 2.

c om m on c h o rd a b of t h e
' '

c i r c l e s w h i c h a r e t h e e le

v a t i on s of t h e t w o ph e re s s

on t h e g r ou n d l i n e X Y i s

a n e l e v a t i on of t h e c i r c le

wh i ch i s t h e i n te r e c t i on s

of t h e s p h e r e s T h e p l an .

of t h i s c i r c l e i s a n e ll i p s e

wh os e m i n o r x i s i s a b n d a a

wh os e m j or a x i s i s e qu l
a a

to a b
'
F r om t h e pl a n n d
’
. a

e l e v t i on s h o w n a n e l e va
a

t i on o n a n y o t h e r g r o u n d
l i n e i s e as i ly d e te rm i n e d .

T h e i n te r s e c t i on of t h e
s ur fa c e s of t h e t w o s ph e r e s
404 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

r e fe rr e d b v
l u
t o a o e 1 8 t h e oc s o f a oi n p t wh d t r
os e p t
i s an ce s f om t h e oi n s
r p tv l
O a n d O2 a r e r , a n d r , e s e c i e y .

lk r t r t
I n i e m an n e t he i n e s e c i o n of a th rd ph r wh i s tr e e os e c e n e is

r du
03 a n d a i s r ,, i w th d p h r wh
t h e s e c on s e e tr os e c e n r du e i s O2 a n d a i s

r , i s t he
, l u oc s o f a p t wh
oi n d t
os e r
i s a n c e s f o m O 2 a n d O ,, a r e 7 2 a n d r ,,
r p t v ly
es e c i e T he pl
. a n ofth th rd p h ris i s ll p wh h
e e an d t h e e i s e ic is
t he pl t r t w th
a n of i t s i n e s e c i o n i d ph r
t h e s e c on h w s e e ar e s o n i n F i
g .

7 52 . d ll p d
T h e s e con e i s e i s fou n i n t h e s a m e m ann e a s t h e r fir t r s f om
l v t
a n e e a i on on a r u dl
g o n p r ll l
i n e a a e t o r l wh h
0 2 0.
3 T h e c i c e i c i s t he
t r t rt
i n e s e c i on of t h e fi s an d s e c on d ph r t r t
s r l wh h
e e s i n e s e c s t he ci c e ic
tr t d
i s t h e i n e s e c i on o f t h e s e c o n a n d th rd ph r i p t wh pl
s e e s at o in s ose an s

ar e
p an d
q T h p
e . o i n t s PQ an d v d tly p t wh
ar e e i e n oi n s os e

d r r p t v ly
i s t a n ce s f om O , , O 2 a n d O 3 a r e r , , 7 2 a n d r , e s e c i e .

’ '
l d
I f a b i s i n c i n e t o X Y a t an a n g e l wh h rly r h t
i c i s n ea l a ig an
g e

p t
t h e os i i on s of p a n d g ,
'
wh h d t r
'
ic d t
e e mi n e t he i s an c e s o f P a n d Q
r
f o m t he h r z t l pl
o i on a pr j t
a n e of b t bt
o e c i on , a r e d es ll wo ain e as fo o s .

W th i c entr r d u qu l
e 0 and a i s e d rb
a to o a
' ’
r l
e s c i e a n ar c of a c i c e P l c .

Thr u h o
g p an d
qdr w a
p P 1 p rp d ul r
an d
q e e n ic t th
a t o 00 t o m ee i s

a r e a t P I a n d Q 1 an d 0c a t d a n d 6 r t v ly The s pe c i e . qu l en o
' '
p i s e a to
' '
dP 1 a n d o g i s e q a t o tu l t h ry t h
. T he eo t ru t
of bv u
i s c on s c i on i s o io s
wh b rv d t h t
e n i t i s o se e a p rt
t h e a r c P , CQ 1 i s r l
a t r
of t h e c i c e of i n e

t
s e c i on o f t h e fir t s d ph r tur d t h r z t l p t
a n d s e con s e es ne i n o a o i on a os i i o n

a ob ut h rz t ld
i t s o i on a t r
i am e e .

. tr
I n F i g 7 52, t h e c e n e of t h e th rd p h r i s l v l
e e i s a t t h e s am e e e as

tr
t h e c e n e of t h e fir t ph r h
s s e e, pl
e n ce t h e r l wh h
a n e o f t h e ci c e i c i s t he
t r t
i n e s e c i o n of t h e fir t s th rd ph r
an d i sv rt l e es i s e pl i c a an d t he a n of

r l
t he c i c e i s a s ai g tr h t l ine .

r ct
3 3 1 I n t e s e i on o f a C u rv c r
e d S u r fa e w i t h a P i s m o r
—
.

a P y r am i d pr
S i n ce t h e fa ce s o f a pyr d
i s m or a p rt am i ar e o i on s o f
pl an e s th r t r t
ei i n e s e c i on s w th i urv d ur
an
y c e pl s f t
a ce a r e an e s e c i o n s

or p r o t i on s of pl t th t ur
an e s e c i o n s o f a s th fa c e a n d d tr ese m a
y b e e e

m i ne d by th d d r b d
t he m e o s es c i e h pt r X
i n C a e s X V I I I an d X I I I . If
th pl ese t
a n e s e c i on s m e e t t h r t h y w ll t r t
on e an o e , e p t
i i n e s e c a t t h e oi n s
wh r d
e e t h e e g e s of t h e pr pyr d
i s m or t he t a mi urv d ur
m ee t h e c e s fa c e .

T he a e l tt r p t oi n s m a y b e fo n u d p r t ly by se a a e th d xpl t he m e od e ai n e in
Ar t .27 5, p 31 7 . .

3 3 2 I n t e r s e c t i o n o f P r i s m s a n d P y r am i d s w i t h o n e
—
.

an o h e t r S i n c e t h e fa c e s o f pr i s m s an d pyr am i d s
. e p o r ti o n s of
ar

pl a n e s th e i r i n te rs e c ti on s w i t h o n e a n o t h e r a r e s tr i ght l i n e s whi c h
,
a

ar e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e rul e s fo r t h e i n t e r s e c ti o n o f t w o p l a n e s ( Ar t .

169 p ,
. T h e t h e o ry of t h e c on s t ru c ti o n s for fi n d i n g t h e i n t e r
s e c t i o n s of p r i s m s a n d pyr m i d s w i t h o n e a n o t h e r i s th e r e fo r e v e ry
a

s i m p l e bu t i n s o m e c as e s t h e s o lut i o n of t h e pr obl e m m ay b e v e ry c o m
,

pl i c te d o w i n g t o t h e l arge n u m be r of l i n e s wh i c h m ay be r e qu i re d
a ,

a n d con s i d e ra bl e s k i ll i s n e c e s sa ry t o ob ta i n a n a cc ur a t e r e s ul t Mo r e .

o v e r t h e s t ud e n t w i ll fi n d i n s om e c a s e s a m pl e o pp o rtu n i ty for s e l e t c

i n g t h e s i m pl e s t a n d m os t a c c ur a te m e th od o f fi n d i n g t h e i n t e r s e c t i on
o f t h e d i ffe r e n t p a i rs of pl an e fac e s of t h e s ol i d s wh i h m y b e gi v e n c a .

I n a c om pl i c a t e d e x a mpl e i t m ay be d e s i r bl e t o pr oc e e d i n s om e
a
406 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY
‘

45 °
to XY l tw
T h e a n g e be
. e en t h e an s o f t h e a e s i s pl x Dr w t h pl a e an ,
shw o tr t
i n g t h e i n e s e c i o n o f t h e s fac e s of t h e c y i n e s , (a) ur l dr wh t h x en e a es

i t r
n e t wh
s e c , ( b) x e n t h e a e s a r e 02 5 i n c a ar , (0) en t he a es h p t wh x 05 i h ar e nc
ap rt
a .

4 Th m
. t h pr di
e sa e as e ece ng e x r i x pt th t t h gl b tw n t h pl n
e c se e ce a e an e e ee e a s
of th x i 60 i n t d f
e a es s
°
s ea o

FIG . 7 54 .

A v rti l tub h vi g n xt r l d i m t r f 3 i h n d n i t r l
5 . e ca e, a n a e e na a e e o nc es a a n e na
di m t r f 2 i h h
a e e o y l i d ri l
nc h l th u gh i
es ,t i h i d
as a ci m t r T h n ca o e ro ,
nc es n a e e . e
axi f t h h l i i l i n d t 45 t t h h i z t l pl
s o e o e s nc d i t p rp d i l r
e a
°
o e or on a an e an s e en cu a

di t fr m t h
s an c e xi f t h tub i 02 5 i h Dr w
o e a l v ti
s o f t h tub
e e s nc . a an e e a on o e e
on a v rti l pl wh i h i p r ll l t t h xi f t h h l
e ca an e c s a a e o e a s o e o e.
 I NT ER S E CT I O N O F S UR F A C E S 407

6 T h e sa m e as t h e
. d xr pr
x pt th t lvt
e c e i n g e e c i s e e ce a t h e e e a i on i s t o b e on a
v rt l pl wh h
e i ca an e w th
i c m a ke s 45pl °
x i hl
t he an of t h e a i s o f t h e o e .

AB
7 .
( F i g 7. 5x5 ) i s l d r wh
t h h r z t l tr
e a i s of a c y i n e rl o se o i o n a a ce i s a c i c e
h
2 25 i n c es i n d tr i am e e x CD i s t h e a i s o f a
.

l d r wh h r z t l tr
cy i n e os e o i on a ll p r
ac e i s an e i s e m aj o
(
x h
a is 3 inc es , m i no r x h wh a i s 2 i nc es )r os e m i n o
x
a is is p ll l ar a e t o X Y x l dr
T h e a e s of t h e c y i n e s
.

ar e r ll l
p v rt l pl
a a e to t h e e hw i ca tr an e S o the in e
.

t l dr
se c i on o f t h e c y i n e s i n pl lvt an an d e e a i o n i n

e ac h lw
o f t h e fol o wh
i n g c ase s (i ) e n h 0, (i i )
.

wh en h h wh h
3i n c , (i i i ) e n h 5i n c .

. x pl
8 S am e as e am e 3, p x pt th t 390, e c e
. a h
( F i.
g 7 40 ) i t d
s t o b e 0 in s e a h of
3 i n c .

. x pl
9 S am e as e am e 3, p x pt th t 390, e c e
. a h
( F i.
g 7 40 ) i s t oh t d
b e i n c h i n s ea of
3 i n c .

x l dr h d tr
1 0 T h e a i s 0 a c y i n e 2 i n c e s i n i am e e
.

l d
i s i nc i ne ru d
°
a t 60 t o t h e g o n x T h e a i s of a
.

s e c ond l dr cy i n h
e 2 ;
d tr
i n c es i n l d i am e e i s i n c i n e
a t 45 t o t h e gr o n
°
u d l tw pl
T h e an g e b e
. ee n t he an s

x
of t h e a e s i s rp d u r
a n d t h e c om m o n p e e n i c la

x
t o t h e a e s h as a tru l th u l e eng Dr w eq a to k a the
. E u } 7 55,
pl lvt v rt l p p r ll l
,

an , an d an e e a i o n o n a e i ca la n e a a e

x
t o t h e a i s of t h e fir t l d r h w s tr t
cy i n e , s o ur h
i n g t h e i n e se c i on o f t h e s fac e s , for e ac
ll w
o f t h e fo o i n g c as e s ()i
. k h
z 0 , ( )
i i k h 0 2 5 i n c , ( )
i i i k 0 5 i n c .

. u l t r l tr l
1 1 a bd i s a n e q i a e a h d p t w th
i an g e o f 2 5 i n c e s s i e c is a
. oi n i i n t he
tr l i an g e , h r i n c e s f om b an d h pl
i n c e s fr om d a , b, c , an d d ar e t h e
. an s
of p t wh h ht
oin s os e v eig ru d h
s abo e t h e g o n h h a r e 05 i n c , 1 i n c , 2 5 i n c e s , a n d 1 5
h r p t v l A r ul r l d r
i n c e s e s ec i e y . ci c x p r ll l
a cy in e l AD
h as i t s a i s a a e t o t h e i n e , an d

ur t
i t s s fac e c on ai n s t h e fo ur p t A B D A
oi n s d r ul r l d r
, , C,
an d s e c on
. ci c a cy i n e
x p r ll l
h as i t s a i s l
a a e to t he ur l t ur p t
i n e B C , an d i t s s fac e a s o c on ai n s t h e fo oi n s
A B , , C,D D w
an d pl h w
. ra t he tr t ur
an s o i n g t h e i n e s e c i on o f t h e s fac e s o f t h e
l dr
cy i n e s .

A r ht
12 . ig hv con e h d tr
a i n g a b as e 35 i n c e s i n lt tud i am e e , an d an a i e of 35
h t d w th
i n c e s , s an s i u d A l dr
i t s base on t h e gr o n h d t rl cy i n e , 2 inc e s i n
. i am e e ies
ru d
on t h e g o n p tr tan d ene x
a e s t h e c on e d t
T h e a i s o f t h e co n e i s at a i s an c e
.

r x l d r Dr w
h f om t h e a i s o f t h e c y in e pl .lvt a the v rt l an , an d an e e a i on o n a e i ca
pl l d
a n e i n c i ne x l dr hw
at 30 t o t h e a i s of t h e c y in e , s o
°
tr t i n g t h e i n e s e c i on o f t h e
s ur wh
fac e s , (i ) en h wh 0, (i i ) h en h wh u h th t
0 25 i n c , an d (i i i ) en k i s s c a the
curv d ur e s tuh u d u l dr
fac e o f t h e c on e o c e s t h e c r v e s r face o f t h e c y i n e .

A r ht r ul
13 . ig ci c p thr h
ar c on e l d l tu
as s e s ougx a cy i n r ica be. T h e a i s of t h e
tr t x
c on e i n e s e c s t h e a i s o f t h e tu r t l t r ld t r tu
be at i g h an g e s I n e na
. i am e e o f be ,
h
3 i n c es rt l l
V e i c a an g e of c on e
. D tr tr tu
i am e e o f c on e a t c e n e of be
h
i nc es Dtr . dvlp t
e e m in e t he ur th t p rt
e e o m e n of t h e s wh h fac e of a a o f t h e c on e ic
w th
i s i in t h e tu be .

lvt
1 4 T h e e e a i on
.

of h rz t l
t wo o i on a
l dr
cy in e s hw is s o n
l
i n F i g 7 56 , a s o t h e
.

lvt
e e a i on o f a r ht ig
ru r
c i c la wh
co n e , os e
x
a i s is p rp d ul e en i c ar

x
t o t h e a e s of t h e
c l dr Dtr
in e s e e m i ne
ty d v l p t
.

e e e o m en of
t h e s u r fac e o f t t ha
p rta wh h
o f t h e con e ic
l tw
i e s be een t he cy FIG FIG
7 56 7 57
l dr . . . .

in e s .

15Dtr . tr t
e e m i n e t h e i n e s e c i on of v h ll w l d r
t h e gi en co n e an d o o cy in e

( F i g . dr w
a n d dvlp ta t he u
e e o m en th t p rt o i t h e s r fac e of
'

a a of t h e c on e
wh h w th ic is l dr
i i n t h e cy in e .
408 PRA CT I CAL GEO M ET RY

16 . pl 2 p 394 x pt th t i t m k 25 wi th X Y i t d
S am e as e x am e , .
, e ce a av s o a e
°
n s ea
o f
17 b i .
q ui l t r l tri
a c gl
s an e f 4 in h id a e aA i r l i d rib d an b e o c es s e . c c e s e sc e on a
as d i m t r d th r i d ri b d
a e e , an an o di m t r T h e s ir l esc th e on as as a e e . ese c c es ar e e
h ri z n t l tr
o o f tw
a i t h pl
ac e s o f th p x f th
o c on e s f whi h
. c s e an o e a e o e c on e o c
th e ir l c b i t h h ri z t l tr
c e a s d b i t h pl
e o f th p
on a x f th th r ac e , n s e an o e a e o e o e
a
co n e.E h p x i t
ac h i ght f 4 i h b v t h h ri z t l pl
a e s a a e Sh w o nc es a o e e o on a an e . o
t h pl e f th i t r
an o ti f t h urf e n e sec f th tw d dd
on o l v ti e s ac e s o e o c on e s an a an e e a on
on a gr un d l i p ll l t b
o ne ar a e o a .

