Chapter 4

Levelling and Contouring

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

☞ Levelling and trigonometric levelling ☞ Contouring

☞ Tacheometry

LeveLLing anD Trigonometric • Horizontal line: It is a straight line tangential to the level
line at a point and it is also perpendicular to the plumb
LeveLLing line.
Introduction • Vertical line: It is line normal to the level line at a
point. It is commonly considered to be the line defined
Levelling is a branch of surveying which works with the
by a plumb line.
objective of finding or establishing the elevation of points.
• Datum: It is any surface to which elevations are referred.
This chapter deals with measurements in a vertical plane.
Mean sea level affords a convenient datum all over the
Object of Levelling world.
• Elevation: Vertical distance above or below an arbitrarily
1. To find the elevations of given points with respect to assumed level surface or datum.
a given or assumed datum—to enable works to be • Vertical angle: It is an angle between two intersecting
designed. lines in a vertical plane.
2. To establish points at a given elevation or at different • Mean sea level: Average height of the sea for all stages of
elevations with respect to a given or assumed datum— the tides. It is derived by averaging the hourly tide heights
to set out all kinds of engineering works. over a long period of 19 years.
• Bench mark: It is a relatively permanent point of ref-
Fundamental Definitions erence whose elevation with respect to some assumed
• Level surface: is defined as a curved surface which at datum is known and used as a starting point for leveling
each point is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the or as a point upon which to close as a check.
point. The surface of a still water is a truly level surface.
Any surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the Methods of Levelling
earth is, therefore, a level surface.
Three methods of leveling are used for determining differ-
• Level line: It is a line lying on the level surface. It is
ence in elevation.
therefore, normal to the plumb line at all points.
• Horizontal plane: It is a plane tangential to the level sur- 1. Barometric levelling: makes use of the phenomenon
face at that point and is therefore perpendicular to the that difference in elevation between two points
plumb line through the point. is proportional to the difference in atmospheric
pressures at these points.

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2. Trigonometric levelling (indirect levelling): It is the •• Its advantage is that it can be done more quickly, but it is
process of leveling in which the elevations of points not so apparent when many readings are taken from one
are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal instrument setting.
distances measured in the field. In a modified form
called ‘stadia levelling’ is commonly used in Levelling Staff
mapping. It is a rectangular rod having graduations. It is used to estab-
3. Spirit levelling (direct leveling) A spirit level and lish a horizontal line of sight and to determine the amount
sighting device (telescope) are combined and vertical by which the station is above or below the line of sight.
distances are measured by observing on graduated 1. Solid staff
rods placed on the points. It is the most precise 2. Folding staff
method of determining elevations and the one most
3. Telescopic staff
commonly used by engineers.
Each metre is sub divided into 200 divisions, the thickness
of graduations being 5 mm and painted in alternate black
Levelling Instruments and white with 5 mm thickness each.
Level
Surveying Telescope
It is to provide a horizontal line of sight. It consists of four
parts. •• This telescope employs two convex lenses. One nearest to
object is called objective and other near to eye is called
1. A telescope to provide line of sight. the eye-piece.
2. A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal. •• Object glass provides a real inverted image infront of eye-
3. A levelling head (tribrach and trivet stage) to bring piece, while the eye-piece magnifies the image to produce
the bubble in its centre of run. an inverted virtual image.
4. A tripod to support the instrument. Line of Sight or Line of Collimation
Chief types of levels are: •• It is a line which passes through the optical centre of the
Dumpy Level objective and intersection of cross hairs and eye-piece.
•• This name originated from the fact that formerly this •• The telescope in which the focusing is done by the exter-
level was equipped with an inverting eye-piece and hence nal movement of either objective or eye-piece is known as
was shorter than wye level of the same magnifying power. external focusing telescope and the one in which focus-
•• Levelling head generally consists of two parallel plates ing is done internally with a negative lens is known as
with 3 or 4 foot screws. The upper plate is known as internal focusing telescope.
tribrach and the lower plate is known as trivet.
Parallax
Advantages of dump level over wye level: If the image formed by objective lens is not in the same
1. Simpler construction with fewer movable parts. plane with cross-hairs, any movement of the eye is likely to
2. Fewer adjustments to be made. cause an apparent movement of the image with respect to
the cross-hairs. This is called parallax.
3. Longer life of the adjustments.
Wye or Y Level Essential Parts of the Telescope
•• In dumpy level, telescope is fixed to the spindle and bub-
1. Objective.
ble tube must be of reversible type. While in wye level,
the telescope is carried in two vertical ‘wye’ supports and 2. Eye-piece.
bubble tube may be attached either to the telescope or to 3. Diaphragm.
the stage carrying the wyes. 4. Body and focusing device.
•• Advantage of wye level over dumpy level is that the
adjustments can be tested with greater rapidity and ease. Objective It is a compound lens called achromatic lens. It
consists of front double convex lens made of crown glass
Reversible Level Combines the features of both the dumpy and back concave-convex lens made of flint glass. It nearly
and wye level. For testing and making the adjustments, eliminates spherical and chromatic aberrations.
telescope can be taken out and reversed end for end.
Eye-piece
Tilting Level The line of sight and the vertical axis need •• Ramsden eye-piece is commonly used which is composed
not be exactly perpendicular to each other. This feature of plano-convex lenses of equal focal length placed at a
helps in quick levelling. 2
distance of f .
•• This is mainly designed for precise levelling work. 3

