Lesson 1: Material Science and Engineering Processing. It is the method to develop the material.

Material Science – involves investigating the Characterization. The four components will define
relationships that exist between the structures and the character of the material.
properties of materials.
Material Engineering – involves Why Study Material Science and Engineering
property-correlations, designing, engineering ● Material Selection.
structure of a material to produce predetermined set ● New Material Fabrication. any deterioration
of properties. of material properties that may occur during
Components of Material Science and service operation.
Engineering ● Material Investigation. efficiency, the cost,
and the safety of the material.

Classification of Solid Materials

Solid materials have been conveniently grouped
into three basic categories; metals,
ceramics and polymers. This scheme is based
primarily on chemical check-up and atomic
structure, and most materials fall into one distinct
group. In addition, there are the composites,
which are engineered combinations of two or more
Structure. The structure of the material usually different materials.
relates to the levels of arrangement of its internal
Components.
a. Subatomic Level – involves electrons,
protons, and neutrons
b. Atomic Level – elements in the periodic
table and its atomic structure
c. Microscopic Level – contains large group
of atoms bond together
d. Macroscopic Level – structure that may
be viewed with naked eye Metals
- Materials in this group are composed of one
Property. All materials are exposed to external or more metallic elements i.e. iron, aluminum,
stimuli that evoke to some type of response. A copper, titanium, gold and nickel.
property is a material trait in terms of the kind and - Atoms in metals and their alloys are
magnitude of response to a specific imposed arranged in very orderly manner, and in
Stimulus. comparison, to the ceramics and polymers,
a. Mechanical Property – relates to the are relatively dense.
deformation to an applied load or force; examples, - With regard to mechanical characteristics,
include elastic modulus (stiffness), strength and these materials are relatively stiff and strong,
toughness yet are ductile, and are resistant to fracture.
b. Electrical Property – relates to the - Metallic materials have large numbers of
electrical conductivity and dielectric constant nonlocalized electrons (electrons are not
c. Thermal Property – relates to the heat bound to particular atoms).
capacity of a material - Metals are extremely good conductors and
d. Magnetic Property – relates to the heat.
response of a material to a magnetic field - In addition, some of the metals have
e. Optical Property – relates to the response desirable magnetic properties.
of a material to electromagnetic waves or light Ceramics
Radiation - Ceramics are compounds between metallic
f. Deteriorative Property – relates to the and non-metallic elements;
chemical reactivity of a material - they are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and
carbides. For example, common ceramic
Performance. It is the function or application of its materials include aluminum oxide (alumina),
properties.
 silicon dioxide (silica), silicon carbide, silicon - Combination of glass fibers and polymer
nitride, and, produces fiberglass which are relatively
- in addition, what some refer to as traditional strong, stiff and flexible.
ceramics – those composed of clay minerals
i.e. porcelain, as well as cement and gas. Classification of Advanced Materials
- With regard to mechanical behavior, Advanced Materials - materials that utilized in
ceramic materials are relatively stiff and high-technology applications
strong. In addition, they are typically hard but - include semiconductors, biomaterials, smart
exhibited extreme brittleness and high materials and nanomaterials.
susceptibility to fracture. Semiconductors
- Ceramic materials are typically insulative to - Semiconductors have electrical properties
the passage of heat and electricity and are that are intermediate between the electrical
more resistant to high temperatures and conductors and insulators.
harsh environments than metals and - The electrical characteristics of these
polymers. materials are extremely sensitive to the
Polymers presence of minute concentrations of impurity
- Polymers include the familiar plastic and atoms.
rubber materials. - Semiconductor have made possible the
- Many of them are organic compounds that advent of integrated circuitry that has totally
are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, revolutionized the electronics and computer
and other non-metallic elements. industries over the past three decades.
- Furthermore, they have very large molecular Biomaterials
structures often chain like in nature, that - Biomaterials are employed in components
often have a backbone of carbon atoms. implanted into the human body to replace
- Some of the common and familiar diseased or damaged body parts. These
polymers are polyethylene, nylon, polyvinyl materials must not produce toxic
chloride (PVC), polycarbonate, polystyrene, substances and must be compatible with
and silicon rubber. body tissues.
- These materials are typically have low Smart Materials
densities whereas mechanical characteristics - Smart materials are group of new and
are generally dissimilar to the metallic and state-of-the-art materials now being
ceramic materials – they are not as stiff nor developed that will have significant influence
as strong as these other material types. on many of our technologies.
- Polymers are extremely ductile and pliable - The adjective smart implies that these
which means they are easily formed into materials are able to sense changes in their
complex shapes. environment and then respond to these
- Furthermore, polymers have low electrical changes in predetermined manners – traits
conductivities and are non-magnetic. that are also found in living organisms.
Composites - Components of a smart material include
- A composite is composed of two (or more) some type of sensor (detects an input signal)
individual materials, which come from the and actuator (performs responsive and
categories – metals, ceramics and polymers. adaptive function).
- The design goal of a composite is to achieve Nanomaterials
a combination of properties that is displayed - One new material that has fascinating
by any single material, and also to properties and tremendous technology.
incorporate the best characteristics of each of Nano-prefix denotes that the dimensions of
the component materials. these structural entities are on the order of
- A large number of composite types are nanometer.
represented by different combinations of - Have at least one dimension on the
metals, ceramics and polymers. One of the nanometer scale (1–100 nanometers).
most common and familiar composites is - They have distinct physical, chemical, and
fiber glass, in which small glass fibers are mechanical properties due to their small
embedded within a polymeric material. The size and high surface area-to-volume ratio.
glass fibers are relatively brittle, whereas - Comprise nanoparticles, nanowires,
the polymer is more flexible. nanotubes, and nanocomposites.
Lesson 2: Atomic Structure and Interatomic Chromium-53, with an atomic weight of 52.9407; and
Bonding 2.37% of Chromium-54, with an atomic weight of
Atomic Structure 53.9389 amu. Based on these data, what is the
atomic weight of the Chromium?
Formula: Atomic Weight = % * amu
Sol’n:
Atomic weight of chromium = [0.0434 * 49.9460
amu] + [0.8379 * 51.9405 amu] + [0.0950 * 52.9407
amu] + [0.0237 * 53.9398 amu]
Atomic Weight of Chromium = 51.98 amu

