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A PERFORMER'S GUIDE TO BAROQUE VOCAL ORNAMENTATION

AS APPLIED TO SELECTED WORKS OF

GEORGE FRIDERIC HANDEL

by

Karen Anne Greunke Brittain

A Disse1tation Submitted to
the Faculty of The Graduate School at
The University ofNoith Carolina at Greensboro
in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Musical Arts

Greensboro
1996

Approved by

/1. y '>/
/ ~.-c-~ ex /1~'-'->L--
DissettationdVisor '
 UMI Number: 9632125

UMI Microform 9632125

Copyright 1996, by UMI Company. All rights reserved.
This microform edition KS protecteil against unauthorized
copying under Title 17, United States Code.

UMI
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© 1996 by Karen Anne Greunke Brittain

,•.
 APPROVAL PAGE

This dissertation has been approved by the following committee of the Faculty of

the Graduate School at The University of North Carolina at Greensboro.

/) ,. ~~ 'j
Dissertation Advisor _ __.L-A:;:;_t:...--."[=-..;.'--"=.;._~.--c_T'--'.
7F-____:_f/_/Z_~....::::,_~=-
-'--"=-----

Committee Members ----""<-W:.I.f--~-~+'+-<-'--'£4o'-'-}, ...LI-!----ol-f-f>.-f-------

Date of Acceptance by Committee

~ ts, rqq"
Date of Final Oral Examination

ii
BRITTAIN, KAREN ANNE GREUNKE., D.M.A. A Performer's Guide to Baroque
Vocal Ornamentation As Applied To Selected Works of George Frideric Handel. (1996)
Directed by Dr. Nancy Walker. 257pp.

This document is intended as a practical resource for singers seeking stylistically

appropriate information concerning ornamentation in George Frideric Handel's (1685-

1759) solo vocal works. Principles of Italian Baroque vocal ornamentation and Handel's

own vocal ornamental style are presented in narrative form and are illustrated through the

author's own ornamentation of selected Handel arias.

A performer's guide of this type is needed for singers because the few modem

editions of Handel works available with suggestions for ornamentation provide very little

discourse on style and performance practice. The general texts which cover the subject

of Baroque performance practice can be intimidating in length and detail for the singer

interested in those aspects of ornamentation which relate directly to the solo vocal art,

and even more specifically to Handel. While all musicians should have a broad general

knowledge of Baroque performance practice, there is a particular need for a more concise

instructional manual for the purpose of informing the modem singer about ornamentation

in the vocal works of Handel.

This document, a performing edition of selected Handel arias ornamented in

appropriate styles with accompanying supportive research, is intended to help fill the

need for such a performer's guide. In this document, an introduction to eighteenth-

century Italian Baroque vocal ornamertation precedes an investigation into Handel's own

vocal ornamental style as seen in manuscripts to which he added ornamentation. Other

eighteenth-century contemporaries' ornamentation of his works, including that of some of

his own singers, is also examined. Several soprano recitatives and arias of varying

compositional styles and dramatic qualities from the genres of cantata, opera, and

oratorio illustrate this author's perception of Handelian ornamentation technique.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my committee chair Dr. Nancy Walker for her guidance and

supervision throughout the preparation of the document. I would also like to thank my

committee members, Dr. Hilary Apfelstadt, Dr. Richard Cox, and Dr. William Mciver,

for their time and energy invested in this project. Their meticulous proof-reading and

editorial suggestions have been of great help in the preparation of this document.

I would also like to thank Jenny Raabe for her help in translating German

musicological articles.

One individuiu has been of particular help in the layout of the musical figures and

arias in this document, my husband Dr. Randy Brittain. His knowledge and support have

been invaluable in bringing this research project to fruition.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

APPROVAL PAGE ................................................... ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION .............................................. 1

Purpose .................................................... 1
Status of Related Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2. EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY ITALIAN BAROQUE VOCAL

ORNAMENTATION ........................................... 20

The Doctrine of Affections .................................... 20

The Obligatory Graces ........................................ 21
The Appoggiatura ...................................... 22
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Types .......................................... 22
Long Appoggiatura ........................... 22
Short Appoggiatura ........................... 24
Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Appoggiatura in Recitative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Appoggiatura in Aria .......................... 26
The Trill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Definition ....................................... 29
Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Speed ....................................... 32
Types ............................................ 33
Tosi's Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Strings of Trills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Ribattuta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Half-trill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
The Mordent .......................................... 36
Notation ............................................. 37
"Free" Ornamentation ........................................ 39

iv
 Definition ............................................ 39
Articulation ........................................... 40
Marked ......................................... 40
Gliding ......................................... 41
Dragging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Porta1nento ..................................... 44
Notation ............................................. 45
Types ............................................... 47
Various Divisions ................................. 47
Cadenzas ....................................... 49
Other Ornamental Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Vibrato .............................................. 56
Baroque Usage ................................... 56
Contemporary Usage .............................. 60
Trillo .......................................... 61
Appropriate Extent of Ornamentation ............................ 64
Ornamental Abuse ...................................... 64
Ornamentation in Recitative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Ornamentation in Aria ................................... 67
The Da capo Aria ................................. 71
The Cadenza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

3. DISCERNING HANDEL'S ORNAMENTATION STYLE .............. 78

Origins of Handel's Ornamentation Style .......................... 78

Handel Autograph Examples of Ornamentation ..................... 81
Arias ................................................ 82
Cadenzas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Keyboard Arrangements of Opera Arias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Ornamentation by Handel's Contemporaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
William Babell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Ornamentation of Handel Aias by Singers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Handel's Italian Singers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
The Prima Donne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Faustina Bordoni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Francesca Cuzzoni ........................... 127
The Castrati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Senesino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Farinelli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Performance Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

v
 Cantata ............................................. 134
Opera and Oratorio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
English Singers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Conclusions ............................................... 141
Contrasts in Affekr ..................................... 143
Opera .............................................. 148
Cantata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Oratorio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

4. SELECTED ORNAMENTED ARIAS FOR SOPRANO ................ 154

Selection ................................................. 154

Editorial Procedures ........................................ 155
The Ornamented Arias and Recitatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Cantata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Aria, "Sarai contenta un dl" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Rect'tat'tve. "Quan do speras t'1, o core ................ .
II 166
Aria, "Non brilla tanto i1 fior" ....................... 166
Opera .............................................. 179
Italian Opera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Aria, "V'adoro pupille" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Ada, "Da tempeste illegno infranto" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
English Opera ................................... 225
Accompanied Recit., "Ah me, what refuge" ........ 225
Arioso, "Oh Jove! in Pity" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Oratorio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Aria, "Pious Orgies" .............................. 232
.Alia, "Come, Ever Smiling Liberty" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

vi
 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Purpose

This document is intended as a practical resource for singers seeking stylistically

appropriate information concerning ornamentation in George Fride1ic Handel's (1685-

1759) 1 solo vocal works. Principles of Italian Baroque vocal ornamentation and Handel's

own vocal ornamental style are presented in narrative form and are illustrated through the

author's own ornamentation of selected Handel mias.

A pe1former's guide of this type is needed for singers because the few modern

editions of Handel works available with suggestions for ornamentation provide very little

discourse on style and pe1formance practice. The general texts which cover the subject

of Baroque performance practice can be intimidating in length and detail for the singer

interested in those aspects of ornamentation which relate directly to the solo vocal art,

and even more specifically to Handel. Research in the area of vocal ornamentation is

often presented from the musicologist's point of view and not from that of the pe1former.

While all musicians should have a broad general knowledge of Baroque performance

practice, there is a particular need for a more concise instructional manual for the

1
This is the spelling of Handel's name which he eventually adopted in England
(Winton Dean, The New Grove Handel. with a Work-List by Anthony Hicks, The
Composer Biography Series (New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 1982), 1. Any
other spellings of Handel's name used in this document. such as in the Chrysander or
German editions, are exactly as printed in the particular source cited.
 2

purpose of informing the modern singer about ornamentation in the vocal works of

Handel.

Handel is one of the most frequently performed Baroque composers, especially

since the oratorio Messiah (1742) 2 enjoys enduring popularity; yet many singers do not

know the type or extent of omamentation that is appropriate in his works. Scores with

suggestions for authentic Handelian ornamentation are very rare, and those which contain

suggestions frequently offer too little to give a complete picture of how one should

proceed. Of the few scores available, Messiah receives most of the attention.

For example, Watkins Shaw's 1992 edition of Messiah 3 provides suggestions for

omamentation, both by the editor's hand and from mid-eighteenth-century manuscripts of

the work. This is a valuable score for performance, yet the reason why there are copious

figurations for some arias and minimal embellishments for others is not immediately

apparent. These important editorial details are only very briefly mentioned in the Preface

to the edition, which leaves singers with an incomplete understanding about the

ornamentation style. This score contains no discussion to aid the singer in developing a

knowledge about Baroque ornamental performance practice; however, Shaw's companion

volume to the petformance score provides a few pages of the briefest notes about

ornamental practice.4

2
Unless otherwise noted, all dates of Handel's works provided in this document will
be the date of the first performance as listed in Dean, The New Grove Handel.
3
Watkins Shaw, ed., Handel· Messjah, Novello Handel Edition (London: Novello
and Company Limited. 1992).
4
Watkins Shaw, A Texnml and Historical Companion to Handel's Messiah (London:
(continued ... )
 3

A twentieth-century singer seeking examples of Handelian style would not

automatically know that Handel preferred modest embellishment as opposed to

flamboyant Italianate indulgences. Examples of ornamentation such as those found in

the Watkins Shaw edition spark a singer's interest in the subject of authentic performance

practice, but may send mixed messages about when or when not to ornament because the

style presented is not completely consistent, in that ornaments are included in some arias

but not in others. In this author's opinion, today's singers would benefit from a

performer's guide to Baroque vocal ornamentation which includes Handel arias from

several genres ornamented in the appropriate styles.

Knowledge of authentic performance practice for today's singer should be

presented in a thorough, well-researched format aimed at developing a working

knowledge of ornamentation techniques. Sample ornamented arias should be carefully

chosen with regard to tempo, form, and dramatic character in order to facilitate typical

illustrations of ornamentation style. This document, a performing edition of selected

Handel arias ornamented in appropriate styles with accompanying supportive research, is

intended to fill a need for such a performer's guide. In this document, an introduction to

eighteenth-century Italian Baroque vocal ornamentation will precede an investigation

into Handel's own vocal ornamental style as seen in manuscripts to which he added

ornamentation. Other eighteenth-century contemporaries' ornamentation of his works,

including that of some of his own singers, will also be examined. Several soprano

(... continued)
Novello Publishing Limited, 1965), 204-10.
 4

recitatives and arias of varying compositional styles and dramatic qualities from the

genres of cantata, opera, and oratorio will illustrate this author's perception of Handelian

ornamentation technique.

Status of Related Research

Eighteenth-century Baroque vocal ornamentation is an area in which much

research has been done, primruily in the last quarter-century. The available research is so

vast and scattered, however, that many singers choose not to engage in the necessary

study to decide intelligently on an appropriate style of ornamentation in a given work.

No single work has been written as a practical, yet comprehensive, guide to eighteenth-

century Baroque vocal ornamentation from a singer's point of view. No single work

discusses Handelian ornamentation practice with respect to the various genres of opera,

oratorio, and cantata, and the implications for differences in ornamentation style inherent

in these genres. The following survey of the status of research in the area of Baroque,

and in particular Handelian, vocal ornamentation will afford some sense of the amount

and kind of material available.

There are several landmark works on the subject of Baroque performance practice

which encompass both vocal and instrumental ornamentation. Robert Donington's ~

Interpretation of Early Music· New version5 and A Performer's Gujde to Baroque

M.u.sk6 are comprehensive resources. The Performer's Guide encapsulates some of the

5
Robert Donington, The Interpretation of EarJy Musjc· New version (London:
Faber and Faber, 1975).
6
Robert Donington, A Petformer's Guide to Baroque Music (New York: Charles
(continued... )
 5

more detailed information provided in the lengthy The Interpretation of Ear]y Music and

addresses both instrumentalists and vocalists. The Interpretation of Ear]y Music is an

extensive work which discusses all aspects of Baroque performance practice. Topics

discussed include attitudes towards authenticity in performance, present and future

implications for authentic performance practice, national styles, expression, accidentals,

all types of ornamentation (including discussions of early and late Baroque practices),

accompanimental considerations, tempos, rhythm, dynamics, and instruments. It also

includes copious appendices, notes. and a lengthy select bibliography. Brief musical

examples (usually from Baroque instrumental treatises or scores) are provided for each

ornament discussed. Solo vocal considerations are mentioned in the midst of much

instrumental information.

Frederick Neumann's recent general study, Perfoonance Practices of the

Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,7 includes a discussion of Baroque tempo, rhythm,

dynamics, articulation, and phrasing. Almost half of this important work is devoted to

ornamentation, both instrumental and vocal. Neumann's research is synthesized into

more of a flowing narrative than Donington's (which often cites Baroque treatises), and

individual composers' styles are frequently discussed, including brief notes on Handel's

Italian style which included English influences. An interesting but brief discourse on

( ... continued)
Scribner's Sons, 1973).
7
Frederick Neumann, Performance Practices of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth
Centuries, with the assistance of Jane Stevens (New York: Schirmer Books, An Imprint
of Macmillan Publishing Company, 1993 ).
 6

national styles of improvisation is also included. Neumann's detailed Ornamentation in

Baroque and Post-Baroque Music With Special Emphasis on J S Bacb,8 is one of the

most thorough studies devoted solely to ornamentation available, and it includes German,

French, and Italian styles with plentiful notes and musical examples. This book also

contains a helpful "Selective Glossary of Terms and Symbols," an extensive

bibliography, and a detailed index. Neumann occasionally mentions Handelian

ornamentation with respect to his national style characteristics, and such ornaments as

trills and grace notes.

Arnold Dolmetsch 's pioneering work, The Interpretation of the Music of the

XVTJth and XVTTTth Centuries Revealed by Contemporary Evidence9 (first published in

1915) must also be mentioned as a landmark study of performance practice. Jean-Claude

Veilhan's The Rules of Musical Interpretation jn the Baroque Era O?th--1 8th

Centurjes) 10 is an excellent, albeit brief, general resource because much of the narrative is

in the form of quotations and musical examples (many in facsimile reprint) from

numerous Baroque treatises.

