CD CHAPTER 1

Fluid Power
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you will:
■ Calculate unknown values in given fluid power applications. ■ Prepare pictorial diagrams of hydraulic circuits.
■ Draw graphic diagrams of hydraulic circuits. ■ Make graphic diagrams of pneumatic circuits.
■ Make graphic diagrams of hydraulic circuits based on ■ Develop fluid power systems from engineering sketches,
sequence of operations functional descriptions. component lists, or from sketches of revised units.

THE ENGINEERING DESIGN A P P L I C AT I O N

When a drafter begins a fluid power drafting project, she In Example 1, the engineer has given the draftsperson
or he works from one of several starting points. The a rough sketch and bill of materials for a hydraulic cir-
drafter may receive an engineer’s sketch and a list of cuit. (See Figure 1.) The drafter used a CADD system to
components for a new unit, or a sketch for an addition to produce the final product shown in Figure 2. Figure 3
an existing unit. The drafter may need to show the fin- shows the actual top-mounted hydraulic power unit
ished product with a Component List (or Bill of Materials) described in Figure 2. A top-mounted unit means that
and/or include a Sequence of Operations List. the pump and motor are mounted on top of the tank. In

FIGURE 1 ■ Example 1—engineer’s sketch. Courtesy Fluid-Air Components, Inc.

(Continued)

1
2 ■ Fluid Power

THE ENGINEERING DESIGN A P P L I C A T I O N (continued)

FIGURE 2 ■ Example 1—final product. Courtesy Fluid-Air Components, Inc.

a skid-mounted unit, they are mounted on the bottom

of the tank.
In Example 2, the drafter has received the following
sequence of operations and functional description to
describe what takes place in the hydraulic circuit. Fig-
ure 4 shows the resulting hydraulic graphic diagram.
Note the use and function of a sequence valve (7) in
this example.

Sequence of Operations
1. With motor (3) running, lever on valve (6) is raised
manually. Delivery of pump (4) is directed into head
end of cylinder (8) for pressing phase.
2. When pressure reaches the setting of valve (7), flow
is sequenced through (7) to drive motor (9).
FIGURE 3 ■ Top-mounted hydraulic power unit. Courtesy Fluid-
Air Components, Inc. (Continued)
 Fluid Power ■ 3

THE ENGINEERING DESIGN A P P L I C A T I O N (continued)

3. Manually depressing lever shifts (6) to return cylin- Functional Description
der (8) and permit pump (9) to stop.
4. When piston of (8) returns, valve (6) is mechanically Valve (5-A) provides overload protection. Valve (7) causes
centered, unloading delivery of (4) to tank through work to be pressed with cylinder (8) before motor (9) starts
valve (6), but maintaining sufficient pressure drop to to rotate and ensures minimum pressure during operation
hold work head in raised position. of (9). It also controls maximum thrust of cylinder (8). Valve
(5-B) limits maximum torque of motor (9). Valve (6) con-
trols direction of motion of cylinder (8) and the running and
stopping of (9).
In Example 3, the same sequence of operations and
functional description are used for a pneumatic circuit.
The resulting pneumatic graphic diagram is shown in
Figure 5.

COMPONENT LIST
Key Quantity Name, Model Number, and Manufacturer
(1) 1 Reservoir, oil, 30 gal. cap., Co. A
(2) 1 Strainer, ST104, Co. A
(3) 1 Motor, Electric, 5 HP, 1800 rpm,
NO-13-53, Co. JKS
(4) 1 Pump, 7 1/2 GPH at 1800 rpm, FE-22-52,
Co. VCS
(5) 2 Valve, relief, FE-12-76, Co. EECS
(6) 1 Valve, directional control, DE-04-77, Co. QJS
(7) 1 Valve, sequence, DE-18-49, Co. CS
(8) 1 Cylinder, differential, AU-21-43, Co. CPM
(9) 1 Axial motor, fixed displacement, MO-1313,
torque 15 in. lb./100 psi, displacement
.96 cu. in./rev., Co. E

FIGURE 4 ■ Example 2—hydraulic graphic diagram. FIGURE 5 ■ Example 3—pneumatic graphic diagram.
 4 ■ Fluid Power

