Electrical power input eo Stator core loss Power transferred across the cir-gap ‘Stator copper loss (ie. rotor input power ) a Rotor copper loss Mechanical power developed oS Rotational losses. Mechanical power output i2E ale cos 0) = Tew, E loss (b) Figure 4-8 Power-flow diagram: (a) statement form; (b) equation form.A three-phase, four-pole, 30-hp, 220-V, 60-Hz, Y-connected induction motor draws a current of 77 A from the line source at a power factor of 0.88. At this operating condition, the motor losses are known to be the following: tator copper losses = Peg: = 1033 W Rotor copper losses = Peya = 1299 W Stator core losses = P, = 485 W Rotational losses (friction, windage, and iron losses due to rotation) = Pree = 540 W Determine: (a) the power transferred across the air gap, (b) the internally developed torque in newton-meters, (c) the slip expressed in per unit and in rpm, (d) the mechan- ical power developed in watts, (e) the horsepower output, (f) the motor speed in rpm and in radians per second, (g) the torque at the output shaft, (h) the torque needed to overcome the rotational losses, (i) the efficiency of operation at the stated condition. Solution The solution to this problem provides an exercise in the application of the power flow diagram. (a) Sufficient information is cited to permit finding the input power. Thus P, = .f3 Vili (pf) = 3(220)77(0.88) = 25,820 W Figure 4-8(a) then shows that the gap power is P, =P; 485 — 1033 = 24,302 W (b) Here use is made of the important relationship To, =P, where in this case nz _ m/120f\_ _ En, ( a) = $ (1800) = 188.5 rads Hence the internally developed torque is 24,302 _ 4302 18.93 Num 1299 : = se 35 = 0.0535 pu Then slip in rpm = sn, = (0.0535)(1800) = 96.2 rpm (d) Again from the power flow diagram the mechanical power developed can be expressed as Py = Py — Peyz = 24,302 — 1299 = 23,003 W (c) For the output power we get Py = Pa 3,003 — 540 = 22,463 WAccordingly, = Po _ 22,463 746 746 (©) The actual motor speed is the synchronous speed less the slip in rpm. Thus n= n, — sn, = 1800 — 96.2 = 1703.8 rpm HP, = 301 (g) The expression for the output torque is Po T= 5 where @,, is the actual motor speed expressed in radians per second, or @q = Fy(0) = FH(1703.8) ~ 178.42 rad/s Therefore, p= Po — 22,463 °~ a, ~ 178.42 = 125.9N-m (h) The difference between the internally developed torque of 128.93 N-m and the output torque of 125.9 N-m is the torque required to supply the rotational losses associated with the operating speed of 1703.8 rpm. Thus Troe = T — T, = 128.93 — 125.9 = 3.03 N-m It is instructive to observe that this same torque can be found from the expression that relates torque, speed, and power. Accordingly, we can also write Pro _ _540 Toe = G2! = Foggy = 3:03 Nem (i) The efficiency is Py _ 22,463 _ 1 = B= 35,830 — 0:87 Thus the motor operates at an efficiency of 87%.Example 4-2 A three-phase, four-pole, 50-hp, 48 following parameters per phase: r, =0.10Q, = 0.352 = 0.120, x4 =0402 it is known that the stator core losses amount to 1200 W and the rotational losses equal 950 W. Moreover, at no-load the motor draws a line current of 18 A at a power factor of 0.089 lagging. When the motor operates at a slip of 2.5%, find: (a) the input line current and power factor, (b) the developed electromagnetic torque in newton-meters, (c) the horsepower output, (d) the efficiency. /, 60-Hz, Y-connected induction motor has the Solution (a) The computations are carried out on a per-phase basis, Hence the phase voltage is 480/,/3 or 277.13 V, and the equivalent circuit is depicted in Fig, 4-9. The stator-referred rotor current then follows from _ 277.13 + x5) ~ FI F075 = 55.33 — j8.47 i, =Ol jxytx)=j0.75 2 ow _ © = g0sg = 48 ohms Figure 4-9 Equivalent circuit for Example 4-2. For all practical purposes the magnetizing current may be taken equal to the no-load current because the corresponding rotor current is negligibly small. Thus I, = 19.64/—85° = 1,75 ~ 19.58 Hence, the input line current is fy = 4, + ¥, = (55.33 + 1.75) —j(19.58 + 8.47) = 57.08 — j28.05 = 63.6/—26.2° (4-25) and power factor = cos 0, = cos 26.2° = 0.895 lagging (b) The developed torque is found from pate (4-26) Also andample 4-3 Refer to the induction motor of Example 4-2. Assuming that operation takes place at full-rated voltage with all saturation effects neglected, determine (a) the slip at which the maximum torque is developed, (b) the