8
Frederick Neumann, Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music. With
Special Emphasis on J S Bach (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978).
9
Arnold Dolmetsch, The Interpretation of the Music of the XYUth and XYTTTth
Centuries Revealed by Contemporary Evidence, 2d ed., revised, Handbooks for
Musicians Series, ed. Ernest Neuman (London: Oxford University Press, 1969).
10
Jean-Claude Veilhan, The Rules of Musical Interpretation in the Baroque Era
0 7th--18th Cennuies) Common to AU Instruments According to Bach Brossard
Couperin Hotteterre Monteclajr Quantz Rameau- d'Alembert Rousseau etc, trans.
John Lambert (Pads: Alphonse Leduc & Cie, 1979).
 7

Dissertations on the subject of ornamentation include Joan E. Smiles's detailed

"Improvised Ornamentation in Late Eighteenth-Century Music: An Examination of

Contemporary Evidence" 11 and Edward Foreman's "A Comparison of Selected Italian

Vocal Tutors of the Period ca. 1550 to 1800." 12 Foreman's comparison of vocal tutors

covers a very broad time-span by examining a few select examples of the different types

of vocal tutors written in the period ca. 1550-1800, such as the "singing-manuals,"

"preface-type," "ornament-type," or "compendium-type" instruction books. Both

dissertations are general resources which compile and compare information from primary

sources, although Smiles's work is more instructional to twentieth-century musicians

seeking specific knowledge of ornamentation. Austin Baldwin Caswell, Jr.'s two-volume

work, "The Development of 17th-Century French Vocal Ornamentation and Its Influence

Upon Late Baroque Ornamentation-Practice. A Commentary Upon the Art of Proper

Singing, And Particularly with Regard to French Vocal Music by Benigne de Bacilly''

serves as both translation and commentary upon an important seventeenth-century French

tutor from the time of Lully. 13 Pumam Aldrich's three-volume dissertation, "The

Principal Agrements of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: A Study in Musical

11
Joan E. Smiles, "Improvised Ornamentation in Late Eighteenth-Century Music:
An Examination of Contemporary Evidence" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1976).
12
Edward Vaught Foreman, "A Comparison of Selected Italian Vocal Tutors of the
Period ca. 1550 to 1800" (D.M.A. diss., University oflllinois, 1969).
13
Austin Baldwin Caswell, Jr., "The Development of 17th-Century French Vocal
Ornamentation and Its Influence Upon Late Baroque Ornamentation-Practice. A
Commentary Upon the Art of Proper Singing, And Particularly with Regard to French
Vocal Music by Benigne de Bacilly," 2 vols. (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota,
1964).
 8

Ornamentation," 14 must be mentioned as one of the pioneering works in the field of

Baroque performance practice, as it contains a comprehensive discussion of the

placement and performance of the agrements. Aldrich's study thoroughly compares the

essential graces of French, German, English, and Italian ornamentation practices for the

entire Baroque peliod. The work examines and lists extensive bibliography of primary

source materials from each country.

Scholarly journals also provide a rich source of research material on various

aspects of Baroque ornamentation, such as the obligatory ornaments of trill, mordent, and

appoggiatura, or embellishment techniques including cadenzas and other "free"

ornamentation. Two articles which discuss the Baroque appoggiatura in recitative are

Winton Dean's "The Performance of Recitative in Late Baroque Opera," 15 and Edward

Downes's detailed "Secco Recitative in Early Classical Opera Seria (1720-1780)." 16

Other journal articles cover a broader scope, such as Robert Greenlee's study,

"Dispositione di voce: Passage to Florid Singing," 17 which discusses vocal performance

practice of the early Baroque, and Joan E. Smiles's documented article, "Directions for

14
Putnam Calder Aldrich, "The Principal Agrements of the Seventeenth and
Eighteenth Centuries: A Study in Musical Ornamentation," 3 vols. (Ph.D. diss., Harvard
University, 1942).
15
Winton Dean, "The Performance of Recitative in Late Baroque Opera," Ml.Isk
and Letters 58 (October 1977): 389-402.
16
Edward 0. D. Downes, "Secco Recitative in Early Classical Opera Seria 1720-
1780)," Journal of the American Musicological Society 14 (Spring 1961): 50-69.
17
Robert Greenlee, "Dispositione di voce: Passage to Florid Singing," Ear1y Music
15 (February 1987): 47-55.
 9

Improvised Ornamentation in Italian Method Books of the Late Eighteenth Century," 18

which concentrates on Italian vocal and instrumental ornamentation styles in the period

following Handel's death.

A few articles discuss less frequently addressed Baroque ornamentation topics

such as dynamics and the vocal vibrato. An excellent article on the subject of dynamics

in Baroque music is David Boyden's "Dynamics in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century

Music," in Essays on Music in Honor of Archibald Thompson Davison by His

Associates, 19 which proposes that dynamic variation in instrumental music developed

from a desire to imitate the dynamic possibilities of the human voice. Frederick

Neumann has written several articles on the subject of the vocal vibrato including,

"Choral Conductors' Forum--More on Authenticity: Authenticity and the Vocal Vibrato,"

in American Choral Reyiew. 20 and "The Vibrato Controversy" in Performance Practice

Revjew. 21 By far the largest study on vibrato in Baroque music is Greta Moens-

Haenen's, Das vibrato in der Musik des Barock ein Handbucb zur Auffuebrungspraxjs

18
Joan E. Smiles, "Directions for Improvised Ornamentation in Italian Method
Books of the Late Eighteenth Century," Journal of the American Musicological Society
31 (Fall1978): 495-509.
19
David D. Boyden, "Dynamics in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Music," in
Essays on Music in Honor of Archibald Thompson Davison by His Associates
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Department of Music, 1957), 185-93.
2
°Frederick Neumann, "Choral Conductors' Forum--More on Authenticity:
Authenticity and the Vocal Vibrato," American Choral Review 29 (Spring 1987): 9,
13-17.
21
Frederick Neumann, "The Vibrato Controversy," Performance Practice Reyjew 4,
no. 1 (Spring 1991): 14-27.
 10

fuer Vokalisten und Instrumenta1isten. 22 This extensive study discusses the technical and

interpretive aspects of vibrato for vocalists and instrumentalists.

Articles which discuss ornamentation and performance practice specifically in the

works of Handel are less numerous than those which are more generally focused and

relate to various composers of the period. Some Handelian articles include Elizabeth

Roche's study, "Handel's Appoggiaturas: A Tradition Destroyed," 23 John Spitzer's

"Improvised Ornamentation in a Handel Aria with Obbligato Wind Accompaniment," 24

(which deals with a nineteenth-century performer's manuscript), Ellen Harris's "Integrity

and Improvisation in the Music of Handel," 25 and Thomas Goleeke's brief survey of

proper Handelian ornamentation style, "Ornamenting Handel: Like Seasoning a Meal:

A New Look at the Old Style. "26 Goleeke's article is intended to be a help to modern-day

singers, but is disappointing in its brevity, lack of scholarly detail, and the paucity of

thorough musical examples. David Lasocki and Eva Legene have written an excellent

three-part article on Handelian ornamentation entitled "Learning to Ornament Handel's

22
Greta Moens-Haenen, Das Vibrato in der Musjk des Barock ein Handbuch zur
Auffuehrungspraxis fuer Yokalisten und Instrumentalisten [Vibrato in Baroque music:
a handbook of performance practice for vocalists and instrumentalists] (Graz:
Akademische Druck-und Verlagsanstalt, 1988).
23
Elizabeth Roche, "Handel's Appoggiaturas: A Tradition Destroyed," Early Music
13 (August 1985): 408-10.
24
John Spitzer, "Improvised Ornamentation in a Handel Aria with Obbligato Wind
Accompaniment," Early Music 16 (November 1988): 514-22.
25
Ellen T. Harris, "Integrity and Improvisation in the Music of Handel," The Journal
ofMusicology 8 (Summer 1990): 301-15.
2
<Thomas Goleeke, "Ornamenting Handel: Like Seasoning a Meal: A New Look
at the Old Style," NATS Journal 47, no. 1 (September/October 1990): 15-18.
 11

Sonatas Through the Composer's Ears." 27 It is aimed at recorder players, but is applicable

to any melodic instrument, including the human voice. This article makes interesting

comparisons of plain and elaborated melodies of both instrumental (including keyboard)

and vocal melodies from the solo cantatas.

Festschr:iften (collections of articles in honor of noted scholars by their colleagues

and former students, or collections of articles in honor of a particular event) on the

subject of Baroque vocal ornamentation are also illuminating. George Beulow's article,

"A Lesson in Operatic Perfonnance by Madame Faustina Bordoni," in A Musical

Offering. Essays in Honor of Martin Bemstein28 discusses one of Handel's own soloist's

embellishments of a particular aria. The volume Opera & Vivaldi contains several

notable contributions to the topic of Baroque ornamentation, including Howard Mayer

Brown's article, "Embellishing Eighteenth-Century Arias: On Cadenzas" 29 (which

contains some enlightening musical examples), and Mary Cyr's "Declamation and

Expressive Singing in Recitative." 3° Cyr's article discusses the often neglected topics of

speed, accent, and emphasis, as well as ornamental embellishment beyond the usual

27
David Lasocki and Eva Legene, "Learning to Ornament Handel's Sonatas Through
the Composer's Ears." Parts 1-3. American Recorder 3 (February 1989): 9-14; 3 (August
1989): 102-6; 3 (November 1989): 137-41.
28
George J. Beulow, "A Lesson in Operatic Performance by Madame Faustina
Bordoni," in A Musical Offering. Essays in Honor of Martin Bernstein, ed. E. H.
Clinkscale and C. Brook (New York, 1977), 79-96.
29
Howard Mayer Brown, "Embellishing Eighteenth-Century Arias: On Cadenzas,"
in Opera & Vivaldi, ed. Michael Collins and Elise K. Kirk (Austin Tex.: University of
Texas Press, 1984), 258-76.
30
Mary Cyr, "Declamation and Expressive Singing in Recitative," in Opera & Vivaldi,
233-57.
 12

appoggiature in both Italian and French recitative of the eighteenth century. Michael

Collins thoroughly discusses the information available from primary Baroque sources

concerning cadential rhythms, structure, and appoggiatura at recitative cadential points

in his article, "Cadential Structures and Accompanimental Practices in Eighteenth-

Century Italian Recitative," also in Opera & Yivaldi. 31

Ptimary sources on Baroque vocal ornamentation are indispensable, and

numerous ones are available in English translation. Since Handel's ornamental style was

most closely derived from the Italian Baroque operatic tradition and was influenced by

his English contemporaries' tastes, works which discuss those styles are of the greatest

interest to today's singers. The Italian style is discussed in Pier Francesco Tosi's

Opinioni de' cantori antichi e moderni (1723), which was soon translated into a widely

circulated English edition by Galliard (1742). 32 This treatise became a standard work in

Handel's lifetime and is indispensable to an understanding of Italian Baroque vocal

performance practice. It is now available in a new translation by Edward Foreman which

contains a facsimile of the original 1723 printing, definitions of unfamiliar eighteenth-

century terms, and brief biographical notes on all names mentioned therein. 33

31
Michael Collins, "Cadential Structures and Accompanimental Practices in
Eighteenth-Century Italian Recitative," in Opera & Vivaldi, 211-32.
I
3
~osi, Pi~r Francesco. Opinioni de' cantori anticbi e rnodernj 1723; 2nd ed., trans. J.
E. Galliard as Observations on the Florid Song (1743; reprint, London: W. Reeves,
1905).
33
Pierfrancesco Tosi, Opinions of Singers Ancient and Modern or Observations on
Figured Singing, trans. Edward Foreman, Masterworks on Singing Series, Vol. 6
(Minneapolis, Minn.: Pro musica press, 1986). In this document, quotations by Tosi
will usually be from Foreman's translation, except for those often-repeated quotes for
which Galliard's translation contains the most familiar wording.
 13
English-language works of significance include The Singer's Preceptor. or Con·i's

Treatise on Vocal Music (1810).:4 by Domenico Corri. and Richard Mackenzie Bacon's

Elements of Vocal Science· Being A Philosophkal Enquiry Toto Some of the Principles

of Singing (1824),35 each of which was otiginally published in the early nineteenth

century, but wtitten from the viewpoint of one schooled in the Italian Baroque tradition.

These two works were also edited for recent editions by Edward Foreman. who includes

clarifying footnotes and btief biographical sketches of persons mentioned in the text.

Francesco Geminiani's A Treatj se of Good Taste jn the Art of Mysjck ( 17 49) 36 was

published in London during Handel's lifetime and was reprinted this century in facsimile.

It contains brief ornamental instruction in what was considered "good taste" for both

vocalists and harpsichordists in fom1een ornaments such as the tlill (shake) and the

appoggiatura, and dynamic considerations such as messa di voce, piano and forte

singing. The noted eighteenth-century musical hist01ian Charles Burney provided

valuable insight into the petformance practice of his age in several publications including

A General History of Musjc· From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period CJ 7R9l. 37

34
Dornenico Corri, "The Singer's Preceptor. or Corti's Treatise on Vocal Music," 2
vols. (1810; reprint, 2 vols. in 1. in The Pm:pora Tmditjon, Masterworks on Singing
Series, ed. Edward Foreman. vol. 3, N.p.: Pro musica press, 1968).
35
Richard Mackenzie Bacon, Elements of Vocal Science· Being A Philosophical
Enquiry Into Some of the Principles of Singing (1824 ): ed. with notes and introduction
by Edward Foreman, Masterworks on Singing Series. vol. 1 (Champaign. Ill.: Pro
Musica Press, 1966).
36
Francesco Geminiani, A Treatise of Good Taste in the Art of Musick (ca. 1749:
reprint, with an introduction by Robert Donington, New York: Da Capo Press. 1969).
37
Charles Burney, A Geneml History of Music· From the Earliest Ages to the Present
Period 0789), 2 vols. (1789); New ed. with critical and historical notes by Frank Mercer
 14

Although Handel's ornamentation practice was rooted in the Italian style. other

works shed light on the Baroque ornamental practices of his French and German

contemporaries which influenced Handel's keyboard ornamentation and general

compositional technique. A few impo1tant works deserve mention. such as Jean-Baptiste

Berard's L'Art du chant· dedie a Mme De Pompadmn·38 (1755) (translated with

commentary, bibliography. and facsimile repJint of musical exercises). Julianne Baird's

excellent recent translation of Johann Friedlich Agricola's Anleitung zur Sjngkunst

(1757), 39 and Johann Joachim Quantz's Versuch ejner anweisung dje f!Ote trayersiere zu

spielen (1752)40 (which provides insight into instrumental as well as vocal ornamentation

practices).

A few ruticles which focus on the known extant manuscript examples of

ornamentation in Handel's own autograph (or that of his copyists) are of great interest to

one studying Handelian vocal ornamentation. They include James S. and Mrutin V.