INTRODUCTION minute, or in joules per second. The more common expres-

sions are horsepower, which equals 33,000 ft-lb per minute,
For thousands of years, water has been controlled for various and watt, which equals one joule of work per second.
uses by utilizing dams, water wheels, and tanks. The practical For example, imagine an assembly line motor pushing an
application of this fluid in motion was the beginning of the sci- object from one conveyor belt to another belt 8 feet away with a
ence of hydraulics. force of 1,000 lb in 5 seconds. The work being done is 8,000 ft-
Today, hydraulics and pneumatics are referred to as fluid lb. The amount of time is 1/12th of a minute, or .08333 minute.
power or fluidics. A fluid is defined as something that can flow In one minute, the amount of work done is 8,000 ft-lb + 1/12 =
and is able to move and change shape without separating when 96,000 ft-lb/minute. Therefore, the motor has a horsepower of
under pressure. Fluid power, therefore, includes both liquids 96,000/33,000 or 2.9.
and gases. The science of hydraulics refers to liquids and the
science of pneumatics refers to gases.
The fluid power technology of using the flow characteristics
HYDRAULICS
of a liquid or gas to perform work is used extensively in the oper- The science of hydraulics had its beginning in about 1650 when
ation and control of automobile and aircraft systems, machine a French mathematician and physicist named Blaise Pascal first
tools, earth moving equipment, ships, and spacecraft. To under- observed the law that became known as Pascal’s principle. It
stand the concept of fluid power systems, it is necessary to first states that if a pressure is exerted at one portion of fluid that is
look at the basic principles of force, pressure, work, and power. at rest in a closed container, then that pressure is transmitted
equally in all directions without loss through the rest of the fluid
FORCE, PRESSURE, and to the walls of the container. (See Figure 6.)
What this means in a hydraulic circuit is that pressure
WORK, POWER applied to one part of the system (a piston, for example) will
Force can be described as any action that produces motion or affect another part of the circuit (another piston) with the same
alters the position of an object. In the U.S. Customary System, pressure. The amount of force produced on the second piston
force is usually expressed in pounds, whereas in the Interna- depends on the area of that piston. Similarly, the amount of
tional System it is expressed in newtons. work done depends on the distance that the second piston was
Pressure is the force per unit area exerted on an object. It is moved.
shown mathematically as: Pressure = Force/Unit Area. When Figure 7 shows an example of this principle. In this simple
using force expressed in pounds, the common unit area is a hydraulic circuit, the surface of piston A is 10 square inches.
square inch. The pressure is described as pounds per square When a force of 50 lb is applied, the pressure exerted in the fluid,
inch, or psi. When using force expressed in newtons, the unit on all walls, and against the surface of piston B is 5 lb per square
area is one square meter. However, in this case, instead of the inch (psi). The force of piston B is, therefore, 5 psi × 100 square
pressure being described as one newton per square meter, it is inches, or 500 lb. If piston A moves a distance of 20 feet, the
called a pascal (Pa). Since this measurement is inconveniently amount of work done is the force × distance, or 50 lb × 20 feet,
small for most engineering work, the kilopascal (kPa), which is
1,000 newtons per square meter, is more commonly used. One
psi equals 6.895 kPa.
Work is the measurement of force applied to an object mul-
tiplied by the distance the object is moved. Therefore, no work
is done unless the object is moved or displaced. Work is
described mathematically as: Work = Force × Distance. In the
U.S. Customary System, distance is expressed in either inches
or feet. Work, therefore, is measured in in.-lb or ft-lb. For FIGURE 6 ■ Pascal’s principle.
example, if a force of 800 pounds displaces an object 3 feet, the
amount of work done is 2,400 ft-lb. In the International Sys-
tem, the distance is expressed in meters. If a force of 300 new-
tons displaces an object 40 meters, the amount of work done is
12,000 newtonmeters, or joules (J). The joule is the amount of
work done when one newton is displaced a distance of one
meter. A kilojoule (kJ), which is 1,000 joules, is more com-
monly used than a joule. Therefore, 12,000 joules would be
shown as 12 kJ. A joule equals .7377 ft-lb.
Power is described as the work accomplished per unit of
time. In other words, an equal amount of work can be done by
a high-powered motor in a short time or by a low-powered
motor in a long time. The mathematical expression is Power =
Work/Time. Units of power are expressed in foot-pounds per FIGURE 7 ■ Pascal’s principle in a hydraulic circuit.
 Fluid Power ■ 5

or 1,000 ft-lb. The same work will be done at piston B. Since the Hydraulic Pump
force at piston B is 500 lb, the work will be 1,000 ft-lb divided by
500 lb (work divided by force equals distance), and the piston The hydraulic pump is used to pressurize the liquid in the
will move 2 feet. Another way to conceptualize this is to imagine hydraulic system. The pump brings in air at its inlet by creating
the fluid at piston A being displaced to piston B. In other words, a partial vacuum, thereby creating the atmospheric pressure that
since the surface area of piston A is 10 square inches and piston forces the hydraulic liquid through the rest of the system.
A moves 20 feet (240 inches), the total amount of fluid displaced Pumps such as this, in which the liquid is displaced mechani-
to piston B is 2,400 cubic inches. Since piston B has a surface area cally, are called positive displacement pumps. Most pumps
of 100 square inches, the piston moves 24 inches, or 2 feet. used in hydraulic systems are of this type. These pumps are
divided into two types: reciprocating and rotary. A reciprocating
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS pump pressurizes the liquid by using a back and forth, straight-
line motion such as that produced by a piston, plunger, or
AND EQUIPMENT diaphragm. A rotary pump uses a circular motion such as that
Hydraulic systems perform work by transmitting energy from produced by gears, vanes, or cams. (See Figure 9.) Remember
a power source through pressurized fluid to actuators (in the that a hydraulic pump only pressurizes the liquid, thereby pro-
previous example, the actuator was piston B). In most cases, ducing the flow. It does not pump pressure. A piston pump is
the pressurized fluid is a water-soluble oil or water-glycol mix- shown in Figure 10.
ture, with oil being the fluid used most frequently.
In all hydraulic circuits, there are five basic elements,
regardless of the work performed or the complexity of the sys-
tem. These five elements are: a reservoir, a driver, a pump,
valves, and an actuator.

Reservoir
The reservoir, similar to the drawing in Figure 8, is the hold-
ing tank for the hydraulic fluid. It can also help in separating
air and contaminants from the fluid, as well as dissipating some
of the heat that is produced within the system.

Driver
The driver may be an electric motor or an internal combustion
engine which drives the pump. (a) RECIPROCATING PISTON PUMP

(b) GEAR PUMP

(c) VANE PUMP

FIGURE 8 ■ Hydraulic reservoir. FIGURE 9 ■ Positive displacement pumps.

 6 ■ Fluid Power

FIGURE 11 ■ Hydraulic valves. Courtesy Parker Hannifin

Corporation.
FIGURE 10 ■ Piston pump. Courtesy Parker Hannifin Corporation.