current at maximum torque, and (c) the value of the maximum torque. Compare these results with those found in Example 4-2. Solution The solution is obtained here employing the results obtained from use of the approximate equivalent circuit. (a) Application of Eq. (4-32) yields ry 0.12 = eee = O12 = 0.159 TPP ar ee VOI + OTS (b) The rotor current referred to the stator is 277.13 _ 277.13 _ 277.13 y + 3/8) FIO. + x4) ~ OT + (0.120.159) + 70.75 ~ 1.137/41.3° Zh F = 243.74/—41.3° A This current is about 3.83 times as large as the current when the motor delivers a little in excess of 57 hp as computed in Example 4-2 at near rated conditions. (c) The maximum torque follows directly from Eq. (4-33). Thus 7 ai 1 _ 3277.13)? 1 mW, re TEE 2188.5) FF VPP + = G1S)EF M017 15)" = 611,15(1.181) = 721.77 Nem which is approximately three times as large as the value found near rated conditions in Example 4-2.Speed Control Recall that the synchronous speed n, of the rotating field in an induction machine is given by where P is the number of poles and f is the frequency of the supply. The actual speed of the induction motor is given by n = (1—s)n, where s is the slip. The speed of the induction motor can be varied by (1) varying the synchronous speed of the rotating field or (2) varying the slip. The synchronous speed can be varied by varying the number of poles or the supply frequency. 18Variable-Synchronous Speed Methods Pole-Changing Method In this method the stator windings of the motor is so de- signed that by changing the connections of the various coils (the terminals of which are brought out), the number of poles of the winding can be changed in the ratio of 2:1. Accordingly two synchronous speed result. If more independent windings are provided than more synchronous speeds can be obtained. The main disadvantage of the method is that only discrete changes in the speed can be obtained by this technique. Fur- thermore, there is a limit on the number of independent wind- ings that can be placed in the stator of a induction motor. Variable-Frequency Method We know that the synchronous speed is directly proportional to the frequency. If it is practical to vary the frequency of the supply, the synchronous speed of the motor can be varied. The variation of speed can be continuous or discrete according to continuous or discrete variation of the supply frequency. ‘The main disadvantage of this method is the fact the supply frequency is usually fixed. Therefore the method can be used if variable frequency supply is available. 19Variable-Slip Methods Variable-Stator-Voltage Method We know that the electromagnetic torque developed by the machine is proportional to the square of the applied voltage. By varying the applied voltage, different torque-speed curves can be obtained as shown in the figure. For a given rotor resistance, two such curves are shown for two applied voltages V, and Vy. Thus the motor can run at speeds Np or Ny. The continuous variation in speed from Np to Ny can be obtained by continuous variation in the applied voltage (Vj to Vs) for a given load. W>K, RU>REDRY t Stable operating region Variable-Rotor Resistance Method This method is applicable only to the wound-rotor motor. The effect of variation of rotor resistance on the speed of the motor is shown in the figure. For a given load, a continuous variation in speed is possible by continuous variation in the rotor resistance. 20Per cent of rated torque Per cent of rated torque Figure 4-21 IlJustrating how some degree of speed control is obtained by reducing the applied voitage a i | | Some rotor No external | More rotor resistance odded rotor resistance resistance / added 200} 100} — yo Constant-torque load Figure 4-22 Illustrating speed control 's by external rotor resistance.4-12 CONTROLLERS FOR THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS After the right motor is selected for a given application, the next step is to select the appropriate controller for the motor. The primary functions of a controller are to furnish proper starting, stopping, and reversing without damage or inconvenience to the motor, to other connected loads, or to the power system. However, the control- ler fulfills other useful purposes as well, especially the following: 1, It limits the starting torque. Some connected shaft loads may be damaged if excessive torque is applied upon starting. For example, fan blades can be sheared off or gears having excessive backlash can be stripped. The controller supplies reduced voltage at the start and as the speed picks up the voltage is increased in steps to its full value. 