Hall's article, "Handel's Graces," 41 which thoroughly discusses the few vocal works

(New York: Harcourt. Brace and Company. 1935: repJint. New York: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1957).
38
Jean-Baptiste Berard. L'A11 du chant· dedie a Mme De Pompadour (1755; trans.
with commentary by Sidney Murray. Milwaukee. Wis.: Pro musica press. 1969).
39
Julianne Charlotte Baird. "Johann Friedrich AgJicola's Anleitung zur Singkunst
(1757): A Translation and Commentary," 2 vols. (Ph.D. diss .• Stanford University.
1991).
40
Johann Joachim Quantz. On Pluying the Rute fVersuch einer anweisung die flote
traversiere zu spielen] (1752; reprint, with translation, introduction and notes by Edward
R. Reilly, London: Faber and Faber. 1966).
41
James S. and Martin V. Hall, "Handel's Graces." Handel Jahrbuch. 2d ser.• no. 3
(1957): 25-43.
 15

known at the time the article was written (1957) to have been ornamented by Handel

himself. Autograph sources of Handel's own ornamentation are scarce. but a handful of

significant examples have been discovered. Winton Dean has edited a set of~

Ornamented Adas42 by Handel. which are selections from the opera Ottnne ( 1723) with

Handel's own ornamentation. Dean discusses another aria ornamented in Handel's own

handwriting, the only surviving fragment from the opera Amadigi di Gaula (1715). in his

chapter, "Vocal Embellishment in a Handel Aria." in Studies in Eighteenth-Century

Music· A Tribute to Karl Geiringer on Hjs Seventieth Birthday.43 Examples of Handel

cadenzas that were added to his vocal scores are rare. Handel composed two very brief

cadenzas for the oratorio Samson ( 1743) which Chrysander ptinted in the preface of his

edition. 44

In recent years, vmious eighteenth-century keyboard transcriptions of Handel

opera arias have been discovered that display ornamented melodies. Although these

ornaments were not meant to be sung. they are examples of those used in the eighteenth-

century, and those in Handel's own hand provide indications of the kind and extent of

ornamentation of which he approved. Patrick Rogers surveys the known keyboard

42
Winton Dean, ed., G F Handel· Three Omamented Arias (London: Oxford
University Press, 1976).
43
Winton Dean, "Vocal Embellishment in a Handel Aria." Studies jn Eighteenth-
Century Music· A Tribute to Karl Gejringer on His Seventieth Bi1thday. ed. H. D.
Robbins Landon in collaboration with Roger E. Chapman (London: George Allen and
Unwin Limited, 1970), 151-59.
44
Friedrich Chrysander, "Preface," in Samson· An Oratorio hy George Frederic
Handel, vol. 10 of The Works of George Frederic Handel. ed. Friedrich Chrysander
(1861; reprint, Ridgewood. N.J.: Gregg Press. Incorporated, 1965), v-vi.
 16

transcriptions in his article. "A Neglected Source of Ornamentation and Continuo

Realization in a Handel Aria.'' 45 and Chrysander published William Babell's eighteenth-

century harpsichord arrangements in Vol. 4R ofThe Works of George Frederic Handel. 46

Works containing authentically inspired Baroque ornamentation for the modern

singer are scarce, but since 1991. Alfred Publishing Cn. has begun issuing editions of

Baroque arias with extensive ornamental suggestions. although none are Handel arias.

These editions include excellent histmical. textual. and pronunciation notes. but the only

instructions for ornamentation provided include a few pages on basic style characteristics

of the Baroque and Classical periods and Italian singing. The editions include 26 Italian

Songs and Arias· An Authoritative Edition Based on Authentic Sources and Italian Arias

oftbe Baroque and Classical Eras. both edited by John Glenn Paton.47 While Paton's

ornamental suggestions in the arias are stylistically correct, they often remain somewhat

rudimentary because these editions are designed with student singers in mind.

The sources available with suggestions for ornamentation in Handel works mostly

deal with Messiah. John Tobin's book, Handel's Me.Hjah· A Critical Account of the

45
Patrick J. Rogers, "A Neglected Source of Ornamentation and Continuo Realization
in a Handel Aria," Early Music 18 (February 1990): 83-91.
46
William Babell, "William Babell's Arrangements." in A MjscelJaneous ColJectjon
of Instrumental Music for the Organ Orchestra Chamber and Harpsichord by G. F
Handel, vol. 48 of The Works of George Frederic Handel, ed. Friedrich Chrysander
(N.d.; reprint, Ridgewood. N.J.: Gregg Press. Incorporated, 1965), 210-43.
47
John Glenn Paton. ed .• 2n Italian Songs and Arias· An Authoritative Edition Based
on Authentic Sources (Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing Co., Inc.), 1991; and John
Glenn Paton, ed., Italian Arias of the Baroque and Classical Eras (Van Nuys. CA: Alfred
Publishing Co., Inc.), 1994. Both volumes are available in either medium-high or
medium-low editions. and each can be purchased with a cassette or compact disc
recording of the piano accompaniment.
 17

Manuscdpt Sources and Pdnted Editions 48 contains a chapter entitled, "Style in

Petfonnance," which provides many of that author's own vocal om amen tal suggestions.

Tobin's embellishments for Messiah are very interesting, but are more approptiate to an

operatic style than English oratorio. As previously mentioned. Watkins Shaw's newest

edition of Messiah includes editorial ornamental suggestions. some ornamentation from

the mid-eighteenth-century "Goldschmidt" and "Matthews" MSS. and Handel's own trill

indications. This mixture of sources and suggestions provides a somewhat confusing

example for the modem singer, however. The score of the oratorio Semele (1744) edited
49
by Anthony Lewis and Charles MacketTas contains some excellent suggestions for solo

vocal ornamentation. but this edition is permanently out-of-print. The best resource for

the modem singer which contains Handel arias fully ornamented in the Baroque style is

Peter Wishart's complete set of arias from Messiah, Messiah Ornamented. so which is

currently in print. Wishart's embellishmentc:; are stylistically COITect for the operatic style

of the period, but not necessmily for the oratorio style, although they are more modest

48
John Tobin, "Style in Performance," in Handel's Messiah· A Critical Account of
the Manuscript Sources and Printed Editions (New York: St. Mattins Press, 1969), 96-
121.
49
George Frederic Handel, Semele· An Opera, libretto by William Congreve, ed.
Anthony Lewis and Charles Mackerras (London: Oxford University Press. 1971).

s0peter Wishart. Messiah Ornamented· An Ornamented Edition of the Solos from

Handel's Messiah (London: Stainer and Bell, 1974).
 18

than those in Tobin's book. 51 Notably. the briefintroductot)' remarks by all these editors

do little to educate singers in how to ornament arias by themselves.

As noted above. today's research. with the exception of the large general texts on

ornamentation, often focuses on only one aspect of ornamentation. such as the

appogg;atura, cadenzas. or recitative cadences. Winton Dean lamented this fact in his

address to the Handel Tercentenary conference in 1985. noting that Handel research

(until the 1980s) was in a neglected state. Dean said that most atticles (in the 1980s)

were still written dealing with "marginal matters" or were "rewarming" old ideas "from

which all savour has long since boiled away." 52 Towards the end of the 1980s, however,

more articles were written containing practical suggestions for solo petfonnance such as

the Lasocki and Legene series of articles for recorder players. Books and articles have

long been focused on Baroque petformance practice, yet information is just beginning to

be presented in a more useful manner for practicing musicians.

This document examines the various details discussed in many of these sources

that relate to proper Handel ian vocal ornamentation and that are necessary in order to

help today's singer engage in stylistically appropriate Handelian singing. This

information is presented in the fmm of a performer's guide with embellished arias as

examples of this author's perception of appropriate ornamentation in Handel's vocal

51
See the section entitled "Performance Practice" in Chapter 3 of this document for
further discussion on the distinction between the amount of embellishment appropriate
in the Italian and English operas, cantatas, and oratorios.
52
Winton Dean. "Scholarship and the Handel Revival, 1935-1985," in Handel·
Tercentenary Co1Jectjon. ed. Stanley Sadie and Anthony Hicks (Ann Arbor. Mich.:
UMI Research Press, 1987), 2.
 19

works. The realization of stylistic ornamentation in selected soprano recitatives and arias

from the genres of chamber cantata. opera. and oratorio provides an example of a

practical application of the research and seeks to inspire other singers to experiment in

this neglected area of the vocal a1t.

 20

CHAPTER2

EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY ITALIAN BAROQUE VOCAL ORNAMENTATION

In order to understand how to ornament Handel's music, one must first know

something about the various ornamental techniques and devices of the late Baroque. The

ornamental style which is most applicable to Handel's music is derived from a mixture of

Italian, English, German, and French models, although it is most heavily centered in the

florid Italian vocal technique of the late Baroque. This Italianate style of embellishment

is used in all of his solo vocal music, albeit with varying degrees of intensity. The

following discussion is intended to provide the modern-day singer with a basic working

knowledge of late Italian Baroque vocal ornamentation practice.

The Doctrine of Affections

In the Baroque era, composition and ornamentation were both influenced by an

attempt to express emotions through musical means. This practice was known as the

"doctrine of affections," or Affektenlehre. A composer could use tempo, rhythm,

harmony, and melody to symbolically represent certain emotions. A piece of music

usually had one general Affekt or overall emotion to convey, but particular words could

be musically emphasized as well. Musical means were used to denote particular

emotions such as joy, happiness, love, sorrow, fear, or sadness.

Through ornamentation, singers could enhance the Affekt of arias and particular

words. Although frequent "ornamental abuses," including excessive ornamentation for

 21

personal vocal display, were often recorded by Baroque writers on music, the

enhancement of the emotion of the moment in support of the general Affekt was one of

the primary objectives of ornamentation. Attempts to convey the emotion and meaning

of the text (as was so important in English oratorio) were influenced by this practice of

displaying ornamentation of a corresponding character. 53 The use of the term Affekt in

this document refers to the overriding Baroque concept of Affektenlehre.

The Obligatory Graces

"Ornamentation" and its synonym, "embellishment," are terms which are used

interchangeably throughout this document. They are broad terms, and each can be

defined as the process of varying or decorating the composer's original melody with

small figurations of regular patterns and/or large additions of figurations in iiTegular

patterns. The more precise term, "ornament," represents one of the small figurations of a

regular pattern. Some of these ornaments achieved prescribed forms which were termed

"obligatory" for the Baroque performer. Quantz called them the "essential graces," 54 and

they were often not notated in the music. It was common practice to use these ornaments

in all genres. The "essential graces" which most often concern the solo singer are the

appoggiatura, the trill, and the mordent. . According to Giambattista Mancini (1716-

53
Putnarn Aldrich, "The 'Authentic' Performance of Baroque Music," in Essays on
Music in Honor of Archibald Thompson Dayjson by His Associates (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Department of Music, 1957), 169-71.
54
Quantz, 91. Although Quantz was a German, and his treatise was published in
the mid-eighteenth century, his ornamentation rules and practices were rooted in the
Italian tradition, and many of the basic ideas are applicable to the late Baroque period
and Handel's vocal works.
 22
1800) these ornaments are "so necessary, that without them it [song] becomes insipid and

imperfect, since from these alone it acquires its highest prominence." 55

The Appoggiatura

Definition

The term "appoggiatura" comes from the Italian verb. appoggiare, which means

"to lean." This "leaning" characteristic defines the appoggiatura. By occuning on the

beat, an appoggiatura, which is a non-chord tone, creates a dissonance with the

underlying harmony that must then be resolved by moving on to the principal melodic

note. Appoggiature can move up or down either by step or leap, but they must occur on

the beat. 56

Types

Long Appoggiatura

Figure 1 shows various types of long appoggiature by step (as represented by

"little notes") 57 and their performance. These appoggiature are characterized as "long"

55
Giambattista Mancini, Pensjeri e Rjglessjonj pratiche sopra i1 canto figurato
( 1774 ), 97, as quoted in Foreman, 58.
56
Donington, The Interpretation of Early Music· New version, 198-99. See also,
Dean, "The Performance of Recitative in Late Baroque Opera," 393.
57
This author will borrow Frederick Neumann's frequently-used term, "little notes,"
for use in this document (Neumann, Ornamentation jn Baroque and Post-Baroque
MJJ.si&, 7). "Little notes" will be used in this document to refer to those notes in a
printed or autograph score which are smaller than regular-sized note-heads.
Ornamental additions were frequently designated by composers in the Baroque era by
insertions of these tiny notations, or by various prescribed symbols (such as the
(continued ... )
 23

because they take a large proportion of the value of the note they adorn. In Handel's era,

the length of the long appoggian1ra became somewhat standardized. The appoggiamra's

length (as well as a subtle vocal dynamic stress) emphasized the characteristic

dissonance. Long appoggiancre usually received half the length of an undotted main

note (Fig. la), and two-thirds of the length of a dotted main note, Fig. lb). When an

appoggiancra was to be inserted into a melodic line where two notes of the same value

were involved, the appoggiatura took the value of the entire first note (Fig. lc). In 6-8

or 6-4 time when two notes were tied together with the first note dotted, the

appoggiancra became the value of the first dotted note58 (Fig. ld)

Fig. 1. Long appoggiature (author's examples)

a. Notated Performed
~
4{; ¥
I
:c , ...... .•
c I ,
~

b. Notated Performed

ilt ~
j
5
~.
.. :: ,:s
• :
c. Notated Performed
ItS i
~
* .* .• - • .* ,

(...continued)
commonly recognized "tr" for trill). Composers used little notes when adding
ornamentation to previously copied scores or in order to show ornamental notes in an
autograph score. Different scholars use various terms for these ornamental additions,
such as "little notes," "tiny notes," "grace notes," etc.
58
For rules on appoggiatura usage, see Donington, The Inrerpreration of Eady Music·
New Version, 201-3, and Quantz, 95.
 24

d. Performed
Notated

I• : I • 8 j\ il J. ; J ; ,: I •.
\

;
I

Short Appoggiantra

In addition to the commonly used long appoggiantra. Baroque performers

sometimes used the short appoggiatura. As its name implies, the short appoggiatura was

of shorter duration than the long appoggiatura and was sung or played very quickly so

that the main note lost very little of its value (unlike the long appoggiantra).s9 The short

appoggiarura was notated by the composer with little notes in the written score more

often than the long appoggiantra; but the long appoggiantra (almost always improvised)

was the type most commonly used in solo vocal music.

Placement

When appoggiature were not notated, their placement was left up to the

discretion of the performer. Dean notes that appoggiature were "presumably omitted

because they implied a tonic-dominant or other harmonic clash which was against strict

rules but allowed--even encouraged-in practice. "60 This dissonance was the

appoggiatura's defining characteristic-a leaning or suspended quality. Singers

emphasized the harmonic importance by length of the dissonance and by subtle dynamic

5
~onington, The Interpretation ofEadv Music· New Versjon, 206-7.

ronean, "The Performance of Recitative in Late Baroque Opera, 393.

II
 25

intensity on each appoggiantra. Context (principal note values, tempo, text, Affekt) was

the determining factor in the placement of appoggiature.

Appoggiatura in Recitative

In Baroque cantata. opera, and oratorio recitative, there were standard places

where appoggiature were not only appropriate, but obligatory. It was standard Baroque

vocal practice to fill in the interval of a third at cadence points (Fig. 2a), which was

known as the appoggiantra "by step," as well as to use a descending fourth cadential

appoggiatura (Fig. 2b). When discussing recitative, the term "cadence" refers not only

to the ending cadence of the piece, but also to the ends of internal musical and textual

phrases.

61
Fig. 2. Appoggiantra usage in recitative (excerpts from Handel's Semele)

a. Appoggiatura by step

Notated Performed

·~;lPC Cl·t .....

m.y fa· lher·s wrmb I icar. my fa • 11=·s wralb I f=..

b. Descending fourth cadential appoggiantra

Notated Performed
I r--.
I ~. L !
l \

~ !
L/ J'
?;
II* c
p I

• ~ I
wit- DCD 10 me cab I tai:cl wit· aess 10 me oalh I tzlk.c:!

61
These excerpts, and all subsequent excerpts from Handelian works unless otherwise
cited are notated as in the Chrysander edition. See Bibliography for full reference on
these volumes.
 26

Appoggiatura in Aria

Placement of appoggiature in arias was done with greater freedom than in

recitative. It was standard practice to insert them in many (usually unnotated) instances,

but too many appoggiature in one aria were considered just as unsuitable as too few. An

appoggiatura was often inserted as follows: 1) in place of the first note where two

successive notes of the same value and/or same pitch occurred: 2) before long tones of

consonant pitch; 3) between pitches in order to fill in successive intervals of the third (to

create a scale passage, thus resembling passing tones); 4) at internal cadence points; and

5) before and/or after cadential trills.