Valves
Valves are devices that control the pressure, direction, and flow of
liquids in the hydraulic system. They accomplish this by opening,
closing, or partially obstructing passageways throughout the sys-
tem. A variety of hydraulic valves is shown in Figure 11. The dis- FIGURE 12 ■ Closed relief valve.
cussion of valves in the following section is divided into three cat-
egories: pressure control valves, directional control valves, and
flow control valves. OUT

Pressure Control Valves

Pressure control valves are used to maintain a particular pressure
within the system. The relief valve is the most common of this type. IN
It remains closed until a predetermined pressure is reached, at
which time it opens automatically, allowing the fluid to pass through
the valve to return to the reservoir. Figures 12 and 13 show how this
is accomplished. The type of valve illustrated is a spool valve, so
named because of the movable portion inside the casting. In Figure OUT
12, the valve is in the closed position. The spring, which forces the FIGURE 13 ■ Open relief valve.
spool to the far left, has a particular pressure setting. When the inlet
pressure of the hydraulic fluid exceeds the spring setting, as in Fig-
ure 13, the spool is forced against the spring, thereby allowing the
fluid to pass through the outlet holes to the reservoir or tank. Both
the inlet and outlet holes are called ports. These valves provide pro-
tection to other parts of the system from the damage that can be
caused by pressure that is too high.
A sequence valve operates on basically the same principle as
that of the relief valve. The difference is that instead of the fluid
being returned to the reservoir, it is routed to another part of
the system to perform more work. This is necessary in systems
that must provide work in the proper sequence.
Pressure-reducing valves, unlike relief valves and sequence
valves, are normally open. One of their functions in hydraulic
systems is to allow a secondary circuit to operate at a lower
pressure than the primary circuit. See Figure 14 for an example FIGURE 14 ■ Pressure control valve. Courtesy Parker Hannifin
of a pressure control valve. Corporation.
 Fluid Power ■ 7

Directional Control Valves Multiple-way valves provide for the opening or closing of
different flow paths. They usually contain a spool. These valves
Directional control valves are used to control the direction that are classified by both the number of ports they contain and the
the fluid flows in the system. The simplest of directional control number of spool positions. For example, two different two-way
valves is the check valve. (See Figure 15.) This ball check valve (referring to two ports), two-position valves are illustrated in
allows the fluid to flow in only one direction. As long as the inlet Figure 16. Valve A in position 1 is normally closed, or in its
pressure is greater than the pressure of the internal spring, the unactuated position. When the push button is pressed and the
fluid flows through the valve and to the rest of the system. If the valve is actuated (position 2), the spool slides to the left and the
flow begins to reverse or if the pressure drops below the pressure fluid is allowed to flow through the valve from port P (pres-
of the spring, the spring pressure seats the ball and the flow stops. sure) to port T (tank). With valve B, the unactuated position is
open (position 1). When the push button is pressed and the
valve is actuated, it then becomes closed as in position 2.
Figure 17 shows a three-way, two-position valve. In position A,
the fluid flows from port P through the valve and out port A. Port
T is blocked. In position B, port P is blocked and the fluid flows
from port A to port T.
FIGURE 15 ■ Check valve. Two types of directional control valves are shown in Figure 18.

P P

T T

(1) NORMALLY CLOSED, OR (2) ACTUATED

UNACTUATED
VALVE A

P P

T T

(1) NORMALLY OPEN, OR (2) ACTUATED

UNACTUATED
VALVE B

FIGURE 16 ■ Two-way, two-position directional control valves.

A A

T P T P

POSITION A POSITION B

FIGURE 17 ■ Three-way, two-position valve.

 8 ■ Fluid Power

FIGURE 21 ■ Flow control valves. Courtesy Parker Hannifin

Corporation.
FIGURE 18 ■ Directional control valves. Courtesy Parker Hannifin
Corporation.

Flow Control Valves

Flow control valves control the rate of flow through the
hydraulic system. One type of flow control valve, the throttle
valve, is illustrated in Figure 19. Figure 20 shows a flow con-
trol valve with a fixed output. In this type of valve, the rate of
flow is not affected by variations in the inlet pressure. Two
types of flow control valves are shown in Figure 21.
FIGURE 22 ■ Single-acting cylinder. Courtesy International
Actuators Standards Organization (ISO).

An actuator in a hydraulic system is the device that converts single-acting cylinder, the fluid force is applied to only one sur-
the fluid power to mechanical energy for the purpose of per- face of the piston, which is the head end of the cylinder. The pis-
forming work. Actuators are either linear or rotary. ton is retracted by an external force, such as a spring or the force
Linear actuators are most often a cylinder or ram. The single- of gravity.
acting cylinder is the simplest of this type. (See Figure 22.) In a In a double-acting cylinder, such as the one illustrated in Fig-
ure 23, the fluid force can be applied to either surface of the pis-
ton. This allows the movement of the piston to be controlled
hydraulically in two directions. This double-acting cylinder with a
single piston rod is a differential type because there is a difference
in the piston surface area between the right and left. Since the area
at the left is larger, the force applied to that surface is greater, and
the work stroke is slower and more powerful than the opposite
work stroke. The nondifferential type of double-acting cylinder
shown in Figure 24 has a double-ended piston rod that extends

FIGURE 19 ■ Throttle valve.

CONTROL
ORIFICE
INLET OUTLET

FIXED
ORIFICE FIGURE 23 ■ Double-acting cylinder. Courtesy International
FIGURE 20 ■ Flow control valve. Standards Organization (ISO).
 Fluid Power ■ 9

FLUID POWER DIAGRAMS

Types of Diagrams
Four types of diagrams are used when representing fluid power
systems. They are: graphic, pictorial, cutaway, and combination
diagrams. Each type emphasizes a different aspect of the system.
A graphic diagram emphasizes the function of the circuit
and of each component. The components consist of simple
FIGURE 24 ■ Double-acting, nondifferential cylinder. Courtesy geometric shapes that are linked together with interconnecting
International Standards Organization (ISO). lines. (See Figure 27.) This type of diagram is most frequently
used for designing and troubleshooting fluid power circuits.
through both ends of the cylinder. The surface areas of both sides A pictorial diagram, as in Figure 28, is used to show the pip-
of the piston are equal, so the forces in both directions are also ing between components. The drawings of the components
equal. Several types of cylinders are shown in Figure 25. themselves are pictorial and do not attempt to show the func-
Rotary actuators can be of the gear, vane, or piston type tion or method of operation.
(refer to Figure 9).
Filters and strainers are also a necessary part of the hydraulic
system to ensure long life of the components. They keep the
hydraulic fluid clean by removing foreign particles. See Figure 26
for a wide variety of filters.