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•• Huygen’s eye-piece composed of plano-convex lenses of 4. Fore sight (FS): Reading taken on a rod held at a
different focal length placed at a distance of two-third of point of unknown elevation. It is also known as minus
focal length of the larger. sight, as the fore sight reading is always subtracted
from HI to get elevation of the point.
5. Turning point (TP): is a point on which both minus
sight and plus sight are taken on a line of direct levels.
6. Intermediate station (IS): Intermediate point
between two turning points on which only one sight
(minus sight) is taken to determine the elevation of
the station.
2 2
f f
3 3 Steps in Leveling
Ramsden eye-piece Huygen’s eye-piece 1. To find the amount by which the line of sight is above
Diaphragm It consists of cross-hairs. Horizontal hair the bench mark.
is used to read the staff and the two vertical hairs enable 2. To know the amount by which the next point is below
the surveyor to see if the staff is vertical laterally. In stadia or above the line of sight.
tacheometry, two more horizontal hairs called stadia hairs •• Height of instrument, HI = Elevation of BM + BS
are provided. (at BM)
•• Elevation of a point = HI – FS (at that point)
Optical Defects of a Single Lens
Aberrations is the deviation of rays of light.
Booking and Reducing Levels
1. Spherical aberration: The defect or imperfection
arising from the form of curvature of the lens in Collimation or Height of Instrument Method
which the rays are all not collected exactly at one •• Height of the instrument (HI) is calculated for each set-
point is called spherical aberration. tling of the instrument.
2. Chromatic aberrations: A beam of light after •• Reduced levels (RL’s) of other stations are calculated
passing through a single lens, is distributed along based on height of the instrument.
the axis in a series of focal points in which violet ray •• Generally used for fly leveling or to establish BMs.
is refracted most and the red is refracted least. This •• This method is not suitable when there are intermediate
defect is called chromatic aberration. points.
•• The elimination of aberrations is only one of the
Check: SBS - SFS = Last RL - First RL
requirements in the design of a telescope.
•• Other possible defects which are of little importance
are coma, astigmation, curvature, distortion, etc. Rise and Fall Method
Temporary Adjustments of a Level •• Difference of level between consecutive points is found
by comparing the staff readings.
or Telescope
•• Higher staff reading indicates fall and lesser indicates
1. Setting up the level rise.
2. Levelling up with the help of foot screws •• Generally used in contour survey.
3. Elimination of parallax by two steps: •• Used when a number of Intermediate station readings are
(a) Focusing the eye-piece (for distinct vision of required and provides a complete check for intermediate
cross hairs) sights.
(b) Focusing the objective (for clear image of staff) Check: SBS – SFS = S Rise - S Fall
Terms and Abbreviations = Last RL – First RL
1. Station: It is that point where the level rod is held.
2. Height of instrument (HI): It is the elevation of Use of Inverted Staff
plane of sight with respect to assumed datum. When the point, whose elevation is much above the line of
3. Back sight (BS): Sight taken on a rod held at a point sight (For example, projection from the face of a building,
of known elevation. It is also known as a plus sight underside of beams, girders, arches, etc.) the staff is placed
as the back sight reading is always added to the level inverted with its zero end touching the point. The reading on
of the datum to get the height of the plane of sight. the staff is taken in the usual manner. Such an observation

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is entered in the level page book with a minus sign for 2. Correction for refraction (Cr)—positive:
convenience. The levels of the points (using inverted staff) •• Refraction curve is irregular because of varying
can be obtained by simply adding the staff readings to the atmospheric conditions, but for average conditions
height of the instrument. it is assumed to have a diameter about 7 (diameter
of earth).
SOLVED EXAMPLES
1  d2 
Example 1 Cr = (+ve)
7  2 R 
A back sight reading on BM = 100 m was 2.67 m. The
         = 0.01121d2 meters (d in km)
inverted staff reading to the bottom of a girder was 1.5 m.
The RL of the bottom of girder is 3. Combined correction due to curvature and
(A) 101.17 m (B) 98.83 m refraction (C):
(C) 104.17 m (D) 95.83 m
d2 1 d2
Solution C= −
2R 7 2R
Height of the instrument (HI)
6 d 2
= BM + BS 
C =  7 2R
= 100 + 2.67 0.06728d 2 metres ( d in km)
= 102.67 m 
RL of bottom of girder = HI – FS 4. Distance to the visible horizon (d): This takes both
But as the FS is inverted reading FS curvature and refraction into account
= –1.5 m
RL = 102.67 – (–1.5) C
d= km
= 104.17 m 0.06728
Hence, the correct answer is option (C). Where, C = Combined correction in metres

Balancing Back Sights and Fore Sights P d A

•• By placing the instrument approximately between two C

successive staff stations in fly leveling the errors due to B
curvature and refraction may be eliminated called balanc-
ing of sights and no correction for the inclination of the
line of sight is necessary.
•• HI method is more rapid, less tedious and simple and is
more suitable where it is required to take a number of
readings from the same instrument setting.
•• Rise and fall method though tedious provide a full check O
in calculations for all sights.
Example 2
Curvature and Refraction
Find the combined correction for curvature and refraction
1. Correction for curvature (Cc)—negative: Because for distance of 2.1 km (in metres).
of the curvature of the earth, the staff reading is (A) 0.296 (B) 0.049
more and object appears to be lower than it really is. (C) 0.112 (D) 0.483
Therefore correction is negative.
  Correction for curvature, Solution
C = 0.06728d2 metres
d2
Cc = (–ve) = 0.06728 (2.1)2
2R
C = 0.296 m
Where Hence, the correct answer is option (A).
 d = Horizontal distance between station and the
point along line of sight Example 3
  R = Radius of earth, 6370 km (in same unit as d) The observer standing on the deck of a ship just sees a light
⇒ Cc = 0.07849d2 metres (d in km) house. The top of the light house is 52 metres above the sea

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level and the height of the observers’ eye is 5 metres above This method eliminates:
the sea level. Find the distance of the observer from the light 1. Error in instrument adjustment.
house.
2. Combined effect of earth’s curvature and refraction of
(A) 26.9 km (B) 36.42 km
the atmosphere.
(C) 41.6 km (D) 45.32 km
3. Variations in the average refraction.
Solution The true difference in elevation (H) is equal to the mean of
Let A be position of top of light house at 52 m above ground the two apparent differences in elevation, obtained by recip-
and B be position of observers’ eye at 5 m above ground. rocal observations.
C1 = 52 m C2 = 5 m
Horizontal line
C
We know d = km ha
0.06728 Level line e hb
Line of sight
52 A
d1 = B
0.06728 River
= 27.8 km
Horizontal line
5
d2 =
0.06728 h1b
h1a Level line
Line of sight
= 8.62 km
B
\ Distance between A and B A
River
= d1 + d2
= 36.42 km.
Reciprocal levelling
Hence, the correct answer is option (B).