Appoggiature were not placed haphazardly without regard to meter or beats

within the measure. C.P.E. Bach provided the following directions for a performer's

placement of appoggiature according to rnettical and cadential conditions (all figure

references to C.P.E. Bach's work refer to his own figure numbering as printed within this

document's Figure 3). 62 The duration of these appoggiature followed the rules listed

above for length. In duple meter the long appoggiatura can be placed either on the down

beat (Fig. 3, 70a) or the up beat (Fig. 3, 70b). In triple meter appoggiature should only

occur on the down beat (Fig. 3, 71), and then only before comparatively long notes. 63

62
C.P.E. Bach, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Jnstmments, vol. 1,
1753, vol. 2, 1762, trans. and ed. William J. Mitchell, 2 vols. in 1 (New York: W. W.
Norton & Company, Inc., 1949), 89. Although these directions were originally intended
for keyboard players, they represent a good general summation of appoggiatura usage
and are equally applicable to vocal music of the era.
63
lf appoggiature are being used to fill in the intervals of the third (as in passing
note fashion), however, they may be placed on other beats of the measure.
 27

Appoggiature may be placed at cadence points, both internal and final. Often they are

placed before closing trills (Fig. 3, 72a), "half cadences" (internal cadences) (Fig. 3,

72b), caesuras (Fig. 3. 72c), fermatas (Fig. 3, 72d), and before final cadential notes,

whether preceded by a cadential trill (Fig. 3, 72e) or without a cadential trill (Fig. 3, 72f).

C.P.E. Bach notes that an ascending appoggiatura placed before the final cadential note

is much better after a cadential trill (Fig. 3, 72e) than a descending appoggiantra. which

he describes as "weak" (Fig. 3, 72g). Bach also notes that slow dotted notes may benefit

from appoggiantre (Fig. 3, 72h).

Fig. 3. Cadential appoggiature (C.P.E. Bach, 89)

Figure 70 Figure 71

~ a. { : !J.~ h r-.., jJ I
h!! ~ :· . . • ==:
.... f' -,- :12 .......
Figure 72
v
L.
b. I
I
-r,'Ff::f::i .
I I

II ;
I a. "' I I
6•• f:w'I ;I :1B ,;

.... :
fi
5s J *•.;;s
i
r
t)
~
~

II -J
~J I 'I
" •.

tru r·
HJ .~J; .P ~

~
I . }! I J
d.
\\ lLI' :- •
=~. s
t) ....
I
I 'V
 28

~
-
t ,. •
l.~V
= l " " " ' " ' " ,i . I
'>j
f.
;:
!!
rJ. Jj9• ~
".
}}7 ld,J

3 il

The above examples designate musical considerations for the placement of

appoggiature. Text and general Affekt of an aria also played an important role in their

placement in Baroque vocal music. Many Baroque writers commented on the inherently

tender sentiment of the appoggiatura. It was especially appropriate in arias about love,

longing, religious solemnity, and pastoral subjects. Appoggiatztre were particularly

suited to such arias described as the "pathetic" by Baroque writers, and in such arias, an

appoggiatztra placed on a word of particularly intense meaning, such as "heart," "love."

or "pain," produced the desired effect of longing by the suspension created.

Appoggiature were highly suited to the slower arias, but they could be used to good

effect in fast joyful arias at cadence points and for florid embellishment.

The appoggiantra was inappropriate in arias that required emotions such as anger

or cruelty, or subjects such as tyranny, majesty, and strength, although a well-placed

appoggiantra at cadential points in this type of aria was permissible, and even

encouraged. A widespread use of appoggiature in arias such as these created less angular

melodic lines and more harmonic suspensions, thereby lessening the strength of the

composed melody. Mancini wrote of the appropriateness of appoggiatura placement and

intended Affekt:
 29

With all of this the scholar is advised not to use these [appoggiature]
except in cantilena and in suitable expressions. since these embellishments do not
have a place everywhere; And [sic] far too many. ignoring these precepts, abuse
them. To prove me right it is enough to go into the theater to hear a man or a
woman, for example, in an aria of invective. singing with great fervor for the
action, accompanying with an appoggiatura such words as Tyrant, Cruel,
Implacable. and so forth, and ruining therewith the good order of the
exclamation. 64

The Trill

Definition

The next "obligatory" ornament is the cadential trill with its accented upper-note

preparation. It was a principal ornament of the Baroque singer's art. Mancini extolled

the virtues of the trill in his well-known quotation, "0 trill! Sustenance, decoration, and

life of singing!" 65 Pier Francesco Tosi (ca. 1654-post 1732). in his highly esteemed

treatise, Observations on the Florid Song (1723), commented upon the tlill's importance

to a singer's technique:

Whoever has a fine Shake [trill], tho' wanting in every other Grace, always enjoys
the Advantage of conducting himself without giving Dista~te to the End or
Cadence, where for the most part it is very essential; and who wants it, or has it
imperfectly, will never be a great Singer, let his knowledge be ever so great. 66

A trill is the rapid fluctuation of two notes: a principal note and its upper (or

more rarely the lower) auxiliary. The upper auxiliary note could be a half step ("shake

64
Giambattista Mancini, Practical Reflections on Figured Singing, 1774 and 1777
ed. compared, trans., and ed. Edward Foreman, Masterworks on Singing Series, vol. 7
(Champaign, Ill: PRO MUSICA PRESS, 1967), 43.
65
Ibid., 48.
6
~osi (Galliard). 42. Whereas Galliard translated Tosi's reference to "Cadenze" as
"Cadence," Foreman translated it as "cadenzas." an interpretation which quite changes
the meaning of the passage (Tosi [Foreman], 25).
 30
minor") or a whole step ("shake major") above the principal note, whichever was

diatonically correct.67 The trill was considered obligatory at cadences, and was not often

indicated in the score. After ca. 1720 an introductory appoggiatura (notated by a little

note) was often inserted by the composer to indicate the auxiliary starting pitch of the

trill. In this case, the trill began on the upper auxiliary note, which then alternated with

the principal note for it<; duration. In musical context. however. the upper note on

occasion precedes the main note on which there is to be a trill. Handel did not always

designate the pitch on which he wished the trill to begin, and scholars do not agree as to

whether Handel's trills should begin on the principal note or it<; auxiliary. Baroque

composers and theorists of the Italian school provided little indication about ttill

execution, a reticence that presumably indicates that such details were left to the

improvisatory gift<; of the performer. According to Frederick Neumann, Handel's ttills

may be begun on the principal note or the upper auxiliary note:

generally, the Handel performer will not often go wrong in choosing a main-note
design when the tlill is approached from below or from its upper neighbor, a
main-note or grace-note design on a repeated note. a grace-note trill on a
descending third. and an appoggiatura trill with or without support on a cadence.
Suffixes often have to be supplied since Handel practically never indicated them.

In matters of the trill as well as all other ornament<;, small and large, Handel in
true Italian manner showed his indifference to matters of detail by delegating
most of the executive authority to the performer. For his trills, there is no reason
to assume the existence of restrictive rules. 68

67
This terminology is used by Purcell, Tosi, and Galliard (Aldtich, "The Principal
Agrements of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries," 260).
68
Neumann, Ornamentation jn Baroque and Post-Baroque Music. 358.
 31

Today's singers should realize that the upper auxiliary note should receive most of the

dynamic stress. which causes the principal note to function as a type of "resolution" to

suspension created. 69

Suffixes

Neumann's reference to a "suffix" refers to the ending portion of a trill. In

standard Baroque practice, there were two common ending patterns for trills that could

be notated by the composer or left to the performer's discretion. The "turned" ending

(Fig. 4a) used the lower auxiliary note just before the cadence. The second common

ending involved the insertion of an "anticipation" note just before the final cadential note

(Fig. 4b). When notated, both the turned and anticipation note trill endings are often

given longer note values than should be sung. The turned ending should be sung at the

same speed as the notes of the trill. and the anticipation ending may be delayed and

shortened after the trill, depending on the overall tempo of the piece and the speed of the

trill.

Fig. 4. Trill suffixes (excerpts from Handel's Messiah)

a. "Turned" ending
Notated
(Prestlssimo)
tr tr
tr
!6 ;'/ j :. e:. ::: I

~- •C:d
Performed

I~ ;z
I

• ~ j~ : • ~
•

fire.------------------------
69
Donington. The Interpretation of Early Musjc: New Version, 236.
 32

b. "Anticipation" note ending

Notated
(Aclaglo) tr
I I

1£v ~·I
j ! ·' • .'
I
!9
J I
i ~- !.' : j II
(or He ia like re • fi ocr'a fire.
Performed
. I.
: ; ..... J· -. I.
:
I .

16
~I
>'
}

·! • I
:9 , .' ~
········~~
5
:I
(or He ia like .a rc .. fi cera r.re.

Speed

In Handel's England. the speed of a trill, or the actual number of beats or

pulsations in the trill, fluctuated according to the tempo of the piece and the length of the

main note (as well as according to the skill of the performer). According to Richard

Mackenzie Bacon (1776-1844), "The English certainly vary the velocity of the shake

agreeably to the accent of the song to which it is appended, or the nature of the
70
sentiment. But they seldom or never use a few turns very slowly made." It is known

that the English favored a very even pulsation, and that the number of beats could be 4,

8, 12 (for dotted main notes), or even 16, depending upon the above factors of main-note

7
~acon,
56. Bacon was a literary man and amateur musician who provides a
sophisticated look at early nineteenth-century London. His style is remarkably astute
and knowledgeable about musical philosophy and practice in England. and he mentions
the performance practice of Handelian vocal music frequently. Bacon was unprejudiced
towards native English singers. which was not the case with many eighteenth and early
nineteenth-century English writers. who usually complimented the Italian singers to the
detriment of the English.
 33

length and tempo. 71 Tosi refen·ed to many possible abuses of speed. clarity, and pitch of

the tiill, which today's singer should heed:

That which is beat with an uneven Motion disgusts~ that like the quivering of a
Goat makes one laugh; and that in the Throat is the worst: That which is
produced by a Tone and its third. is disagreeable: the slow is tiresome: and that
which is out of tune is hideous. 72

Today's singer should also strive for clarity and evenness in pulsations. as well as precise

pitch and tuning, regardless of the value of the piincipal note.

Types

Tosi's Designations

Tosi designated eight separate kinds of trills, including the "shake major" and

"shake minor" mentioned above, the "short shake" (a fast and short tiill for "biisk and

lively airs"), the "slow shake" (which he negatively desc1ibes as an "affected waving,"

like a slow wobble), the "redoubled shake" (which interpolates a lower auxiliary pitch

into the midst of a trill with the upper auxiliary), and the "shake with a beat" (a trill

inserted into fast florid passages). Tosi also mentions the "rising" and "descending" trills

which he says are "no longer in Vogue," and "ought rather to be forgot.' 173 Those trills

that Tosi described as no longer in fashion for the times or that he considered the result

of poor vocal technique such as the "rising," "descending," and "slow" shakes

respectively, would best be omitted from Handel's music today. The "shake major,"

71
Aldrich, "The Principal Agrements of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,"
276.
7
urosi (Galliard), 48.
73
Ibid., 43-47.
 34

"shake minor," "shan shake," "redoubled shake." and the "shake with a beat" can, and

should, be cultivated for use in Handel's music today, as they were used and favorably

described in his own era.

Strings of Trills

Trills may be used on successive notes, creating a "string" of trills. as each trill

fills out the entire duration of a principal note (Fig. 5). This effect. if overused, may

sound excessive and should be reserved for highly florid arias and happy themes.

Fig. 5. String of trills in a cadenza passage from Farinelli's ornamentation of

"Quell'usignolo" from Geminiano Giacomelli's opera. Merope (excerpt from Franz
Habock, A Dje Kunst de Cavaliere Carlo Broscbj Farinelli B Fatinems beriibmte
AJ:kn, vol. 1 of Dje Gesangskunst der Kastraten [Vienna: Universal Edition, 1923], 144)

tr
A I tr tr tr tr tr tr tr
16~;
~·I
1 • • q• : +
.......
" ..
...,-:;_ ... . R
L
•
r -• I
~F
I j
* : ·I
rUIAIIUIDI1I

Ribattuta

Another variation of the standard trill is the ribattuta. a slowly accelerating trill

which gradually takes the form of an ordinary trill (Fig. 6). This type of trill should be

reserved for passages where the principal note value is very long. or for use in a cadenza.

Sheila Allen notes that a ribattuta was often performed on a tenuta (a note which was

sustained throu{!hout several measures). 74

74
Sheila Marie Allen, "German Baroque Opera (1678-1740) with a Practical Edition
of Selected Soprano Arias" (D.M.A. diss., University of Rochester. 1974), 98.
 35
Fig. 6. Ribattura (Johann Mattheson. VoUkommene Capellmejster. Hamburg [1739], as
printed in Donington, The Interpretation of Early Music: New Version, 255)

(performed as a gra4ual accde:ration] tr

tis !' f S( W I c 2r F::ttl c·r r·: i e II

Half-trill

A trill at rapid speeds sometimes becomes what is commonly referred to as a

"half-trill" (Fig. 7a). A "half-trill" is a trill which starts on the upper auxiliary, but the

upper auxiliary note is not substantially prolonged. and the trill ends on the principal

note. At rapid speeds. a "half-trill" cannot truly be executed. and the ornament actually

becomes an inverted. or upper mordent (Fig. 7b). This is often the case in florid vocal

music.

Fig. 7. Half-trills (Donington. The Interpretation of Early Musjc· New Version, 250).

a Regular half-trill b. Rapid half-trill

16" : -•
Notated Performed

liJ
Notated
- Performed
-
JJ.
~
! p

-- i , j 2 ..__, II

Placement

A trill is one of the most important ornaments for today's singer to learn in order

to effectively perform Baroque music. Music without trills in the Baroque era was

regarded as plain and uninteresting. Trills were considered obligatory as preparation for

Baroque cadences in arias. and singers should not omit them today. They should
 36
certainly be placed at the cadences that end major sections of ruias and may also be

placed at some internal cadences of less finality. T1ills may also be used at other points

of textual and musical emphasis. such as in cadenzas. on long held notes, or in the midst

of repeated figure passages where extra embellishment is desired. Tiills may be used

frequently in cantata. opera, and oratorio singing. Fixed ornaments such as tiills are

more appropiiate decoration for Handel's oratorios than copious free embellishment.

Bacon even commented about how "bald and meagre" Handel's oratmio songs were

without them. 75 Baroque wiiters did acknowledge that a poor trill is no substitute for a

good tiill, however, and today's singers should take this advice by Anselm Bayly (ca.

1719-1794), "The singer, 'till he hath acquired a good shake, had better not attempt any,

but save appearances by ending with an aspirated appoggiatura, or short turn." 76

The Mordent

The mordent is another ornament often refen·ed to as "obligatory." A mordent is

a simple rapid alternation of a principal note with its lower auxiliary note on the beat (the

inverted mordent uses the upper auxiliary). A mordent can have one, two, or even

multiple repercussions. although a single repercussion is the most common in vocal

music. Mordents, regular and inverted. can occur at many points throughout an aria,

75
Bacon, 56.
76
Anselm Bayly, A Practical Treatise on Singing and Playing With Just Expression
and Real Elegance (London: J. Ridley. 1771), 54. Bayly was a respected pliest and
writer on music. In his Practical Treatise he acknowledged Tosi's Observations and
his indebtedness to its precept<: ( 1).
 37

anywhere a flourish or emphasis is desired on a particular word. They are not relegated

to cadential points.