FIGURE 25 ■ Cylinders. Courtesy Parker Hannifin Corporation.

FIGURE 27 ■ Graphic diagram.

FIGURE 26 ■ Filters. Courtesy Parker Hannifin Corporation. FIGURE 28 ■ Pictorial diagram.

10 ■ Fluid Power

The purpose of a cutaway diagram is to show the principal Symbols

internal working parts and the function of each component.
Sometimes several cutaway drawings are used to show the dif- ANSI The national standard related to this discussion is
ferent flow paths that are possible depending upon the position Fluid Power Diagrams, ANSI/(NFPA)T3.28.9R1. Symbols
of the various moving parts. (See Figure 29.) are arranged in the diagram to facilitate the use of direct
A combination diagram uses graphic, pictorial, and cutaway and straight interconnecting lines. Where components
symbols with interconnecting lines. (See Figure 30.) This type have definite mechanical, functional, or otherwise
of diagram provides a way to emphasize function, piping, or important relationships to one another, their symbols are
flow paths for each component as needed. so placed in the diagram. Single lines are used in graphic
diagrams. Double lines are used in cutaway diagrams.
Pictorial and combination diagrams can use single or
double lines or both.
Graphic diagrams and symbols are best suited to international
use and standardization because of their simplicity. The remain-
der of this section shows graphic symbols that were approved by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Figure
31 shows several graphic symbols commonly used.
Control valves, except for nonreturn valves, are usually
shown in single or multiple squares known as envelopes, with
ports shown on the active envelope. (See Figure 32.)
ISO Single envelopes indicate pressure or flow control
valves in which there are an infinite number of positions
possible. This allows the system to operate at a constant
predetermined pressure or flow.
Pressure control valve symbols are shown in Figure 33. The
symbol for the pressure relief valve is the one that would be
used for the valve shown in Figures 12 and 13.
The sequence valve differs from the pressure relief valve
only in that the fluid flows to other parts of the circuit to per-
form more work instead of returning to the reservoir.
Flow control valve symbols are shown in Figure 34. The
throttle valve symbol would be used for the valve in Figure 19,
with the arrow indicating that the valve is adjustable. The sym-
FIGURE 29 ■ Cutaway diagram.
bol for a flow control valve with variable output would be used
for the valve in Figure 20. Directional control valves are shown
in multiple envelopes with each envelope indicating a distinct
operating position. Several possible flow paths for these and
other valves are shown in Figure 35. Figure 36 shows examples
of valves with the ports open, and Figure 37 shows examples of
valves with ports closed or blocked. Figure 38 shows the sym-
bols used for various methods of actuating (or controlling)
valves.
Figure 39 shows how these graphic symbols correlate with
unactuated and actuated directional control valves. In position 1,
this unactuated two-way, two-position valve is normally closed.
In the graphic symbol shown above it, the active ports are
blocked. In position 2, the valve is actuated and flow through the
valve occurs. Its graphic symbol shows the active ports on the
envelope with the flow path.
ANSI Note that when possible, the envelope nearest
the control symbol (in this case, a push-button control)
represents the condition that occurs when the valve is
FIGURE 30 ■ Combination diagram. actuated.
 Fluid Power ■ 11

WORKING LINE

JOINING LINES FIXED CAPACITY HYDRAULIC PUMP

PILOT LINE
WITH ONE DIRECTION OF FLOW
(FOR CONTROL)

DRAIN LINE
FIXED CAPACITY HYDRAULIC PUMP
CROSSING LINES
WITH TWO DIRECTIONS OF FLOW
(a) FLOW LINES

ONE DIRECTION VARIABLE CAPACITY HYDRAULIC PUMP

WITH ONE DIRECTION OF FLOW
TWO DIRECTIONS
(b) FLOW (f) PUMPS

RESERVOIR OPEN TO ATMOSPHERE

RESERVOIR WITH INLET PIPE AND

DRAIN LINE ABOVE FLUID LEVEL RETURNED
BY
UNSPECIFIED
RESERVOIR WITH INLET PIPE AND FORCE SINGLE-ACTING
DRAIN LINE BELOW FLUID LEVEL CYLINDERS

RETURNED
PRESSURIZED RESERVOIR BY
SPRING
(c) RESERVOIRS

M ELECTRIC MOTOR
DOUBLE-ACTING
DIFFERENTIAL CYLINDERS
M HEAT ENGINE

(d) ENERGY SOURCES

CHECK VALVE (SEE FIGURE 15)

DOUBLE-ACTING
SHUT-OFF VALVE NONDIFFERENTIAL CYLINDERS

FILTER OR STRAINER
(g) CYLINDERS

ACCUMULATOR

(e) MISCELLANEOUS
FIGURE 31 ■ Graphic symbols.

position 1, the pressurized flow from the pump flows through

A three-way, two-position directional control valve is shown in
the valve, through the adjustable flow control valve, into the
Figure 40 along with its graphic symbol. Since the valve is con-
cylinder, forcing the piston up. When the valve is in position 2,
trolled by an unspecified pressure in both directions, it is not pos-
the fluid pressure from port P is blocked and is diverted back
sible to tell from the graphic symbol which position is actuated.
to the reservoir through the pressure relief valve. Gravity from
In position 1, the flow from the pressure port P exits port A. In
the piston forces the fluid in the cylinder back through the
position 2, port P is blocked, and the flow from port A goes to the
check valves and through port A to the reservoir.
reservoir through port T.
This valve could be used in a hydraulic circuit with a single- ANSI Note that the graphic symbol for reservoir can be
acting cylinder as shown in Figure 41. When the valve is in used in one graphic diagram as often as necessary.
12 ■ Fluid Power

THROTTLE VALVE

FLOW CONTROL VALVE

PORTS WITH FIXED OUTPUT

FIGURE 32 ■ Envelopes.
FLOW CONTROL VALVE
WITH VARIABLE OUTPUT

FIGURE 34 ■ Flow control valve symbols.