A O B •• H =
1
2
{ (
( ha − hb ) + ha1 − hb1 )}
d2
d1
C′ Where
A′ B′
ha, hb = Staff readings at A and B when staff is close
to A
h1a, h1b = Staff readings at A and B when staff is
close to B

•• H =
1
2
{
( ha − hb ) + ( ha1 − hb1 ) }
O′
•• Total error, e =
1
2
{
( ha − hb ) − ( ha1 − hb1 ) }
Types of Levelling Total error includes line of collimation error, curvature
Differential Levelling error and refraction error, e = ecol + ecur - eref .
•• The direct leveling which is used to determine the eleva-
Example 4
tion or difference in elevation of points at some distance
apart regardless of their horizontal positions is called dif- Two points A and B are 1720 m apart across a wide river.
ferential leveling. The following reciprocal levels are taken with one level:
•• It is also known as fly leveling Readings on

Reciprocal Levelling Level A B

When it is necessary to carry levelling across a river or any A 3.165 3.810

instance requiring a long sight between two points so situ- B 0.810 2.365
ated that no place for the level can be found from which
lengths of FS and BS will be even approximately equal, spe- Calculate the true difference of level between A and B
cial method, i.e., reciprocal levelling must be used to obtain (A) 1.9 m (B) 1.5 m
accuracy. (C) 1.1 m (D) 0.9 m

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Solution observed vertical angles measured with the theodolite and

True difference in level between A and B horizontal distances are measured directly (plane survey) or
computed trigonometrically (geodetic survey). This level-
(3.810 − 3.165) + ( 2.365 − 0.810) ling is commonly used to find the elevations of top of the
=
2 buildings, chimneys, church spires and so on.
= 1.1 m. •• To get the difference in elevation between the instrument
Hence, the correct answer is option (C). station and the object under observation, the following
cases are considered:
Profile Levelling (Longitudinal Sectioning) Case 1:
•• It is the process of determining the elevations of points at Base of the object accessible:
a short measured intervals along a fixed line such as the F
centre line of a railway, highway, canal or sewer.
•• By means of this levelling, the engineer is enabled to
study the relationship between the existing ground sur-
face and the levels of the proposed construction in the h
direction of its length.
C
θ
E
Cross-sectioning S
BM h′
•• Cross-sections are run at right angles to the longitudinal
profile and on either side of it for the purpose of lateral
D A
outline of the ground surface.
•• They provide data for estimating quantities of earth work
and for other purposes. From figure, AF is the vertical object,
•• Cross staff and optical square are used to set out right D is the horizontal distance between the object and
angles to the longitudinal section. instrument,
•• Length of cross section depends upon the nature of work. S is the reading on the levelling staff held,
•• Longitudinal and cross sections may be worked out
h′ = Vertical on BM i.e., the height of the instrument,
together or separately.
q = Angle of elevation of top of the object
Sensitivity of the Bubble Tube h = Height of object from the level of height of instrument.
•• Sensitiveness of the bubble tube is defined as the angular From triangle CEF,
value of one division of the bubble tube.
FE = CE tan q
•• Generally the linear value of one division is kept as 2 mm.
Sensitiveness can be increased by: h = D tan q
•• Increasing the internal radius of the tube.
•• Increasing the diameter of the tube. RL of F = RL of BM + S + h
•• Increasing the length of the bubble.
•• Decreasing the roughness of the walls. Case 2(a):
•• Decreasing the viscosity of the liquid. Base of the object inaccessible—The instrument station
and the elevated object are in the same vertical plane:
Hypsometry If the horizontal distance between the instrument and the
The working of a hypsometer for the determination of alti- elevated object is inaccessible, the observations are made
tudes of stations depends on the fact that the temperature at from two instrument stations. Assuming the two instrument
which water boils varies with the atmospheric pressure. (A stations and the object to be in the same vertical plane the
liquid boils when its pressure is equal to the atmospheric following three cases arise.
pressure). 1. Instrument axis at same level:
Altimeter: It is used to find heights. •• If h is the vertical distance A′B.
•• S is the staff reading on BM.
•• q1 and q2 are the angles of elevation from the
Trigonometric Levelling instrument stations O1 and O2 respectively.
This is an indirect method of levelling in which the dif- •• D is the horizontal distance between O1 and object.
ference in elevation of the points is determined from the •• d is the horizontal distance between the stations.

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B But h1 = D tan q1

( s + d tan θ 2 ) tan θ1
h
h1 =
tan θ1 − tan θ 2

θ2 θ1 A
O2 O1 A′
S RL of B = RL of BM + S1 + h1
(OR)
BM d D
RL of B = RL of BM + S2 + h2

From DO1A′B h = D tan q1(1) (b) When instrument O1 is at higher level than O2:

From DO2A′B h = (D + d) tan q2(2) B

From Eqs. (1) and (2)
D tanq1 = (D + d) tanq2 A h
1
D(tanq1 - tanq2) = d tanq2 h2
O11
θ1 A′

d tan θ 2 O12 θ2 A″
D= S1
(tan θ1 − tan θ 2 ) S2 O1

h = D tanq1 O2
d D

d tan θ1 tan θ 2
\ h=
tan θ1 − tan θ 2 h2 - h1 = S1 - S2 = S
From DO11A′B h1 = D tan q1(1)
RL of B = RL of BM + S + h
From DO12A″B h2 = (D + d) tan q2(2)
2. Instrument axis at different levels
(a) When instrument O2 is above O1: Subtraction Eq. (1) from Eq. (2)
h2 - h1 = (D + d) tan q2 - D tan q1
B

d tan θ 2 − S
A h2 h
D=
O12 1 tan θ1 − tan θ 2
θ2 A′
O11 θ1 A″
S2 S But h1 = D tan q1
1

BM O2
O1 Hence,
d D

( d tan θ 2 − S ) tan θ1
h1 - h2 = A′A″ = S2 - S1 = S h1 =
tan θ1 − tan θ 2
From DO 1′ A′B′ h1 = D tan q1(1)
From D O 1A′B
1 h2 = (D + d) tan q2(2)
RL of B = RL of BM + S1 + h1
Subtraction Eq. (2) from Eq. (1)
(OR)
h1 - h2 = D tan q1 - (D + d) tan q2
RL of B = RL of BM + S2 + h2
S = D(tan q1 - tan q2) - d tan q2
Case 2(b):
 s + d tan θ 2 
D=   Base of the object inaccessible: Instrument station not in
 tan θ1 − tan θ 2 
the same vertical plane as the elevated object.