2. It limits the starting current. Most motors above 3 hp cannot be started directly across the three-phase line because of the excessive starting current that flows. Recall that at unity slip the current is limited only by the leakage impedance, which is usually quite a small quantity, especially in the larger motor sizes. A large starting current can be annoying because it causes light to flicker and may even cause other connected motors to stali. Reduced-voltage starting readily eliminates these annoyances. 3. It provides overload protection. All general-purpose motors are designed to deliver full-load power continuously without overheating. However, if for some reason the motor is made to deliver, say, 150% of its rated output continuously, it will pro- ceed to accommodate the demand and burn itself up in the process. The horsepower rating of the motor is based on the allowable temperature rise that can be tolerated by the insulation used for the field and armature windings. The losses produce the heat that raises the temperature. As long as these losses do not exceed the rated values, there is no danger to the motor, but, if they are allowed to become excessive, damage will result. There is nothing inherent in the motor that will keep the tem- perature rise within safe limits. Accordingly, it is also the function of the controller to provide this protection. Overload protection is achieved by the use of an appro- priate time-delay relay which is sensitive to the heat produced by the motor line currents.4. It furnishes undervoltage protection. Operation at reduced voltage can be harmful to the motor, especially when the load demands rated power. If the line volt- age falls below some preset limit, the motor is automatically disconnected from the three-phase line source by the controller. Controllers for electric motors are of two types—manual and magnetic. We shall consider only the magnetic type, which has many advantages over the manual type. It is easier to operate. It provides undervoltage protection. It can be remotely operated from one or several different places. Moreover, the magnetic controller is automatic and reliable whereas the manual controller requires a trained operator, especially when a sequence of operations is called for in a given application. The one disad- vantage is the greater initial cost of the magnetic type. Appearing in Fig. 4-36 is the schematic diagram of a magnetic full-voltage starter for a three-phase induction motor. The operation is simple. When the start button is pressed, the relay coil M is energized. This moves the relay armature to its closed position, thereby closing the main contactors M, which in turn apply full volt- age to the motor. When the relay armature moves to its energized position, it also closes an auxiliary contactor M, which serves as an electrical interlock, allowing the operator to release the start button without de-energizing the main relay. Of course contactors $f are much larger in size than M,. The former set must have a currentOL heater element oe a. 3-phi a Motor voltage | M. OL heater _|Start My + Stop Reloy OL Control circuit L4p—J coil Figure 4-36 Full-voltage magnetic Ma starter. rating that enables it to handle the starting motor current. The latter needs to accom- modate just the exciting current of the relay coil. Figure 4-36 also shows that the motor line current flows through two overload heater elements. If the temperature rise becomes excessive, the heater element causes the overload contacts in the control circuit to open. In controller diagrams it is important to remember that all contactors are shown in their de-energized state. Thus the symbol —4+— means that the con- tactors M are open when the coil is not energized. Similarly, the symbol —— means that these contactors are closed in the de-energized state. Undervoltage protection is inherent in the magnetic starter of Fig. 4-36. This comes about as a result of designing the coil M so that, if the coil voltage drops below a specified minimum, the relay armature can no longer be held in the closed position. A full-voltage magnetic starter equipped with the control circuitry to permit reversing is illustrated in schematic form in Fig. 4-37. A three-phase induction motor is reversed by crossing two of the three line leads going to the motor terminals. In this connection note the criss-cross of two of the R contactors. Pressing the forward (rwp) button energizes coil F which in turn closes the main contactors F as well as the interlock F,. This allows the motor to reach its forward operating speed. To reverse the motor the REV button is pushed. This does two thi One, it de-energizes R o_o 2 oT TA Motor OL je Forwor: OL R 3], Re os Stop ma Control circuit eo Figure 4-37 Full-voltage starter Leo Relay coil equipped with reversing control.