18 S m . th x m pl
a e p 396 x pt th t t h di t n h i n F i g 7 43 i
as e e a e on .
, e ce a e s a ce . s
t b 2 25 i
o e h i t d f 17 5 i h nc es ns ea o nc es .

19 S m . th x m pl
a p 396 x pt th t t h di t
e as e e a eh i n F i g 7 43 i
on .
,
e ce a e s an ce . s
t o b u h th t t h pl whi h
e s c a t i t h v rti e an e f th tw c d i c on a n s e e ces o e o c on e s an s
t g ti l t
an en f th
a h ll l b t g ti l t t h th r
o on e o e c on e s s a a so e an en a o e o e c on e .

20 . d b
v ,oa tw tr ig ht li
an vz o t i ght ar e gl t o th r s a nes a r an es o on e an o e .

25 i h 3 i
nc h es . i t h pl
vz o f th xi f nc es mi . v l oa s e an o e a s o a c on e , s e
v rti l gl
e ca whi h li wi th i t l t i d
an e t h gr c d b i g t h pl
es s s an s e on e oun , vl e n e an
o f i t v rt x s e b i t h pl
e . f th xi f
vz o s d e l l yi g wi th i t l t
an o e a s o a s e con c on e a s o n s s an
s id e on t h gr u d b i g t h pl
e o f i t v rt x
n , v2 Th e n x f th e i t r an o s e e . e a es o e c on e s n e
s ec t B th . o i ght i r u l r
c on e s ar e r Dr w t h pl h wi g t h i t c c a c on e s . a e an s o n e n ersec
ti on o f th urf d dd
e s l v ti a c e s , an v rti l pl p r ll l t t h xi
a an e e a on o n a e ca an e a a e o e a s
o f t h fir t e N ts Th c on e wi ll v l p t h
. o e .m ph r d th i ese c on e s en e o e sa e s e e an e r
i t r
n e sec ti will b t w lli p on e o e s es .

21 A ir l 3 i h . c i di m t r i t h
c e l v ti f ph r A th i r l
nc es n a e e s e e e a on o a s e e . no er c c e
2i h i d i m t r i t h l v ti f y l i d r T h
nc es n a e e s tr f t h i r l li
e e e a on o a c n e . e cen es o e c c es e
on a li i n li d t 60 t X Y d
ne c ne t di t
a h fr m
°
o th r T h ,
an ar e a a s an c e o o n e an o e . e

h ri z t l pl
o on a whi h t i t h xi f t h y l i d r i b v t h
an e c c on a n s tr f e a s o e c n e s a o e e cen e o
th ph
e s S h w t h pl
er e . f th i t r o ti f t h urf e f th
an o ph r d e n e se c on o e s ac es o e s e e an
c y li d r ( )wh n h
n e , a
3 i h ( )
b wh e h 3 i h () wh h nc i ,
h en nc , 0 en nc .

22 A i r l 3 i . h i d i m t r i t h l v ti f p h r A l i i l i d
c c e nc es n a e e s e e e a on o a s e e . ne nc ne
a t 40 t X Y °
d t o p rp d i l r d i t
,
an a f 05 i a h fr m t h
e en tr f t h
cu a s an c e o nc o e c en e o e
c ir l i t h
c e l v ti n f t h xi f y li d r i h i d i m t r whi h i
s e e e a o o e a s o a c n e nc es n a e e c s
p r ll l t t h v rti l pl
a a e o The y l i
e d r p ca tr t t h ph
an e r . d tuh e c n e en e a es e s e e an o c es
it urf i t r lly Dr w i pl
s s ac e n e na d l v ti . th m pl t a urv f i t r
n an a n e e a on e co e e c e o n e
sec ti i t h urf
on o e s ac e s .

23 A li d f r v luti i g r t d b y
. so o e lli p 4 i h b y 25 i h
o on s en e a e an e se , nc es nc es ,
r v lvi g b ut i t m j r xi whi h i v ti l A y l i d r 2 i h i d i m t r
e o n a o s a o a s c s er ca . c n e nc es n a e e
h as it xi i tu t d th t i t pl
s a s s d l v ti
a e so i l i d t 45 t X Y T h
a s an an e e a on a r e nc ne a
°
o . e
l v ti f t h xi f t h yli d r p
e e a on o e a thr ugh t h
s o tr f t h l v ti
e c n f e as s e s o e c en e o e e e a on o
th li d f v luti
e so o d t h pl
re io t p rp di ul r d i t
on an f 0 1 5 i ch
e an s a a e en c a s an c e o n
fr m t h
o tr f t h pl
e c en f th e li d f v luti
o e Dr w t h pl
an o d e so o re o on . a e an an

l v ti f t h t w l i d h wi g t h i t r ti f th i r urf
e e a on o e o so s s o n e n e sec on o e s ac e s .

24 R f rri ng t F i g 7 48 p 399 d r w t h pl
. e e o d l v ti
. f t h gi v
, .
,
a e an an e e a on o e en
c y li d r n d urf
e an f r v l uti s h wi g th i r i t r ti k pi g t t h
ac e o e o on , s o n e n e sec on , ee n o e

d i m i n giv
ens o x pt th t
s en I h 0;
e ce II h 3 i h ;a : I I I c as e ,
c as e ,
r: nc c as e ,

h 3i h nc .

2 5 T ki g t h p rti u l
. a n f x r i 23 x pt th t t h
e a c xi f t h yl in d r
ar s o e e c se e ce a e a s o e c e
i t b m d th
s o e xi f a
a e h vi g t h l v ti f i t v rt x t di t
e a s o c on e f a n e e e a on o s e e a a s an c e o

4 i h fr m t h
nc es tr f t h l v ti f t h li d f r v luti
o e c en e o d h vi n g
e e e a on o e so o e o on an a a

v t i l gl f
er ca an Dr w t h pl e o d l v ti f th l i d h wi g t h
a e an an e e a on o e so s s o n e
i t
n ersec ti f th i r urf on o e s ace s .

2 6 R f rri g t F i g 7 49 p 401 d r w t h pl
. e e n o d l v ti
. f t h gi v n
, .
,
a e an an e e a on o e e
c on e d urfan f v luti
s h wi g th i r i t r ti
ac e o re ok pi g t on , th s o n e n e se c on , ee n o e

dim i gi v
e n s on s x pt th t I h
en , e 0; ce II h 5 i h ; a : 1 11 c as e ,
c as e ,
nc cas e ,

h 1 i h nc .

27 A n f r v l uti
co b 3i
e o h i d i m t r xi 2 5 i h l g h
e o on , as e nc es n a e e ,
a s nc es on ,
as
it s axi v rti l A y li d r f r v luti 2 i h i di m t r h i t xi
s e ca . c n e o e o on nc es n a e e ,
as s a s
p ll l t t h xi f t h
ar a e o d 05 i
e a h d i t t fr m i t D w
s o e c o n e an l v ti nc s an o . ra an e e a on

pl l i d t 45 t t h pl t i i g t h xi f t h li d h wi g
,

on a i an e nc ne a
°
o e an e con a n n e a s o e so s s o n
t h li e fi t r
ne o ti f th i urf n e sec on o e r s ac e s .

28 A i r l 3 i h . c i d i m t r i t h pl
c e, nc f i ght i r ul
es n n alti tu d e e ,
s e an o a r c c a r co e, a e
410 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

35 .
(
ab F i g 7 61 )i s.a e g r ul r h x a e agon of 1 5i n c h es si d d wh e an os e cen tr i h e s
ur h d d wh tr Th h x g h ri z n t l
.

cd is a s q a e of 2 i n c e s s i e an os e ce n e is k . ei e a on s t he o o a

FIG . 7 62 . FIG . 7 63 . FIG . 7 64 .

trace o f a p i m wh l g dg
r s p r ll l t
os e on Th q u r
e i t h h r i
e s ar e a a e o ae , a e e s a e s e o
z on at l tr f p y m i d wh
ac e o a v rt x V i 5 i n h b v t h H P D w t h
ra os e e e s c es a o e e . . ra e

pl an d l v ti
an e e f th a l i d h wi g t h i t r
on o ese so s s o n e n e
sec ti n f th i r urf
o o e s ac e s .

36 C t i . li d
er a n s o h w i Fi g 7 62 7 63 d s ar e s o n n s .
, ,
an

7 64 i pl n d l v ti
an an F h l i d dr w t h
e e a on . or e ac so a e

p l an h w
as s d dd o l
n an v t i a g r u d l i
an e e a on on a o n ne
1nc li n d t 45 t t h
e a tr li
°
o wi th ut dr wi g
e cen e ne 53 o a n
th e l v ti gi v
e e a onU t h dim en i . m rk d b t se e e n s on s a e u
m k a m
e no ur m t fr m t h i llu tr ti gi v
e as e en s o e s a on s en .

37 D w th . ra urv f i t r ti e c f t h gi v
e o n e sec on o e en

c on e (F i g 7 6 5) w i
. th t h h l i l ur f ( f u i f er m e ca s ac e o n o
pi t h) g r t d by t h r v luti
c ene a e f t h h ri z e tl e o on o e o on a
l i V H b ut t h xi f t h
ne a o e th ali d s o e c on e , e ne e
s c en di g t t h b
n o d i g e ti l kwi
as e ur n on e an -
c oc se

tur n .

T h gi v e p i t P wi ll li
en o n t h r q ui r d urv e on e e e c e .

D t rm i t h t g t t t h urv t P Al d w
e e ne e an en o e c e a . so ra

th e no rm l d ul ti g pl
a an os c t P a n a ne s a .

FIG 7 6 5 . .
 CHAP TER X X V I I
PRO ECT I O J N OF S H ADO WS
333 T h e o y o f S h a d o w s —I n a h om oge n e o u s m e d i u m l i gh t
. r
t
tr a ve l s i n s tr ai ght l i n e s , an d i n h i s c h a pt e r i t wi ll a lw ay s be a s s u m e d
t t t
h a t h e m e di u m hrou g h whi ch t he l i ght p as s e s i s h om oge n eou s T he .

ray s of l i ght m ay be p a rall e l , o r h e y m ay d i v e r ge fr om a poi n or co n t t

v e r ge t o a poi n t t
I f t h e l i gh c om es fr om a g r e a d i s a n ce , as fr om t h e
. t t
s u n , t h e r ay s a r e p
r a c i c ally p a r a ll e l t
I f t h e l i gh com e s f r om a oi n , . t p t
t
wh i ch i s pr a c i ca lly t h e c a s e wh e n t he lu m i n ou s b ody i s v e ry s m all , t he
t t t
ray s d i ve rge fr om h a po i n i n all d i r e c t i on s B ay s of l i g h m ay be . t
t
m a d e t o con v e r ge t o a poi n by m e an s of a r e e c o r or a l e n s of s u i a bl e fl t t
If p qu e body he pl c e d be fore s ou r ce of l igh t p r t of t h e s u r
an o a a a ,
a

f e O f t h e b ody w i ll be i llu mi n te d n d t h e r e m i n d e r l e f t i n d rk n e s s
ac a a a a .

Al s o p orti on o f t h e l ig ht fr om t h e lu m in ou s bo dy w i ll be i n te r e p te d
a c ,

a nd a p o rt i on of t h e s p ce be h in d t he o p qu e b ody w i ll be i n d rk ne ss
a a a .

Th is d rk s p ce be hi n d t h e O p qu e b ody i c ll e d t he h dow of th a t
a a a s a s a

b ody T he s urf ce wh i c h bo u n d t h e h d o w i s t h e s h dow s rf c n d

. a s s a a u a e, a

t he l i n e on t h urf e Of t h e p qu e body wh i c h s e p r te s t h e i llu m i n e d

e s ac o a a a

from t h e u n i llu m i n e d p rt i s t h e h d li ne a I t is e v i de n t t h t t h e s a e . a

s h d o w s ur f c e i s
a arul d s ur f c e n d th t i t s d i r e c ti n g l i n e i s t h e
a e a ,
a a

s h ade l in e .

T h e i n t e r s e c ti on of t h e h d o w s ur f e w i t h n y o t h e r s u rf c e whi c h
s a ac a a

i t m ee ts i t h e cas t s h d w o f t h e O p aqu e bo dy o n th t s urf e b u t

s a o a ac ,

e n e r lly t h e c t h d w i ll d i m ply t h h d w
g a o as s c s as e a o a e s .

T h e o u t l i n e of t h e cas t h d o w of n Op qu e b ody i s e vi d e n tly t h e

s a a a

ca s t ha d ow of i t s h d e l i n e I n ge n e r l t he c t h do w i s be s t d e te r
s s a . a as s a

m i n e d by firs t fi n d i n g t h e s h ad e l i n e n d t h e n t h e c s t s h d o w of t h t ,
a a a a

l i n e e p e ci lly i s th i s t he as e wh en t he s urf c e u p on w h i h t h e s ha d ow
s a c a c

i s c s t i s o th e r t h n
a s i n gl e p l n e
a a a .

I t w i ll lw y s b e a a u m e d th t t he b eam of l i gh t i l rge e n ou gh
as s a s a

t o e m br ce t h e wh o l e o f t h e O bj e c t wh os e s h d o w i s t o be d e te r m i n e d
a a .

I t w il l a l s o b e as s u m e d t h t a n y ur f ce up on w hi c h a h ado w i s c t
s a a s as

i s n O p qu e s urf c e
a a H e n e p oi n t c n on ly h v e on e s h d ow wi th
a . c a a a a

on e s y s te m of i llu m in t i on a

3 3 4 C a s t S h a d o w o f a P o i n t —T o d e t e r m i n e t h e h a d o w c t
.

. s as

by a
g i v e n p o i n t o n g i v e n ur f cae dr w t h e pr o j ec
s t i o n s o
a f t h e li n e
,
a

wh i c h r e pr e s e n t s t h e o f l i h t wh i c h i s i n te r te d by t h e p oi n t
y g ra
p ce ,
41 2 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY

an d d e te r m i n e t he p oi n t of i n te rs e c ti on of th i s l i ne w i t h t he gi ve n
s ur fa c e up on wh i c h t h e s h a d o w i s c a s t Th i s p oin t O f i n te r s e c tion i . s

t h e s h a d o w r e qu i r e d T h e l i n e wh i c h r e pr e s e n t s t he r ay o f l i ght m y
. a

i n t e r s e c t t h e g i ve n s ur f c e a t m o r e th an on e p oi n t b u t o n ly t h t po i n t
a
, a

o f i n t e r s e c t i on wh i c h i s n e a r e s t t o t h e i v n p i n t wh i h t t h
g e o c c s s e a

s h ad ow i s t o b e t ak e n a s t h e c a d t s h a d o w O f t h e p oi n t .

Thr e e e x am pl e s a r e s h o wn a t ( a ) ( b) an d ( ) F i g 7 66 I n e ac h , ,
c ,
. .

c ase
pp i s
’
a
g i v e n p o i n t
'
a n d r r i s t he r a
y of l i g ht
i n t e r c e p t e d by pp
'
.

A t (a )L MN i s gi v e n ,
'
a

O bl i qu e pl an e a n d 9
,

1 1 i s 0 70

t h e s h a d o w c s t by p p on
'
a

t hi s p l an e P 19 i s fo u n d , 0 0
,

by u s i n g t he v e r ti ca l pl n e a

c on t i n i n
'
a
g t h e r ay r r T h e .

i n te r s e c ti on o f th i s p l an e
w i th t h e gi v e n pl n e i n te r a

s e c ts r
’ '
r t p p a o o .

A t ( b) i s s h ow n t he
s h a d o w c a s t by t h e p o i n t

pp
'
o n t h e s ur f a ce of a v e r

t i c l c yl i n d e r T h e c on
a .

s t ru c t i on i n t h is c as e i s FIG 766 . .

o bv i o u s .