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Q
b sin θ1 + tan α 2
h2 =
sin(θ1 + θ 2 )

B h1 h2 RL of Q = RL of BM + S + h2
α2

R
Example 5
θ2 Q′ To find the elevation of top (Q) of a hill a flag staff of 2.5 m
Q″ height was erected and observations were made from two
stations P and R, 50 metres apart. The horizontal angle
b Q1 measured at P between R and the flag staff was 62°30′ and
α1
A that measured at R between the flag staff and P was 70°18′.
D
The angle of elevation to the top of the flag staff was meas-
θ1 ured to be 12°10′ and 12°55′ at P and R respectively. Staff
Readings on BM when the instrument was at P = 2.1 m and
S when at R = 2.2 m. Calculate the elevation of top of the hill
P
if the BM = 440 m.
BM
(A) 466.04m (B) 463.54m
Let P and R be the two instrument stations not in the same (C) 452.5m (D) 445.6m
vertical plane as that of Q.
Solution
•• AQ′ is the horizontal line through A, Q′ being the vertical
projection of Q and Q″ corresponding to B. AQQ′ BQQ″ b = 50 m
are the vertical planes. PRQ1 is the horizontal plane. q1 = 62°30′ q2 = 70°18′
•• q1 and q2 are the horizontal angles, and a1 and a2 are the a1 = 12°10′ a2 = 12°55′
vertical angles measured at A and B respectively.
b sin θ 2 tan α1
From DAQQ′ h1 =
sin(θ1 + θ 2 )
QQ′ = h1 = D tan a1(1)
50 sin(70°18′ ) tan(10°10′ )
From DPRQ1, PQ1 R = 180° - (q1 + q2) =
sin(12°10′ + 12°55′ )
= p - (q1 + q2) h1 = 23.94 m
By sine rule, RL of Q = (RL of instrument at P) + h1 - 2.5 m
(The height of flag stag staff is to be removed = 2.5 m)
PQ1 RP
= RL of Q = (BM + S) + h1 - 2.5
sin θ 2 sin(π − (θ1 + θ 2 ))
= 440 + 2.1 + 23.94 - 2.5
b = 463.54 m
=
sin(θ1 + θ 2 ) Hence, the correct answer is option (B).
b sin θ 2
⇒ PQ1 = D = (2)
sin(θ1 + θ 2 ) Tacheometry
b sin θ 2 Introduction
⇒ RQ1 = (3)
sin(θ1 + θ 2 ) Tacheometry is defined as an optical distance measure-
ment method. Though less accurate, this method of sur-
Substituting Eq. (2) in Eq. (1), veying is very rapid and convenient. The other names
given to tacheometry are tachymetry or telemetry. The
b sin θ 2 tan α1 primary object of tacheometric survey is the prepara-
h1 = D tan a1 =
sin(θ1 + θ 2 ) tion of a contoured plan. It is suitable for filling details
on topographical maps, preliminary location surveys. A
RL of Q = RL of BM + S + h1 tacheometer is essentially a transit theodolite, the dia-
phragm of which is furnished with stadia wires in addi-
Similarly if reading on BM is taken on B tion to the cross-wire.

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Essential Characteristics of Tacheometer 1. Fixed hair method

1. The value of the multiplying constant should be 100. 2. Movable hair method
2. The value of the additive constant should be zero. Fixed Hair Method
3. The telescope should be fitted with an analectic lens.
4. The magnification of the telescope should be 20–80
diameters. A′
A A′′
5. Magnifying power of the eye piece is kept high.

α
α′ C
C′
Methods of Tacheometry
There are three methods of measuring distances using B B′
tacheometer: B ′′

1. Stadia method
2. Tangential method
When the parallactic angle a, defined by means of stadia
3. Special instruments. wires, is kept fixed and staff intercept is varied, this method
is called fixed hair method. In this method, the distance and
Stadia Method elevation for horizontal sights is given by
The term stadia is Greek word for a unit length. The stadia
method is classified into two methods.

d f2

f2 f1

A′ A″
O B

i C s
F′
B′ B″ A

C D – C

Distance for horizontal sight

D = Ks + C 1. Angle of elevation:
Where, K and C are the respective multiplying and additive L = Kscos q + C
tacheometric constants. D = L cos q = K scos2q + C cos q.

Elevation of Q = Elevation of P + h - r K sin 2θ
V = L sin q =
+ C sin θ
The distance and elevation for inclined sight for staff held 2
vertical are:
Elevation of staff stations ‘Q’ = Elevation of p2 + h + v - r

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A
A′

90° s
C

L h
B B′
V
E
α
O θ

Staff vertical (angle of elevation)

2. Angle of depression: V = L sin q
L = K scos q + C Elevation of ‘Q’ = Elevation of (p) + h - v - r
D = L cos q
h
O
F

θ
α
h
V
L
B′
B

90° C s

h
A′
A
E

Staff vertical (angle of depression)

The distance and elevation for inclined sight for staff held normal are:

A
s
C

L h
B

E′ E
V
O
θ

F F

Staff normal (angle of elevation)

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O
F F′

V
L
A

C′ C
s
h
B

Staff normal (angle of depression)

1. Angle of elevation:  P = Instrument station

L = Ks + C  Q = Staff station
D = Lcos q + rsin q Anallactic Lens It is a special convex lens fitted between
V = L sin q the object glass and eyepiece at a fixed distance from the
Elevation of Q = Elevation of ‘p’ + h + v - r cos q former, inside the telescope of tacheometer. By using
anal lactic lens the multiplying constant becomes 100 and
2. Angle of depression: additive constant becomes ‘0’. It is generally provided in
L = Ks + C.
the external focussing telescopes only.
D = L cos q - r sin q
Movable Hair Method It is slow method, only horizon-
V = L sin q
tal base substance method is in use. The horizontal base
substance method has a substance bar of ‘S = 2 m to 3 m’.
Elevation of Q = Elevation of ‘p’ + h - v - r cos q The angle AOB is measured by a theodilite, prepared by
Where method of repetition.
  i = Interval between the stada hairs.
  s = Staff intercept
A
  f = Focal length of the objective.
 d = Distance of vertical axis of instrument from
optical centre ‘O’
2α
 D = Horizontal distance of the staff from the O S
vertical axis of the instrument
f
 k = = Multiplying constant (or) stadia interval B
l
D
factor.
 L = Length measured along the line of sight.
Tangential Method In this method, tacheometry observa-
 C = (  f + d) = Additive constant of instrument tion are made for vertical angles and staff intercepts are ob-
 h = Height of instrument tained by the cross-wires only. Stadia wires are not used at
all. This method of tacheometry is similar to the method of
 r = Central of hair reading
trigonometrically levelling. It is used when theodolite is not
 v = Vertical intercept at ‘Q’ between the line of fitted with stadia wires.
sight and the horizontal line Case 1: Both the angles are angles of elevation

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 Chapter 4 ■ Levelling and Contouring | 3.1037

B
s

r
V

O θ1 P
θ2
K

O
D

Tangential method (elevation angles)

S Case 2: Both the angles are angles of depression
D= , V = D tan a2
tan α1 − tan α 2 S
D= , V = D tan a2
tan α1 − tan α 2
Elevation of Q = elevation of station p + h + v - r.