ONE THROTTLING ORIFICE

NORMALLY CLOSED

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

FIGURE 35 ■ Flow paths.

SEQUENCE VALVE

FIGURE 36 ■ Valves with ports open.

PRESSURE REGULATOR OR
REDUCING VALVE

FIGURE 33 ■ Pressure control valve symbols.

FIGURE 37 ■ Valves with ports closed or blocked.

A three-way, three-position valve is shown in Figure 42 with

A four-way, three-position valve can be used with a double-
its corresponding graphic symbol. This is an example of a
acting cylinder as shown in Figure 43. In the unactuated posi-
directional control valve with an intermediate position in
tion, the only flow that occurs is the flow from the pump
which all ports are blocked.
through the valve to the reservoir. When the valve is actuated
ISO The dashed lines between the envelopes indicate right, the pressurized flow from the pump goes through the
that the center position is not a distinct position; it rep- directional control valve and through the adjustable flow control
resents a transitory intermediate condition. valve to the lower chamber of the cylinder, pushing the piston
 Fluid Power ■ 13

FIGURE 38 ■ Symbols for methods for actuating valves.

P P

T T

POSITION 1 POSITION 2
FIGURE 39 ■ Two-way, two-position valve.

up. At the same time, the fluid in the upper chamber flows reservoir. If at any time the pressure in the system exceeds a cer-
through the directional control valve to the reservoir. When the tain preset amount, such as when the piston is actuated all the
valve is actuated left, the pressurized flow is directed to the upper way to the top, then the fluid from the pump flows through the
chamber, and the fluid in the lower chamber flows through the pressure control valve (relief valve) to the reservoir.
check valves and through the directional control valve to the
14 ■ Fluid Power

P A

T
POSITION 1

P A

POSITION 2

FIGURE 40 ■ Three-way, two-position valve.

FIGURE 41 ■ Hydraulic circuit.

 Fluid Power ■ 15

FIGURE 42 ■ Three-way, three-position valve.

FIGURE 43 ■ Four-way, three-position valve.

SYMBOL RULES
ANSI These symbol rules apply to both hydraulics and
pneumatics. 6. Letter combinations used as parts of graphic sym-
1. Symbols show connections, flow paths, and functions bols are not necessarily abbreviations.
of components represented. They can indicate condi- 7. In multiple envelope symbols, the flow condition
tions occurring during transition from one flow path shown nearest an actuator symbol takes place when
arrangement to another. Symbols do not indicate that control is caused or permitted to actuate.
construction, nor do they indicate values, such as 8. Each symbol is drawn to show normal, at-rest, or
pressure, flow rate, and other component settings. neutral condition of component, unless multiple
2. Symbols do not indicate location of ports, direction of diagrams are furnished showing various phases of
shifting of spools, or positions of controls on actual circuit operation.
components. 9. An arrow through a symbol at approximately 45° indi-
3. Symbols may be rotated or reversed without alter- cates that the component can be adjusted or varied.
ing their meaning except in cases of (a) lines to 10. External ports are located where flow lines connect
reservoir, (b) accumulator. to basic symbols, except where the component
4. Line width does not alter meaning of symbols. enclosure symbol is used.
5. Basic symbols may be shown in any suitable size. Size 11. External ports are located at intersections of flow
may be varied for emphasis or clarity. Relative sizes lines and component enclosure symbols when
should be maintained. enclosure is used.
 16 ■ Fluid Power
CADD APPLICATIONS

APPLICATIONS FOR FLUID POWER

Fluid power graphic diagrams lend themselves well to library usually includes a full spectrum of graphic sym-
CADD applications because of their simplicity and stan- bols, from basic flow and pressure control valves to com-
dardization. Several companies offer a Fluid Power Sym- plex hydrostatic transmissions. Figure 44 shows a sample
bols Library that can be made compatible with most page from one company’s symbol library.
micro-, mini-, and mainframe CADD systems. A symbols

INSERT POINT

M1740 V420

INSERT POINT INSERT POINT

INSERT POINT

V680
MAN-1 INSERT POINT

FIGURE 44 ■ CADD system fluid power symbols. Courtesy Price

Engineering Company Inc.