At i s t h e c e n t r e of a s ph e r e up on t h e s urf c e O f wh i c h t h e
'
0 0 a

p oi n t pp c as ts t he s h d o w p p
'
T h e v e rti c l pl n e c on t i n i n g r r i s
a o
’
o. a a a
'

t ken
a . T hi s pl n e i n te r s e c t s t h e s p h e r e i n
a c i rc l e T ur ni n g t h i s a .

pl an e w i th t h e r y a n d c i r c l e i n i t bo ut t h e v e rt i c l a x i o f t h e ph e r e
a a a s s

u n ti l t h e pl n e i s p r all e l t o t h e v e rti c a l p l an e o f p roj e c ti on t h e i n t e r

a a ,

s e c t i on o f t h e r y n d c i r c l e i n t h e n e w p os i t i o n i s fo u n d
a a T ur n i n g .

th i s pl an e w i th t h e r y n d c i rc l e an d t h e i r p oi n t of i n t e r s e c ti on b ac k
a a

t o i t s o r i gi n a l p o i t i o n p p i s d e t e r m i n e d a s s h o w n
'

3 3 5 C a s t S h a d o w o f a L i n e —I f t h e l in e i s a s t r i gh t l i n e
s , o o .

. a ,

t h e n wh e th e r t h e r y s Of l i gh t r e p a ra ll e l or pr oc e e d fr om a p oi n t i t
,
a a ,

i s e v i d e n t t h a t a ll t h e r y s whi c h m e e t t h e l i n e r e i n t h e s m e pl n e
a a a a .

H e n ce t h e c a s t s h a d o w of t he l i n e o n a n y s urface w i ll be a p or ti on of t h e
i n t e r s e c t i on of t h i s pl n e w i th t h e s urf c e a T h e e xtr e m i t i e s of t h e c a s t
a .

s h a d o w of t h e l i n e w i ll b e t h e c s t s h d o w s o f i t s e x t r e m i t i e s a a T he .

c as t s h a d o w O f a s t r a i h t l i n e on a s i n l e pl an e i s t h e s tr a i h t l i n e
g g g
j o i n i n g t h e c as t s h a d o w s of t h e e x t r e m i t i e s of t h e l i n e .

F i g 7 6 7 s h o w s t h e s h d o w c s t by t h e s t ra i gh t l in e a b a b on t he
' '
. a a ,

pl n e L MN an d on t h e h oriz on ta l p l n e of proj e c ti on t h e r y s of li gh t
a
’
a ,
a

be i ng p a ra ll e l t o r r T h e t r ace s Of t h e pl an e c on tai n i n g t h e l i n e a b a b
'
.
' '

a n d p a r a ll e l t o r r a r e fir s t d e te r m i n e d T h e re qu i r e d c as t s ha d o w i s
’
.

m a d e up of a p a r t o f t h e h o ri z on t l t r a c e o f th i s pl an e a n d a p a r t of a

t h e i n t e r s e c ti on o f t h i s pl an e w i t h t h e pl a n e L MN as s h o w n
'
.

I f t h e l i n e wh os e c as t s h a d o w i s r e qu i r e d i s c urv e d l i n e a n d t h e a ,

r ay s Of l igh t ar e p a r all e l ll t he r ay s wh i c h m e e t t he l i ne w i ll li e on
,
a a
4 14 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

t he p oi nt s s '
. T he p oi n t t t t o wh i c h t h e c as t s h ad ow s con v e r ge i s t he
'

tr t he
a ce o n pl an e L MN of t h e l i ne s t s t wh i c h i s p ar all e l t o t he l i n e s
' ’ '

' ' ' ’

a b a b a n d ed c d .

On e o th e r
m a y be m e n i o n ed
cas e I f a s ai g t tr ht l t
i n e ca s s a s a o ,
. h d w
p r tly
a o n o ne pl
an e a n d p a r t l . o n a n o
y e an e th r pl
a a e p r ll l
t o t h e rs , fi t
h d w
t he s a o on t h e s e con an e i s d pl p r ll l
a a e t o t h e s a o on t h e fi s h d w rt .

3 3 6 S h a dow o f a S o i d h a i n g P an e F a e s
. l v l c Wh
en a so i ld -

h v
a ing pl
a n e fa c e s i s a ce in a pl d
e am O f b
ig t l h wh h l r
i c i s a ge e n o g u h
br
t o e m a ce t h e wh l
o e of t h e s o i , i t i s e i e n ld a v d t th t
on e a p rt
o f a fa c e

of t h e s o i ld
c an n o t
b e i n ig an d a n o l ht e a th r p r t h d u l
i n s a e , n e ss t he
s oli d -
tr t
h as r e e n a n a n g e s , i n ic l wh h
c as e on e a p rt
of t h e s o i ld
m ay
c as t
h d w
a s a o on a n o e a th r p rt H
e n c e t h e s a e in e m s
. h d l u t
be m a e d
up dof e ge s of t h e s o i l d Th
os e e ge s . d
ic ma e wh h k upt he s a e i n e h d l
r lly
c a n ge n e a d be e e mine t r d by
i ns e c i o n p t a A p r t ul r d
i c a e ge i s .

p rt
a h d l
Of t h e s a e l r pr
i n e i f a i n e e e s e n i n g a r ay of i g t l ht
m ee ing a t
p t
oi n d
on t h e e g e i n e s i on qu t d
oe s n ot e n e t h e s o i t r at l d th t p t
a oi n .

FIG . 7 72
. FIG . 7 73 .

H a vi ng d e te r m i n e d t he s h ad e l i ne i t s cas t s h ad ow wh i c h i s t he
, ,

ou t l i n e of t h e c a s t s h a d o w of t h e s o l i d m a b e d e te r m i n e d by t h e c on
y ,

s t r u c t i on s of t h e t wo pr e c e di n Ar t s
g .

I n s te a d of fir s t d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s h ad e l i n e t h e c as t s h a d o w of e ac h ,

e d ge of t he s o l i d m ay b e fo u n d T h e r e s ult i n g fi g ure i s e i th e r a
.

p arall e l o r a c on i cal pr oj e c ti o n of t h e s ol i d a c cordi ng as t h e r ay s of

l igh t a r e par a ll e l or pr oce e d from a po i n t T he b ou n d ary l i n e of th i s .

pr oj e c ti on i s t h e c as t s h ad ow O f t h e s o l i d .

F i g 7 7 2 s h o w s t h e s h a d o w c as t by a s h o r t c h i m n e y on a r o of an d
.

a l s o t h e s h a d o w c a s t by t h e c op i n g o n t h e c h i m n e y i t s e lf T he r y s of . a

l i gh t a r e p arall e l t o r r All t h e n e ce s s ary con s tru c t ion l i ne s a r e

'
.

s ho w n .

F i g 7 7 3 s h o w s t h e s h a d o w s ca s t by a h e x a gon a l pyr am i d a n d a t r i
.

a n gul a r pr i s m on t h e h o r i z o n t a l p la n e a n d a l s o t h e h a d o w c as t by t he s

pyr am i d on t h e pr i s m T h e r y s of l i ght ar e p ar all e l t o r

. a All t he r
'
.

n e c e s sa ry c o n s tru c t i on l i n e s a e s h o w n r .
 P R O JE C T I O N O F S HA D OW S ’

41 5

3 37 S h ad o w o f a C y l i n d e r
. .
—A
c yl i n d e r whi c h c as t s a s h ad o w

e n e r a lly h as i t s s h ad e l i n e m ad e up of t w o s t r a i ght l i n e s a n d t w o
g
c urv e d l i n e s T h e s tr a i gh t l i n e s a r e t h e l i n es of c on ta c t of t he t w o
.

tan ge n t p l an e s t o t he c yl i n d e r , t h e s e tan ge n t pl an es a r e p a r a ll e l t o t he
ray s of l i gh t or p a s s throu gh t he lu m i nou s p oi n t Con c e i ve a pl an e t o .

c o n ta i n t h e s e s tr a i g ht l i n e s Th i s pl an e w i ll d i vi d e e ac h e n d of t he
.

c yl i n d e r i n to t w o s e gm e n t s , a n d t h e c urv e d b o u n d a ry l i n e O f o n e of

th e se se gme n ts on e a c h e n d w i ll c on s t i t u te t he c urve d p a r ts of t he
s had e l i ne Those s e gm e n t s of t he e n d s wh i ch m u s t be t a k e n i n ge t
.

ti ng t he c urve d p ar ts O f t he s h ad e l i n e w i ll be e v i de n t from i n s pec ti o n

.
.

I n t h e pa rt i c ul a r c a s e wh e r e t h e r a y s o f l i g ht a r e p a ra ll e l t o t he
a x i s o f t he c yl i n d e r t h e s ur f a c e of t h e c yl i n d e r i s i t se l f t h e s h a d o w
f

s urf a c e , a n d i n t h e p a rt i c u l a r case wh e r e t h e r ay s of l i h t di v e r e from

g g
a po i n t wi t h i n t h e c yl i n d e r pr odu c e d , t h e o u t l i n e o f t h a t e n d of t h e

c yl i n d e r wh i c h i s n ea r e s t t o t h e l u m i n ou s po i n t i s t h e s h ad e l i n e .

F IG . 7 74 . FIG . 775 .

Ha vi n g d e te rm i n e d t he s h ad e l i ne i t s c as t s h ad ow wh i c h i s t he
, ,

o u t l i n e of t h e ca s t s h a d o w o f t he cyl i n d e r m a b e de te r m i n e d by t h e
y ,

con s t ru c t i ons of Ar ts 334 an d 335 . .

Fi g 7 7 4 s h o w s t h e s h a d o w cas t by a r i gh t c i r c ul a r c yl i n d e r on t h e
.

h ori on t al pl n e T h e a xi s O f t h e cyl i n d e r i s h or iz on ta l an d t h e r ay s
z a .
,

of l i gh t ar e p a r a ll e l t o r r All t he n e c e s sa ry c ons t ru c ti on l i n e s ar e
'
.

s hown .

F i g 7 7 5 s h ow s t h e cas t s ha d o w o f a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c yl i n de r wh os e
.

v e r t ica l T he li gh t pr oce e d s from t h e p oi n t s an d t he s h a d ow

.
’
s ,

i s cas t p a rt ly on t h e h o ri z on ta l pl an e a n d p ar t ly on t h e i n c l i n e d pl a n e
L MN All t h e n e ce ss a ry con s t r u c t io n l i n e s ar e s h ow n
’

3 3 8 S h a do w o f a C o n e —
. .

. A c on e wh i c h c as ts a s h a d o w ge n e
r lly h as i t s s h ad e l i n e m ad e up of t w o s t rai gh t l i n e s an d on e cu rv e d
a

l i ne T h e tr i ght l i n e s a r e t h e l i n e s of c on tac t of t w o t a n ge n t pl an e s
. s a

t o t h e o n e t h e se t a n g e n t pl n e s
c , e p r a ll e l t o t h e r y s of l i g ht or
a ar a a
41 6 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

pa s s thr ou gh t h e lu m i n o u s p oi n t A pl an e c on t a i n i n g t he s e s trai gh t
.

l i n e s w i ll d i vi d e t h e b s e of t h e c o ne i n t o t w o s e gm e n ts n d t h e c urve d
a a

bo u n d ry l i n e Of o n e of th e s e w i l l be t he c urve d p rt of t he s h d e l i n e
a a a .

T h e e gm e n t of t h e b as e wh i c h m u s t b e ta k e n i n g e t t i n g t h e c urv e d
s

p a r t O f t h e s h ad e l i ne w i ll b e e v i d e n t fro m i n s p e c t i on .

I n t h e c s e w h e r e t h e l i n e wh i c h r e p r e s e n t t h e r y of l i gh t
a s a

throu g h t h e v e r te x of t h e c on e fa ll s i n s ide t h e c o n e t h e s h d e l i n e w i ll , a

c on s i s t s i m p ly o f t h e wh ol e o utl i n e of t h e b a se of t h e c on e .

F i g s 7 7 6 an d 7 7 7 s h o w t w o c s e s O f t h e s h a d o w c a s t o n t h e h or i
. a

z o n t l pl a n e by a r i gh t c i r c ul a r co n e t h e a x i s o f t h e con e be i n g p e r
a ,

e n di l t t h v e rt i a l pl a n e o f pr oj e c t i on I n Fi 7 7 6 t h r y
p cu a r o e c g e . s . a

o f l i h t a r e p r a ll e l t o r r wh l t h e y d i v e r e fr om t h e
'
i e i n Fi g 7 7 7
g a , .
g
poi n t s s t t i s t he t race on t h e pla n e of t he b ase of a l i ne thr ou gh t he
’
.
'

FIG . 776 . FIG . 777 .

v e rt e x of t h e con e p a ra ll e l t o r r i n Fi g 7 7 6 an d throu gh 8 8 i n Fi g 7 7 7
'
.
'
. .

Li n e s dr a w n fr om t he v e r t e x of t h e c on e t o t he poi n ts Of c on t ac t of
t h e t a n g e n t s f r o m t t t o t h e b as e of t h e c o n e ar e t h e s t rai g h t p or ti on s
’

of t h e s h ad e l i n e T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e c on s t ru c t i on is obv i o u s
3 3 9 S h a d o w o f a S p h e r e —A s ph e r e wh i c h c a s ts a h ad o w
. .

. s ,

wh e n t h e ray s of l i ght r e p a ra ll e l w i ll h av e for i t s s h ad e l in e t he

a ,

c i r c l e of c on ta c t of t h e e n v e l op i n g c yl i n d e r wh os e a x i s i s p a r a ll e l t o t h e

r y s of l igh t Th i s c yl i n de r a n d i t s l i n e of c on tac t w i th t he s ph e re
a .

a r e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e c on s tru c t i on of Art 221 p 256 .

, . .

I f t h e r y s Of l i ght p r oc e e d from a po i n t t h e s ph e r e wh i c h c as t s a
a ,

s h ado w w i ll h a ve for i t s s h a d e l i n e t h e c i r c l e o f c on t a c t of t h e e n v e l o p

i n g c on e wh os e v e r te x i s a t t h e lu m i n o u s p oi n t T h i s c on e an d i t s .

c i r c l e of c on t ac t w i t h t h e s ph e r e r e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e c on s t ru c t i on
a

of Art 227 p 263

.
, . .

T h e i n t e r s e c ti on of t h e s urfa c e of t h e e n v e l op i n g c yl i n d e r or
41 8 P RA C T I C AL G E O ME T RY

T he s olu ti on of a n e x a m ple , wh i c h t h e s t ud e n t s h ould work ou t

c a r e f ully , i s s h o w n i n F i 7 8 0 T h e s o l id , wh i c h i s i n t h e for m of a
g . .

v a s e , h as i t s a x i s ve rt i ca l T h e r ay s of l i g h t ar e p a ra lle l t o r r , a nd t he
.
'

s h a d o w of t h e v a s e i s c as t o n t h e h or i z on ta l pl a n e O f pr oj e c t i o n .

T h e c h i e f d i ffi c u lty i s w i t h t h e l i n e of s e p a r a ti o n on t h e uppe r or
c on ca v e p a rt of t h e v a s e . an d a r e t h e e l e v a t i on s of t he

FIG . 7 80 .

l i ne s t t of t h e cyl i n d e r or yl i n d e rs e n v e l op i n g t he u ppe r p r t
o f c on a c c a

o f t h e s ol i d A p art of t he l i n e C D c as t s s h d o w MG on t he n e c k of
. a a

t h e v as e . A p rt of CD n d p r t of t he s ol i d i n t h e n e ighbo urh oo d
a a a a

of H c ast s h d o w o n p r t of t h e ol i d be l o w H n d t h e o u tl i n e of
a a a a s a

th i h ad o w i s t h e c urv e H N T h e c urve s M G a nd H N r e Obt ai n d

s s . a e

by t h e c on s tru c ti on of Art 334 p 4 1 1 . , . .