O′
K
θ1
θ2
s

C
r

Tangential method (depression angles)

Case 3: One angle of elevation and other of depression Elevation of Q = elevation of station P + h – v – r
S S tan α 2
D= , V=
tan α1 + tan α 2 tan α1 + tan α 2

O′
θ1
s
K
θ2 s
V
h
C
O r

Tangential method (one angle of elevation and the other angle of depression)

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 3.1038 | Part III ■ Unit 12 ■ Geomatics Engineering

Contouring •• Ghat tracer is an instrument used for locating points on

a given contour gradient.
•• A contour is an imaginary line on the ground joining the
points of equal elevation.
•• It is a line in which the surface of ground is intersected
Characteristics of Contours
by a level surface. •• Two contour lines of different elevation cannot cross each
•• This is the best method to represent the features of the other. However they intersect only in the case of an over-
ground such as the hills, valleys, lakes and water courses hanging cliff or a cave.
and other topographic features on two dimensional paper. •• Contour lines of different elevations can unite to form one
line only in the case of a vertical cliff.
Contour Interval •• Contour intervals close together indicate steep slope.
The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours They indicate a gentle slope if they are far apart. They
is called ‘Contour interval’. indicate a uniform slope, if they are equally spaced.
The contour interval is kept constant throughout the •• The direction of steepest slope at a point on a contour is
map. Contour interval depends on: at right angles to the contour.
•• A closed contour line with one or more higher ones
1. The nature of the ground: inside, represents a hill.
•• For every flat ground, a small interval is necessary. •• A closed contour line with one or more lower ones inside,
•• If the ground is more broken, greater contour inter- indicates a depression without an outlet.
val should be adopted, otherwise the contours will •• A contour line must close upon itself, though not neces-
come too close to each other. sarily within the limits of the map.
2. The scale of the map: •• Contour lines cross a watershed or ridge line or valley
line at right angles.
1 •• Irregular contours represent uneven ground.
Contour interval, ∝
Scale of the map •• A series of straight parallel and equally spaced contours
represent a plane surface.
If the scale is small, contour interval should be large.
If the scale is large, contour interval should be small. Methods of Contouring
3. The purpose and extent of the survey:
•• If the survey is intended for detailed design work or Direct Methods
for accurate earth work calculations, small contour •• In this method, only those points to be plotted are sur-
interval is to be used. veyed, plotted and contours are drawn through them.
•• In the case of location surveys, for lines of com- •• The method is slow and tedious and is used for small
munications and for reservoir and drainage areas areas.
where the extent of survey is large, a large contour •• It is very accurate method.
interval is to be used. The location of contour has two steps
4. Time and expense of field and office work: If the 1. Vertical control: Location of points on the contour.
time interval is less, greater contour interval should 2. Horizontal control: Survey of those points whose
be used to finish the survey in less time. vertical control is done with the help of a level and
staff or with the help of a hand level.
Horizontal Equivalent •• By level and staff: In this a series of points having
•• The Horizontal distance between two points on two con- the same staff readings and thus the same eleva-
secutive contours is known as horizontal equivalent. tions, are plotted and joined by a smooth curve.
•• It varies from point to point and not a constant value and •• By hand level: In this method, the first point is
depends on steepness of the ground. Steeper the ground, located on one of the contours by leveling from a
lesser is horizontal equivalent. BM The surveyor then holds the hand level at that
point and directs the rod man till the point on the
Contour Gradient rod corresponding to the height of the instrument
•• It is a line lying throughout on the surface of the ground above the ground is bisected and locates the posi-
and maintaining a constant inclination to the horizontal. tion of the point.
•• The lines having equal gradient along a slope are called
grade contours. Indirect Methods
•• The difference in elevation of two points of grade con- •• In this method, some suitable guide points are selected
tours divided by the distance between them is always a and surveyed. The points need not be necessarily on
constant gradient. contours.

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 Chapter 4 ■ Levelling and Contouring | 3.1039

•• This is the most commonly used method as it is less tedi- 4. Measurement of drainage area:
ous and takes less time. •• The drainage area for a given as point in a stream or
It is also preferred to increase the number of contours river can be defined the area that forms the source
of all water that passes that point.
1. By squares (spot leveling):
•• The extent of a drainage area may be estimated
•• This method is used when the area to be surveyed is
on a contour by locating the ridgeline around the
small and the ground is not very much undulating.
watershed.
•• The survey area is divided in to a number of
squares. 5. Calculation of reservoir capacity:
•• The elevations of the corners of the square are then •• A contour map helps in finding the possible
determined by means of a level and a staff. location of a dam and the volume of water to be
confined.
2. By cross-sections:
•• The capacity of reservoir can be calculated by the
•• In this method, cross-sections are run transverse to
following formulas
the centre line of a road, railway or canal, etc., and
is most suitable for railway route surveys. (a) Trapezoidal formula:
•• A transit traverse is run in this method. Volume
3. By tacheometric method:  A + An  
•• This method is best suitable in case of hilly terrain. V = h  1  + A2 + A3 +  + An −1 
  2 
•• The elevations and distances are calculated from
the observed data and contours are interpolated. (b) Prismoidal formula:
Volume
Uses of Contour Maps
h
1. Drawing of sections: The section along any given V = {(A1 + An) + 4(A2 + A4 + …

3
direction can be drawn to know the general shape of
the ground or to use it for earthwork calculations.                + An-1) + 2(A3 + A5 + …+ An-2)}
2. Determination of indivisibility between two
points: A contour map may be used to determine the A1, A2, …, An are areas enclosed in a contour line,
inter-visibility of the triangular stations or of any two determined by a planimeter and h is the contour
points. interval.
3. Tracing of contour gradients and location of route. 6. Measurement of earthwork.