Notation

In the Baroque era composers often used confusing symbols to notate

appoggiature. mordents, trills. and other fixed ornaments such as the tum. Each country

had different systems of notation, with the French having the most highly developed and

specific. The following is a brief overview of the most common types of symbols used

in English and Italian ornamentation and in Handel's music. It should be restated,

however, that these obligatory graces were most often not notated, and their placement

was left up to the discretion and imagination of the performer.

Baroque composers would sometimes notate both long and short appoggiature by

the insertion of little notes 77 alongside the principal note heads (as in Fig. 1), but long

types were usually not notated. When little notes were used by the composer, the value

of the little note could reflect the length of the appoggiatura itself, but not always, as

composers were not consistent. 78 Composers could use eighth. sixteenth. and thirty-

second notes as little note appoggiatura designations. The smaller the note value, the

shorter the appoggiatura it might represent. Handel used little notes rarely, and almost

no appoggiature in his vocal music were notated for the performer.

77
See note 57.
78
Neumann refers to them as "unmetricallittle notes" (Neumann, Ornamentation in
Baroque and Post-Baroque Music, 7).
 38

Mordents and trills were also notated in a similar, seemingly arbitrary fashion.

The figure Ajlover a principal note sometimes signified a mordent with a single

alternation, and the figure ,vV could denote a mordent with two or more alternations. 79

Trills could also be designated by these symbols or similar ones, as well as the symbol tr,

which is still used in modern notation. Handel's aria, "Om bra cara" (from Radamisto,

1720) was ornamented by an eighteenth-century contemporary with multiple signs such

as..! and+ which most likely stood for both mordents and trills or turns. 8° Fixed

ornaments such as these, however, were rarely notated in Baroque music for the singer.

Handel notated a few cadential trills with the symbol tr, but his indications for trills were

few and scattered, and his little note designations of appoggiature and other small

ornaments were few. Appoggiature, trills, and mordents may or may not be signitled by

a symbol, but this in no way means these obligatory ornaments should be omitted from

the music.

79
See the following resources which include excellent tables of ornaments employed
in the Baroque period: Neumann, Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music
(detailed listing of ornament symbols, 591-604); and Robert Donington, "Ornaments," in
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 20 vols.
(London: Macmillan Publishers Limited, 1980): 13:827-67. The most comprehensive.
table of ornament symbols and their execution is found in vol. 3 of Aldrich's mammoth
dissertation, "The Principal Agrements of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries."
80
1. Merrill Knapp, "Handel and the Royal Academy of Music, and Its First Opera
Season in London (1720)," Musical Quarterly 45 (April1959): 165-66. The aria printed
in this article is more thoroughly discussed in Chapter 3 of this document.
 39

"Free" Ornamentation

Definition

In addition to the obligatory ornaments, eighteenth-century ornamentation also

included embellishments of a much freer style. This "free" ornamentation included

improvised scales and embellishments of a less prescribed or fixed nature than the

"obligatory" graces. These embellishments were purely melodic in function in contrast

to the harmonic function of the obligatory appoggiatura and cadential trill.

"Divisions," or "diminutions," are the terms commonly used when referring to additional

embellishments to the composer's original melodic line in which larger note values are

broken up into smaller note values. The familiar quick-tempo arias from Handel's

oratorio Messiah, such as "Rejoice greatly," contain many sections of fully composed

divisions. The term, "divisions" is often confused and used interchangeably with the

term "passaggi." The terms "Passaggi," "passages," "coloratura," and ''fioritura" are

some of the numerous synonyms for florid embellishment that refer both to

ornamentation of the composer's original melody in the form of divisions placed on long

note values. and to the addition of new material which lengthens the composer's original

melodic line by such means as transitional passages that link phrases, introductory

material leading into new phrases, and/or ornamentation on a fermata (a cadenza). 81

Divisions are actually a subspecies of passaggi, and both terms will be used according to

this subspecies hierarchy in this discussion of free ornamentation.

81
Neumann, Performance Practices of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,
510-11.
 40
Articulation

Marked

In florid ornamental passages. Baroque singing utilized one of two distinct

methods of vocal mticulation: 1) the "marked," or 2) the "gliding," in contrast to today's

almost constant use of le~atn singing.82 Julianne Baird. an early music specialist. has this

to say about mticulation in Baroque singing:

Their [Baird's emphasis] divisions (Handel, Francesco Mancini. Telemann, Bach)

are described a~ reiterating the vowel on each note-there's a slight aspiration that
may come from a diaphragmatic pulsation. This kind of articulation was
considered proper for the vast majority of divisions. What is normally done
today (namely slurred or legato articulation) was reserved for very rare instances.
for slow pieces. pathetic arias. 83

Tosi called marked articulation "beaten," and he described it as the most frequently-used

type. 84 According to Tosi. beaten. or marked articulation should be sung with t~e

"lightest movement of the voice in which the notes which make it up [the passaggio] are

all articulated with equal proportion and moderate detachment, so that the passaggio is

neither too tied nor excessively beaten. "85 As Baird noted. this kind of pulsated

82
A good basic overview of Baroque vocal articulation may be found in Chapter
15, "Vocal Articulation." of Neumann's Performance Practices of the Seventeenth and
Eighteenth Centuries, 191ff. Domenico Corri (1746-1825) also noted marked and
gliding articulation as late as 1810. Corri studied with famed castrato Porpora in the
mid-eighteenth century. and he composed opera, taught singing, conducted, published
music, and authored two books on singing, among other musical pursuits. For the last
thirty-five years of his life he resided in London. See Corri. 33.
83
Tom Moore, "An Interview with Julianne Baird," Fanfare 13 (July/August 1990):
62.

~osi (Foreman), 30-31.

85
Ibid., 31.
 41

articulation is not generally taught today. as singers have a tendency to sing all types of

music in a legato fashion. a technique fostered in the late eighteenth and on through the

nineteenth centmies. Mancini called marked articulation. "hammered." 86

The effect of marked articulation is that of excitement and brilliance in motion.

The technique allows tiny pulsations of air to escape between notes in the rapid

melismatic passages. Bayly, however, cautioned against too much distinction between

pitches, which would make marked passages resemble "the agitation of a laugh. "87

Correctly marked articulation involved a subtlety not found in strongly ruticulated glottal

attacks or in a predominant infusion of forceful "h's" before every note.

Gliding

The opposite of marked articulation was called "gliding." This is how Tosi

described it:

[Gliding articulation] is formed in such a way that the first note leads all those
which come together joined closely in progression, with such equality of
movement that, singing. one imitates a certain smooth sliding. which the
professionals call scivolo, whose effects are truly most tasteful if the singer uses
them sparingly. 88

Note that Tosi advocated sparing use of gliding articulation, to the extent that he limited

it<; use to the interval of a fourth in both ascending and descending passages. Yet he also

noted, "It [gliding articulation. or scivolo] seems more gracious to the ear when it

86
Mancini, 59.
87
Bayly, 55.

~osi (Foreman). 31.

 42

descends than when it goes in the other direction." 8'~ It is interesting to realize that Tosi's

reference to the limited role of legato singing occurred in his chapter on passaggi, where

it was mentioned as a particular type of ornament. He did not mention legato singing

when be referred to general cantabile, or other slow and expressive styles of singing. It

may be accepted that legato singing in cantabile arias was regular practice. whereas

marked articulation was usually used for all passaggi. except in occasional descending

passages where gliding articulation was appropriate. 90

Dragging

Tosi and other eighteenth-century writers also mention another type of

articulation akin to the gliding, which is ca11ed "dragging." As described by Bayly,

dragging articulation seems to be both a rhythmic and dynamic ornamental device:

Dragging is much the same motion as that of gliding, only with inequality,
hanging as it were upon some notes descending, and hastening the others so as to
preserve the time in the whole bar, with the forte and piano artfully mixed to

89
Ibid.
90
Neumann, Performance Practices of the Seyenteentb and Eighteenth Centmjes,
194. By the year 1771 Bayly also mentioned gliding articulation, but he described its
more widely accepted use in both ascending and descending passages. Bayly described
the long-standing practice of legato articulation in cantabile arias, as well as its use in
ornamental passaggi: "Gliding with the voice is the art of drawing together two notes,
whose union is generally marked with this bow or arch over them-.. whether in
immediate succession, or at any distance, both ways, ascending and descending, blending
them so smoothly, equally and gently, as that not the least break or separation be
perceived between them in the manner of bowing on the violin, or ding [sic] in the
dance" (Bayly, 43). As revealed in Bayly's comments, by the mid-eighteenth century the
favored vocal style changed from detached to legato (see also Neumann, Performance
Practices of the Seyenteentb and Eighteenth Centuries, 193). but in Handel's era legato
articulation was reserved for cantabile arias and occasional brief ornamental usage in
passaggi, as in Tosi's description.
 43

render them more lulling and exquisite.... The opposite to dragging in slow
movements is hastening in lively airs and divisions. 91

Dragging involved the singing of a passage in unequal rhythm, such as the use of both

dotted and undotted rhythms in various combinations (see Fig. 8). It was most suitable

to descending passages.

When above the equal movement of a bass which slowly travels in eighth
notes. the vocalist begins on the high notes sweetly dragging to the low, with
forte and piano, almost always by scale with inequality of motion. that is,
stopping himself on some notes in the middle more than on those which begin or
end the dragging, then every good musician will believe without doubt that there
is no better invention in the art of singing, nor a study more apt to touch the heart.
as long as it is formed by intelligence, and by portamento di voce within the
tempo and in accord with the bass. He who has the most dilation of the cords
[greatest vocal range] has the most advantage since this pleasing ornament is the
more remarkable the greater irs fall. In the mouth of a famous soprano who uses
it rarely, it becomes a prodigy; but if it pleases so much in descending, on the
other hand it will displease in ascending. 92

Dragging (Fig. 8) is a technique rarely heard today, and it is extremely appropriate in

Handel's music. It could be used in improvisational passaggi such as cadenzas, or in

descending phrases or melismas of equal note values, thus creating unequal note values

with its insertion.

Fig. 8. Examples of dragging (Nos. 8 and 9 from Tosi [Galliard], Appendix. Pl. vi)

a. Dragging over a moving bass line

91
Bayly. 44-45. See also Tosi (Foreman), 31-32.
9
urosi (Foreman), 114-15.
 44

b. Dragging over a whole note

Portamento

In addition to dragging. some eighteenth and early nineteenth-century treatises

mention portamento articulation. Tosi mentioned portamento di voce. but did not define

its meaning. 93 Johann Friedrich Agricola (1720-1774), Tosi's German translator, defines

portamenro as a "connection of pitches without interruption of the breath with a slight

94
emphasis on each tone" (1757). This articulation is usually referred to today asportato.

Bacon (1824) describes portamenro (which he says is erroneously named) thus: "the

lessening the abrupt effects of distant intervals, or smoothing the passage between those

less remote, by an inarticulate gliding of the voice from one to the other. whether

ascending or descending. "95 He describes portamento as in "constant" use among Italian

singers in London then. Bacon notes that English singers did not attempt this ornament

until "recent" years. as it was previously only regarded as the "quintessence of

93
Ibid., 114 (see Tosi's quote in the previous paragraph). Tosi also mentioned
strascino (which Foreman translated as "modem portamento"). along with scivolo
(gliding or slurred aniculation) as being delightful in pieces with a siciliana tempo
(Ibid., 34-5). Neumann. however. translated srrascino as "dragging," from which he
derived the meaning of a ruharo tempo within the confines of a steady beat (Neumann,
Ornamentation jn Baroque and Post-Baroque Music, 554).
94
Neumann. Pert'ormance Practices of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Cennuies,
521. See also 225.
95
Bacon, 55.
 45

affectation" by the general populace because English singers never con·ectly produced it.

Bacon describes pnrtamento. when used in music with harsh or strong sentiments, as

approaching "the nature of a regular volata" which includes the addition of distinct

pitches between primary notes. not merely smooth ruticulation. 96 This early nineteenth-

century concept of portamento (with its sliding motion between notes) is inappropriate in

Handel's music of the late Baroque. "This ornament appears not to accord with the

genius of English expression. The wailing, complaining effect is to our ears

effeminate-it makes passion pulling [sic] and querulous .... "97

Notation

In the Baroque era, passaggi were improvised. and a singer's skill was often

measured by his or her creativity in extemporaneous embellishment. Eighteenth-century

composers only occasionally notated divisions and passaggi for the purposes of helping a

singer not well-versed in the Italian style of ornamentation or in order to write down a

certain singer's own embellishments. These ornamental additions were usually

differentiated from the composer's original melody by notating them with little notes, the

same style of tiny note heads that were also used to indicate appoggiature. As noted

earlier, Handel sometimes used these tiny indications to refer to obligatory graces, but he

would also use them when he notated free ornamentation in his arias. 98 Handel's little

96
Ibid., 55-56.
97
Ibid., 55.
98
Handel's rare use of little notes can be interpreted as an indication of the trust he
had in his singers to invent graces where needed (Hall and Hall. 27).
 46
notes were usually written as eighth or sixteenth notes. but were often meant to represent

sixteenth or thirty-second note values. whichever wo~ld fit correctly into the rhythmic

context of the measure. When Handel did use them. little notes could indicate an "on

beat" interpretation. such as an appoggiatura or other "on beat" grace (Fig. 9a), or they

could indicate an "interbeat" (between the beats) interpretation. even though they might

resemble an appoggiantra figuration (Fig. 9b).