I f t h e r y s of l i g h t p roce e d fr om a p o i n t t he
a oble m m y b e s olv e d r a

by t he app l i c ti on of t h e c on s t ru c ti on of Art 29 p 328

a . . .
 P R OJE CT I O N O F S HA D OW S 41 9

E x e r ci s e s XX V I I

pr j t i
1 . f t gl AB CD d q u r M N OP
T he o ec
gi v i Fi g
on s o a r e c an e an a s a e ar e en n
D t rm i t h h d w t by t h q u r th r t gl hdw
.

781 . e e ne d th e s a o c as e s a e on e e c an e an e s a o s
t b y b th fi gu
c as t h pl o f pr j t i Th r y f li ght p r ll l
r e s on e an e s o o ec on . e a s o ar e a a e
’
t o rr .

2 D t rm i . th hdw e e t by t h tri gl b b (F i g 7 82) t h

ne e s a o s cas e an e a c a
' ' '
c . on e
pl f pr j t i
an e s o Th r y f l i ght pr d fr m t h p i t
o ec on . e a s o oce e o e o n ss
’
.

FIG . 7 81 . FIG . 782 . FIG . 7 83 . FIG . 7 84 .

In r ep rodu ci n g t he a bov e diagr ams ta ke t he sma ll s qu ar es as o f ha lf i n c h side .

T h e s e m i c i c e s a bc an d a b c (F i g 7 8 3) ar e t h e
3 . rl an an d e e a i o n r e
' ' '
. pl lvt
uv
s p e c t i v e ly of a c e t ai n c r e hw hdw
S o t h e s a o s cas by r t rv
i s c u e on t h e an e s pl . th
of pr t wh
oj e c i on en t h e r
ay s o f i g l ht p r ll l
ar e a a e to r r
'
.

4 T he .pl lvt ' ’

an a b a n d e e a i o n a b o f a h rz t l
o i on a l v
c i r c e ar e gi e n i n F i g 784 . .

l u pl
An ob i q e l v
an e L M N i s a so gi e n Dtr
e e m ine t he s a o
’
hdw
s c as t
by t h e c i c e rl .

l u pl
on t h e ob i q e an e an d on t h e h r z t l pl
o i on a ane wh
en t he ay s ofr ig l ht
ar e
p r ll l t
a a e o rr
'
.

b t h pl n f tr i ght l i m k s 45 wi th X Y nd b 5i h 1;
°
5 . a ,
e a o a s a ne a e . a a ar e nc
i h nc r p ti v l y b l w X Y A d B
es es ec e 2 i h d 1 i
e o h r p t iv l y . an ar e nc es an nc es ec e
a b v th H P
o e Th e h d w f AB t h V P i h ri z t l li n 3 i h l g
. . e s a o o on e . . s a o on a e nc es on .

( )
1 D t rm i e et h d i r t i i pl
ne d l v t ie f p r ll l ecy f li g ht wh
on s , i h n an a n e e a on , o a a e ra s o c

w uld t thi h d w (2) T h h d w b i g t by li ght fr m lum i u

o c as s s a o . e s a o e n c as o a no s
p i t whi h i i pl p rp d i l r t X Y n d whi h
o n c s n a t i th p i t A
an e e en cu a o a c c on a n s e o n ,

d t rm i t h pl
e e ne d l v ti f t h l umi
e an anu p i t Sh w t h h d w i n e e a on o e no s o n . o e s a o
ea c h c as e .

6 A ub . f i c h dg h i t b h ri z t l d 1 i h b v t h H P
e o nc es e e as s as e o on a an nc a o e e . .

D t rm i t h h d w t by t h ub
e e ne e s t h H P wh
a o th casy f l i ght e c e on e . . en e ra s o ar e
p ll l t d i g l f t h li d
ar a e o a a on a o e so .

7 A .li d f t h f rm f t h l tt r T t n d
so o t h fl r in t h
e o n gl o f tw e e e s a s on e oo e a e o o
v rti l w ll
e ca h wn i F i g 7 8 5 D t m i t h h d w
a s as s o t b y t h li d n
n . . e er ne e s a o s c as e so o
t h fl r d t h w ll t h r y f li ght b i g p r ll l t '
e oo an on e a s, e a s o e n a a e o rr .

8 F i g 7 8 6 r pr
. t q u r pyr m i d p tr ti g q u r pri m D t rm i n
. e esen s a s a e a en e a n as a e s . e e e
th hdw
e s at by tho li d s c as th r d t h pl ese so f p j ti s o n on e a n o e an on e an e s o r o ec on ,
th f li ght b i g p r ll l t
’
e ra
y s o e n a a e o rr .

9 D t rm i. th e eh d w t by t h bj t h wn i n F i g 7 87 i t lf d n
ne e s a o c as e o ec s o . on se an o
t h h ri z t l pl Th r y f l i ght p r ll l t '
e o on a an e . e a s o ar e a a e o rr .

10 D t mi . th h d w
e er t by t h bj t h wn i F i g 7 88 n i t lf n d
ne e s a o c as e o ec s o n . o se a
th h iz t l pl Th r y f l i gh t p r ll l t ’
on e or on a an e . e a s o ar e a a e o rr .

11 i th . tr f i r l 2 i h i d i m t r
o s e c en b i
e o tr i ght l in e
a c c e nc es n a e e . oa s a s a
c utti g t h i l t
n 05 i
e c rc e a h b 2i h Th 0 i r l i t h pl
. 0a f nc , o nc es . e c c e s e an o a
r i ght i r l r y l i d r t n d i g
c cu a th H Pc H i ght f y l i d r 2 i h
n e s a bi n on e . . e o c n e ,
nc es . a s
t h pl e f tr ight l i whi h t u h t h upp r d f t h y li d r t C d
an o a s a ne c o c es e e en o e c n e a an
h as th d B th H P
e en S h w i pl on n d l v ti e th h d w t by t h e
. . o n an a e e a on e s a o c as
 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

li n e on l dr
t h e c y i n e an d on t he H P T he g o n
. . ru d l
i n e fo r t h e e e l v ti a on m ak e s
75
°
wi th ab T he
. pl
an s of t he r ay s o f i g m ak e 45l ht
°
i w th
the g o r u d li n n e an d
30
°
wi th a b, a n d t h e e e lvt a i on s of t h e a y s ar e
p e ern i rp d u r
c la t o ei th r pl an s .

FIG . 7 85 . FIG . 7 86 . FIG . 7 87 . FIG . 7 88 .

In r ep r odu ci n g t he a bove di agr ams ta ke t he s m a ll s q u a r es as o f h a lf i nc h side .

12 . d h w i F i g 7 89 i i llum i t d by r y f li ght whi h

T h e s oli s o n n . s na e a s o c ar e
p r ll l
a a e D t rmi t h p rt f t h u f
to rr
'
. f th
e e li d whi h ne i e a s o e s r ac e o e so c ar e n
shdw a o .

13 A li d m d up f t w y li d r i h w i F ig 7 90 D t rm i t h
. so a e o o c n e s s s o n n . . e e ne e
sh d w t by thi li d t h V P wh t h r y f l i ght pr d f m t h
a o c as s so on e . . en e a s O oc e e ro e
pi to n Al i di t t h p rt f t h urf
ss
'

. so , n f th li d whi h i h d w
ca e e a s o e s ac e o e so c ar e n s a o .

14 A d y li d h w i Fi g 7 91 D t rm i t h h d w t
'

. c o n e an c n e r ar e s o n n . . e e ne e s a o s c as
by th li d
ese s o th H P l t h h d w t by t h
s on e . th y li d r
.
,
a so e s a o c as e c on e on e c n e .

I d i t t h p rt
n ca e f th urf e f th
a li d whi h
s o t i ll u m i
e s t d Th ac e s o e so s c ar e no na e . e

r y f l i ght p r ll l t
a s o ar e a a e o rr
’
.

1 5 A ri ght . b 3 i h d i m t r xi 3 5 i h l g l i
c on e , as e th nc es a e e ,
a s nc es on ,
es on e

gr u d o n f th g
,
r ti g l i
on e o f th e b i g t h li
e ne fa t t Th n nes o e c on e e n e ne O c on a c . e

r y f li ght b i g p r ll l i li d t 45 t t h gr u d d th i r pl i li d
a s o e n a a e ,
nc ne a
°
o e o n , an e an s nc ne

FIG . 789 . FIG . 7 90 . FIG . 7 91 . FIG . 7 92 .

In r e r odu ci ng
p t he a bove di agr ams ta ke the sma ll s quar es as o f h a lf i nc h s i de .

at 35 t o t h e
°
x pl
an o f t h e a i s o f t h e c on e , an d t h e b as e O f t h e c on e be i n g i n s a o , hdw
dtr h dw t
e e m i ne t he s a o cas b y t h e c o n e on t h e g o n ru d .

hw h
1 6 F i g 7 92 s o s a e m i s
. . e r i ca cu p i a c o s s b ar at t h e t o p ph
S o on l w th r hw .

t hepl hd w t
an t h e s a o c as on t h e i n s i e s fa ce of t h e c u p T h e ay s of i g ar e d ur r l ht .

p ll l
ar a e t o r r
'
.

urv d r
1 7 T he c . e s u face o f a bo i s a on e of a s e e La ge wl
i am e e o f z -

ph r r rd tr .

h lr
z on e , 2 7 5 i n c e s S m al e i am e e ,
. i n c es H eig , 1 inc d trT he bo h ht h wl . .

t d wt
s an s i h i t s b as e o n t h e gr o n an d i s i m i n a e f om a o i n u d ic i s 2 25 llu td r p t wh h
h v u d
i n c e s abo e t h e gr o n a n d os e an i s 2 i n c e s f om t h e c e n wh pl
e of t h e an h r tr pl
422 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

s urf ac e o f h i y l i d ri l D t rm i t h h d w
t he ni c e t in th i h
s c n ca . e e ne e s a o s c as e n c e

d th p t f th ph r i h d T h y f li ght p r ll l t '
an e ar o e s e e n s a e . e ra s o ar e a a e o rr .

22 T h i r ul r AB C (Fi g 7 96)r t t
e c c b ut i t
a h d AC Dr w t h
ar c . o a es a o s c or . a e
l v ti d pl n f t h fi gu r t d D t rm i t h h d w t
.

e e a on an g a o e re en e a e . e e ne e s a o c as on
th h iz
e t l pl b y p r ll l r y s f l i gh t
or on a f wh i h R i gi v
an e Sh w tha a e a o , on e o c s en . o e
m rgi n f l i ght
a d h d o th urf f th an li d s a e on e s ac e o e so .

23 T h l v ti . d h l f pl e e ef l i d f v l uti n
a gi v n i F i g 7 97
o n an a an o a so o re o o ar e e n .
,

th xi b i g v ti l F i d t h pr j ti n f t h l i m i t f l i ght d h d
e a s e n er ca . n e o ec o s o e s o an s a e on

th e li d n d t h m pl t utli
so a f th h d w thr wn by t h li d
e co th
e e o ne o e s a o o e so on e

h i z t l pl n T h rr w i n di t t h di r ti p ll l r y f
,

or on a a e . f th e a o s ca e e ec on o e ar a e a s o

li gh t .
[ J B E . .

2 4 T h l i n L L (F i g 7 98 )r t t
. e b ut t h e xi AA Dr w t h pl d. o a es a o e a s . a e an an
l v ti n f t h fi g g r t d D t m i t h h d w t t h h i z t l
e e a o o e ure ene a e . e er ne e s a o c as on e or on a
pl b y p r ll l y f l i ght n f whi h R i gi v n
an e a a e ra s o [ n] ,
o e o c s e . a
2 5 An u lu. h r i g i t i n t w by n xi l pl n O f t h
an n s or an c o r n s cu o a a a a e . ne o e
h lv i h w i pl (F i g
a es s s wi th i t
o n ti n d r ti g t h h ri z t l
an . s sec on e n s es n on e o on a

pl an e Dr w t h l v ti
. f thi a mi ulu e XY e eD t rm i al th on o s se -
an n s on . e e ne a so e

s h dw t
a o t h h ri z n t l pl
c as by on y f l i ght p r ll l t t h v rt i l
e o o a an e ra s o , a a e o e e ca

pl an e , andi li d t 30 t t h h i z t l pl nc ne f wh i h i
a h wn i pl°
o e or on a an e , on e o c s s o n an

a t A d h w t h pr j t i n
r . n f t h l im i t
s o f l i ght n d h d
e n th ufc f
o ec o s o e s o a s a e o e s r a e o

th li d
e so .

FIG . 7 99 .

lvt pp
26 T wo e e a i on s o f a i e b e n ,
. d w th r ul r fl
i t wo c i c a hw an ge s , ar e s o n i n

F i g 800 R e o
. pr d u th ce lvt
. th t
e s e e e a i on s r ee z v dtr
i m es t h e s i e g i e n , an d e e m i n e
the pr t l t l ht
oj e c i on s o f t h e i mi s o f i g hd l d wh
an d s a e o n t h e s o i lu td
en i t i s i l m i n a e
p l lr
b y ar a l e l ht l d h w
ay s o f ig hw l
i n c i n e as s o n ht h d l v
S o a s o on t h e r i g an e e a .

t hd w t
i on t h e s a o c as wh l l d
by t h e v rt l pl
o e so i on t h e e t
i ca an e c on a i n i n g t h e fa c e

of t h e
: v rt l fl
e i ca an ge v d t r l t h d l v t wt
T o a oi t h e i n e r fe e n c e of t h e e f . an e e a i on i h
h dw t
t he s a o v t l pl
c as o n t h e e r i ca lvt pl d urth r
an e t h e t wo e e a i on s m ay b e ac e f e

1 t
a )ar .

2 7 T h pl f . h r i g r ti g t h h ri z t l pl i t w
e an o an an c o r n es n on e o on a an e s o c on
t i ir l t h l rg r b i g 3 1 i h i di m t r d t h m ll r i h
c en r c c c es , e a e e n nc es n a e e ,
an e s a e nc es
i d i m t r T h m ll r i r l i l t h pl
n a e e . f v rti l i ght y li d r
e s a e c c e s a so e an o a e ca r c n e

( h i g hte i h ) t d i g t h h r i z t l
nc pl esD t rm i t h
s anh d w n on e o on a an e . e e ne e s a o
t t h h i z t l pl
c as on d t h u i ll um i
e or t d p rti f th
on a h r ri g an e , an e n na e o on o e an c o n ,

t ki g p i t
a n ur f li ght whi h i 2 7 i h b v t h h ri z t l pl
a o n as a s o ce o c s nc es a o e e o on a an e

d wh
an pl i 2 2 in h fr m t h
os e tr f t h pl f t h i g
an s c es o e c en e o e an o e r n .
 CH AP TER XX V I I I
MIS CELLANEOUS PROB LE MS I N SOLI D GE OMET RY

34 1. Th e R e gu l a r D o d e c a h e dr o n T h e r e gu la r dode ca he dr on .
-

i s on e of t h e fi v e r e g ul a r s o li d s n d h s tw e lv e f c e s ll e qu l a nd a a a a a

r e gu l r p e n t go n s Th i s s ol i d i s s h ow n i n i t s i m p l e s t p o i t i o n i n
a a . s s ,

re l ti o n t o t he p l a n e s of pr oj e c ti on i n F i g 8 01 On e f ce AB C D E i s
a , . . a

o n t h e h o ri z on t l p l a n e a n d AB a ,

on e e d ge of th t f ce i s a t r i gh t
a ,
a

n le s t o X Y L e t 0 b e t he ce n t re
a
g .

of t h e c i r c u m s c r i b i n g c i r c l e of th e

re gul r pe n t gon abcde T he s i d e s

a a .

of t h e p e n t ago n a bcde re t he a

h ori z on tal t ra ce s of fi v e of t h e
f ce s of t h e d od e c h e dr on
a nda ,
a

th e s e fi v e fa ce s m ee t i n s t r i gh t a

l i n e s wh os e pl an s p s s thro u g h t h e a

a n g ul a r p o i n t s a b c d an d e
, , , , ,

a n d i f pr odu c e d t h e s e pl n s p s s a a

thro u g h 0 .