Exercises

1. While levelling in an undulating terrain, it is preferable is moved 5 divisions out of the centre, the reading is
to set up the instrument on 1.6 m the angular value of 1 division of bubble is
(A) the top of summit. (A) 20.62 second. (B) 41.25 second.
(B) the bottom of a valley. (C) 14.53 second. (D) 25.05 second.
(C) one side of the slope. 5. During a levelling work along a falling gradient using
(D) a flat location. a Dumpy level and a staff of 3 m length, following
2. The rise and fall method provides an arithmetic successive readings were taken: 1.785, 2.935, 0.360,
check on 1.320. What will be the correct order of booking these
(A) back sights and fore sights. four reading in a level book? (BS: Back Sight, IS:
(B) intermediate sights. Intermediate Sight, FS: Fore Sight)
(C) back sights and intermediate sights. (A) BS, FS, BS, FS (B) BS, IS, FS, FS
(D) back sights, intermediate sights and fore sights. (C) BS, IS, IS, FS (D) BS, IS, BS, FS
3. The combined correction due to curvature and refrac- 6. Consider the following statements:
tion (in m) for distance of 1 km on the surface of earth Assertion (A): Curvature correction must be applied
is ______. when the sights are long.
(A) 0.0673 (B) 0.673 Reason (R): Line of collimation is not a level line but
(C) 7.63 (D) 0.763 is tangential to the level line. Of these statements:
4. The staff reading at a distance of 80 m from a level with (A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explana-
the bubble at its centre is 1.52 m and when the bubble tion of A.

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 3.1040 | Part III ■ Unit 12 ■ Geomatics Engineering

(B) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct expla- The tacheometric constants K and C are 100 and 0.4 m
nation of A. respectively. The horizontal distance between staff and
(C) A is true but R is false. instrument is
(D) A is false but R is true. (A) 90.8 (B) 100.8
7. To find the RL of a roof slab of building, staff read- (C) 110.8 (D) 120.8
ings were taken from a particular set-up of the levelling 14. For better accuracy in measuring and plotting the sides
instrument. The readings were 1.050 m with staff on the of a triangle by triangulation, the angles of the triangle
bench mark and 2.300 m with staff below the roof slab (A) should not be more than 30°.
and held inverted. Taking the RL of the bench mark as (B) should not be less than 30° or more than 120°.
135.15 m, the RL of the roof slab will be (C) are not restricted in magnitude.
(A) 129.800 (B) 131.900 (D) should not be less than 120°.
(C) 134.400 (D) 138.500 15. Consider the following figure, which is an extract
8. Two points A and B are 1530 m apart across a river. The from a contour map (Scale–1: 20,000) of an area, an
reciprocal levels measured are: alignment of a road at ruling gradient of 4% is to be
fixed from the point O and beyond. What should be the
Readings on (in m)
radius of the arc with O as the centre to get the point of
Level at A B alignment of the next contour on the map?
A 2.165 3.810
B 0.910 2.355

The true difference in level between A and B would be

(A) 1.255 m (B) 1.355 m
(C) 1.545 m (D) 1.645 m O
9. A lighthouse is visible just above the horizon at a cer-
tain station at the sea level. The distance between the
station and the lighthouse is 40 km. The height of the
light house is approximately.
(A) 187 m (B) 137.7 m 10 m 30 m 50 m 70 m
(C) 107.7 m (D) 87.3 m

10. Tilt in tachometric survey increase the intercept, if it is (A) 0.025 cm (B) 0.25 cm
(A) away from the telescope pointing up the hill. (C) 2.5 cm (D) 5.0 cm
(B) towards the telescope pointing up the hill.
(C) away from the telescope down the hill. 16. Consider the following statements about the character-
(D) None of these istics of contours:
I. Closed contour lines with higher values inside show
11. Anallaytic lens provided in a tachometer is a a take.
(A) concave lens. (B) convex lens. II. Contour is an imaginary line joining points of equal
(C) plano-convex lens. (D) plane lens. elevations.
12. In an external focusing tacheometer, the fixed interval III. Closely spaced contours indicate steep slope.
between stadia hairs is 5 mm, the focal length of the IV. Contour lines can cross each other in case an over-
objective is 25 cm, and the distance of the vertical axis hanging cliff.
of the instrument from the optical centre of the objec- Which of the IES statements are correct?
tive is 15 cm. Which one of the following is the set of (A) II, III and IV (B) I and II only
constants of the tacheometer? (C) I and IV (D) I, II and III
(A) 30, 0.15 (B) 30, 0.40
(C) 50, 0.25 (D) 50, 0.40 17. A contour may be defined as an imaginary line passing
through
13. Following observations were taken with a transit fitted (A) points on the longitudinal section.
with stadia wires. The line of sight was horizontal and (B) points of equal elevation.
the staff was held vertical. (C) point of equal local ground slope.
(D) points of transverse section surveys.
Reading on Staff (m)
Top hair 1.726
18. A closed contour line with two or more higher contours
inside it will represent a
Middle hair 2.278
(A) depression. (B) hill.
Bottom hair 2.830
(C) cave. (D) well.

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 Chapter 4 ■ Levelling and Contouring | 3.1041