PNEUMATICS gauge pressure (psig or pounds per square inch gauge). At sea
level, the weight of the earth’s atmosphere is 14.7 psi. This is the
In review, a fluid is defined as something that can flow and is pressure that is actually being exerted on the gauge, even
able to move and change shape without separating when under though the gauge reading is zero. To find absolute pressure, 14.7
pressure. Fluid power includes both liquids and gases. Pneu- psi must be added to the gauge pressure. Figure 45 demon-
matics is the science that pertains to gaseous pressure and flow.
Pneumatic devices include any tool or instrument that uti-
lizes compressed air, such as riveters, paint sprayers, atomizers,
and rock drills. Using compressed-air power is economical and
safe. Pneumatic devices have no spark hazard and can be used
under wet conditions without electric shock hazard. Other
advantages are that pneumatic systems have relatively few mov-
ing parts, and devices can be easily exchanged with one another
by pipe, tubing, or flexible hose.
Pascal’s principle applies to pneumatics as well as hydraulics.
It states that if a pressure is exerted at one portion of fluid that
is at rest in a closed container, then that pressure is transmitted 30 60 120
equally in all directions without loss through the rest of the fluid PSIA PSIA PSIA
and to the walls of the container. (See Figure 6.)
Another basic physical law pertaining to pneumatics is
Boyle’s Law, which states that the absolute pressure of a fixed 20 10 5
mass of gas varies inversely to the volume, provided the tem- CU. FT. CU. FT. CU. FT.
(a) (b) (c)
perature remains constant. Note that this law is in terms of
absolute pressure (psia or pounds per square inch absolute), not FIGURE 45 ■ Boyle’s Law with gauges reading absolute pressure.
 Fluid Power ■ 17

30 74.7 164.1
PSIG PSIG PSIG

20 10 5 FIGURE 47 ■ Tank-mounted air compressor. Courtesy Dayton

CU. FT. CU. FT. CU. FT. Electric Manufacturing Company.
(a) 44.7 PSIA (b) 89.4 PSIA (c) 178.8 PSIA

FIGURE 46 ■ Boyle’s Law with difference between gauge pressure

and absolute pressure.

strates Boyle’s Law with gauges reading absolute pressure. As the

volume is decreased by one-half, the pressure doubles. Figure
46 shows the adjustments that need to be made when the gauge
reading at sea level is zero. In position a, 14.7 psi is added to the
gauge pressure of 30 psi to get an absolute pressure of 44.7 psia.
This figure is then doubled in position b to get 89.4 psia, and
14.7 psi is subtracted to get 74.7 psig. The same procedure
applies to position c.
Charles’s Law also applies to pneumatics. It states that the
volume of a fixed mass of gas varies directly with absolute tem-
perature, provided the pressure remains constant. This law has FIGURE 48 ■ Air filter.
many implications for pneumatic equipment, as will be seen
later.
Another law is that air flow occurs only when there is a dif- the amount of water vapor has increased also. This water needs
ference in pressure. The flow will be from high pressure to low to be removed. A drain is usually provided in the air receiver to
pressure. remove any precipitation that takes place.
An air filter removes water vapor and dirt. (See Figure 48.)
PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS The air enters the filter and is quickly forced into a rotary
motion. The centrifugal force spins out the moisture and dirt,
AND EQUIPMENT which then collects at the bottom and is drained by an auto-
There are eight elements involved in a complete pneumatic cir- matic or manual valve.
cuit: a driver, an air compressor, an air receiver, a filter, a pres- A pressure regulator is necessary in pneumatic systems to
sure regulator, an air lubricator, valves, and pneumatic devices. consistently supply the correct pressure to the pneumatic tools.
A driver can be an electric motor or some other power (See Figure 49.) The tools usually operate with compressed air
source that drives the air compressor. at about 90 psig, but this varies between tools.
An air compressor is a machine that forces air into a smaller An air lubricator (pneumatic lubricator) adds measured
space than it normally occupies. Two things happen with the amounts of lubricant to the air supply for the purpose of lubri-
air at this point: (1) the air pressure increases (Boyle’s Law), cating the equipment receiving the air. In an oil-fog-type lubri-
and (2) the air temperature increases due to the increased pres- cator, the oil in the container enters the metering chamber.
sure (Charles’s Law). The amount of pressurized air available Because there is a difference in pressure at that point, the oil is
for useful work from the compressor is expressed in cubic feet then sprayed into the pipeline as fog. An air lubricator should
per minute (or standard cu. ft. per min. or SCFM). This mea- always be downstream of a pressure regulator because some oils
surement of air is known as free air delivered, or FAD. The air can react with the regulator diaphragm and contaminate the air.
compressor is often mounted on the top of the air receiver, as Valves are devices that control the direction of compressed
shown in Figure 47. air in the pneumatic system. They are actuated manually, elec-
An air receiver is the storage tank for the compressed air. trically, or by air. Pneumatic valves operate on the same basic
Because the temperature of the compressed air has increased, principle as hydraulic directional control valves. For example,
 18 ■ Fluid Power

HOUSING

CONTROL SPRING

PISTON

POPPET
FIGURE 51 ■ Axial piston.

FIGURE 49 ■ Pressure regulator. Courtesy Parker Hannifin

Corporation.

FIGURE 52 ■ Radial piston.

FIGURE 50 ■ Pneumatic valves. Courtesy Parker Hannifin

Corporation.

a two-way, two-position valve is similar in function to the

hydraulic valve shown in Figure 16. A variety of pneumatic FIGURE 53 ■ Rotary vane air motor. Courtesy Dayton Electric
valves is shown in Figure 50. Manufacturing Company.
Pneumatic devices are the elements that use compressed air to
perform work. One type of element is the cylinder, which can be
either single-acting or double-acting. (See Figures 22 and 23.) motor. A tool such as a grinding wheel may use a rotor type of air
Another type is referred to as an air motor. Air motors are divided motor, whereas a riveting hammer can use a reciprocating piston
into two groups based on their type of driving method (either air motor.
reciprocating piston or rotor). The two main types of air motors In a hydraulic circuit, the fluid is returned to the reservoir
with reciprocating pistons are the axial piston (Figure 51) and the after going through the system. In a pneumatic circuit, the
radial piston (Figure 52). Figure 53 shows a rotary vane air compressed air is returned to the atmosphere after being used.
 Fluid Power ■ 19

PNEUMATIC DIAGRAMS Sometimes a conditioning unit is used in place of a filter,

pressure regulator and gauge, and lubricator. A detailed symbol
Graphic symbols for pneumatic systems are identical to those for and simplified symbol for this unit is shown in Figure 56. Note
hydraulic systems with the exception of those shown in Figure 54. the style of line used around the detailed symbol. This is some-
Pictorial and cutaway diagrams for pneumatic systems are also the times used to represent an enclosure around several compo-
same as for hydraulic systems. Figure 55 shows a simple pneu- nents that are combined in one unit.
matic circuit with a nondifferential double-acting cylinder.