-oil F, thus opening the F contactors. Two, it energizes the R relay coil, thus closing he R contactors which apply a reversed-phase sequence to the motor causing it to ittain full speed in the reverse direction. Putting the REV switch in the F, interlock ‘ircuit is a safety measure which prevents having both the R and F contactors closed it the same time. An illustration of a reduced-voltage magnetic controller using limiting resistors n the line circuit appears in Fig. 4-38. This unit is frequently referred to as a three- step acceleration starter because the line resistors are removed in three steps. Pushing he start button energizes coil M and closes contactors Af, thus applying a three- dhase voltage to the motor through the full resistors. In addition to contactors M and M, coil M is also equipped with a time-delayed contactor T,,. This contactor is so jesigned that it does not close until a preset time after the armature of coil M is closed. oo 3- phase voltage be Stop Figure 4-38 Three-step reduced-voltage starter for a three-phase induction motor, he delay is usually obtained through a mechanical escapement of some sort which is ctuated by the relay armature. Of course the time delay is needed to permit the motor ) accelerate to a speed corresponding to the reduced applied voltage. After the elapse f the preset time, the 7,, contacts close, energizing coil 14, which in turn closes ontactors 14, short-circuiting the first part of the series resistor. Coil 14 is also juipped with a time-delay contactor T,,, which is designed to allow the motor to celerate to a higher speed before it closes. When contactors 14 do close, coils 24 are nergized. This immediately closes contactors 2A, shorting out the second section of ie line resistor. Then, after still another time delay, contactor T,, closes, applying n excitation voltage to coils 3.4. With the closing of contactors 3A the full line volt- ge is applied to the motor. In this manner the motor is brought up to speed in a soft,” smooth fashion without drawing excessive starting current or developing large arting torques.en NYC CTION MOTOR TOR = CHARACTERISTICS OUE-SPEED Oy, (7-35) fgg = PAS int = (7-36) Figure 7-15 | Per-phase equivalent circuit of an induction motor Lox, R - JX Zu *Zy +L, IX Ry + jX, + jXu =W74Z =Vo ‘The magnitude of the Thevenin voltage Vy is Xw a (7-38) ORE F(X + Xu? Va =Pigure fits tla) ne (nevenin equivalent vollage OF an INQUCTON MOtor INPUT CICUIL. (b) The Thevenin equivalent impedance of the input circuit. (c) The resulting simplified equivalent circuit of an induction moior. xX x (a) x x JX (Ry + IX) Ky Zyy= Se aed THT Ry +X, + Xap) tb) Row Hr Pe Thevenin voltage is approximately to quite good accuracy. Figure 7-16b shows the input circuit with the input voltage source killed. The two impedances are in parallel, and the Thevenin impedance is given by Z2y Zm=3 THE, + Ly, This impedance reduces to oy iXw (Ri +X) Zan = Row + Xt = RGR = Kip (7-40) (7-1)Eleciric Machinery and Power Sysiem Fundamentals Because X\, > X, and X, +X, > Rj. the Thevenin resistance and reactance are approximately given by (7-42) (7-43) The resulting equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 7~16c. From this circuit, the current I; is given by * Ry + Ryls + Xu * 7% The magnitude of this current is 3V Fy Rais (Roy + Rolsy + (Xp + XQ)? and the rotor-induced torque is given by — Pac Tind = Dane 3V Fy Rais + (Xqy + XP | Wgnel(Rr + Ra/s (7-44) (7-45) (7-46) (7-47) (7-48) A plot of induction motor torque as a function of speed (and slip) is shown in Figure 7-17, and a plot showing speeds both above and below the normal motor range is shown in Figure 7-18.Figure 7-17 1 A typical induction motor torque-speed characteristic curve > er 500 Pullout torque \ 400 