Fig. 9. Handel's little note ornamental designations

a. Excerpt from the aria "Benche mi sia crudele" from Ottone: Handel's little notes
(Neumann, Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-BjlfOque Mnsjc, 556), and their
realization (Dean. ed., G F Handel· Three Ornamented Arias, 17)

Notated Perfonned

.a
~

16 ):' ~ .de •r. ; .. Jfl ffl p • r :; ;\! $'

\
~
I

i! ~ :i ' '
.•

"
9
~
i I

iD li • de l"al· rna mi· ll iD li . de I"a! - InA aU •

b. Excerpt from the aria. "0 sleep. why dost thou leave me?" from Semele: Handel's little
1
notes (as in Chrysander S edition, and this author's realization)

Notated Performed
II i!. ~
16" if;; rp 17 ; • .Q e II ; 5 • .* • * s
~ F I
an oh

Context, hannony. and proper expression or Affekt help the perfonner interpret whether a

true appoggiatura or an interbeat interpretation is desirable. 99

99
Neumann briefly discusses Handel's use of little notes in Ornamentation in Baroque
and Post-Baroque Music, 172-73.
 47

Types

Various Divisions

As noted above. different types of ornamentation inserted within the melodic

framework of a composition are called "divisions." The arias known to be ornamented

by Handel contain many divisions in all styles and guises. Such divisions include

melodic ornamental devices such as passing notes. slides. changing notes. repeated notes.

and various types of scale passages. as well as fixed ornament<; which functioned

harmonically such as appoggiature, trills, and mordents. These various types of

divisions were used by Baroque singers in as many ways as their imaginations would

allow. Melodic lines were ornamented with numerous divisions. while held notes,

beginnings and endings of phrases. rests between phrases. and major cadential points

were filled with florid passaggi. Handel also used ornamental passaggi in the midst of

phrases, thus creating a "new" melodic line while embellishing. Johann Adam Hiller

(1728-1804) offered this advice on the placement and number of divisions and passaggi:

The freedom to introduce alterations should be restricted to those passages

that are best suited to the purpose-passages that convey liveliness or virtuosity,
or passages that would lose all their charm if they were repeated in exactly the
same form. Examples of such passages are divisions and short melismatic
phrases that do not come right at the beginning but rather towards the middle of
an aria. 100

Certain frequently used types of divisions merit specific definitions. "Passing

notes" simply connect two disjunct principal notes, usually by conjunct movement. A

figure related to the passing note is the "slide," which is the insertion of two notes

100
Johann Adam Hiller, Anwejsung znr musjkalisch-zjedjcben Gesange [Introduction
to Musica11y-Omamented Singing] (1780), p. 130: quoted in Spitzer, 516.
 48

between two disjunct principal notes. Slides may occur on the beat. or between beats.

and usually lead into the second principal note with swift motion. "Changing notes" are

small groups of notes that move in various patterns around or between principal notes

that are repeated. or in conjunct or disjunct motion.

A common figure related to changing notes that became a specitic ornament in

the Baroque era is the "turn." The turn involves an alternation of the principal note with

both its upper and lower auxiliary and can be notated by the sign t;>.!?. Rhythmically,

turns may be accented (on the beat), or unaccented (between beats). Melodically, they

may begin on the main note (five-note turn), the upper note (standard turn), or the lower

auxiliary note (inverted turn). 101 Figure 10 shows the accented upper-note turn in various

tempos (lOa) and two types of accented main-note turns (lOb). Note here that C.P.E.

Bach's notation of the accented main-note turn incorporates a little note before the beat

on which there is to be the turn. These turns are notated, but in vocal music they were

almost always improvised wherever a flourish was desired.

Fig. 10. Melodic Turns (C.P.E. Bach. 34, 36)

a. Accented upper-note tum

:-
".. Adagio Moderato Presto
t~
:N

!I
=--
ii- j, il , II

b. Accented main-note turns

N

:
lSI =-"1 I

: II ,j, • II

101
Donington. The Interpretation of Early Music· New Version. 272.
 49

Cadenzas

A cadenza is a specific type of embellishment that falls under the category of

passaggi. In eighteenth-century Italian vocal practice. cadenzas were a necessary part of

a singer's ornamentation technique. Donington defines a cadenza as

an extension of the embellishment outc;ide the time of the movement. It occurs at

a point where the remaining parts can reasonably wait (except in the case of
accompanied cadenzas. which are written out. and are not in the strictest sense
cadenzas at all). 102

In the Baroque era. improvised cadenzas occurred atmajor cadential points where the

composer had indicated such by the use of a fermata or by leaving a space of silence in

the instrumental accompaniment, thus creating a natural pause for embellishment. The

singer improvised various passaggi at will, and the cadential trill was the indication for

the conductor to cue the orchestra.

Cadenzas "proper" (according to Donington's definition above) should be

metrically free. Cadenzas were also possible within the composer's melodic framework

when there was no fermata or break in the accompaniment at the cadential point, and this

is the type which Tosi favored. A cadenza of this type may simply be better described as

the addition of a few divisions or ornaments to the existing melodic line at a major

cadential point. The cadenza figure thus remained "in time," meaning that it involved no

addition of extra beats to the existing score. Because of his conservative nature, Tosi did

not favor metrically free cadenzas. but one could be tolerated at the final cadence of an

102
lbid .• 185.
 50

aria. 103 Tosi called such metrically free cadenzas improvised in the space of fermatas or

over silences in the accompaniment, "out of tempo" (or "out of time"). 10'1 In this

document. the phrase "in time" will refer to those cadenzas which consist of additional

notes within the composer's melodic framework, and the phrase "out of time." or

"metrically free" will refer to those cadenzas placed in the space of a fetmata or dming

accompanimental silences.

Certain universal rules about cadenza practice can be discerned from the various

treatises of the period. The following precepts are from Brown's summary of cadenza

rules in his article, "Embellishing Eighteenth-Century Arias: On Cadenzas." 105 Cadenzas

should neither be too frequent nor too long; they should be no longer than the singer can

execute well in one breath. including the cadential ttill and final note. Cadenzas should

be sung on the cadential six-four chord or sometimes on the dominant chord before the

tonic. Textually, a metrically free cadenza should fall upon an impottant word or a long

or accented syllable. In a modest in-time cadenza the main embellishment should also

occur on a long or accented syllable. A singer may modulate to another key in a

cadenza. but this modulation should not be distant and must involve a smooth return to

the tonic. Figures employed in cadenzas may make reference to some earlier melodic

figures in the aria, but they should involve no more elaboration than designed to vary and

extend arpeggios and/or scales. Repeated figures should be used with limitation, and the

103
Tosi (Foreman), 87.
104
"0ut oftime" is how Galliard translated the phrase, "fuor di Tempo" (Tosi,
[Galliard], 137).
105
Brown, 265.
 51

singer may introduce new patterns. as the function of a cadenza is ideally to surprise,

although the figures employed should reflect the main Affekt of the aria (i.e. florid

passaggi for lively arias. and more languid passaggi for slower arias).

Rhythmically. cadenzas are appropriately metiically free in the works of most

eighteenth-century composers. 106 Evidence seems to suggest that in Handel's music

cadenzas should be in-time (as described above). except for those occasions when Handel

might have allowed an out-of-time elaboration because of a fermata, long held note. or

silence in the orchestral parts. Eighteenth-century manuscript evidence that suggests

Handel's own cadenza style preferences will be discussed in Chapter 3.

In the Baroque era. cadenzas were improvised on the spot, and singers who could

not improvise them in performance were regarded with contempt. 107 Because today's

singer is not so adept at extemporaneous improvisation as the Baroque singer. this author

recommends that all cadenza.:; be worked out in advance, although with constant attention

to spontaneity of the vocal delivery in performance. It should be noted that in the

Baroque era. it was aiso considered improper to repeat the same cadenzas in subsequent

performances, as the art of invention was one of the main justifications for cadenza

practice.

Tosi describes several ways in which singers broke standard. accepted "rules" of

cadenza practice: singing cadenzas on the wrong cadential tone (creating parallel octaves

or other harmonic improprieties); singing cadenzas on unaccented syllables; creating

106
Ibid.
107
Ibid.
 52
trills on the third above the final note (which cannot be properly resolved): and omitting

the obligatory cadential trill (which can only be omitted in occa.c;ional cantabile arias). 108

All of these abuses should be avoided today, as they are contrary to what was the most

accepted and appropriate technique in the late Baroque.

Evidence suggestc; that Baroque singers added cadenza.'> to both atias and

recitatives. The only two extant cadenzas Handel wrote to be inserted in previously

composed pieces were for the final cadences of two pieces in the oratmio Samson 109 (one

in-time cadenza and one out-of-time cadenza which adds six beatc; to the original score).

It is interesting to realize that one of these cadenzas was for an accompanied oratorio

recitative. The mere existence of these two short cadenzas for an oratorio seems to

justify placement of cadenzas at the closing cadences of arias and accompanied

recitatives in opera as well, because (as will be discussed in Chapter 3) evidence suggests

that Handel's oratorios should receive less florid embellishment than his operas.

Charles Burney (1726-1814), the noted eighteenth-century musical historian, was

particularly ac;tute about vocal matters. He made the following observation about

eighteenth-century cadenzas, which holds true for modern performances:

A few select notes with a great deal of meaning and expression given to them is
[sic] the only expedient that can render a cadence [cadenza] desirable, as it should
consist of something superior to what has been heard in the air. or it becomes
impertinent. 110

10
srosi (Foreman), 83-86.
109
As noted in Chapter 1, these cadenzas are printed in the Preface to Chrysander's
edition of Handel's Samson.
11
°Charles Burney, An Eighteenth-Century Musical Tour in France and Italy, 1773;
(continued ... )
 53

Other Ornamental Devices

Other types of ornamentation belong neither to the categmies of obligatory

ornament<; nor to free ornamentation. These include dynamics and vibrato. which were

used as ornamental devices in the Baroque era. though they are not usually conceived as

"ornaments" by most present-day singers.

Dynamics

Dynamic contrasts in Baroque music occurred not only as blocks of sound, but

also as free gradations ofvolume,m especially in the human voice. Eighteenth-century

keyboard players were limited to terraced dynamics because of the restricted capabilities

of their instruments, but this was not the case with other instruments nor the human

voice. Graded dynamics were certainly widely used in the Baroque era. but the extent of

this use is not precisely documented. 112 As with all other ornamental devices. the

application of dynamics was usually left up to the judgement of the perfonner. 113

Many eighteenth-century vocal scholars wrote little about dynamics and their

application in singing, but a few praised the singer's innate capability to make use of

expressive dynamic contrasts. Anselm Bayly commented upon a vocalist's ability to

(... continued)
new ed., vol. 1 of Dr Burney's Musical Tour,<; in Europe, ed. Percy A. Scholes (London:
Oxford University Press, 1959), 290.

mDonington, A Performer's Guide to Baroque Music, 291-92.

112
Boyden. 193.
113
Donington, A Performer's Guide to Baroque Music. 290.
 54

make subtle dynamic changes. He prefen·ed smooth dynamic transitions to the following:

pushing the voice and dtiving it as if it were a kind of jerk into a sudden and
boistrous [sic] loudness, or letting it drop into an extreme softness. A smooth,
easy and even delivery of the voice is one very great. if not the greatest
excellence in singing. and must therefore be carefully studied. 114

Bayly stressed that a singer should use dynamic contrasts according to the expression of

the text: soft· dynamics for unemphatic texts. and loud dynamics for emphatic ones. 115

Francesco Geminiani (1687-1762) noted the importance of dynamic variation as he spoke

of the ornaments piano and forte:

They are both extremely necessary to express the Intention of the Melody; and as
all good Musick should be composed in Imitation of a Discourse, these two
Ornaments are designed to produce the same Effects that an Orator does by
raising and falling his Voice. 116

The gradual crescendo and decrescendo on a single note was known as the messa

di voce. It was an essential skill of every eighteenth-century singer's technique. though

difficult to master. This "swelling tone" was introduced on long held notes as an

ornamental device, just as prescribed ornaments or divisions could be added as an

embellishment. Mancini held the messa di vnce in high esteem:

114
Bayly, 37.
115
Ibid., 62. Bayly's desire to express the Affekt of the piece (in both sacred and
secular music) through dynamics is consistent with the general Baroque ornamental
emphasis on emotional expression. which crystallized into what has become known as
the "doctrine of affections."
116
Geminiani, 3. Aldrich notes that the violinist Geminiani was "commonly
considered extravagant and even eccentric," and that, for this reason, his ornamental
instructions are not to be taken as entirely representative of the period (Aldrich, "The
Principal Agrements of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries," xciii). This author
has found nothing in Geminiani's ornamental instructions. however, that contradicts
Tosi or any other general eighteenth-century vocal philosophy.
 55

Ordinarily this messa di voce should be used at the beginning of an alia. and on
notes with hold signs: and similarly it is necessary at the beginning of a cadenza:
but a true and worthy professor will use it on every long note. which al·e found
scattered through every musical cantilena. 117

Mancini criticized singers who did not prepare the messa di voce with sufficient breath

and. therefore, did not have enough air to sustain a proper cadenza with a full trill at the

end. 118 Giuseppe Aprile (1731-1813), a castrato and voice teacher in Naples, also noted

the importance of the messa di voce in cadenzas as follows: "a good MEZZA DI VOCE [sic]

or Swell of the Voice must always precede the ADLffiiTUM Pause and Cadenza." 119

Bayly also praised the messa di voce: "A beautiful messa di voce from a singer, that uses

it sparingly, and only on the open vowels, can never fail of having an exquisite effect." 120

The messa di voce should be cultivated by today's singers for use in all of Handel's vocal

music, and it is especially approptiate at the beginnings of cadenzas. Messa di voce is

particulal·ly suitable for cantabile alias. although it can be used with good effect as a

flourish in more lively airs.

117
Mancini, 44.
118
1bid., 44-45.
119
Giuseppe Aprile's more famous students included both Domenico Cimarosa and
Michael Kelly (Irish tenor and friend of Mozart and Manuel Garcia II). This quote is
from Aprile's The Modern Italian Method of Singing with a Variety of Progressive
Exercises and Thirty-Six Solfeggi (1791 or 1795), as quoted in Foreman. 68.
12
0Sayly, 37.
 56

Vibrato

Baroque Usage

"Vibrato'' is a term which refers to "a means of enriching musical tone by rapid,

regular oscillations of pitch. loudness, or timbre. or by a combination of these

element<>." 121 This topic has been plagued by confusing terminology since the Baroque

era. Desctiptions such as "tremolo," "Tremulo," "Tremulant," "shake." "dose shake,"

"trilla," "wobble," "vibration," and many others have been used to refer to vibrato (as in

the above definition), as well as to other related ornaments or vocal defects. Because this

diverse terminology is widespread in Renaissance, Baroque, and Classical sources,

scholars cannot agree on the extent to which vibrato was used in Baroque music (vocal or

instrumental). Some scholars maintain that Baroque musicians used vibrato only as an

ornamental device (not as a constant part of the production of musical sound). while

other scholars insist that Baroque musicians used no vibrato at all. Many scholars favor a

modest use of vibrato for Baroque music without resorting to the constant. lush vibrato

often associated with late nineteenth-century romantic music. How much vibrato should

a singer employ in Handel's music? While a detailed discourse on this subject is beyond

the scope of this document, the following comments are provided in order to make the

reader aware of some of the research findings about Baroque vibrato and its stylistic use

in Handel's music.

121
Neumann, "The Vibrato Controversy," 14.
 57

It is the opinion of most vocal pedagogues that vocal vibrato is a phenomenon

which is produced spontaneously in most mature voices. 122 For many trained singers

today, the effort involved in minimizing or removing vibrato from the tone can produce

vocal strain and excess effort. If one is to believe. as many noted scholars have tried to

convey (Ellen Han·is, Greta Moens-Haenen, and Neil Zaslaw included). m that Baroque

singers severely limited or used no vibrato at all in their singing. then it is possible that

the great Baroque singers often sang with some amount of vocal strain. This seems

unlikely given the difficulty of the surviving repertory and written accounts of the

emotive and technical ability of Baroque singers.