Co n s i d e r t h e t w o fa ce s wh o s e
h o ri zon t l t r ac e s a r e a b an d be
a

th e s e face s m e e t i n a l i n e wh os e
p lan gb wh e n produ ce d p s se s
, ,
a

t hrou gh 0 T o fi n d t he p oi n t 9
.
,

i m ag i n e t h e fa c e A B C t o r e vo lve
a bo u t AB i n t h e c l oc kw i s e d i r e c t i on

u n ti l i t i s i n t h e h or i zon t l pl n e a a .

I t w i ll th e n e v i d e n t l y c oi n c i d e w i th
t h e pe n t go n a bcde n d t h e pl n
,

a a a

of t he p o i n t C w i ll tr a ve l i n t h e

l i n e gc p e rpe n d i c ul a r t o a b H e n c e
a l i n e thr o u gh c p e rpe n d i cul r t o a

a b t o m e e t a r a d i l l i n e ob a t
y a
9 F G 801 I . .

d e t e r m i n e s t h e p oi n t g .

T h e pl n m ay n o w b e c om p l e t e d s fo ll o w s
a W i th c e n t re 0 an d a .

r di u s og d e s cr i b e a c i r c l e D i vi d e t h e c i r c u m fe r e n c e of th i s c i r c l e i n to
a .

t e n e qu l p a rt s
a t t h e poi n t s f g h e t c
a D ra w t h e ci r c u m c ri b i n g
, , , . s

c i r c l e of t h e p e n t a bcd D r w h r d l l nd
g o n a a t e iea . i n e s
f m hn e t c a , ,
. a

oi n t he v ar i o u s oi n t s t hus fou n d s s ho w n
j p ,
a .
4 24 P RAC T I CAL G E O METRY

T o dra w t h e e l e v a t i on t
w i th c e n re a a nd r a d i u s a d de s c ri be t he
' ’ ’

c u t t h e pr oj e c t o r f r om e li n e a f
' ' ' ' ’
ar c d
f
’ ’
at f J oi n a f T h h
t o
f . i s t e .

e l e va t i on of t h e fa c e wh os e h o ri z on t a l t
rac e i s a b A pr oj e c t o r fro m g .

t ' '
t
t o m e e a ff a t g d e e rm in e s t h e e l e v a t i on of t h e p oi n t Gr P oi n t s .

wh os e pl an s a r e t he alt e r n at e a n gu lar oin t s of t h e ou e r p olygon ,

‘
p t
t t l
b egi n n i n g w i h 9, h a v e h e i r e e va t i on s at t he s am e l e ve l a s g , a n d t he
'

t
p oi n s wh os e pl an s a r e t h e r e m ai n i n g a n g ul a r po i n t s of h i s ou e r o ly t t p
g on h a v e th e i r e l e v a t i on s a t t h e s a m e l e ve l as f
’
P o i n s s u c h as M . t
a n d N on t h e t o
p fa c e ar e a t a h e i h
g a bo v e e qu t
a l t o t h e h e i h of Cr
g F t
a b ov e t h e h o r i z on a l pl a n e t .

F p t
ro m t he l an an d e le va i on thu s d e e rm i n e d o h e r roj e c ti on s m ay t t p
b e dra w n i n t h e u s u a l w ay p
F o r e x a m l e , i f a g r o un d l i n e b e t a k e n
.

p
pe r e n d i cul a r t o m d , t he e l e va ti on of on e of t h e a x e s of t he s o i d , a
’ '
l
t
pl an of t h e s ol i d , wh e n h a t a xi s i s v e rt i ca l , m ay b e r oj e c e d from t he p t
t
e l e v a i o n a lr e ady dra w n t t
Bu t h e s ud e n t i s re c om m e n d e d t o ry a n d
. t
p t
dra w di r e c tly t he l a n an d an e l e va i on of t h e d od e c ah e dr on wh e n i t s a xi s
t t t
i s v e r i c a l , w i th ou fir s dra w i n g i t w i th on e fa c e on t h e h or i z on a l pl an e t .

t
Wh e n an a xi s of t he s ol i d i s v e r i ca l i t s h ould be n o i ce d th a t h e t t
pl a n e s of t h e thre e fa ce s
t
m e e i n g a t a n e xtr e m i y o f t
t h a t a x i s w i ll be e qu ally
i n c l i n e d t o t h e g r o u n d , an d
b e i n g e qu ally i n cl i n e d t o
o n e a n o h e r, t t
h ei r lin e s of
t
i n t e r s e c i o n w i ll i n pl an
m a k e 1 20 w i th on e a n o th e r
0
.

A s a n e x e rc i s e i n dr a w
i n g t he p t
roj e c i on s o f t h e
d o d e cah e dr on t h e e d ge s of
t h e s ol i d m ay b e c o nv e n i
t
e n ly t a k e n , s a ,
y i nch e s

l on g .

342 T he R e gu l ar
—
.

I c o s a h e dr o n T h e r eg u
.

la r i cos a he dr on i s a n ot h e r
on e o f t h e fi v e r e g ul a r s o l i d s

and h a s t we n ty fa c e s a ll
e qu a l e q u i l a t e r a l t r i an l e s
g .

F i g 8 02 s h ow s a r e g ul a r
.

i c o s a h e dron , i n pl a n a n d
e l e v a t i on , wh e n o n e fac e
A B C i s on t he h or i z on ta l
p lan e an d AB on e e d ge of
th at fac e i s p e rp e n d i c u la r
to X Y T he pl a n O f t h e
.

.
FIG 802 . .

t op fa c e , wh i c h i s a l s o h o r i
z o n t a l i s a n e qu i l a t e r a l t ri a n l e i n s c r i b e d i n t h e s a m e c i r c l e , c e n t r e 0
, g ,

a s t h e t r i a n l e a bc , t h e s i d e s o f t h e o n e be i n p a r a ll e l to t h e s i d es of
g g
t h e o t h e r a s s h ow n , .
426 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

T h e foll o wi n g fa c t s s h ou ld be k e p t i n vi e w wh e n w ork i n g pr obl e m s

on t h e r e g ul a r s ol i d s i n s c ri b e d i n t h e s ph e r e .

T h e pl a n e c on t ai n i n g on e e dge of a t e t r a h edr on a n d t h e ce n t re of
t h e c i r c u m s c ri b i n g s p h e r e b i s e c ts t h e O p po s i te e d ge a t r i tgi ht a n g l e s .

T h e r e c t a n gl e wh i c h h a s for i t s d i a gon a l s t w o of t he di agon als of a

cu b e 1 s i n s c r i be d In a g r e a t c i r c l e of t h e c i r c u m s c ri b i n s ph e r e
g .

T h e o c ta h e dr on c an b e d i vi d e d i n t o t w o s qu a re pyr a m i d s i n t hr e e
d i ffe re n t w ays , an d t h e s qu a re b a se s of a ll t h e se pyr a m i d s w i ll be
i n s c r i b e d i n gr e a t c i r c l e s of t h e c i r c u m s c r i b i n g s p h e r e
—
.

3 4 4 S o l i d s C i r c u m s c ri b i n g t h e S p h e r e A s ol i d i s sa i d t o
'

c i r c u m s c r i be a s ph e r e , or a s p h e r e t o b e i n s c r i b e d i n a s o l i d , wh e n all

t he fa c e s of t h e s o l i d a r e t an ge n t i a l t o t h e s ur face o f t he s ph e re .

A pl a n e b i s e c ti ng t h e a n gl e be t w ee n an y t wo face s of t he s ol i d
p as s e s thr ou g h t h e ce n tre of t h e i n s c ri b e d s p h e r e .

I n t h e c a s e of a n y on e of t h e fi v e r e g ul a r s ol i d s t he ce n t r e s of t h e
i n s c ri b e d an d c i r c u m s c r i bi n g s ph e r e s c o i n c i d e
—
.

3 4 5 T h e S p h e r e , C y l i n de r an d G on e i n C o n t a ct
. I f t wo
s ph e r e s to u c h on e a n ot h e r , t h e p o i n t of c on t a c t an d t h e ce n t r es of

t he s p h e r e s ar e i n t h e sa m e s t r ai ght l i n e .

I f a s p h e re t o u c h e s a c yl i n d e r or c on e i t w i ll do s o at a po i n t, a n d i f
t h e c yl i n d e r o r c on e b e a r i gh t c i r c ul a r cyl i n d e r or a r i ght c i r c ul ar
c on e , t h e c e n t r e of t h e s ph e r e t h e p oi n t of c on t ac t , a n d t h e a xi s of t he

cyl i n d e r o r c on e a r e i n t he s a m e pl a n e .

I f t w o c yl i n d e r s o r t w o c on e s o r a c yl i n d e r a n d a c on e t ou c h on e
a n o t h e r , th e y wi ll do s o e i th e r a l on g a s tr ai ght l i n e o r at a p oi n t I f .

t h e c y li n d e r s or c on e s a r e r i ght c i r c ul a r c yl i n d e r s or r i ght ci r c ul a r
c on e s a n d t h e y to uch on e a n ot h e r a l on g a s t r a i ght l i n e , t he l i n e of

con t a c t a n d t he a x e s of t h e s urf a c e s ar e i n t h e s a m e pl an e ; t he a x es

wi ll th e r e fo r e e i t h e r be p a ralle l or th e y w i ll i n te rs e c t .

Wh e n t w o r i ght ci r c ul a r cyl i n d e rs tou c h on e an o th e r at a p oin t

t h e c om m on p e rpe n d i c ul a r t o t h e i r a x es p as s e s t hr ou g h t h e p oi n t of
t t
c on a c .

T wo su rfac es wh i c h tou ch on e an o th e r h v ea a c o mm on t an g e n t
pl an e .

3 4 6 P r oj e c t i o n s o f F ou r S p h e r e s i n M u t u al C o n t a c t
. .

D en o te t h e s ph e re s an d th e i r c e n t r e s by A, B , C , and D , an d le t th e i r
radi i be r , , r , , a n d r 4 r es p e c t i v e ly . A s s u m e t h a t t h e s ph e r e s A, B,
a n d C a r e r e s t i n g o n t he h o ri zo n t a l pl an e a n d t h a t t h e l i n e j oi ni n g t h e

c e n t r e s A a n d B i s p a r a ll e l t o t h e v e r t i c a l pl a n e of pr oj e c t i on T he .

e l e v a t i o n s of t h e s ph e r es A a n d B (F i g 8 04)a r e c i r c l e s to u c h i n g on e
.

an ot h e r a n d K Y a n d a ft e r t h e s e a r e dr a w n t h e pl a n s m a y b e p r o

e d fr om t h e m as s h o wn N e x t d e t e r m i n e t h e h o r i z on t a l di s ta n c e s
j e c t .

b e t we e n t he ce n tre s A an d C, a n d B an d C as s h own on t h e e l e vati on .

Th i s d e te r m i n e s t he ce n tr e cc an d t h e pl an an d e l e va ti on of t h e s ph e re
'

C m ay t h e n be dr a w n .

Th e ce n t r e D of t h e fo ur t h s ph e re w i ll be at a d i s t an ce r , r , from t h e

ce n t r e A of t h e fi r s t s ph e r e , a n d a t a d i s ta n c e r 2 r 4 f r om t h e ce n t r e B

of t h e s e c o n d s ph e r e .I f t h e t ri an g l e A D B be c on c e i v e d t o r o ta te
a bo u t t h e s i d e AB , t h e po i n t D w i ll d e s cr i be a c ir cl e W hi c h w i ll be
’
M I S CELLANE O U S P R O BLEM S I N S O L I D G E OMETRY 4 27

t he l oc u s of t he ce n tre of a s ph e re of rad i u s r wh i ch tou ch e s t h e s ph e r e s ,

,

A an d B .

R e m e m b e ri n g th at a b a b i s p ar all e l t o t h e ve rt i ca l pl an e of p r o
,
’ '

e c t i on w i t h ce n tr e s a n d r a d i i e qu a l t o r
' '
nd b
j ,
a a r nd r r , 4 a 2 ,

r e s pe c t i v e ly d e s c ri be a r cs i n te rs e c t i n g t d D r a w d e t o i n t e rs e c t a b
, a , .
,
’ ' ’ '

a t ri gh t n l e s at e Th e r d i u s o f t h e c i r c l e d e s c r i b e d by
’ '
n e d i t h
’
e s
g a .
,
1 a

t h e po i n t D wh e n t h e t r i an gl e A D B i s r o ta te d a bo u t AB T he plan of .

th i s c i r c l e i s a n e ll i p s e wh os e s e m i m i n or a x i s i c d t he pr oj e c t i on
-
s ,,

FIG . 804 .

of c
'
d,
’
on a b . T he m aj o r a x i s ef i s at r i gh an gl e s t o a b a n d e qu a l
sem i -
t
to t t
A qu ar e r of h i s e ll i s e i s s h ow n p .

Agai n , t h e ce n r e t D
of t h e fo ur h s h e r e w i ll b e a t a d i s a n c et p t
r, t
r 4 fr om t h e c e n r e A of t h e fir s s h e r e , a n d a t a di s t a nc e r 3 t p r 4 fr o m

t h e c e n tr e C of t h e th i r d s h e r e p
I f t h e tri an g l e A D C b e c on c e i ve d t o
.

t t t
r o a e a b o u t h e s i d e A C , t h e oi n p tD
w i ll d e s cr i b e a c i r c l e wh i c h w i ll
be t h e l oc u s Of t h e c e n tr e o f a S h e r e of r a d i u s r , wh i c h o u c h e s t h e
p , t
s ph e r e s A a n d C t
T h e c i r c l e w h o s e c e n r e 1 8 c, i s t h e e l e v a i o n o f t h e
.
’
t
p
s h e r e C wh e n t t p
h a s h e r e 1 s br o ug ht r oun d i n t o t he pos i i on In whi c h t
i t t ou c h e s t h e s ph e r e A a n d t h e h o r i z on t a l l a n e an d h as i t s c e n r e i n p t
a p p t p
l an e a rall e l t o t h e v e r i c a l l an e of r oj e c t i on an d c on ai n i n g t h e p t
t
ce n r e A of t h e fir s s ph e r e t t
W i h c e n r e s a an d c, an d rad i i r , r ,
.
’ ’
t
an d r
3 r 4 r e s e c i vp t
e ly ,
d e s c r i b e a r c s i n e r s e c i n
g a t r a w t
d 2
' ’
02 t o t D
' ’
t
i n t ers e c a c, a t r i ght a n g l e s a t Th e n oz dz i s t he r ad i u s of t he c i r cle
’ ’
428 P RA C T I CAL G E O METRY
d e s c ri b e d by t he p oi n t D wh e n t he t r i an gl e A D C i s rot a t e d a bo u t A C .

T h e p l a n o f t h i s c i r c l e i s a n e ll i p e wh os e s e m i m i n o r x is o n i s on a c s -

a n d 1 s o b t i n e d as a h ow n T h e s e m i m j o r x i s oh s t ri gh t an gl e s t o
s .
-
a a I a

ac a n d e qu l t o o d a A qu r t e r of th i s e ll i p e 1 s s h o wn
z
’
z
'
. a s .

T h e t wo c i rc l e s wh i c h h av e b e e n r e fe rr e d t o a s d e s c r i b e d by t h e
p oi n t D i n t e r s e c t at t w o p oi n ts o ne of wh i c h h s t h e p oi n t d fo r i t s a

p l an d b e i n g on t h e t w o e ll i ps e s wh i c h r e t h e pl an s of t h e c i r l e s
,
a c .

T h e e l e v t i on d i s i n c d an d i n t h e p r oj e c t o r f r om d Th i s d e t e r m i n e s
' ' ’
a , .

t h e c e n tr e o f t h e fo urt h s ph e r e a n d t h e pl n a n d e l e v t i on of th a t a a

s p h e re m a n o w b e dra wn
y .