load) 300 Starting torque 200 Induced torque (% of fu Full-loud torque \ Mechanical speed igure 7-18 | Induction motor torque-speed characteristic curve, showing the extended operating ranges (braking region and generator region) Tina Fos. 7 Pallout torque Motor region ue (% of Mechanical speed 9, ced ton Generator region“omments on the Induction Motor Torque-Speed Curve ‘he induction motor (orque-speed characteristic curve plotted in Figures 7-17 and 18 provides several important pieces of information about the operation of induc- on motors. This information is summarized below: 1. The induced torque of the motor is zero at synchronous speed. This fact has been discussed previously. 2. The torque-speed curve is nearly linear between no load and full load. In this range. the rotor resistance is much larger than the rotor reactance. so the rotor current. the rotor magnetic field. and the induced torque increase linearly with increasing slip. There is a maximum possible torque that cannot be exceeded, This torque. called the pullout torque or breakdown torque. is 2 to 3 times the rated full- load torque of the motor. The next section of this chapter contains a method for calculating pullout torque. 4. The starting torque on the motor is slightly larger than its full-load torque, so this motor will start carrying any load that it can supply at full power Notice that the torque on the motor for a given slip varies as the square of the applied voltage. This fact is usefil in one form of induction motor speed control that will be described later wn 6. If the rotor of the induction motor is driven faster than synchronous speed, then the direction of the induced torque in the machine reverses and the machine becomes a generator. converting mechanical power to electric power. 7. If the motor is turning backward relative to the direction of the magnetic fields. the induced torque in the machine will stop the machine very rapidly and will try ( rotate it in the other direction. Since reversing the direction of magnetic field rotation is simply a matter of switching any two stator phases. this fact can be used as a way to very rapidly stop an induction motor. The act of switching two phases in order to stop the motor very rapidly is called plugging The power converted to mechanical form in an induction motor is equal to P wom = Ting Don nd is shown plowed in Figure 7-19. Notice that the peak power supplied by the in- ction motor occurs at a different speed than the maximum torque. and. of course. > power is converted to mechanical form when the rotor is at zero speedMaximum (Pullout) Torque in an Induction Motor Since the induced torque is Cqual 10 PG /éddnes the maximum Possible torque occurs when the alt-gap power is maximum, Since the alr-gap power is equal to the power consumed in the resistor Ris, the Maximum induced torque will occur when the power consumed by that resistor fs maxinuun When is the Power supplied to Ra/s at its maximum? Refer to the simplified equivalent circuit in Figure 7~16c, Ina situation Where the angle of the load imped- ance is fixed. the maximum power transfer theorem states that maximum power transfer to the load Tesistor Ro/s will occur when the magnitude of that impedance is equal to the magnitude of the source impedance, The equivalent source impedance in the circuit is Lovee = Roy + jXpy + ix, (749) so the maximum Power transfer occurs whenFigure 7-19 | Induced torque and power converted versus motor speed in revolutions per minute for an example four-pole induction motor. 800. —-———$ 120 700+ 7 Power Vos Torque ~, Prone 600 90 = 500 w S E400 ot 2 300 45 200 M 100 15 o = 5 oO 250 300 750 1000, 1250 1500 1750 2000. Mechanical speed (r/min) (7-50) FV Rin + Xt + XD Solving Equation (7-50) for slip. we see that she slip at pullout torque is given by is | : ie — (7-51) NV Rig + (XtH Notice that the referred rotor resistance R; appears only in the numerator. so the slip of the rotor at maximum torque is directly proportional to the rotor resistance. ‘The value of the maximum torque can be found by inserting the expression for the slip at maximum torque into the torque equation [Equation (7—48)]. The resulting equation for the maximum or pullout torque is This torque is proportional to the square of the supply voltage and is also inversely related to the size of the stator impedances and the rotor reactance. The smaller a machine's