Frederick Neumann convincingly refutes much of the evidence usually cited in

support of minimal or vibrato less Baroque singing in his article, "The Vibrato

Controversy." This article thoroughly sets forth the argument that many Baroque and

122
See William Vennard, Singing· the Mechanism and the Technic (New York:
Carl Fischer, Inc., 1949; rev. ed., New York: Carl Fischer, Inc .• 1967), 193-94; Richard
Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in vocal Technique (New York:
Schirmer Books, A Division of Macmillan, Inc., 1986), 194: and, Johan Sundberg,~
Science of the Singing Voice (Dekalb, Ill.: Northern lllinois University Press, 1987),
163.
123
See Ellen Harris, "Voices," in Performance Practice: Music After 1600. The
Norton/Grove Handbooks in Music Series, ed. Howard Mayer Brown and Stanley
Sadie, 97-116 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1990): and Greta Moens-Haenen,
"Vibrato im Barock," in Alte Musik als astbetische Gegenwart· Bach Handel Schiitz, ed.
Dietrich Berke and Dorothee Hanemann, 2:380-87 (Kassel: Barenreiter, 1987). as well as
Moens-Haenen's study, Vibrato in der Musik des Bamck (1988). See also Neil Zaslaw,
Mozart's Symphonies· Context Performance Practice Reception (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1989).
 58

modern scholars misunderstood the inherent qualities of sonance in vibrato. 124 Neumann

explains that a "desirable" vibrato result'l from the

physio-psychological phenomenon of sonance, which is the fusion of the vibrato

oscillation above a certain threshold of speed (ca. 7 cycles per second) into an
aural sensation of richer tone, while the perception of the oscillation is minimized
and that of the "wrong" pitches disappears altogether. 125

According to Neumann. an "undesirable" vibrato results from an oscillation of a slower

speed that causes the sound wave motion to become audible (both in contemporary and

Baroque practice), as evidenced in "the unpleasant wobble of the 'impmities.'" 126

Neumann supports his conclusions, that vibrato in the Baroque era was more widespread

than many scholars admit, by citing numerous sources, some of which are quoted here:

Martin Agricola in 1545 said that vibrato "sweetens the melody." ... Zacconi in
1592 saw in the vocal vibrato "the true portal to the passaggi" and "if used at all it
should always be used." Praetorius in 1619 spoke of a "singularly lovely,
trembling, and fluctuating or wavering voice." ... Jean Rousseau in 1687
recommended its general use; ... Hotteterre recommended that it be drawn upon
almost all long notes; while Geminiani in 1751lists various effects the vibrato
can produce in long notes, whereas on short notes it simply "makes their sound
more agreeable and for this reason should be made use of as often as possible"; L.
Mozart writes that the vibrato is an ornament that "derives from nature and can be
applied gracefully to a long note not only by good instrumentalists but also by
skilled singers"; and finally ... W. A. Mozart's own words: "The human voice
vibrates by itself, but in a way that is beautiful-this is in the nature of the voice,
and one imitates it not only on wind instruments, but also on strings. and even on
the clavichord. 127

124
Neumann, "The Vibrato Controversy," 15ff. See also Neumann's section on
vibrato in Performance Practices of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, 498ff.
125
Neumann, "The Vibrato Controversy," 15.
126
1bid., 16.
127
1bid., 25-26.
 59

These quotes in favor of vibrato span almost three centuries. Today there is no way to

know exactly to what extent vibrato was used by Baroque singers. but many sources on

the subject from the Renaissance, Baroque. and Classical periods suggest that vibmto was

definitely used often, if not most of the time. in vocal music. 128 Scholars do not agree on

whether vibrato was used merely as an omamental device or as a more integral prut of

the musical tone. The optimal vibrato style used in any circumstance, however. was fluid

and gently flowing in speed, with an unobtrusive or even natTow oscillation (probably

one quarter to one half-tone in range), in contrast to a driven, overly fast or wide

oscillation of the tone (an oscillation which was a whole-tone wide would have been

obtrusive ). 129 The same attributes that characterize an unpleasant or unacceptable vibrato

today (too slow and wide. or too fast and narrow an oscillation) were often cited in the

Baroque era. 130

128
Neumann argues a pro-vibrato position throughout his article, "The Vibrato
Controversy."
129
Moens-Haenen, "Vibrato im Barock," 382. According to Neumann, Caruso's
vibrato was once measured with oscillations of a whole-tone wide, obviously at a point
of great emotional and vocal fervor in characteristic late-romantic vocal style (Neumann,
"The Vibrato Controversy," 16).
13
'The above information has been summarized from various sources, including:
Neumann's articles, "The Vibrato Controversy," (Petformance Practice Review). and,
"Choral Conductors' Forum--More on Authenticity: Authenticity and the Vocal Vibrato,"
American Choral Review 29, no. 2 (Spring 1987): 9, 13-17; from Neumann's
Performance Practices of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (498ff.); from Greta
Moens-Haenen's article, "Vibrato im Barock." and her tome. Das Vibrato in der Musjk
des Barock; from Ellen Harris's article, "Voices"; and from Donington's work.~
Interpretation ofEar)y Music· New Version, 229ff.
 60
Contemporary Usage

Today's singer should realize that the size of opera houses, concert halls. and

accompanying instruments in the Baroque era played an important role in defining vocal

sound. just as they do today. Eighteenth-century passaggi required a very facile and

supple vocal technique with a t1exible vibrato. The eighteenth-century singer had much

less competition from elements which would have necessitated a loud and forceful vocal

technique than today's singer. Today's instruments, orchestral ones as well as the piano,

are much louder than their Baroque counterparts or the intimate continuo group. Today's

concert halls and opera houses are often on a much larger scale than those in the Baroque

era. This difference in accompanimental forces and acoustical sun·oundings plays a role

in defining today's vocal technique for Handel and other Baroque music.

If accompanimental forces are historically accurate for the Baroque era (i.e.

small, balanced instrumental sections and continuo. or continuo and chamber ensemble),

and the hall is not too cavernous. it is relatively easy for the singer to achieve an

appropriate vocal style. Historical evidence seems to favor a moderate use of vibrato in

Handel's or any other late Baroque composer's vocal music. Vibrato should not be totally

eliminated, or drastically reduced, but neither should it be too pervasive. For example, a

singer who has a poor vocal technique with a wide or slow vibrato rate will have

difficulty delivering a pleasant or successful Handel aria. On the other hand. if a singer

removed all vibrato from the vocal tone, the resulting sound would be lifeless and dull in

timbre as well as lacking the quality of passion needed to deliver Handel's music.

Today's singer should cultivate the most t1exible vocal technique possible in order to
 61

make the subtle adjustments in vibrato necessary for stylistically coiTect Baroque

performances. A singer with a flexible technique will benefit from the ability to change

the rate and amplitude of the oscillation of his or her vibrato. Occasional modifications

in oscillation rate and amplitude according to the emotion of pmticular words or Affekt of

the aria create pleasing performances. 131 Suggestions for the direct application of

different vibrato techniques in Handel's music will be discussed more thoroughly in

Chapter 3.

Trillo

A specific Baroque ornament related to the vibrato is the Italian trilla. As

practiced in the early Baroque. the trilla was primarily a cadential ornament pe1formed

on a long and accented penultimate syllable and note. 132 Caccini's description of the

cadential trilla was, "... to begin with the first quarter-note, then re-strike each note with

the throat on the vowel il., up to the final double-whole-note; and like-wise the tiill." 133

The same pitch was repeated either by a fresh glottal stroke in accelerating note values in

clear staccato articulation or by a legato-style reiteration without a clear interruption of

131
Richard Cox, notes by author from class lectures, fall 1992, MUS 621, Vocal
Repertoire from the Baroque Through the Early Classical Period, University of North
Carolina at Greensboro.
132
Many early Baroque pedagogues considered the trilla as an excellent way to
learn flexibility in the throat, and Caccini believed that the trilla should be one of the
techniques of singing learned first (Greenlee, 50).
133
Giulio Caccini, Le Nuoye Musiche, 1602, ed., with Introduction and Textual
Commentary by H. Wiley Hitchcock, in Recent Researches in the Music of the Baroque
.Era. ed. Christoph Wolff, Vol. 9 (Madison, Wis.: A-R Editions, Inc., 1970),
50-51.
 62

the breath. The latter type of trillo produced a vibrato-like effect, but it should not be

confuse_d with the natural, spontaneous predominately pitch-variant vibrato of the human

voice. 134

The early Baroque trillo survived, with probable diminished use, into the

eighteenth century. Quantz noted with admiration the ability of mezzo-soprano Faustina

Bordoni (1700-1781. one of Handel's favorite prima donne) to repeat tones:

The passages may run or leap or consist of many fast notes on the same tone, she
could articulate them in the fastest tempo with such a skill that it matches a
rendition on an instrument. She is unquestionably the first to apply with finest
success the mentioned[?] (gedachten) passages consisting of many notes on one
tone. 135

Obviously, Quant:7. was referring to the repeated notes heard in trillo technique, although

his unfamiliarity with it attests to its relatively rare use in the late Baroque. Like the

early Baroque trillo, the late Baroque trillo also involved numerous repeated notes. 136

134
Neumann, Performance Practices of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,
503.
135
This quote is from Quantz's autobiography in Marpurg, Historish-Kritiscbe
Beytrage znr Aufnahme der Musjk, vol. 1 (1754), 240-41; quoted in Neumann,
Ornamentation jn Baroque and Post-Baroque Music, 294.
136
Whether actual staccato or quasi-legato repetitions were used is not clear from
Quantz's account of this sort of trillo technique. Tosi also mentioned a trillo-like
vocal technique, "What will he [that is, the experienced voice teacher] not say of him
who has found out the prodigious Art of Singing like a Cricket? Who could have ever
imagin'd before the Introduction of the Mode [embellishment], that ten or a dozen
Quavers in a Row could be trundled along one after the other, with a Sort of Tremor
of the Voice, which for some time past has gone under the name of Mordenre Fresco?"
(Tosi, Observations, 166, as quoted in Beulow, 92). It is possible, but not clear if Tosi
wali actually referring to trilla in this passage. Foreman, in his translation of Tosi.
interprets the term Mordente Fresco as referring to a type of double mordent (Tosi
[Foreman], 106).
 63

The note values could be written in by the composer or improvised by the singer. and

they were found not only at cadential points. but also throughout arias in sections of

passaggi and in place of long held note values.

Handel wrote some trillo passages for Faustina in her Handelian London debut in

the opera Alessandro (1726). 137 In this instance. Handel's Trillo (mm. 34-35) is simply a

passage of repeated eighth and sixteenth notes. each to be freshly articulated (Fig. 11 ). 138

A likely spot for today's singer to add this ornamental figure is in place of a long,

sustained note in a passage of lively character.

Fig. 11. Handel's indications of trilla from the opera Alessandro. IT. 4: "Alia sua gabbia
d'oro"

r', w ':"r.*tre.-1

dei·la li·ber·la..----------------------

38

If ;f ,
I
I • 6 6
I
;
•

137
Neumann. Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music. 294. An
eighteenth-century manuscript in which Faustina's ornamentation has survived. including
an example of trillo, is described in Buelow, 91-92. Faustina's ornamentation in this ruia
will be discussed in Chapter 3 of this document.
138
Handel used the same n·iflo technique in other arias as well. such as in. "The
Morning Lark," from Semele (1744).
 64
Appropriate Extent of Ornamentation

Ornamental Abuse

As previously noted. ornamentation in the Baroque period was improvised. The

type and extent of the ornamentation was left t~ the discretion of the performer, 139 but

some singers habitually tested the limits of proptiety. Ornamental abuses are frequently

noted and discussed in such eighteenth-century writings as those ofTosi, Galliard.

Geminiani, Quantz, Burney, Mancini, and Vincenzo Manfredini (1737-1799), as well as

in early nineteenth-century writings of Bacon and Corri, each of whom specifically

mentioned the performance practices of Handel vocal music in early nineteenth-century

England. These writers established the boundaries of "good taste" in the art of

embellishment. Tosi is one of the most conservative of the group; his writings have

often been cited as "harking back" to an even earlier standard of appropriate level of

embellishment. Even so, his opinions totally dominated the vocal pedagogical scene

through the remainder of the eighteenth century, particularly in England, as well as on

the continent. 140 Mancini and Manfredini represent the other end of the spectrum. having

139
Singers who resorted to working out in advance and writing down their
ornamentation were scorned by Tosi. Tosi also admonished those who copied the
ornamentation of others (Tosi [Foreman], 99).
14
<Tosi's treatise was translated into Dutch, English, French. and German, and was
accorded with respect by such eighteenth-century writers as Quantz, Mancini, and
Johann Adam Hiller (Brown, 259). Charles Burney noted in 1779 (about Agricola's
German translation of Tosi): "This is still regarded as the best book on the subject in
German, as the original is in Italian" (Aldrich, "The principal Agrements of the
Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries," cxxv). Although Tosi's viewpoints are
acknowledged to be conservative. Aldrich (who thoroughly digested all the known
Baroque treatises on the subject of ornamentation in his dissertation) notes that Tosi
"may be regarded as completely authoritative for the entire period extending from the
(continued ... )
 65

suggested the most liberal application of ornamentation among the aforementioned group

of scholars. as each was a product of the Bolognese school of singing. to which the great

castrato Farinelli (1705-1782) belonged. 141

Judging by the frequency of complaints about ornamental abuses in eighteenth-

century sources, it appears that abuse increased as the century progressed. John Spitzer

presents an interesting hypothesis in response to the many vocal abuses recorded by late

eighteenth-century contempormies. His article, "Improvised Omamentation in a Handel

Aria with Obbligato Wind Accompaniment," describes a performance of a Handel aria in

1801. In response to the copious ornamentation present in the early nineteenth-century

manuscript copy discussed in his article, Spitzer suggests that perhaps these examples

were "a sort of fin de siec/e decadence that would have sounded tasteless and bizarre in

Handel's day." But he goes on to make the following observation:

It is also possible that the complaints from the second half of the century about
over-ornamentation should be taken as evidence of the opposite of what they say.
Perhaps improvised ornamentation was on the wane during the eighteenth
century, and sensitivity to so-called abuses by singers and instrumentalists was on

(... continued)
time when the agrement.~ were first used in Italy until the end of the eighteenth century"
(Ibid., cxxv-cxxvi).
141
The Bolognese school of singing fostered "extrordinarily acrobatic technical
virtuosity, bordering on instrumental use of the voice" (Julianne Baird, "An Eighteenth-
Century Controversy About the Trill: Mancini v. Manfredini," Early Music 15 [February,
1987]: 36). Interestingly. Galliard's translation of Tosi (1742) had more influence in
English-speaking countries than Mancini, whose work, practical Reflections on Figured
Singing, was not translated into English until 1912, although noting one of these works
without the other "presents a lopsided picture of eighteenth-century singing practice."
(Foreman, 50). Although Mancini and Manfredini wrote in the latter half of the
eighteenth century and are considered more progressive than Tosi, they shared many of
his same views, as shown in this chapter.
 66
the increase. so that the same 'dose of difficulties' called up twice as much
complaint in 17R8 as it had in 1734. 142

Spitzer implies that copious ornamentation could have been less of a concern after

Handel's death. although sensitivity to it could have been even greater. Whatever the

case. ornamental abuses were a common occurrence in both the operatic and oratorio

realms. In making choices about how much to ornament Handel's music today. one must

acknowledge the preferences of both the eighteenth-century singers and vocal scholru·s.

This knowledge must then be applied within the boundaries of Handel's own modestly-

conceived ornamentation practices.