19. Following offsets were taken from a survey line to a Direction for questions for 26 and 27:
hedge: In reciprocal levelling, the following readings are taken:
Distance (in m) 0 5 10 15 20 30 40 Staff Reading
Instrument
Offsets (in m) 3 4 5.5 5 6 4 4.5 Station
A B
The area between survey line and the hedge is (by trap- A 1.286 2.768 Distance
ezoidal method): AB = 1150 m
(A) 185.5 m2 (B) 187.5 m2 B 1.292 2.432 RL of
(C) 189.5 m 2 (D) 289.5 m2 A = 100 m 0.003
Collimation error =
20. A closed contour line with one or more higher contour 150 m
lines inside represents
(A) cliff (B) hill 26. The correction for collimation is
(C) valley (D) cave (A) 0.021 (B) 0.048
21. The combined correction of curvature and refraction (C) 0.023 (D) 0.032
for distance of 1.29 km is 27. Correction for refraction is
(A) 0.234 m (B) 0.121 m (A) 1.33 m (B) 1.34 m
(C) 0.112 m (D) 0.187 m (C) 1.38 m (D) 1.29 m
22. The constant for an instrument is 750, the value of 28. The following observations were taken during testing
C = 0.3 m and intercept S = 2 m. The distance from of a dumpy levels:
instrument to the staff when the micrometer readings
Instrument Staff Readings at
are 4.326 and 4.283 and the line of sight is at +8° 361
at A B
when the staff was held vertical, is
(A) 172.4 m (B) 173.2 m A 1.342 2.125
(C) 174.8 m (D) 170.8 m B 1.485 1.683
23. The volume of 130 m long road of formation width If A and B are 100 m apart the angle of inclination of
10 m, side slopes 1 : 1, average depth of cutting along line of collimation is
centre of line is 5 m and slopes of ground in cross- (A) 14° 15.50′
section is 10 to 1 is (B) 12° 23.30′
(A) 9880 m3 (B) 9723 m3 (C) 10° 2.29′
(C) 9624 m 3 (D) 9892 m3 (D) 13° 3.40′
24. Match the following: 29. The correct sequence of temporary adjustment is:
(A) Leveling, Setting, Centering.
List I List II (B) Setting, Centering, Leveling.
    i. Vertical cliff a. Contour lines of different eleva- (C) Setting, Leveling, Centering.
tions unite to form one line (D) Leveling, Centering, Setting.
  ii. Steep slope b. Contour lines of different
30. A leveling instrument is set up at a point and back sight
elevations cross one another
is taken on a bench mark on top of roof is (−) 1.04 m.
iii. Hill c. Contour lines are closely
spaced
The benchmark of roof is 100 m. The staff reading on
the level is 2.4 m. The RL of sill is
iv. Overhanging cliff d. Closed contour lines with
higher values inside them
(A) 98.62 m
(B) 96.54 m
i ii iii iv i ii iii iv (C) 103.46 m
(D) 104.63 m
(A) d c a b (B) a c d b
(C) a b d c (D) d b a c 31. It is required to set up points on a sloping ground of l in
50 m at every 20 m contour interval. If the staff reading
25. Find the area between line AB and the stream taken at a
over first point is 0.55 m. The staff reading over next
regular interval of 30 m along line AB, using simpson’s
point A is
rule.
(A) 0.95 m (B) 0.15 m
Distance 0 30 40 90 120 150 180 210 240 (C) 1.05 m (D) 0.25 m
Offset length 23 40 42 30 32 60 10 14 22 32. Simpson’s rule can be used for computations of area
when the number of offsets is
(A) 7980 m2 (B) 6352 m2 (A) even. (B) odd.
(C) 5652 m2 (D) 4734 m2 (C) any number. (D) 3

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 3.1042 | Part III ■ Unit 12 ■ Geomatics Engineering

33. RL of a floor level is 200.490 m. Staff reading on 39. How high should a helicopter pilot rise at a point A
the floor is 1.695 m, reading on the staff held upside just to see the horizon at point B, if the distance AB is
down against the bottom of roof is 3.305 m. Height of 40 km?
ceiling is (A) 101.75 m (B) 110.50 m
(A) 3.5 m (B) 4.0 m (C) 107.75 m (D) 105.50 m
(C) 5 m (D) 6 m 40. The leveling staff head at a distance of 200 m is read
34. The following readings were taken with a dumpy level at 4.54 m with the bubble out of centre by 2 divisions
and a 4 m leveling staff on a continuously sloping towards the observer. If the sensitiveness of the bubble
ground at 30 m interval: 0.680 m, 1.455 m, 1.855 m, is 25 s/division, and 1 division = 2 mm, the staff reading
2.330 m, 2.885 m, 3.380 m, 1.055 m. The RL of the must have been
further point was calculated to be 79.1 m. The RL of (A) 4.5 m (B) 4.492 m
point that was read 0.680 m is (C) 4.54 m (D) 4.62 m
(A) 80.750 m (B) 79.780 m 41.
(C) 78.420 m (D) 77.740 m 100
35. An object on the top of hill 100 m high is just visible 105
above the horizon from a station at sea level. The dis- 110
tance between the station and the object is 115
(A) 38.53 km
(B) 3.853 km
(C) 3853 km
(D) 385.3 km
36. The sensitiveness of a bubble tube in a level would
decrease if
(A) the radius of curvature of internal surface of tube
is increased.
(B) the diagram of the tube is increased.
(C) the length of vapour bubble is increased. The given contour diagram represents
(D) the viscosity of liquid is increased. (A) a valley. (B) a hill.
(C) ridge line. (D) valley line.
37. List I List II 42. Points C and D are 1530 m apart across a wide river.
a. Contour 1. Line joining magnetic north and The following are the reciprocal levels taken with one
south
level:
b. Line of 2. Line joining subsidiary station on
collimation mainline. Reading
c. Tie line 3. Line joining points of same Level at C D
elevation
C 3.810 m 2.165 m
d. Magnetic 4. Line joining optical center of
D 2.355 m 0.910 m
meridian optional centre of objective lens.

a b c d a b c d The true difference in elevation between C and D is

(A) 3 4 2 1 (C) 3 4 1 2 ______.
(B) 4 3 2 1 (D) 4 3 1 2 (A) 1.645 m (B) 1.545 m
(C) 1.745 m (D) 1.345 m
38. Two objects P and Q are on opposite banks of a river.
The following observations were taken in reciprocal 43. In a levelling work, sum of back sight (BS) and fore
leveling: sight (FS) have been found 3.092 m and 5.294 m
respectively. If the reduced level (RL) of the starting
Instrument Staff Reading at station is 100.00 m, the RL of the last station is ______.
Near P Q (A) 102.2 m (B) 97.8 m
P 1.400 3.5 (C) 96.9 m (D) 94.8 m
Q 0.6 2.2 44. The combined correction due to curvature and refrac-
tion (in m) for a distance of 1.5 km on the surface of
RL of P is 200 m and RL of Q is nearly earth is ______.
(A) 199.3 (B) 201.7 (A) 0.0151 (B) 0.0673
(C) 200 (D) 198.2 (C) 0.1514 (D) 0.6731

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 Chapter 4 ■ Levelling and Contouring | 3.1043