T h e t w o c i r c l e s r e fe rr e d t o as d e s c r i be d b y t h e p o i n t D a r e on t he
s ur fa c e of a s p h e r e wh o s e ce n t r e i s A a n d r d i u s r T h e e ll i p s e s a
,
wh i h r e t h e pl an s of t h e s e c i cl e s m y i n te r s e c t a t fo ur p oi n t bu t
c a r a s,

o n l y t w o of th e s e a r e pl n s of t h e p oi n t s o f i n t e r e c t i on of t h e c i r c l e s
a s .

T h e t ud e n t s h o uld h a v e n o d i ffi c ul ty i n d e ci d i n g o n wh i c h of t he p oi n t s
s

o f i n t e r s e c t i on of t h e e ll i p s e s e t o be t ak e n ar .

3 4 7 S p h e ri c al R o u l e tt e s
. I f t w o c on e s be p l c e d i n l i n e .
-
a

c o n t a c t w i t h th e i r v e rt i c e s c oi n c i d i n g an d i f o n e c o n e b e m d e t o r oll a

o n t h e o t h e r wh i c h i s fix e d n y p oi n t c a rr i e d by t h e r o ll i n a co n e w i l l
, , g
d e s c ri b e sp he i ca l r u le t te T h e d e s c r i b i n g po i n t c a rr i e d by t h e r ol l
a r o .

i n g c o n e m y b e o ut s i d e o r i n s i d e or on t h e ur f c e of t h t c on e a n d
a , ,
s a a

i t w i ll be t a c o n s t an t d i s t an ce fr om t h e c om m on v e r te x o f t h e t w o
a

c on e s h e n c e t he d e s c ri b i n g p oi n t w i l l m ov e o n t h e s urfac e of a fix e d
8 p h e re .

Wh e n t h e t wo c on e s a r e r i gh t ci rc ul ar c o n e s an d t he d e s c r i b in g ,

p o i n t i s on t h e s ur f c e o f t h e r o ll i n
g c oan e t h e s p h e ri c l r o ul e tt e ,
a

b e c om e s a sp h r i ca l ep i cycloi d or a sp he r i ca l hyp ocycloi d a c c ord i n g a s t h e

e

r oll i n g c on e roll s o u ts i d e or i n s i d e t he fix e d c o n e .

S ph e r i c l r o ul e tt e s a r e t o r t u ou s c urv e s a n d n o s i n g le pr oj e c t i o n of
a , ,

a t o t u ou s c urv e c an s h ow i t s t ru e fo r m
r A s ph e ri c l r oul e t te h as . a

th e r e fore t o b e r e pr e s e n t e d by t wo pr oj e c t i on s .

P r oj ec t i on s of a s ph e ri c a l e p i cy c l oi d n d a s p h e r i c l hy p oc y c l oi d a re a a

s h ow n i n F i 8 0 5 T h e d e s c r i p t i o n wh i c h fo l lo w s p p l i e s t o e i th e r
g o
. . a

c urv e i s t h e e l e v a t i o n o f t h e fix e d c o n e t he x i s of wh i c h i s
’ ' '
va
. a a

v e r ti c al a n d t h e e m i c i r cl e a ba i s t he h l f p l an of th i s c on e
,
s a e is a . v
’ ’ ’

t h e e l e v t io n of t h e r o ll i n g c on e wh e n i t s p os i t i on i s s u c h t h t i t s a x i s
a a

i s p r a ll e l t o t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e of pr j e c t i o n
a o .

Le t t he r o ll i ng c on e t a r t f r om t h e p o i t i on i n wh i c h vb v b i s t h e
’ ’
s s ,

li n e of c on t c t n d let t h e p oi n t of c on t c t bb of t he b a e s of t he c o n e s
'
a a a s

i n t h i s p o s i t i o n be t h e i n i t i a l p o s i ti o n o f t h e d e s c r i b i n g p o i n t Ne x t .

s u pp o e t h t t h e r oll i n g c on e r o ll i n to t h e p os i t i o n i n whi c h t h e l i n e o f
s a s

c on t a c t h s e m for i t s pl n
a D r w a c i rc l e mnr h vi ng r d i u s e qu al
a . a ,
a a a

t o t h e r d i u s of t h e b s e O f t he r o l l i n g c on e n d t o u c h i n g t h e pl n of
a a a a

t h e fix e d c o n e t m Con s i d e r t h i s c i r c l e t o be t h e r b a tm e n t of t he
a . a

b s e of t he r oll i n g c on e on t he pl n e of t he b s e of t h e fixe d c on e wh e n
a a a

t h e r oll i n g c on e i s i n t h e p os i t i o n n ow b e i n g c on s i d e r e d T h e ra b t . a

m e n t of t he d e c ri b i n g p oi n t w i ll be r t h e p o s i t i o n of r be i n g s u c h
s ,, ,

th t t h e r c mnr s e qu a l t o t h e a c mb R e s tori n g t h e b e of t he
a a
,
i r . as

r oll in g c on e t o i t s i n cl in e d p o i ti on t h e pl a n r of t h e d e c ri bi n g poi n t s s
430 P RA C TI C AL G E O METRY

R . T h e t an ge n t i s t h e r e fo re t he l i n e o f i n te rs e c ti on of t h e se t wo
pIan es .

T h e s ph e r i c a l e p i c y c l o i d a n d t h e s ph e ri c a l hyp o cy c l oi d oc c ur i n
c onn e c t i on w i t h t h e fo r m a t i o n of t h e t e e th of b e ve l wh ee l s
—
.

3 4 8 R e fl e c t i on s
. Wh e n a r ay of l ig h t i m p in g e s on a p ol i s h e d
s ur fa c e a t a p oi n t Q , i t i s r e fl e c t e d s o th a t t h e i n c i d e n t a n d r e fl e c te d

r ay s an d t he n o r m a l t o t h e r e fle c ti ng s urface a t Q ar e i n t he s a m e
pl an e a l s o t h e i n ci d e n t an d r e fl e c te d r ay s a r e e qu ally i nc l i n e d t o t h e
no rm al .

R e fe rri n g t o Fi gs 8 06 a n d 8 07 le t t h e pl an e of t h e p pe r h e t he
.
, a

pl an e c on t ai n i n g t he i n ci d e n t r y P Q an d t he n orm l Q T t o t he s urf c e
a a a

w h os e s e c ti on by t h e pl an e of t he p a pe r i s AB Th e n t h e r e fl e c te d .

ra
y Q R w i ll b e i n t h e pl an e of t h e p p e r n d w i ll m a k e w i t h QT a n
a a

a n l e 0 e qu a l t o t h e a n l e b e tw ee n P Q a n d
g g QT .

F I G 806
. . FIG . 8 07 . FIG . 8 08 .

I f t he r e fl e c t i n g s u rfa ce i s a p l a ne ( Fi gs 8 07 an d 8 08 )i t i s o bvi ou s
.

th at all i n ci de n t r ay s fro m a p oi n t P w i ll be r e fl e c te d from t he pl an e

a s i f t h e y c a m e d i r e c t f r o m a p oi n t P o n t h e o th e r s i d e o f t h e pl an e a n d
,
i n t h e n o r m a l P N t o t h e pl an e , P , N be i n g e qu a l t o P N A k n o wledg e
.

of t h i s fu n d am e n t a l t h eo r e m m a k e s t he s olut i on o f pr obl e m s on
r e fl e c t i on s fr om pl an e m i rro rs qui te s i m pl e T h e p oi n t P, i s c a ll e d t h e
.

i mage of t h e p oi n t P i n t h e m i rr o r AB I t s h o uld b e n oti ce d t h a t

.

a l t h o u g h t h e i m a e of P i s i n P N pr odu ce d i t i s n ot n e c e s s a ry t h a t t h e
g
m i rr o r s h ould e x te n d t o t h e p oi n t N i n o rd e r t h a t t h e i m age m ay be
se e n f r om t h e po i n t R .

F i g 8 09 s h o w s h o w t o t rac e t h e p a t h of a r ay of l i g h t wh i c h
.

p as s e s fr om a fix e d p oi n t P a n d i s r e fl e cte d i n t urn from a n u m be r of

pl a n e m i rr ors AB , B C, C D , an d D E a n d t h e n p a s s e s thro u gh a fix e d
p oi n t S , t h e m i rro rs b e i n g a t ri ght an gl e s t o t h e pl an e of t h e p ape r .

P , i s t h e i m age O f P i n AB , P 2 i s t h e i m ag e O f P, i n B C, P 3 i s t h e
i m age of P 2 i n CD , a n d P 4 i s t h e i m age o f P 3 i n D E T h e r a y w hi c h
.

i s re fl e c te d fr o m D E a n d p as s e s thr ou g h S m u s t e v i d e n t ly b e i n t h e
l i n e P , S T h e i n c i d e n t r ay on D E i s t h e r e fl ec te d r ay fr om C D an d
, .

m u s t t h e re for e be i n t h e s t r ai g h t l i n e fr o m P 3 , a n d s o on t h e r ay i s
t ra ce d b ac k t o t he p oi n t P a s s h o w n .

F i g 8 10 i llu s t ra te s t h e ge n e r a l ca s e of t h e pr obl e m : gi v e n t h e
.

i n c i d e n t r ay an d a pl a n e fro m wh i c h i t i s r e fl e c te d , t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
r e fl e c t e d r ay P Q i s t h e g i v e n i n c i d e n t r a y a n d H T a n d V T a r e t h e
. . . . .
M I SC ELLANE O U S P RO BLEM S I N SO L I D G E O METRY 43 1

tr a c e s of v e n pl an e Fi n d Q t he poi n t o f i n te r s e c ti on of P Q an d
t h e gi .

t h e pl an e F r om a poi n t P i n P Q dra w t h e n o rm al PN P t o t he pl an e
.
,
a n d fi n d N t h e p oi n t of i n t e r s e c t i on O f t h i s n o r m a l n d t h e pl a n e
a .

M ak e NP e q u a l t o N P J oi n P Q an d pr o du ce i t QR t h e p r odu c e d
, .
, .

p r t of th i s li n i s t h e re fl e c te d r ay r e qu i r e d
a e .

F I G 809
. . F I G 8 10
. .

'
I f t h e g i v e n s ur fa ce from wh i c h a gi v e n i n c i d e n t r ay i s r e fle c t e d i s
a c urv e d s ur fa c e , t h e po i n t of i n t e r se c t i o n of t h e i n c i d e n t r a and t he
y
s ur fa c e m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d by t he m e t h o d for fi n d i n g t h e i n te r s e c t i on

o f a s tra i g h t l i n e a n d t h e p a r t i c ul a r c urv e d s urfa c e gi v e n T h e n o rm a l

.

t o t h e s urfa c e a t t h e po i n t wh e r e t h e i n c i d e n t r a y s t ri k e s i t m u s t th e n
be fo u n d a n d t h e pl a n e c on t a i n i n g i t an d t he i n c i d e n t r ay d e te rm i n e d .

I t w i ll t he n g e n e r a lly b e n e ce s s a ry t o o b ta i n a proj e c t i on of t he
i n c i d e n t r ay an d t h e n o r m a l on a pl a n e p a r a ll e l t o th e i r pl an e , o r t o
obt a i n a r a b a t m e n t of t h e i n c i d e n t r ay a n d n o r m a l i n t o on e of t h e

pl an e s of proj e c ti on , i n o rd e r t o dr a w t he r e fl e c te d r ay wh i c h m u s t
m a k e w i th t h e n o rm a l a n ang l e e qu a l t o t h e an gl e be t w ee n t h e i n ci d e n t
ra a n d t he n o r m a l
y .

ELEVAT ION

OBJECT

PLAN
FIG . 811 . FIG . 812 .

An x am pl e on t he proj e c ti on of an obj e c t an d i t s i m age i n a pl an e

e

m i rr o r i s i l lu s t r a te d by F i g s 8 1 1 n d 8 1 2
. T h e O bj e c t n d i t s i m a ge
a . a

an d t h e m i rr o r are s h o w n i n pl a n an d e l e va t i on t o t h e l e ft i n F i g 8 1 1 . ,
4 32 P RA CT I C AL G E O METRY

t he m i rr o r b e i n g a t ri ght n gl e s t o t h e p l n e s of pr oj e cti on T h e s m e a a . a

F ig s . h ow s t o t he r i g ht n e le va t i on on a s e c on d g rou n d l i n e X Y a , ,
i n c li n e d t o t h e fir s t g r o u n d l in e X Y T he p i c t o r i a l p roj e c ti on i n F i g ; .

8 12 i llu s tr ate s fur th e r t he r e la t i v e p os i t i on s of t he obj e c t m i rr or n d , ,

a

I m a ge .

E x er ci s es X XV I I I

1Dr w i r l
. tr a d r diu
a c i h
c e , c en T k p i t 1i hf m
e 0 an a s nc es . a e a o n a nc ro
0 . D w tr i ght li ra m ki g n
a s a
g l f 6 0 w i th
n e as: T h i r l a i t h n a an e o oa . e c c e s e
pl an f ph r d i t h pl
o a s f p i t A i t upp r f
e e an a s e Ai an o a o n on s e s u r ac e . s on e
c or n e r f u b i i b d i t h p h r d i t h d i r ti
o a c e n s cr e f t h pl
n f e s e e an as: s e ec on o e an o
on e e dg t i i g t h p i t A C m pl t t h pl f t h ub
e c on a n n e o n . o e e e an o e c e .

2 R f r i g t t h pr
. e e r n di g x r i m k o 15 i
e h e ce d th n gl e e c se, a e oa nc es an e an e

ca se i t h pl f gau l r
s p i t ef t tr h
an od r i r i b d i
o n e an t h a o n o a e a e on n sc e n e

s ph er e d m i t h d i r tian f t h pl
a s f e dg t i i ng t h p i t A
ec on o e an o on e e e c on a n e o n .

C m pl t t h pl
o f t h t tr h dr
e e e an o e e a e on .

3 S m . x r i 2 x pt th t t h l i d i n t h dr n i t d f
a e as e e c se , e ce a e so s a oc a e o ns ea o a

t tr h dr
e a e on .

4 Th b . f py m i d i n q i l t r l tri ngl AB C f 2 5 i h i d
e as e o a ra s a e u a e a a e o nc es s e .

T h v rt x V f t h py r m i d i i
e e e l i thr ugh A t i ght gl t t h pl
o e a s n a ne o a r an es o e an e

o f AB C d VA i 25 i ,
h l g P l i g t h py m i d wi th i t b
an s nc es onth . ac n e ra s as e on e

gr u d o d AB p
n ll l t X Y dr w t h p j ti
an ar a f th i
e ri b d d i r um
o ,
a e ro ec on s o e nsc e an c c
sc ri b i g p h n s er es .

5 A ri ght i r u l r
. b 25i ch i
c d i m t r d lti tud 2 5 i h
a co n e , as e nc es n a e e an a e nc es ,
t d wi th i t b
s an s th g u d A y li d r 2 i h i d i m t l i
s as e o n e ro th n . c n e nc es n a e er e s on e

gr n d iou tr t wi th t h n c on th xi f t h y li d r b i g h r i z t l A
ac e c on e , e a s o e c n e e n o on a .

s ph r e e i h i d i m t r t n t h gr u d i nc es n t t wi th t h
a e e d
res s o e o n n c o n ac e c on e an

c y l i d n D w pl
er . f t h g up ra d n a l v ti an o v rt i l pl e p r l
ro l l an a e e a o n on a e ca an e a a e

t tho xi f t h y li d r h wi g t h pr j ti
e a s o e c f th p i t
n e fs ot t f th n e o ec on s o e o n s o c on ac o e

so li d s .

6 T hr ph r t w f th m 1 5 i h i d i m t r d
. ee s e es, o o 2 i h i e nc es n a e e ,
an on e nc es n

d i m t r t t h h ri z t l pl
a e e ,
r es on hi t t wi th t h th r t w A
e o on a an e , e ac n c on ac e o e o .

c y li n d r 2 i h i d i m t r r t wi th i t s xi h ri z t l n t p f t h ph r
e nc es n a e e es s, a s o on a ,
o o o e s e es ,
t u hi g h f t h m Dr w t h pl f t h g up
o c n e ac o e . a e an o e ro .