FIGURE 54 ■ Pneumatic graphic symbols.

FIGURE 56 ■ Conditioning unit.

PROFESSIONAL
PERSPECTIVE
From a professional point of view, drafting is not simply a
matter of tracing symbols on paper or of shifting symbols
around on a CADD screen. Drafting also involves inquisi-
tiveness and innovation. It sometimes takes a great deal of
creative thought to put together a complicated pneumatic
circuit or add two extra pumps to an existing hydraulic cir-
cuit. Although you may learn many things from experi-
enced draftspeople and qualified salespeople, your ability
to think for yourself and question situations that do not
make sense to you will remain your greatest asset.
FIGURE 55 ■ Simple pneumatic circuit.
 20 ■ Fluid Power
MATH APPLICATIONS

VOLUME CALCULATIONS
Problem: The company wants to transfer old hydraulic Appendix B has useful conversion factors. For this appli-
fluid that fills a cylindrical tank to a recycling firm using cation you need to first calculate the volume of a cylinder
55 gallon drums. You have been asked to order enough from the formula V = πR2h. It is best to have all dimen-
drums to do the job. How many should you order? The sions in the same units, so you use R = 3 feet (because the
tank is 72 inches in diameter and 11 feet long. There are diameter of the tank is 6 feet) and h = 11 feet. Then sub-
7.48 gallons to the cubic foot. stituting into the formula: V = 3.14)(3 feet)2(11 feet) =
311 feet3. Next, multiply by 7.48 to obtain the volume in
Solution: Fluid power problems often involve calculating gallons. That gives 2,325 gallons. Finally, since each drum
volumes. The geometry section of the CD Chapter 3, holds 55 gallons, divide by 55, giving 42.3 drums. So you
Engineering Drawing and Design Math Applications, has should order 43 drums to do the job.
formulas for the volumes of some common shapes. Also,

CD
CHAPTER

1 Fluid Power Test

DIRECTIONS
Answer the questions with short complete statements or drawings as needed.

13. What does “two-way, two-position directional

QUESTIONS control valve” mean?
1. Why does fluidics refer to both hydraulics and 14. Describe the difference between a differential dou-
pneumatics? ble-acting cylinder and a nondifferential double-
2. What is the difference between hydraulics and acting cylinder.
pneumatics? 15. What is the difference between a single-acting
3. What is the common unit of measurement of cylinder and a double-acting cylinder?
work in the U.S. Customary System? In the Inter- 16. What is an actuator?
national System? 17. Which type of fluid power diagram would nor-
4. Describe the meaning of ft-lb. mally be used to show the function of each com-
5. What is a “Pa” and what does it describe? ponent? Which would be used for troubleshoot-
6. Describe the elements in a hydraulic circuit. ing? Which type is internationally standardized?
7. Define a positive displacement pump and describe 18. What does it mean when a valve is actuated?
the two categories of this kind of pump. Do they 19. In a graphic diagram, what is the name given to
pump pressure? the squares used in directional control valves?
8. A relief valve is the most common pressure con- 20. In a graphic diagram, how would you know
trol valve. Describe how it works. which envelope of a two-way, two-position direc-
9. What is the difference between a relief valve and a tional control valve is unactuated?
sequence valve? 21. If a graphic symbol for a directional control valve
10. Compare a relief valve to a check valve. is drawn upside down, is the meaning of the cir-
11. What is a port in a valve? cuit changed?
12. Describe the purpose of a directional control 22. What symbol indicates when a component can be
valve in a fluid power system. adjusted or varied?
 Fluid Power ■ 21

23. Can a person build a hydraulic unit from a graphic dia- 27. Should a pressure regulator be upstream or downstream
gram only? Why or why not? of an air lubricator? Why?
24. Describe the elements in a pneumatic circuit. 28. What is FAD?
25. With an air compressor, air is compressed from 30 cubic 29. Is there any difference in the basic function between a
feet to 15 cubic feet, and the pressure increases from hydraulic directional control valve and a pneumatic direc-
40 psi to 80 psi. Is this an example of Pascal’s principle, tional control valve?
Boyle’s Law, or Charles’s Law? 30. If only one pneumatic diagram is shown, are the valves
26. In a container of compressed air, the gauge reading is shown in actuated or unactuated phases?
20 psi. Assuming that the temperature remains constant, 31. What is a pneumatic device? What are the two types?
what will the gauge read when the air is compressed into 32. What special considerations are necessary for pneumatics
one-half the original space? What will the gauge read when that do not apply to hydraulics?
the air is compressed into one-fourth the original space? 33. What special considerations are necessary for hydraulics
Which law describes this phenomenon? that do not apply to pneumatics?

