Nervous System

The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and from the brain
and spinal cord to various parts of the body. The proper functioning of these nerves ensures that each
organ system, such as the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and immune systems, can adequately
communicate with one another. The nervous system includes the central nervous system (CNS) and
peripheral nervous system (PNS).

Introduction to the central nervous system (CNS)

The CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord, whereas the PNS is made up of the somatic and
autonomic nervous systems.

The brain
On average, the brain weighs between 1.3 to 1.4
kg, with about 60% of the brain consisting of fat.
The remaining 40% of the brain consists of
protein, water, carbohydrates, and salts.

The brain can be divided into four distinct

regions: the brainstem, cerebrum, cerebellum,
and diencephalon. Taken together, these
different areas of the brain control thought,
memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision,
breathing, hunger, temperature, and all other
processes that occur within the body.

The brain consists of both gray and white matter.

Gray matter, which is darker in color and surrounds white matter, consists of neuron somas, and round
central cell bodies. Conversely, white matter, which is lighter in color and comprises the inner portion of
the brain, is primarily made up of axons, the long stems that connect neurons.

Gray matter typically processes and interprets information, whereas white matter transmits information
to other areas of the nervous system.

Function
It controls intelligence, memory, personality, emotion, speech, and ability to feel and move. It is divided
into left and right hemispheres, linked by a band of nerve fibres in the centre of the brain called the
corpus callosum. Each hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes, or sections, which are all connected.

The brainstem
The brainstem, located in the middle of the brain, is the stalk-like part of the brain that connects the
brain to the spinal cord and is only about one inch long. This region regulates essential functions such as
blood pressure, breathing, heart rhythms, and swallowing.

The brainstem can be further subdivided into the midbrain, pons, and medulla.

The midbrain, otherwise known as the mesencephalon, is crucial for regulating eye movements,
emotions, hearing, and long-term memory. Notably, the substantia nigra, rich in dopamine neurons, is
located within the midbrain and is often affected by Parkinson's disease.

The pons is the starting location for four of the 12 cranial nerves. Some of the different functions
regulated by the pons include facial movements, hearing, breathing, and balance.

The medulla is located at the bottom of the brainstem where the brain and spinal cord meet. This region
of the brainstem regulates breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. Additionally, the medulla
maintains reflective activities such as sneezing, vomiting, coughing, and swallowing.

The cerebrum
The cerebrum is the most significant part of the brain and is lined by a deeply folded layer of nerve
tissue called the cerebral cortex. Located at the front of the brain, the cerebrum is divided into the right
and left cerebral hemispheres, both connected by the corpus callosum.

The right hemisphere is responsible for creating awareness, emotions, facial expression perception,
posture, and prosody, whereas the left hemisphere is dominant in language and pre-processing social
emotions. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, whereas the left hemisphere controls
the right side.

The hemispheres are divided into four lobes, which include the frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital
lobes.
The frontal lobe is anterior to the central sulcus and regulates voluntary movements, speech, memory,
emotions, personality, judgment, motor function, planning, organizing, and short-term memory .

The parietal lobe is posterior to the central sulcus and above the occipital lobe. This lobe controls spatial
relationships, allowing individuals to understand where their body is compared to surrounding objects.
Furthermore, the parietal lobe allows for perceiving sensations like pain and touch.

Broca's and Wernicke's areas are essential for speech production and understanding. Broca's area,
which controls the ability to produce speech, is located in the frontal lobe. Conversely, Wernicke's area,
which allows individuals to understand spoken language, is located in the parietal lobe.

The temporal lobes are located at the sides of the brain and are inferior to the lateral fissure. These
lobes are essential for visual, smell, and taste processing, sound and language interpretation, memory,
and hearing.

The occipital lobe is located in the posterior portion of the brain behind the parietal and temporal lobes
and is responsible for processing visual data, including colors and shapes.

The cerebellum
The cerebellum is located beneath the temporal and occipital lobes and above the brainstem. The
cerebrum is responsible for regulating voluntary motor function, coordination, and balance. Recent
studies have indicated that the cerebellum may also be involved in thought, emotions, and social
behaviors, as well as the pathophysiology of addiction, autism, and schizophrenia.