7 Tw . tr i ght li b o d d bi
s a t th r t i ght gl
n es a an b 4 e sec on e an o e a
'

r an es . a

i nc h d de s an 35 i h Th c li t h pl nc f th x f t w y li d r
es . e se n e s ar e e an s o e a es o o c n e s

wh di m t r os e q u al d wh i
e e sh t u h ar e th
e r T h ah i g ht
an f t h c o c on e an o e . e e s o e

p i t A B C d D b v t h h ri z t l pl
o n s , , ,
an 07 i a h 28 i h 24
o e e o on a an e ar e nc ,
nc es,

i nc h d 45 i
es , h r p ti v l y Dr w t h pl
an nc es f th y l i
es d r
ec d e . a e an o e c n e s an an

e el v ti a gr u d l i
o n on a p r ll l t b h wi g t h p i t f t t
o n ne a a e o a ,
s o n e o n o c o n ac .

8 b i . t i gl b 2 i h
a c s a A gl br an e, a
g l b i t h nc es. n e ac an e a c a s e

pl f t han o tr f ph r f e c en i h e o di u whi h r t n t h h ri z nt l
a s e e o nc es ra s c es s o e o o a

pl an e b i t h pl . f th tr f
s e d ph whi h r t t h h ri z t l
an o e cen e o a s e c on s er e c e s s on e o on a

pl an e an dt u h t h fi r t ph r o c i t h pl es f e p i t t h upp r urf
s s e e . c s e an o a o n on e e s ac e

o f t h fi r t ph r e Dr w t h pl f thi rd ph r whi h t u h t h t h r t w
s s e e . a e an o a s e e c o c es e o e o,

0 b i g it p i t f
e n t t wi th t h fir t ph r
s o n o c o n ac e s s e e .

9 A . f v luti v rti l gl
c on e o re f i d fi it l
o gth l i
on , ewi th i t ca an e o n e n e en , es s

c ur d urf ve t h g u d ; d r w i t pl
s ac e on D t rm i
e ph r f 06 i h
ro n a s an . e e ne a s e e o nc

ra di u w hi h r t s, th g r u cd d t u
es s h t h
on t p e i t 2 5 oi h n an o c es e c on e a a o n nc es

f m i t v rt x
ro S h w t h i d x d pl
s e e . f th p i t f o t t d d t rm i
e n e e an o e o n o c o n ac ,
an e e ne

th mm n t g t pl
e co t th i p i n t
o an en an e a s o .

1 0 A i ght i r ul r . br 25 i h i n d i m t r d xi 3 i n h l g
c c a c on e , as e nc es a e e an a s c es on ,

l i wi th i t l t i d
es t h gr u d s s an A ph 2 i h i d i m t r m v i
s e on e o n . s er e , nc es n a e e ,
o es n

c o n ac t t wi th t h g u d d t h u f f th
e ro n Dr w t h pl f t h l u
n an e s r ac e o e co e. a e an o e oc s

o f th p i t f e t t o n o c o n ac .

11 bi tri gl
. va 34 i s ah b 24 i h an e d b
. va2i h nc es , v nc e s , an a nc es . a

i t h pl
s f th
e tr f ph r f 2 8 i h d i m t r A b i g 2 5 i n h
an o e c en e o a s e e o nc es a e e ,
e n c es
434 P RA C T I C AL G E O METRY

tl y d w
L as r ul , Bra b pl
t he ci c
on pi y l i d d pl ar ar c a
’
as as e a an e e c c o an a an e
h y p y l i d w i th
oc c o rl 18i h di m t (t h d i m t r f t h b
a r olh n g c i c e nc es In a e er e a e e o e as e
of th ll i ge ro
'
p i wi th t h urv
n c on e ) fo r c o m
CB pp i t i d f ar s o n e c es a
’
on o os e s es o
th B
e ar c a .

1 7 T ki g t h fix d
. a d r ll i g n (1 d (2)
e g i v e i n t
an h p r d i g o n c on e s an as en e e ce n
e x i d F i g 8 1 6 d w t h pl
e r c s e an d l v ti . f th ,
ph i l pi t h i d
ra e an an e e a on o e s er c a e r oc o
d r i b d by p i t
esc e di m t r f t h b a f th
o n lli gon a pr d u d t h
a e e o e as e o e ro n c on e o ce e
d i bi g p i t t b 1 4 i h f m t h tr f t h b f t h r ll i g
,

e s cr n o n o e nc es ro e c en e o e as e o e o n c on e .

y f l i ght (F i g 8 1 7 ) i m pi g h ri z t l pl '
18 Th . e ra th
o rr d i . n es on e o on a an e an s
rfl td
e ect t h v ti
e l pl
on f pr j t i o fr m whi h i t i
e er cag i fl td an e o o ec on o c s a a n re ec e .

S h w t h p th f t h
o y i pl
e d l v ti
a o e ra n an an e e a on .

19 A f l i ght p h r z t l pl
'
y .
( F i g 8
ra 1 8 ) i m i g
o t h i rr d i . n es on e o on a an e an s
rfl td
e t t h v rti
ec e l pl H T V f m wh i h i t i g i r fl t d Dr w
on o e e ca an e ro c s a a n e ec e . a
t h pl e d l v ti
an an f t h p th f t h e e
y Sh w l
a i plon o d l v ti
e th a o e ra . o a so n an a n e e a on e
p th f y whi h ft r fl ti fr m t h h ri z t l pl
a o a ra c a ed t h pl
re HV T
ec on o e o on a an e an e an e
p thr ugh t h p i t n t h i i d t y b i g p r ll l t
as se s o e o n n
'
,
e nc en ra e n a a e o rr
’
.

FIG . 817 . FIG . 8 18 . FIG . 819 . FIG . 8 20 .

20A p l h d r t r ul
o is e
. l dr x v rt l
i gh c i c ar c y i n e (F i g 8 1 9) h as i t s a i s e i ca T he . .

l ht
r ay o f i g tr th
’
rr s l dr
i ke s rfl td v t l pl
i s c y i n e an d 1 s e e c e on t o t h e er i ca an e o f
pr t Dr w pl
oj e c i o n a lvt
t he . p th
an a n d e e a i o n o f t h e a o f t h e r ay .

u . h ld
2 1 T h e s r fac e o f a s i e ph r l A pr t l tr
(F i g 8 20) i s s e th
i ca o j e c i e s i k e s i s . .

h ld
s ie dfl td
an d I s e ec e l fl ht p t hw
r r i s t h e i n e of ig l
b e for e i m ac
.
’
S o t h e i ne of .

fl ht t r p t u
ig af e th t pr t l d fl t d l
i m ac , as s m i n g a the l ht
oj e c i e i s e ec e i ke a r a y o f i g .

22A r ht ul r
ig d
c ir c tr
a co n e , h lt tud h t d
i am e e of b as e 2 i n c e s , a i e 2 i n c e s , s an s

in e an d
.

w th
i u d A
i t s b as e o n t h e gr o n l ht p r ll lr ay of ig u dli s a a e t o t h e gr o n .

075 inch v ru d pl
a bo e t h e g o n , an d i t s p rp d ul r d t
an i s a t a e en i c a i s an c e o f 0 25
h r tr pl
i n c f om t h e c e n e o f t h e h l ht p
an o f t h e c o n e T i s r ay o f i g i m i n ge s o n t h e .

u r fl t d Dr w pl
s r fac e o f t h e c o n e a n d i s e ec e lvt a t he rfl td
an an d e e a i on o f t h e e ec e .

ray
23 A bj t d mi rr r
.
gi v
n o i F i g 8 21 Drecw l v ti anf th a o ar e en n . . a an e e a on o e

FIG . 8 21 . FIG . 8 22 .
MI SCE LLA NE OUS PR OB L EMS I N S OL I D GE OM ET R Y 435

j
ob e c t an d rr r
i t s i m age i n t h e m i o o n a g o n ru dl l
ine i n c i n e d
u t t r lr
As s m e h a t h e m i r o r i s a ge e n o g t o s o uh hw t he
wh l lvt
o e o f t h e i m ag e i n t h e e e a i o n as k e d fo r .

2 4 F i g 8 22 r e e s e n s a
. . pr t h l p hd
an g i n g am s a e an d a

t lt d rr r
i e mi o . a Dr w lvt pl
t h e t wo e e a i on s an d t h e an o f
l hd
t h e i m a ge o f t h e c o n i c a s a e i n t h e m i r r o r F . r om t h e

pl pr t
an oj e c on a g o n ru dl l d
i n e i nc ine at 7 0
°
t o KY t h e
lvt r h d
e e a i o n o f t h e m i r r o , t h e s a e , a n d as m c uh of t h e
i m age a sw o uld
be s e e n w thi u d
i n t h e bo n ar y o f
rr r
t he m i o .

p .
’
t . tr
25 T h e oi n cc (F i g 8 23)i s t h e c e n e o f a o i s h epl d
sph re e of 1 i n c h r du A
a i s . l ht p r ll l
r ay o f ig a a e t o rr
'

p
i m i n ge s o n t h e s ph r fl td
e e an d i s r e e c e , fl td
t he r e ec e r ay
p th u
as s i n g r o gh t h e p t
oi n pp
'
. Dr w a pr t
t h e o j e c i on s of
pt
t h e a h o f t h e r ay .
 APPE N DI X

M AT H E MAT I C AL T A B LES

T he M a th e m a ti ca l T bl e s o n t he foll o w i ng fi v e page s r e t hos e

a a

s uppl i e d t o C a n d i d a te s a t t h e Ex a m i n a t i on s of t h e B o rd of Edu c t i on
a a ,

a n d a r e r e pr i n t e d by p e r m i s s i o n of t h e Con t r o ll e r of H M
. .S t a ti on e ry
O ffi ce .
438 MAT HE MA T I C A L T ABLE S
L O GA RI T H MS

'
8 11
1 5 1 8 21 23

1 5 1 8 20 23
1 5 1 7 1 9 22

1 4 1 6 1 8 21

1 3 1 6 1 8 20
13 15 17 19

13 1 5 1 7 1 9 ~

1 0 1 2 14 1 5

5 7

1 1 13

10 l l

6 8 9 10

6 7 8 9
MATHEMA T I C A L TABLE S 439

L OG AR I T H M S
440 M ATHE M AT I CAL T A BLE S

A N T I L OG AR I T H M S
 I N DE X

f
r e er to p a ges

A bs c i s s a , 1 28 Cen tr e of
p ar a ll l f r
e o ces , 95
A l ti i h m ni m ti 1 56
cce e r a on n ar o c o on , of
pr e ss ur e , 98
A ccur ac
y i d w i
n g ra n ,
o f t 98
s r es s ,

A t gl 2
cu e an e, of vi s i on , 301

Additi 1 0 on , r adi ca 26 l ,

f o t r 83 84
v ec o s , , Cen tr es o f gr a i y ; 9 6vt
Adv ance or l d 1 51 ea , of s i milar i ,
14 t
Altit d f t t h d
u e o 18 7
e ra e r on , O f s i m i li t u e ,

A m pl i t d 1 4 9 u e, t d l
Ce n r oi of a r i ang e , 7 t
A ly i h m i 1 58
na s s, ar on c , t d
Ce n r oi s , 96
A h i g 328
nc or r n ,
d
Chor of a ci c e , 1 rl
A gl b tw t w pl
n e e een 200 224 o ane s , ,
of a coni c , 34

A gl
n 1
es , d l
Chor s , s ca e of, 3
tri g m tri l r ti f 3
ono e ca a os o ,
l
Ci r c e , 1 , 1 6 e t s eq .

A tip ll l 7
n ar a e , q t
e ua i o n t o , 1 32

A pp xi m t d v l pm t f d v l p
ro a e e e o en s o un e e o r t
of cu v a u r e , 1 2

bl a f 356
e sur ace s , pr r
o e t i es of t h e , 1 6
p
l ti 6 1 t q
so u on s
,
e se . l t t
Ci r c es 111 con ac , 21
A rc o f i l 1
a c r c e, r tfi t
Ci r cul ar a cs , r e c i ca i on of, 6 1
Ar h li
c ,
1 23
n e ar , m e as ur e Of an ang e , 2 l
th hi g d 1 21 r ee -
n e , Ci r cum fe r e nce of a ci r c e , 1 l
A h d ib 1 22
rc e r s, r d rl r l r l
Ci r cu m s c i be ci c e of s ph e i ca t i ang e .

A hi m d pi l 1 40
rc e e an s ra , 237
A i t hm ti g phi 1 0
r e c, ra c, ll r l d
Co a of hype r bo oi , 331
A i thm ti l m
r e ca 11 ean , ll p t
Co i near oi n s , 6
A ym pt t
s 13
o es , pl t
Com em en ar y ang e s , 2l
A ym pt ti
s o f hyp rb l id 331 339
c c on e o e o o , , , t r
Com pos i i on of h a moni c m oti ons , 1 51 ,
34 1
A ili ry i l 39 1 49
ux a c r c e, f ot r 86
v ec o s ,

p j ti
,

r o ec 1 91 ons , C oncur r e nt t i gh t lin 6

s ra es,

f i t 191
o a o n ,
C y li p i t 6
on c c c o n s,
f id 1 9 3
o so s C one ,18 3
l pi g ph 26 3
,

Axi l d m l ti f w th d
a an n or a sec ons o s cr e re a s , e nv e o n s er e ,

36 8 f f v l ti
s ur ace o 328 re o u on,

pit h f h lix 36 2
c o e bl i qo 266 ue

p j t
, ,
,
Axi f s o i 30
a con c, f
r o ec i ons o ,

di l 25
ra ca ti s ec f 259
ons o ,

Ax m t i p j ti t g t pl t 3 1 7
, ,

o e r c 295 r o ec on an en an e o,
v l pi g t w ph
, ,

C n 325 o s e r es ,
B ndi n m m t di g m 1 07
on e s e n e o

C i lp j t
e o en a ra s,
on ca 16 7
r o ec i on ,
Bi m
B w
n or 34 3
t ti 92
a
C i ti
on c s e c 30 ton s ,
q e se .

l p
’
o s no a on ,
C ion c s ,
g e ner a
p t i f 35 ro er es o ,

C t a e l tt 7 6
as a r ou e e, C jon u g ate 38 ax1 8 ,

C ten r e 0
v t cu r 13 a ur e , C ton our l 28 3i ne s ,

f ni o 47 a co c, C t i g
on ou r n f ce f om i t
a s ur a q ti r s e ua on,

f l tt 6 6
o a r ou e e, 28 4
 I N D EX

Co OI di nat e ge om e try pl ,
ane , 1 28 e t s eq ll
E i ps e , 30, 32, 38 45, 48 , 49 -

pl
.

anes , 1 68 e n a i on t o, 1 33 t
l
Cop an ar for ces , 9 1 Elli p s oi 337
Cos e can of an ang e , 4 t l ll t l d
E i p i c par ab o oi , 34 1
Cos i ne of an an g e , 4 l l t l l dr
E li p i ca cy i n e , 255
t
Co ange n of an ang e , 4 t l vl
E n e op e , 1 3
pl
Cou es , 1 07 g l t
i s set e , 7 8
Cov er s ed si ne of an ang e , 4 l l tt 7 7
r ou e e,
-
ll
Cr o s s r o s , geom et r y of, 335 E pi y l i d 7 0
c c o ,

p h i l 428
Cube , 1 8 2 s e r ca
Cu bi c e qu a i on, 1 44 t E pi t h id 7 2
r oc o
,

t
Cu r t a e cyc oi , 6 9 l d E q ti ua
g ph f 1 29
on ,
,

ra o
vt t
,
Cu r a ur e , ce n r e of, 1 3 E q ti ua ons ,
g p h i l ti f 1 42
ra c so u on o

,
ci r c e of , 1 2 l Eq i g l
u an u ar s pi l 1 4 1 ra
,

d
r a i u s o f, 1 3 E rr or i m n i g 4 eas u r n
,

Cu r v e , h ar m oni c , 1 49 E s cri b d ir le f t ri gl
c 20
c es o a an e,
y bar” , 1 37
a Ev l to u e o f i 49 a con c ,

y _ M “ , 1 39 .
f o v 13
a cu r e,

y _ a lo , bar 1 40
.

g
0 , Exp one n ti l a 1 39 cur v e ,
b , 1 36
ar
”
q e ti ua 1 3 9 on ,

y x
”
,
1 35
yr
"
c , 1 38 F ace m l d 37 1 374 ou
d rf t pl
, ,

C ur ve su ace s and t angen ane s , 31 3 F lli g m ld 37 3

a n ou s,
e t s eq . Fi g d pl 27 9
ur e ans ,
se c ti on s of, 31 4 F ocus o f i 30
a con c ,
Cu r v e s , s i mi l ar , 14 Fro ce s , co
pl r 91 an a
tu u
,

t or o s, 34 3 p ifi ti f 91
s ec ca on o
p
,

Cu s , 1 3 F i r i 1 58
our e ser e s ,
l d
Cyc oi , 6 7 F q y 1 48
re u e nc ,

l dl r
Cyc oi a c u v e , 6 6 F i l p lyg 92
u n cu ar o on ,
l
Cy i nde r , 1 8 2, 252
ll t l
e i
p i ca , 255 G n r t i ng l i
e e a 31 3 ne ,
lp p
env e o i ng s h e r e , 256 G e ne r ati f f on o 31 3 su r aces ,

s u r face of r e o u i on , 327 vlt G t ix 3 1 3

ene r a r ,

l
ob i u e , 26 5
q G m tri l m
eo e ca 11 e an ,
p t
r oj e c i ons of , 1 8 7 , 253 Gli tt
sse 78 es ,

t
s e c i ons of, 253 G g
or e of h yp b l i d 331 er o o ,

l d t t
Cy i n er s , i n er sec i on of, 38 8 G ph f q t i
ra o e 1 29ua on ,

G ph i
ra i th m ti
c ar 10 e c,

D a m s , m as onr y, 1 00 l ti f q ti 1 42
so u on o e ua ons ,

D fi iti
e n f li d 1 8 1
ons o so s, t ti 91 t q
s a cs , e se .