Each atom consists of very small nucleus

Building Block of Atom
composed of protons and neutrons, which is
● Isobars - elements with same atomic mass
encircled by electrons. The table below shows the
but different atomic number
equivalent charge and mass of each sub- atomic
● Isomers - elements with same molecular
particles.
formula but different structures
● Isotones - elements with same number of
neutrons but different number of protons
● Isotopes - elements with same atomic
Characterization of Atoms
number but different atomic mass.
Atomic Number (Z) - represents number of protons
in the nucleus which is equal to the number of
Atomic Model: Bohr Model
electrons outside the nucleus in an electrically
neutral or complete atom.
Atomic Mass (A) - represents the sum of number of
protons and neutrons
Isotope - elements with same atomic number and
different atomic mass.

Atomic Weight - corresponds to the weighted

average of the atomic masses of the atoms's
naturally occurring isotopes. One early outgrowth of quantum mechanics was the
Example. Determine the atomic weight of Carbon simplified Bohr atomic model, in which
atom? See table of isotopes above. - electrons are assumed to revolve around the
atomic nucleus in discrete orbitals.
- Another important principle that the energies
- Atomic weight unit is amu/mol or g/mol of electrons are quantized
- Every 1 mol is equivalent to 6.022 x 10^23 - electrons are permitted to have only specific
atoms which is termed as avogrado's values of energy.
numbers. Atomic weight of an atom is - Bohr model represents electrons in atoms in
usually found at the bottom part of every terms of electron orbitals and quantized
element in the periodic table. energy levels.

Quantum Numbers
- Every electron in an atom is characterized
by four parameters called quantum
number.
- Bohr energy levels separate into electron
Example: subshells and quantum number dictates the
Chromium has four naturally occurring isotopes: number of states within each subshell.
4.34% of Chromium-50, with an atomic weight of - See the table below. The first two column
49.9460 amu; 83.79 *% of Chromium-52, with an signifies principal quantum number, the third
atomic weight of 51.9405 amu; 9.50% of column signifies azimuthal quantum number;
 the fourth column signifies magnetic
quantum number; and the fifth and sixth
column signifies spin quantum number.

● Hund's Rule - every orbital in a particular

sublevel is initially occupied by single
electron before any orbital is doubly occupied
(fill upward spin moment before filling up
downward spin moment in every subshell).
Such single occupied electrons have the
same spin.