CD
CHAPTER

1 Fluid Power Problems

PROBLEM 1 What is the pressure exerted on a 10 in. × Whenever possible, draw the diagrams for the follow-
24 in. panel when a force of 1,000 pounds is ing problems using CADD and Fluid Power Symbols
applied to it? Library.
PROBLEM 2 What is the pressure exerted on a brick PROBLEM 8 Make a graphic diagram of a two-way,
wall that is 4 meters high and 28 meters long two-position directional control valve with a sole-
when a force of 50,000 newtons is applied to it? noid actuator.
PROBLEM 3 A 2,350 newton force is applied to an PROBLEM 9 Make a graphic diagram of a direc-
object with a surface area of 72 square meters. tional control valve that has four ports and an
What is the pressure? What is the pressure in psi? intermediate position.
PROBLEM 4 A hydraulic piston pushes an object PROBLEM 10 Make a graphic diagram of a pneu-
from one conveyor belt to another conveyor belt, matic circuit that will lift a load with a differential
which is 4'–6'' away. The amount of work done is single-acting cylinder. Use a conditioning unit and
1,800 ft-lb. How much force is being used to push a two-way, two-position directional control valve.
the object? How many kilojoules are needed?
PROBLEM 11 Make a graphic diagram of a hydraulic
PROBLEM 5 The hydraulic piston in the previous circuit. Use a nondifferential double-acting cylin-
problem accomplishes its task in five seconds. der, a check valve, a relief valve, and a three-way,
How much horsepower is the piston performing? two-position valve.
How many watts of power is this?
PROBLEM 12 Make a graphic diagram of the picto-
PROBLEM 6 One piston in a hydraulic circuit rial hydraulic circuit shown in the following fig-
exerts a 28 psi pressure in the hydraulic fluid. A ure. Label each component.
second piston in the circuit is 12 ft. away from
the first piston and is directly affected by the first
piston. It has an area of 15 sq. in., which is one-
half the area of the first piston. What is the pres-
sure exerted on the second piston? With what
force does the second piston move? With what
force does the first piston move? If the first pis-
ton moves 10 in., how far does the second piston
move?
PROBLEM 7 The gauge reading of a container of
compressed air at sea level is 80 psi. The volume
of that air is double. What is the psia? What is the
psig?
22 ■ Fluid Power

PROBLEM 13 Make a pictorial diagram of the graphic PROBLEM 15 Make a graphic diagram of the pneumatic cir-
hydraulic circuit shown in the following figure. Label each cuit shown.
component.

PROBLEM 16 The hydraulic sketch in the following figure is

PROBLEM 14 Make a graphic diagram of a hydraulic circuit received from the engineer. Make an appropriate graphic
based on the following sequence of operations and func- drawing, label the components, and make a component
tional description. Also make a component list specifying list.
the key number, quantity, and name of component.

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS:
1. With valve (6) in the neutral position, delivery of flow from
pump (4) unloads freely through valve (6) to reservoir (1).
2. With motor (3) running, valve (6) is manually actuated right,
directing flow from pump (4) to extend clamp cylinder (7-A).
3. When pressure reaches setting of valve (8-A), flow is
sequenced through (8-A) to extend nondifferential work
cylinder (9) right.
4. When pressure reaches setting of valve (8-B), flow is
sequenced through (8-B) to retract clamp cylinder (7-B).
5. Manually actuating valve (6) left, flow is directed from
pump (4) to extend clamp cylinder (7-B).
6. When pressure reaches setting of valve (8-C), flow is
sequenced through (8-C) to extend work cylinder (9) left.
7. When pressure reaches setting of valve (8-D), flow is
sequenced through (8-D) to retract clamp cylinder (7-A).

FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION:
Valve (5) provides overload protection. Valve (6) controls
direction of motion of (7-A), (7-B), and (9). Valve (8-A) causes
work to be clamped by (7-A) before cylinder (9) performs
work. Valve (8-B) causes nondifferential work cylinder (9) to
be retracted before cylinder (7-B) is retracted. Valve (8-C)
causes work to be clamped by (7-B) before cylinder (9) per-
forms work. Valve (8-D) causes nondifferential work cylinder
(9) to be retracted before cylinder (7-A) is retracted. PROBLEM 17 Make a pneumatic graphic drawing using the
NOTE: Item (2) is the strainer. Work cylinder (9) performs engineer’s sketch in the previous problem. Make the appro-
work in two directions and works in conjunction with cylin- priate changes needed to depict a pneumatic circuit. Do
ders (7-A) and (7-B). not use a conditioning unit.
 Fluid Power ■ 23

MATH PROBLEMS
PROBLEM 18 Find the volume, in cubic feet, of a cylindrical PROBLEM 24 The piston of a reciprocating piston pump has a
tank 100 inches in diameter and 18 feet in length. diameter of 7'' and in one stroke moves 12''. How much fluid,
in cubic feet, is pumped if the pump makes 1,000 strokes?
PROBLEM 19 Find the volume, in liters, of a hydraulic reser-
voir in the shape of a box measuring 20'' by 18'' by 42''. PROBLEM 25 What is the displacement, in liters, of a 225 in3
gasoline engine? (See Appendix B, Table 4.)
PROBLEM 20 Find the volume, in cubic centimeters, of a
right circular cone having a radius of 2.54 cm and a height PROBLEM 26 The fluid in a rectangular reservoir 5' wide by
of 8.5 cm. 12' long is 36'' in depth. If it is transferred to a tank in the
shape of a cylinder with a circular base 3' in diameter, what
PROBLEM 21 A storage tank at a paper mill is in the form of
will be the depth of the fluid in the new tank?
a sphere having a diameter of 15 feet. What is its volume
in cubic feet? PROBLEM 27 Two tanks are sitting in a storage yard. One is
in the shape of a cylinder with a circular base and the other
PROBLEM 22 The piston of a single-acting cylindrical lin-
is in the shape of a right circular cone. The tanks have the
ear actuator has a diameter of 3.5 cm. If the piston moves
same height and top radius. Which tank has the greater
8.5 cm, what volume of fluid, in cm3, must have entered
capacity? By how much?
the actuator?
PROBLEM 23 The piston of a single-acting cylindrical linear
actuator has a diameter of 5 cm. If a fluid of volume 137.4 cm3
enters the actuator, how far does the piston move?