The diencephalon
The diencephalon includes the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus is a relay center for sensory
data, whereas the hypothalamus transmits hormonal signals to the body through the pituitary gland.

The thalamus and hypothalamus, together with the amygdala and hippocampus, comprise the limbic
system. The amygdala regulates emotion, memory, as well as the brain's reward system, stress, and the
'fight or flight' response to threats.

The hippocampus, located underneath each temporal lobe, is vital for long-term memory. This structure
also has a role in learning, navigation, and spatial perception.
The spinal cord
The spinal cord is a part of the central nervous
system. It is a long pipe-like structure arising from
the medulla oblongata, part of the brain consisting of
a collection of nerve fibres, running through the
vertebral column of the backbone. It is segmented
with a pair of roots (dorsal and ventral roots)
consisting of nerve fibres joining to form the spinal
nerves.

Spinal Cord Anatomy

In adults, the spinal cord is usually 40cm long and

2cm wide. It forms a vital link between the brain and
the body.

The spinal cord is divided into five different parts.

 Sacral cord

 Lumbar cord

 Thoracic cord

 Cervical cord

 Coccygeal

Several spinal nerves emerge out of each segment of the spinal cord. There are 8 pairs of cervical, 5
lumbar, 12 thoracic, 5 sacral and 1 coccygeal pair of spinal nerves

It performs the primary processing of information as it carries sensory signals from all parts of the body
to the Central Nervous System through afferent fibres.

Nerve tissue consists of the grey and white matter spread across uniformly.

The smooth muscles and the skeletal system carrying nerve fibres liaise different reflexes when ventral
horn projects axons which carry motor neurons.

It also helps intercede autonomic control for visceral functions which consist of neurons with
descending axons. It is a sensitive site, which is severely affected in case of a traumatic injury.

Understanding the physiology of the spinal cord helps in detecting and determining the various methods
to deal with diseases and damage related to the spinal cord.
The meninges
The meninges are three membranous layers that cover and protect both the brain and spinal cord. The
meninges layers include the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater.The dura mater is the outermost
meninges layer and can be further subdivided into the periosteal and meningeal layers. The middle
meninges layer is the arachnoid, a web-like layer of connective tissue that does not contain any nerves
or blood vessels. Finally, the pia mater is the thinnest meninges layer.

Neurons
The neuron, the basic unit of the nervous system, is a
specialized conductor cell that receives and transmits
electrochemical nerve impulses between the brain and
the rest of the nervous system.

A neuron consists of a cell body, dendrite, and axon. The

cell body contains the nucleus, which controls cellular
activities and contains genetic material.

Dendrites are branched projections that extend from the

cell body and receive signals from other neurons.

Electrical signals travel down a long and thin process known as an axon, which extends from the cell
body. These chemical signals, more commonly referred to as neurotransmitters, travel between neurons
through a space known as the synapse.

Sensory neurons carry signals from sensory receptors to the brain, whereas motor neurons carry signals
from the brain to other nerves, muscles, and glands. The third class of neurons includes interneurons.

The myelin sheath insulates neurons and is continuous along the axons or dendrites, except at the nodes
of Ranvier. Myelin, which consists of fat and proteins, provides protection to the neuron, propagates
electrical impulses between neurons, and maintains the strength of the signal as it travels down the
axon.
Peripheral Nervous System

Your peripheral nervous system is everything

else and includes nerves that travel from your
spinal cord and brain to supply your face and
the rest of your body. The term “peripheral”
is from the Greek word that means around or
outside the center. It plays key role in both
sending information from different areas of
your body back to your brain, as well as
carrying out commands from your brain to
various parts of your body.

Some of those signals, like the ones to your

heart and gut, are automatic. Others, like the
ones that control movement, are under your
control.

FUNCTION

Your peripheral nervous system has two main subsystems: autonomic and somatic.

 Autonomic: These are nervous system processes your brain runs automatically and without you
thinking about them.
 Somatic: These are functions you manage by thinking about them.