Principal quantum number (n) - related to the

distance of an electron from the nucleus or its
position represented by integral values 1, 2, 3, and
Electron Configuration
so on and sometimes denoted by letters K, L, M, N,
- structure of an atom that represents the
and so on.
manner in which the states are occupied. The
figure below shows the pattern of electron
configurations of an element

Azimuthal quantum number (l) - related to the

shape of the subshell denoted by s, p, d, and f
For example: Show the electron configuration of
Magnetic quantum number (m) - determined the
Arsenic (As-33). Show the number of
energy states of a subshell where as s, p, d and f
electrons in each shell and in the valence shell.
has one, three, five and seven states exist
respectively

Spin quantum number (ms) - orientations of

electron either upward or downward direction

Electron Driving Principle

● Pauli's Exclusion Principle - No two Valence electron - electron that occupy the
electrons can be identified by same set of outermost shell and the most energized electrons.
quantum numbers.
- Each orbital can hold a maximum of
two electrons, and these electrons
must have opposite spins (one "up"
and one "down").

● Aufbau Principle - electrons fills the lowest

energy level before filling the higher energy
level
Periodic Table - Attractive bonding force between positive and
negative ions are termed as Coulombic
force

Covalent Bonding
- Chemical bond that results from sharing of
All the elements have been classified according to valence electrons
electron configuration in the periodic table. Here, the - Common bond for non-metallic elements
elements are situated, with increasing atomic
number, in seven horizontal rows called periods.
The arrangement is such that all elements arrayed
in a given column or group have similar valence
electron structures.
● Group IA: Alkali Metals
● Group IIA: Alkaline Earth Metals
● Group IIIB → IIB: Transition Metals
● Group IIIA →VIA: Semimetals Metallic Bonding
● Group VIIA: Halogesn - Found in metals and their alloys
● Group 0: Noble Gases - Valence electrons are not bound to any
particular atom
- Form "sea of electrons" or "electron cloud"

Electropositive elements
- Elements under metal classification
- Capable of giving up electrons to form
positive ions
Electronegative elements
- Elements above metal classification
- Capable of accepting electrons to form
negative ions

Interatomic Bonding
Ionic Bonding
- Found in compounds that are composed of
metallic and non-metallic elements
- Occurs between positive and negative ions
Lesson 3: Structure of Crystalline Solids Crystalline Material
Fundamental Concept of Crystal Structures - Repetitive 3D pattern
- Solid materials may be classified according - Periodic arrangement of atom
to the regularity with which atoms or ions are - Hard sphere model
arranged with respect to one another. Unit Cell
- A crystalline material is one in which the - The atomic order in crystalline solids
atoms are situated in a repeating or periodic indicates that small groups of atoms form a
array over large atomic distances; that is, repetitive pattern.
long-range order exists, such that upon - Unit cells for most crystal structures are
solidification, the atoms will position parallelepipeds or prisms having three sets
themselves in a repetitive three-dimensional of parallel faces; one is drawn within the
pattern, in which each atom is bonded to its aggregate of spheres.
nearest-neighbor atoms. - A unit cell is chosen to represent the
- Some of the properties of crystalline solids symmetry of the crystal structure, where in all
depend on the crystal structure of the the atom positions in the crystal may be
material, the manner in which atoms, ions, or generated by translations of the unit cell
molecules are spatially arranged. integral distances along each of its edges.
- When describing crystalline structures, - The unit cell is the basic structural unit or
atoms (or ions) are thought of as being solid building block of the crystal structure and
spheres having well-defined diameters. defines the crystal structure by virtue of its
- This is termed the atomic hard-sphere geometry and the atom positions within.
model in which spheres representing Metallic Crystal Structure
nearest-neighbor atoms touch one another. - Three relatively simple crystal structures are
found for most of the common metals: face-
centered cubic, body-centered cubic, and
hexagonal close-packed.