Previous Years’ Questions

1. A bench mark (BM) with reduced level (RL) 155.305 horizontal, respectively. The vertical angles from P
m has been established at the floor of a room. It is and Q to the base of the tower are 0.1° and 0.5° below
required to find out the RL of the underside of the roof horizontal, respectively. Stations P, Q and the tower
(R) of the room using spirit levelling. The back sight are in the same vertical plane with P and Q being on
(BS) to the BM has been observed as 1.500 m whereas the same side of T. Neglecting earth’s curvature and
the fore sight (FS) to R has been observed as 0.575 m atmospheric refraction, the height (in m) of the tower is
(staff held inverted). The RL (m) of R will be  [GATE, 2012]
 [GATE, 2007] (A) 6.972
(A) 155.880 (B) 156.320 (B) 12.387
(C) 157.380 (D) 157.860 (C) 12.540
(D) 128.745
2. The following information were observed during
testing a leveling instrument. 7. A theodolite is set up at station A and a 3 m long staff
is held vertically at station B. The depression angle
Instrument Staff Reading at reading at 2.5 m marking on the staff is 6°10′, the hor-
at P1 Q1 izontal distance between A and B is 2200 m. Height
P 2.8000 m 1.7000 m of instrument at station A is 1.1 m and RL of A is
Q 2.7000 m 1.8000 m 880.88 m, Apply the curvature and refraction correc-
tion, and determine the RL of the B (in m) _______.
P1 is close to P and Q1 is close to Q. If the reduced  [GATE, 2013]
level of station P is 100.00 m, the reduced level of 8. A leveling is carried out to establish the reduced
station Q is  [GATE, 2007] levels (RL) of point R with respect to the bench mark
(A) 99.000 m (B) 100.000 m (BM) at P. The staff reading taken are given below
(C) 101.000 m (D) 102.000 m Staff Station BS IS FS RL
3. The focal length of the object glass of a tachometer is P 1.655 m 100.00 m
200 mm, the distance between the vertical axis of the Q –0.950 m –1.500 m
tachometer and the optical centre of the glass is 100 R 0.750 m ?
mm and the spacing between the upper and lower line
of the diaphragm axis is 1 m, 2 m, and 3 m. With the If RL of P is +100.000 m, then RL (in m) of R is 
line collimation perfectly horizontal. The horizontal  [GATE, 2014]
distance (m) between the staff and instrument station (A) 103.355 (B) 103.155
is [GATE, 2008] (C) 101.455 (D) 100.355
(A) 100.3 (B) 103.0 9. The reduced levels (RLs) of the points P and Q are
(C) 150.0 (D) 153.0 +49.600 m and +51.870 m respectively. Distance
4. A bench mark was established at the soffit of an orna- PQ is 20 m. The distance (in m from P) at which the
mental arch at the known elevation of 100 m, above + 51.00 m contour cuts the line PQ is [GATE, 2014]
MSL (mean sea level). The back sight used to estab- (A) 15.00 (B) 12.33
lish height of instrument is an inverted staff reading of (C) 3.52 (D) 2.27
2.105 m. A fore sight reading with normally held staff 10. List I lists Tool/instrument while List II lists the
of 1.105 m is taken on a recently constructed plinth. Method of surveying. Match the tool/instrument
The elevation of the plinth is [GATE, 2010] with the corresponding method of surveying:
(A) 103.210 m (B) 101.00 m  [GATE, 2014]
(C) 99.00 m (D) 96.79 m
List I List II
5. Curvature correction to a staff reading in a differential
P. Alidade 1. Chain surveying
levelling survey is [GATE, 2011]
Q. Arrow 2. Levelling
(A) always subtractive.
(B) always zero. R. Bubble tube 3. Plain table surveying
(C) always additive. S. Stadia hair 4. Theodolite surveying
(D) dependent on latitude. (A) P–3; Q–2; R–1 ; S–4
6. The horizontal distance between two stations P and (B) P–2; Q–4; R–3 ; S–1
Q is 100 m. The vertical angles from P and Q to (C) P–1; Q–2; R–4 ; S–3
the top of a vertical tower at T are 3° and 5° above (D) P–3; Q–1; R–2 ; S–4

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 3.1044 | Part III ■ Unit 12 ■ Geomatics Engineering

11. A tachometer was placed at point P to estimate the 13. In a leveling work, sum of the Back Sight (BS) and
horizontal distance PQ and PR. The corresponding Fore Sight (FS) have been found to be 3.085 m and
stadia intercepts with the telescope kept horizontal, 5.645 m respectively. If the Reduced Level (RL) of
are 0.320 m and 0.210 m, respectively. The ∠QPR is the starting station is 100.000 m, the RL (in m) of the
measured to be 61°30′30″. If the stadia multiplication last station is _________. [GATE, 2015]
constant = 100 and stadia addition constant = 0.10 m,
14. The combined correction due to curvature and refrac-
the horizontal distance (in m), between the points Q
tion (in m) for a distance of 1 km on the surface of
and R is _______. [GATE, 2014]
Earth is [GATE, 2015]
Q
(A) 0.0673 (B) 0.673
(C) 7.63 (D) 0.763
15. Two Pegs A and B were fixed on opposite banks of a
50 m wide river. The level was set up at A and the staff
P readings on Pegs A and B were observed as 1.350 m
and 1.550 m, respectively. Thereafter the instrument
was shifted and set up at B. The staff readings on
Pegs B and A were observed as 0.750 m and 0.550 m,
R respectively. If the RL of Peg A is 100.200 m, the RL
(in m) of Peg B is ______. [GATE, 2015]
12. Which of the following statements is FALSE?
 [GATE, 2015] 16. The staff reading taken on a workshop floor using a
level is 0.645 m. The inverted staff reading taken to
(A) Plumb line is along the directions of gravity.
the bottom of a beam is 2.960 m. The reduced level of
(B) Mean Sea Level (MSL) is used as a reference
the floor is 40.500 m. The reduced level (expressed in
surface for establishing the horizontal control.
m) of the bottom of the beam is ______.
(C) Mean Sea Level (MSL) is a simplification of the
 [GATE, 2016]
Geoid.
(A) 44.105 (B) 43.460
(D) Geoid is an equi-potential surface of gravity.
(C) 42.815 (D) 41.145

Answer Keys

Exercises
1. D 2. D 3. A 4. B 5. A 6. A 7. D 8. C 9. C 10. C
11. B 12. D 13. C 14. B 15. C 16. A 17. B 18. B 19. B 20. B
21. C 22. D 23. A 24. B 25. D 26. C 27. A 28. C 29. B 30. B
31. A 32. B 33. C 34. A 35. A 36. D 37. A 38. D 39. C 40. B
41. B 42. B 43. B 44. C

Previous Years’ Questions

1. C 2. C 3. A 4. D 5. A 6. B 7. 642.2 8. C 9. B
10. D 11. 28.8 12. B 13. 97.44 14. A 15. 100 16. A

Part III_Unit 12_Chapter 04.indd 19 5/31/2017 4:56:43 PM