D fl ti
e ec f b df m 1
ons o r ace ra es , G vi ty
ra tr
,
f 96
c en es o ,

D i pti g m t y 1 6 6
es cr ve eo e r ,
G rea t i l f ph 249
c rc e o a s er e ,

D v l p bl
e e o a f 31 4 e s u r ace s , Gr ou n d li 1 68 301 ne , ,

D v l pm t f
e e o f 34 9
en o a sur ace ,

f u f o f s 353
r ace o con e , H nd i l 369
a ra s,
f yl i d 352 o c n er , H m i
ar on c an aly i 1 58 s s,

f p i m 349 o r s ,
r 1 49
cu v e ,

f py mi d 350 o ra ,
m ti o 1 48 on
,

D l pm t 349 t q
ev e o en s , e se . m ti o mp iti
ons , f 1 51 co os on o , , 1 54,
D i h d l gl 200
e ra an e, 1 55
Di t ix 31 3
r ec r ,
H m i l m
ar on ca 11 e an ,
f o i 30 a con c , H li l pri g 36 7
e ca s n s,
Di vi d d pi t h f h li
e 36 2 c o e ce s , H li
e ce s and w 362 t q s cr e s, e se .

f r w 36 7 o sc e H lix 36 2
e
i l pi t h f 36 2
, ,

Di i i 1 1
v s on , ax a c o ,

D d h d
o eca e r on , 1 8 2 4 23 i li ti nc f 36 3
na on o ,

l ft h d d 36 3
,

e -
an e ,

E c ce ntri c i ty f ni 30 o a co c, m l pi t h f 3 6 2
n or a c o ,

El v t i
e a 1 68on , fi r
o i g pi t h 363
nc e as n c ,

t l
,

ti l 24 1
s ec ona , p i h g c f 3 63
an e o , ,
4M I N D EX

l d lt
P ar ab o oi of r e v o u i on , 337 t t l
Pr oj e c i ons , pi c or i a , 290 e t q se
ll l
.

t
P ar a e for c e s , ce n r e of, 95 t
P r oj e c or s , 1 66 , 1 7 2
j t
pr o e c i on , 1 6 7 lt l d
Pr o a e cyc oi , 6 9
ll l d
P ar a e e pi p e , 1 8 2 p d
s h e r oi , 329

P ar am e t er , 37 P r op ert i e s of a cir cle , 1 6

l
P e da t r i ang e , 7l t
P r op or i on , 1 0
t
P e r i m e e r of a t r i angle , 21 t t
P r o r ac or , 2
t
P e r i odi c m o i on , 1 48 e t s eq . d
Py r ami , 1 8 2
t i m e , 1 48 t
p r oj e c i ons of, 1 8 5 1
d l l
P e r pe n i cu ar p an e , 1 9 9 t
s e c i on of, 242
p j t
r o ec i on , 1 6 7

tv t
P e r s p e c i e pr oj e c i on , 1 6 7 , 300 e t s eq R b atm e nt f bli q
a
pl no 221 o ue a e,
t l j t
.

P i c or i a pr o e c i on s , 290 e t s eq . R di l p j ti
a a 1 67
r o ec on

l d lt l t d d w
,
t
P i ch and e a of m u i p e hr ea e s cr e
-

,
R di
a 2
an ,
36 7 R di l xi
a ca 25
a s,

t l
P i ch an g e of h e i x, 36 3l nt
ce 26 r e,
l
P an , 1 6 8 R di
a us of tu 1 3
c ur v a r e,
t l
s e c i on a , 24 1 v t r 1 28 ec o ,

l -
t tr
P an e c o or di na e geom e y, 1 28 e t s eq . R ft
a mm
er , co 24 5 on ,
l d
i n c i n e , 1 99 hi p 24 5 ,

l
ob i qu e , 1 99 j k 245 ac

j t
,

of p r o e c i on , 1 6 6 R ft
a g
er s , m t y f
eo 245 e r o ,

p d lr
p er en i cu a , 1 9 9 R ki g m l di g 244
a n ou n ,

t
s ec i on of a s ph e r e , 24 9 R mp 369
a ,

t r ace s of, 1 98 R ip
ec l fig
r oca 93 ur e s ,

l tt
P ane s , r e pr e s en a i on of, 1 98 R t g l
e c an di t 1 28
u ar cc or -
na e s ,
t d t
P oi n of i s an ce , 302 h yp b l 47
er o a,
of i nfle x i on , 1 3 R t ifi ti
ec ca f i lr
on o 61 c r cu a ar cs ,
l -
d t
P o ar c o or i na e s , 1 28 R fl ti
e ec 4 30
on s ,

l
t r i ang e , 234 R p
e t ti
r e s en a k 149 v e cr an ,

l l
P o e an d p o ar , 24, 49 R l ti f t 8 6
eso u on o v e c or s ,
l
P o ygon , funi cu ar , 92 l R e sult t m m t f f
an o 1 06 en o or c es ,

l d
Po yh e r on , 1 8 1 R i ght g lan 1 e,
r
P r essu r e , c en t e of, 98 R i gh t h d d h l ix 36 3
-
an e e ,

r l ll t t
P i nci p a e i p i c s e c i on of h yper bo oi l d ,
R f h ipp d 245
oo
,
e ,

338 R t
o or s , 82
l
n or m a , 34 3 R l tt
ou e 56 66 t
es , q ,
e se .

l
s e ct i on of o b i u e cone , 26 6
q ph i l 4 28
s e r ca ,

l
of ob i qu e c l dr
y i n e , 265 R l d
u e f 31 4
s ur aces ,

pl
P r i nci e of m om en s , 1 07 t
P ri s m , 1 8 2 S c lar 8 2
a s,

p r o j etc i on s of ,
1 83 S l
ca e , i m tri so 292 e c,
t
s e c i on of, 24 1 f h d 3
o c or s,

j t
P r o ec i ng s u r face of a i ne, 1 6 7l f l p 27 9
o s o e,

j t
Pr o ec i on , 1 66 e t s e q. S cr ew p p ll ro 37 6 e er s ,

t
ax om e r i c , 295 f 364
s ur ac e s ,

z tl
h or i on a , 27 9 e t s eq . th d 36 5 r ea s ,

t
i s om e ri c , 29 1 xi l d rm l ti a a an no a se c ons of,

l p ll l
ob i u e
q ar a e , 295 36 8
d
of s h a ows , 41 1 e t s eq . S e can t f o gl 4 an an e,

p t
er s pe c i v e 1 6 7 , 300 e t s eq. S ti
ec on of pri m 24 ] a s ,

rj t py mi d 242
,

l r
P o ec i ons , au xi i a y , 1 9 1 f o a ra ,

of a con e , 1 8 7 , 258 S ti
ec l l ti 24 1
on a e ev a on ,
of a c l dr
y i n e , 1 8 7 , 253 p l 24 1
an ,

of a
pr i s m , 1 8 3 S ti
ec i
on s , con c , 30 t q e se .

y d
of a p r am i , 1 8 5 m th d f 1 1 7e o o ,

of a s o i ld t l r i h an
g g e , 229 f o 259
c on e ,

p
of a s h e r e , 1 8 7 f o vd fcur 31 4
e s ur ac e s ,

t
of oc ah edr on , 1 8 7 f yli d
o c 253 n er ,
t l
of p oi n s an d i n e s , 1 7 1 e t s eq f m l di g 24 3
o ou n s.

f lid 24 1 t q
.

ld
of s o i s , 1 8 1 o so s, e se .
 I N D EX 447

tr l
S e c o of a ci r c e 1 . S t r es s , cent r e of
98
t l
,

S egm en of a cir c e , 1 d
i agr am s , 1 1 3 , 1 1 5
Sh d l i
a e 411 ne , tr
Su b con ar y s e c i on of ob i qu e cone , 26 7
-
t l
Sh d w f 4 15 of ob i u e c i l l d
a o o a con e ,
q y n e r , 266
f yl i d
o 4 15 a c n er , S u bn or m a , 37 l
f li o 412 a ne , t t
Su b r ac i on , 10
f p i t 41 1
o a o n , v t
of ec or s , 8 5

f l id h i g pl
o a so av n an e faces , 4 1 4 t v t
Su mm a i on o f e c or s , 8 6
f l i d f l ti
o a so o r ev o u on, 4 1 7 r t d
Su per i o e pi r och oi , 7 2
of a s ph e r e , 4 16 t d
hypo r och o i , 7 4
su r face , 41 1 t d
r och oi , 6 9

Sha d ows i n p e r s pe c i e , 308 tv S ppl m t y

u e
gl 2 e n ar an es ,
t
p r oj e c i on of, 4 1 1 e t se q . t i h dr l gl 234
r e a an es ,
t
h e or y of, 4 1 1 S f f v l ti
u r ace o 31 4 re o u on ,

S h ea r ing for ce di agr am s , 1 07

-
f r v l tio l e o u on , co ne e nv e o i n ,
p g 328
l
S i m i ar 14
c ur ve s , f l tio
yl i d r r ev o u on, c n e en vl e opi n
g,
ti li l fig
r ec nea 9 u r es , 327
S i m i l i ty
ar t f 14
,
ce n r e s o ,
S f d li d 249
ur ac e s an so s,

S i m i l it d t f 1 4 25
u e , ce n r es o , , g t i f 31 3en e r a on o
S i m pl h m i m ti Symm di f t i gl
,

e ar on c1 48 o on , e 7 an o a r an e,

Si r 1 49
ne c u v e , p i t f t i gl 7 o n o a r an e,

fo gl 4
an an e. Symm t i l v 58
e r ca c ur es ,

Sk w b v l wh l 335
e e e ee s ,

Sl p l f 27 9
o
S m ll ir l
e , s ca e s o
f ph 249
,
T an g e n t of an an l 4 g e,
a
S l i d i ght
c
l
c e o
j t i
a s
f 229
er e ,
p l ane t 31 7
o c one ,

y d r 320
l
an e, ro ec o ns o
o r g p ,
t i n e
S lid i
o c
i bi g ph r 4 26
,
m
rf f v l ti
o s c r cu s cr n s e e,
t 326
d fi iti e nf 18 1 ons o ,
l an e s ,
o su

317
ace o re o u on ,

ib d i h p
i 5
p j ti
nscr p
f 18 1
e 42 n s ere ,
t ph r 324
o s e e,
i l
ro ec on s o ,
to a c r c e , 1
ti
s ec f 24 1 t
ons o q ,
e se .

t o a cur e , v 12
S p ifi ti ff
Sp h
ec ca on o 91 or ces , t
T e r ah e r on , 1 8 2 d
er e , 1 8 3 24 9
v l pi g 26 3
,
a i ude of, 1 8 7lt t
l
c one e n e o
d v l i
n ,
r w
T h e o y of s h ado s , 4 1 1
y
l
i
c
d r
n er e n e o
d
p g 2 5 6
t t
n ,
r d
T h e e hi ng e ar ch , 1 21
-

y i
c
t i l f 24 9
n e i ,
an 4 26 c on e n con ac ,
t ll r l d
T hr oa e i p s e of hyp e bo oi , 338
g
l
r ea

f 249
c rc e o ,
y l d
o f h p e r bo oi 33 1 ,

pl
u ne o

ti f 249
,
t rv
T o r u ou s cu e s , 343

j
an e se c

ti f
on s o ,
l
T r ace s of a i n e , 1 7 4
p r o ec

m ll i l
1
f 24 9
87 on s o ,
l
o f a p an e , 1 98
s a

lid ir m i bi g 4 26
c rc e o ,
p l
T r acin g p ape r r ob e m s , 54 e t s e q
-
.

so

i
s c
ri b d i 425
cu s cr n ,
l t ll p
T r amm e m e h od o f dr awi ng e i s e , 4 1

z f 249
ns c e n,
T v l 6
r ans e r sa ,
on e o

i m t l
,

t t 426 T v
r an s i 38 e r s e ax s ,

m t i l l
S ph er es n u ua con ac ,
T ig ono ti f 3 an
Sph ri l pi y l i d 428
es ,
r g e r ca ra os o

T i h dr l l
e ca e c c o ,
2 33
h yp y l i d 4 28
r e
g a an es ,

l tt
oc c o ,
pp l m t r y 23 4 su e en a ,

h id 6 9
r ou e 4 28 es ,
T
t i gl 233
r an es ,
r oc

T wi t d pl
o

34 3
,

ane ,
S ph r i d 329
s e

Sp i l
e o
ra him d
ar c
,

1 40 e ean ,
f fr
su r ac e ol ti 333 e vo u on ,
,
s ur face s , 3 14
cu r ve s , 1 40
u i angular , 14 1
e
q U m bi i c , 338 l
i fgjjgj g ;
4l
S pr i lico ‘
og
a g
xn
l
Unde v e op ab e su face s , l r ap p xi m t
ro a e de
ve lo m e n t s Of , 356
S quar ed wr ea h 37 2 t: p
Squar e r oo 1 1 t ,

S qu ar i ng t h e c ir c e , 6 3 l V a ni s h i n g p oi n , 303 t
tt
S a i cs , gr aphi c , 9 1 e t s e q t
V ec or g e om et r y, 8 2 e t s eq .

j
.

tr
S e eogr a hi c pr o ec t i on , 26 8 (E x 4 )
p . l
p yg 8 4 o on ,

tr t
S ai gh h n e and p an e , 21 1 e t s eq l . V ec t i l gl 1 28
or a an e,
448 I N D EX

V ect 82
or s , r l l
V e t i ca p ane , 301
dd t
a i i on o f, 8 3, 8 4 t
V i s i on , cen r e of, 301
lt
r es o u i on of, 8 6 lt
V o u e , 1 4 7 (E xs 3 1 and 32)
.

t t
s ub r ac i on o f, 8 5

l t r t
V e oci y i n ha m on i c m o i on, 1 56 W re th 36 9
a ,
d l
V e r s e si n e of an ang e , 4
tx
V er e of a c oni c , 30 Z one of a s pher e , 24 9

T HE E ND

P RI NT E D B Y W I LLI A M C LO WES A N D SO NS , LI MIT ED, LO N DO N A N D B E CC I JI S .