Solid Materials
Crystalline material - long range order of atoms
examined by x-ray technique
Non-crystalline material/amorphous - do not
crystallize, not arrange in order

● APF of SC = 0.52 (SC); 0.68 (BCC); 0.74

(FCC); 0.74 (HCP)
● Coordination Number - number of atoms,
ions or molecules that a central atom or ion
holds at its nearest neighbors in crystals.
● Coordination Number = 6 (SC); 8 (BCC); 12
Amorphous Material (FCC); 12 (HCP)
- No definite atomic structure and atom exist in ● Lattice points - number of atoms in crystal
random pattern just as in liquid ● Lattice points = 1 (SC); 2 (BCC); 4 (FCC); 6
• Example: coal, coke, plastic, rubber, glass, etc. (HCP)

Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure (FCC)

- 12 coordination numbers, 4 lattice points
- The crystal structure found for many metals
has a unit cell of cubic geometry, with atoms
located at each of the corners and the
centers of all the cube faces.
 - each corner atom is shared among eight ● carbon (graphite) is the stable
unit cells, whereas a face-centered atom polymorph at ambient conditions,
belongs to only two. whereas diamond is formed at
- Two other important characteristics of a extremely high pressures.
crystal structure are the coordination ● pure iron has a BCC crystal structure
number and the atomic packing factor (APF). at room temperature, which changes
- The APF is the sum of the sphere volumes of to FCC iron at 912C
all atoms within a unit cell divided by the unit
cell volume. Crystal Systems
- There are many different possible crystal
structures; it is sometimes convenient to
divide them into groups according to unit cell
- For the FCC structure, the atomic packing
configurations and/or atomic arrangements.
factor is 0.74, which is the maximum
- One such scheme is based on the unit cell
packing possible for spheres all having the
geometry.
same diameter.
- The unit cell geometry is completely defined
- Metals typically have relatively large atomic
in terms of six parameters: the three edge
packing factors to maximize the shielding
lengths a, b, and c, and the three inter-axial
provided by the free electron cloud.
angles a, ẞ, and y.
Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure (BCC)
- 8 coordination numbers, 2 lattice points
- Another common metallic crystal structure
also has a cubic unit cell with atoms located
at all eight corners and a single atom at the
cube center.
- Chromium, iron, tungsten, as well as several
other metals exhibit a BCC structure.
- The coordination number for the BCC
crystal structure is 8.

- On this basis there are seven different

Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure (HCP)
possible combinations of a, b, and c, and a,
- 12 coordination numbers, 6 lattice points
ẞ, and Y, each of which represents a distinct
- The top and bottom faces of the unit cell
crystal system.
consist of six atoms that form regular
- These seven crystal systems are cubic,
hexagons and surround a single atom in the
tetragonal, hexagonal, orthorhombic,
center.
rhombohedral,2 monoclinic, and triclinic.
- The coordination number and the atomic
packing factor for the HCP crystal
structure are the same as for FCC: 12 and
0.74, respectively.
- The HCP metals include cadmium,
magnesium, titanium.

Polymorphism and Allotropy

- Some metals, as well as nonmetals, may
have more than one crystal structure, a
phenomenon known as polymorphism.
- When found in elemental solids, the condition
is often termed allotropy
- The prevailing crystal structure depends
Single Crystals
on both the temperature and the external
- For a crystalline solid, when the periodic and
pressure.
repeated arrangement of atoms is perfect or
Example:
extends throughout the entirety of the
 specimen without interruption, the result is a variance of atomic or ionic spacing with
single crystal. crystallographic direction.
- Substances in which measured properties
Polycrystalline Materials are independent of the direction of
- Most crystalline solids are composed of a measurement are isotropic.
collection of many small crystals or grains;
such materials are termed polycrystalline. Non-Crystalline Solids
- Various stages in the solidification of - Non-crystalline solids lack a systematic and
polycrystalline specimen regular arrangement of atoms over relatively
large atomic distances.

(a) Small crystallite nuclei.

(b) Growth of the crystallites; the obstruction of
some grains that are adjacent to one another is also
shown.
(c) Upon completion of solidification, grains having
irregular shapes have formed.
(d) The grain structure as it would appear under the
microscope; dark lines are the grain boundaries.

- These have random crystallographic

orientations, as indicated by the square grids.
- The small grains grow by the successive
addition from the surrounding liquid of atoms
to the structure of each.
- The extremities of adjacent grains impinge on
one another as the solidification process
approaches completion.
- The crystallographic orientation varies
from grain to grain.
- Also, there exists some atomic mismatch
within the region where two grains meet; this
area, called a grain boundary.

Anisotropy
- The physical properties of single crystals of
some substances depend on the
crystallographic direction in which
measurements are taken.
- This directionality of properties is termed
anisotropy, and it is associated with the