reactances. the larger the maximum torque it is capable of achieving Note that slip at which the maximum torque occurs is directly proportional to rotorresistance [Equation (7-51). but the vw/ue of the maximum torque is independent of the value of rotor resistance [Equation (7-52)] The torque-speed characteristic for a wound-rotor induction motor is shown in Figure 7-20. Recall that it is possible to insert resistance into the rotor circuit of a wound rotor because the rotor circuit is brought out to the stator through slip rings. Notice on the figure that as the rotor resistance is increased, the pullout speed of the motor decreases. but the maximum torque remains constant. It is possible to take advantage of this characteristic of wound-rotor induction motors to start very heavy loads. If a resistance is inserted into the rotor circuit, the maximum torque can be adjusted to occur at starting conditions. Therefore, the max- imum possible torque would be available to start heavy loads. On the other hand, once the load is turning. the extra resistance can be removed from the circuit, and the maximum torque will move up to near-synchronous speed for regular operation. Figure 7-20 | The effect of varying rotor resistance on the torque-speed characteristic of a wound-rotor induction moior. RL ERIC RIS R ERS RG son | 700 y 600 500 Zz 400 300 200 400 lobo 12501500 1750-2000 Mechanical speed (r/min) 0 250300750\ 460-V, 25-hp, 60-Hz, four-pale, Y-connected wound-rotor induction motor has the ollowing impedances in ohms per phase referred to the stator circuit R, x, 641.0, 1082 — Xp 332 0 4649 — X= 26.3.0 a. What is the maximum torque of this motor? At what speed and slip does it occur? b. Whats the starting torque of this motor? c. When the rotor resistance is doubled, what is the speed at which the maximum torque now occurs? What is the new starting torque of the moior? d. Calculate and plot the torque-speed characteristics of this motor both with the original rotor resistance and with the rotor resisiance doubled & Solution a. The synchronous speed of this motor is _ 120 f _ 120(50 Hz) Dayne P 7 Dpoles = 3000 r/min Therefore, the motor's slip is syne Tae (100%) (7-4) = 3000 rimin = 2950 r/min 3000 r/min = 0.0167 or 1.67% (x 100%) b. The induced torque in the motor must be assumed equal to the load torque, and Peony Must be assumed equal to Aggy, since no value was given for mechanical losses. The torque is thus P. ae Poem Tind = “oe, 15 kW =o a (2950 r/min)(2z radin\(1 min/60 s) ™ c. Inthe low-slip region, the torque-speed curve is linear, and the induced torque is directly proportional to slip. Therefore, if the torque doubles, then the new slip will be 3.33 percent. The operating speed of the motor is thus Nm = (1 = $)eyne = (1 — 0.0383)(3000 r/min) = 2900 r/min d. The power supplied by the motor is given by P. ‘conv = Tind on = (97.2 N-m)(2900 r/min)(27 rad/r)(1 min/60 s) = 29.5 kW a‘A two-pole, 50-H2 induction motor supplies 15 kW to a foad at a speed of 2950 r/min a. What is the motors slip? 'b. What is the induced torque in the motor in N- m undier these conditions? ¢. What will the operating speed of the motor be if its torque is doubled? 6. How much power will be supplied by the motor when the torque is doubled? @ Solution The Thevenin voage of this motor is X Ves = ae (7-28) VRP HX + Xu? Wy(26.3 2 . (266 V)\26:3 9) = pss ov Veer nF + (1060 + oes aF The Thevenin resistance is Fw = Aa (7-42) = (0881 The Thevenin reactance is My = X= 1.106 2 (7-43) 2. The sip at which maximum torque occurs is given by Equation (7-51) Sra = (7-51) Fa + m= . 0.332 9 ViOseO ny + (1.106 9 + 0.464 DF = 0.198 This corresponds to a mechanical speed of 1 = 8)yee = (1 = 0.198)(1800 rfmin) = 1444 cimin Dn = The torque at this speed is avi, (7-82) ore DoapalFiin + VER On FA 9255.2 VE (188.5 racis)(0.590 V + VO.590 Ny + (7.106 9 + 0.464 OF} = 229 Nan b. The starting torque of this motor is the torque when the slip s = 1 Via Weyrel (Pree + Fra)? + (Xr + Xe)" . (255.2 40.332 9) (188.5 rad/s)[(0.590 0 + 0.332 M)? + (1.106 N + 0.464 1) = 104Nm (7-83) c. Ifthe rotor resistance is doubled, then the slip at maximum torque doubles, 00. Therefore, Spas = 0.396and the speed at maximum torque is m= (1~ ype = (4 ~ 03961800 cin) = 1087 r/min ‘The maximum torque is sti Tae = 229 Nem The starting torque is now 3(255.2.0)(0.684 0) vet CBS radi OSBON Fo 664 OF +7. 06 2+ 0.464 DF = 170N-m