Those two subsystems are how your peripheral nervous system does its three main jobs:

 Senses: Your PNS is a key part of how your brain gets information about the world around you.
This job falls under the somatic nervous system.
 Movement: Your peripheral nerves deliver command signals to all the muscles in your body that
you can consciously control. This job also falls under the somatic nervous system.
 Unconscious processes: This is how your brain runs critical processes that don’t depend on your
thinking about them. Examples of this include heartbeat and blood pressure. This job depends
on your autonomic nervous system.
Senses

Your brain is like a powerful supercomputer. However, it knows nothing about the world outside your
body without outside input. That’s why your peripheral nervous system is so important. A computer
needs peripheral devices like a camera, microphone or keyboard to give it information from outside
itself, and your brain is the same.

Your peripheral nervous system is how your brain gets information about the outside world. Most of
your peripheral nervous system travel to the rest of your body by exiting or entering your spinal cord.
Your cranial nerves are unlike other peripheral nerves in that these very special nerves connect directly
to your brain. These nerves carry signals from your nose, ears and mouth, as well as many other organs.
Your cranial nerves also give you a sense of touch in the skin of your face, head and neck.

Other peripheral nerves intertwine throughout every part of your body. They stretch out everywhere,
including to the tips of your fingers and toes. The sensory nerves in your hands and feet are also part of
your brain’s ability to get information from the outside world. The motor nerves allow you to move
various parts of your body.

Movement

Your peripheral nerves that branch outward throughout your body deliver command signals from your
brain to your muscles. That allows you to move around and do all kinds of tasks, ranging from simple
ones, like scratching your nose, to complicated ones, like juggling.

Unconscious processes

Your autonomic nervous system functions without you thinking about it. Part of your brain is always
working, managing processes that keep you alive. Your brain needs your peripheral nervous system to
control those functions. Examples of these processes include your heart rate, breathing, blood pressure
and your gut’s digestion of food.

Types of nerve signals

Your nerves consist of bundles of nerve cells, which have long, arm-like extensions called axons. The
nerve cells and their axons twist and intertwine together to form nerve fibers. This is similar to how
multiple strands of spun cloth fibers twist together to form sewing thread. Some of the nerves in that
bundle carry information into your brain, while others carry information out of your brain.

 Sensory: These nerves carry information to your brain and spinal cord. They either connect
directly to your brain through your cranial nerves or carry information to your spinal nerves,
which then feed into your spinal cord. The sensory nerve connections to your spinal cord are on
the back of your spinal cord.
 Motor: These nerves carry command signals from your brain to various parts of your body. They
only carry information away from your brain. The motor nerve connections are on the front of
your spinal cord; meaning, these nerves are for sending muscle movement commands only.
 Autonomic: These nerves control the automatic functions of the organs and systems in your
body. Your autonomic nerves often involve mixed nerve fibers, some of which carry commands
from your brain to their destination, and others that carry information about an organ’s function
back to your brain.
Your autonomic nervous system, which is a part of your peripheral nervous system, helps your brain
control all of the vital organs in your body. That also helps your brain care for itself. An example of this is
your brain controlling your heartbeat, which ensures your heart pumps blood to your body and brain.
Without that blood flow, your brain would die in minutes.

Your peripheral nervous system also relays nerve signals from those organs to your brain. Examples
include feeling warmth inside of your stomach when you drink a hot beverage or feeling full after a
meal.

Where is the peripheral nervous system located?

Your peripheral nervous system extends everywhere in your body that isn’t your spinal cord or brain. It
includes:

 Cranial nerves: There are 12 pairs of nerves that connect directly to your brain, and 11 of them
are part of your peripheral nervous system (the second cranial nerve, which controls your vision,
is part of your central nervous system). These 11 nerves are part of your senses of smell, sound,
taste, and the sense of touch you have in the skin on your head, face and neck. One of the 11,
the vagus nerve, extends down and attaches to all vital organs from your neck to your colon.
 Spinal nerves: These are 31 pairs of nerves that attach to your spine at about the same level as
each segment bone (vertebra) in your spine.

The above nerves all branch out and become smaller nerves that spread throughout your body. They
eventually end at places like the tips of your fingers and toes or just underneath the surface of your skin.