Ornamentation in Recitative

Most of the information about ornamentation in this chapter has been in reference

to its application in aria. Because the main function of recitative is to impart clear textual

information. copious florid ornamentation is inappropriate. As the reader will recall,

certain ornaments were considered obligatory in recitative, such as the descending fourth

cadential appoggiatura and the appoggiatura "by step" which filled in the interval of the

third at cadence points. In addition, Tosi noted that brief cadenzas were sometimes

applied to the final cadence of recitatives, for which Handel's own recitative cadenza

from the oratorio Samson is the most notable example. 143

142
Spitzer. 520 and 522 (note).
143
See Tosi (Foreman). 87, and Chrysander's Preface to his edition of Handel's
Samson.
 67
Ornamentation in Aria

The true measure of a singer's ornamental prowess was revealed in his ability to

ornament the aria. In the late Baroque, the three-part da capo aria was the most

frequently used alia form. In addition, strophic fmms, rondos. or arias with

straightforward repeat"> were also frequently used. How much embellishment was

considered appropriate? The basic ornamental plinciple in these types of vocal fmms

with repetitive material was to build up melodic interest through gradually increasing

embellishment. 144 The repetition of melodic material afforded the plime opportunity for

ornamentation, as it was the singer's prerogative (or duty in late Baroque performance

practice) to "improve upon" the composer's miginal melody. Singers were expected to

showcase their vocal prowess by both sustaining the audience's musical interest (in

melodically repetitive forms) and displaying their technical virtuosity. 145

Charles Burney described the Italianate practice of ornamenting repetitive

melodic phrases:

[T]his tiifling and monotonous rondo, in which the motivo, or single passage
upon which it is built. is repeated so often, that nothing can prevent the hearer of
taste and knowledge from fatigue and languor during the performance. but such
new and ingenious embellishments as in Italy, every singer of abilities would be
expected to produce each night it was performed.... he [Manzoli] sung [sic] ...
Caro mio bene Addio, an adagio or cantabile air, which he embellished every
night to the utmost of his power; and Mi dona mi rende, a graziosa air, in which
there were several pauses or places designedly left for the singer to fill up, ad
libitum. Manzoli's fancy and execution were by no means equal to his voice; but

144
Donington, The Interpretation of Early Music: New Version. 174.
145
1bid.
 68

he took all the time and liberties with the song he was able, without !!iving
offence to the lovers of simplicity. 146 ~ ~ ~

Note that Burney mentioned the "lovers of simplicity," who were the English. The

English audience was particularly fond of melody in its purest f01m. and this fondness

exerted itself in the standard of appropriateness of ornamentation to which they ascribed.

This preference for modest embellishment is evident in Handel's own ornamentation (as

will be discussed in Chapter 3). and in the English acceptance and broad dist1ibution of

Galliard's translation of Tosi's conservative Italian vocal treatise (1742). Italian opera

was popular in England during the second and third decades of the eighteenth century.

but its decline in popularity in the 1730s was partly due to the extravagances of opera

seria conventions and the excessive vocal gymnastics of the Italian singers.

In reference to the great Italian castrato Tommaso Guarducci's (ca. 1720-after

1770) embellishment technique. Burney noted,

He [Guarducci] soon discovered that a singer could not captivate the English by
tricks or instrumental execution, and told me some years after, at Montefiascone
in Italy, that the gravity of our taste had been of great use to him. "The English,"
says he, "are such friends to the composer, and to simplicity, that they like to hear
a melody in its primitive state, undisguised by change or embellishment. Or if,
when repeated, rif.fioramenti are necessary, the notes must be few and well
selected, to be honoured with approbation." Indeed, Guarducci was the plainest
and most simple singer, of the first class. I ever heard. All his effects were
produced by expression and high finishing, nor did he ever aim at execution. 147

146Burney, A General History of Music. 2:545 (note).

147lbid., 2:872-73.
 69
Guarducci's observation of the English preference for pure melody is also supported by

Bacon, who in 1824 acknowledged the English love of simplicity in ornamentation

versus an abundance of poorly executed divisions and passaggi:

This is a fact which ought never to be forgotten in the choice of ornaments, for
even a simple appoggiatura, well performed, will give more effect than the most
elaborate rifioramenti [sic], if the singer fails in a single note. 148

Bacon advised singers to sing only those ornaments which he or she could execute well,

but Tosi noted that it was easier to correct a student who ornamented too much rather

than one who ornamented too little:

He knows that sterility in ornaments displeases as much as an abundance,

not ignoring that a singer can bore with too few and annoy with too many;
between these two defects he will hate most the first, for while it offends the
least, it is easier to correct the second. 149

Note that Tosi refers to pieces ornamented too sparsely as "sterile." The English love of

unadorned melody was foreign to the Italian preference for generous embellishment. As

mentioned earlier, Tosi was considered somewhat "old-fashioned" even in his day; yet

his preferred style of ornamentation (refined, well-executed, intent on appropriate

expression, and not self-glorifying) matched the English propensity for modest

embellishment well.

Tosi provided some simple rules for the amount and type of passaggi and

obligatory ornaments to be used. A few of his instructions are repeated here. Tosi noted

that ornaments should be: "simple in appearance," but "difficult in substance"; "glided or

dragged in the pathetic"; "restricted to a few notes grouped together, since that pleases

148
. Bacon, 101.
14
~osi (Foreman), 102-3.
 70

more than wandering"; "never ... repeated in the same place. particularly in pathetic

arias. for this will be most noticed by connoisseurs"; and that. "above all, let it [the

melody] be improved and not deteriorated by change." 150 In reference to the impetus for

ornamentation, Tosi wrote as follows: "That [sic] it [the omamentation] be produced

more from the heart than the voice, in order to insinuate itself more easily to the interior

[of the listener]." 151 Tosi's reference to the ornamentation stemming "from the herut"

matches the instructions of other eighteenth-century writers that ornamentation should

reflect the sentiment of the entire mood or Affekt of each piece or each particular word.

As late as 1810, Corri gave explicit rules for the extent of "expression" on certain texts,

which was a standard Baroque practice: words were classified according to type-i.e.

words of grandeur, anger. sentiment, gaiety, grief, or religion, and each type was to

display differences in dynamics and ornamentation. 152 Bacon (1824) also felt that

ornamentation (divisions, passaggi, fixed ornaments, as well as dynamics and

articulation) should reflect the Affekt desired:

Thus slow and soft sounds bear analogy to the pensiveness with which the mind is
apt to dwell on images of sorrow. As these sensations become more intense, their
expression becomes louder, and more piercing and rapid. It will be found that
majesty of expression requires firm, full, and marked accentuation~ and that
amatory tenderness must be told by sweet, gliding. melting, voluptuous notes. 153

150
1bid., 112-13.
151
lbid., 113.
152
Corri. 64-65.
153
Bacon, 102.
 71

In other words, singers then and now should adjust the amount and type of ornamentation

employed according to the sentiment of the overall piece. as well as occasionally to the

sentiment of pmticularly expressive words. 154

The Da capo Aria

Many of the melodies of Handel's mias are very straightforward with an

abundance of longer note values such as qumter and half notes that lend themselves well

to embellishment by the singer. Nevertheless. such well-known da capo arias as "Lascia

ch'io pianga" (Rinaldo, 1711), "V'adoro, pupille" (Giulio Cesare. 1724), and "Wher'ere

you walk" (Semele) are often erroneously sung without embellishment today.

For ornamentation in da capo arias, Tosi gave the following specific

guidelines. 155 In the first statement of the A section, a singer should apply only the

simplest of ornaments. "of a good Taste and few, that the Composition may remain

simple, plain, and pure." Tosi allows ornamentation of the first statement of the A

section, although whatever ornamentation is added should be extremely modest. such as

an occasional appoggiatura. cadential trill, or mordent. In the B section, Tosi states that

"artful Graces" need to be added, "by which the Judicious may hear, that the ability of the

singer is greater." Tosi notes that the audience judged a singer's improvisatory abilities

by the inventiveness and beautiful execution of various divisions and passaggi. The da

capo repetition of the A section afforded the greatest opportunity for embellishment: a

154
For further discussion on Affekr in Handel's arias, see Chapter 3.
155
Tosi (Galliard), 93-94.
 72

singer who did not "vary it for the better" was "no great Master." in Tosi's opinion. The

da capo was the showcase of a singer's improvisatory abilities. The best singers were

capable of embellishing the composer's melody to such an extent that it was both

improved upon (by the addition of beautiful fixed graces, divisions. and passa[?[?i), and

still recognizable. It was considered an abuse for a singer to obscure the composer's

original melody totally by the addition of embellishments too numerous and too

complicated.

The da capo arias known to be ornamented in Handel's hand reveal

embellishment of only one statement of the A section. Since Handel's ornaments were

only presented once for the A section, it is generally presumed that they were intended

for the da capo repeat. As noted above, however, it was standard Baroque convention to

ornament all three sections of a da capo aria. Handel's omission of ornaments in the first

statement of the A sections of his da capo arias does not necessarily preclude their usage.

because Handel added ornamentation to previously existing copies of arias. These scores

included the A section in full only one time, just as modern publishers only print the A

section once. In reference to Handel's own ornamentation of arias from the opera Ottone

(as in the Bodleian manuscript, which will be discussed more thoroughly in the next

chapter), Hall and Hall note the following:

We find strong evidence that flexibility of rhythm. trills. minor ornaments and
even variations of the da capo arias were allowable and even encouraged, at least
for first-class singers in the operas. But cadenzas were the privilege of the few
and had little, if any, place in the oratorios conducted by the composer himself. 156

156
Hall and Hall, 42.
 73

The Cadenza

Cadenzas were a particularly favored vehicle for display of a Baroque singer's

ornamental prowess. as they provided a prime opportunity for narcissistic self-

glmification. and frequent abuses of established conventions were rampant. Tosi was

particularly adamant about the abuses he noted in cadenza practice. including the use of

what he considered excessive passaggi. Tosi's oft-quoted tirade about overly long

cadenzas at the three major cadential points of a da capo aria follows:

Generally speaking, the Study of the Singers of the present Times consists in
terminating the Cadence of the first Part with an overflowing of Passages and
Divisions at Pleasure, and the Orchestre waits; in that of the second the Dose is
encreased [sic], and the Orchesn·e grows tired; but on the last Cadence. the throat
is set a going, like a Weather-cock in a Whirlwind, and the Orchesrre yawns. 157

Tosi complained that singers abused cadenzas in this manner for the mere sake of

applause, and such excessively long cadenzas were a cause for numerous complaints. 158

Tosi vehemently spoke out against what he called "annoying gargling" in the following

quote. Although he acquiesced to the addition of a metrically free cadenza at the final

cadence of an aria. he made it clear that he believed in-time cadenzas were sufficient:

157
Tosi (Galliard), 128-29.
15
s.rosi's diatribe continues, "Gentlemen Moderns, can you say that you do not
laugh among yourselves when in the cadenzas you have recourse to a long series of
passaggi in order to beg applause from blind ignorance? You call this recourse by the
name of alms, seeking as charity those evvivas which you recognize that you do not
merit in justice, and in recompense you make fun of your supporters as though they
did not have hands. feet or voice enough to praise you. Where is justice, where is
gratitude? And if they should find you out? Beloved singers, the abuses of your
cadenzas, though they be useful to you, yet are pernicious to the profession .... " (Tosi
[Foreman], 83-84).
 74

If among all the cadenzas of an aria. the last allows some moderate free
will to the singer. in order that it may be understood as the last. some abuse will
be sufferable, but it changes into abomination when a singer plants himself firmly
with his annoying gargling to the nausea of the intelligent. who suffer the more
since they know that composers ordinarily leave some note in every final cadenza
which is sufficient for a discreet ornament, without seeking it out of tempo, out of
taste, without art and judgment. 159

The number of cadenzas within one aria was a topic of heated debate in the

eighteenth century. The accepted standard was that cadenzas should not be too numerous

nor too long, although cadenzas involving two parts, such as voice and an obbligato

instrument. could be somewhat longer. 160 Theda capo aria was the favored form of the

day, and Tosi noted that it provided three usual points for a cadenza: 1) at the end of the

first A section; 2) at the end of the B section; and 3) at the final cadence, the end of the

repeat of the A section. 161 Quantz commented that as many as five cadenzas were

possible in ada capo aria. but that this number of cadenzas was an abuse:

The object of the cadenza is simply to surprise the listener unexpectedly once
more at the end of the piece .... To conform to this object. a single cadenza
would be sufficient in a piece. If, then, a singer makes two cadenzas in the first
part of an aria. and yet another in the second part, it must certainly be considered
an abuse; for in this fashion, because of the da capo, five cadenzas appear in one
aria. Such an excess is not only likely to weary the listeners, especially if all the
cadenzas are alike, as is often the case, but also may cause a singer not too rich in
invention to exhaust himself all the more quickly. 162

Although many Baroque vocal scholars (in addition to Tosi) spoke against the

abuse of cadenza practice in opera seria, as well as in oratorio. singers continued to use

15
~osi (Foreman), 87.
1
~rown, 265.

161
Tosi (Foreman), 81-82.
162
Quantz. 180.
 75
the cadenza as a device for personal vocal display in excess of what was considered

appropriate by many eighteenth-century writers. Fig. 12 is one of the most famous

examples of this type of narcissistic behavior, illustrating seven cadenzas which were

inserted into one aria.

Fig. 12. The casrrato Farinelli's cadenzas for the aria. "Quell'usignolo" from the opera
Merope by Giacomelli (Brown. 262-63)

:1. ln the A section

At the firs• fermata

~· i I!~

At the end of the first voc:1l entry

1§ ; . g::cc1 Q PTn l.,JJ 9 Qd

1

is ij fj 1.] fJ] i;B EQ1 .:Q 8] I € FiJj 9J}.JJZ i(C!

.J

---

Ar. the te:-mat:l when the first: pce:ic line returns

4J'r ODr nr •id£§j!

1

GtGr ...,Sl
 76
At the end of the second von! e::t::-y

""-

b. In the B section

At the first fermata

~cs
J_,-r,..
j s
n :----= e;:z-:;;; ' to: J~.. r ?-t'
Ar: the fe:-mat:::t. when the firs:: ?Oe:ic line returns
17'\

!§. p 1-
.I .,

At rhe end of the B sec::ion

~-
. .... ~

\r t i \'f !j lI 0 i ; '!

~~
~ WJ I I; I 1
=s
9 ·- .. ~··· r

As noted above. it was common practice to insert metrically free cadenzas in

arias. Tosi's predilection for modest in-time cadenzas, however. seems also to have been

shared by Handel. The reader must understand that. although Tosi's position on cadenzas

was quaint and conservative in comparison with the performance practice of many

famous Baroque singers (notably the castrati), his ideals represent those present in

Handel's own ornamentation. Only modest. in-time cadenzas (if any) are present in the

opera arias to which Handel is known to have added ornamentation. 163 Although out-of-

0ne cadenza Handel added to an aria from the oratorio Samson is out-of-time in
163

that it adds two measures to the original composition, but it is known that this version
(continued ... )
 77

time cadenzas were frequently employed in late Baroque Italian vocal style. their

application in the music of Handel should be very judicious and sparing.

(... continued)
of the aria was not used in performance. This cadenza and the other available examples
of Handel's own ornamentation style will be discussed in Chapter 3.
 78

CHAPTER3

DISCERNING HANDEL'S ORNAMENTATION STYLE

The modern perf01mer must understand and synthesize ornamentation rules and

practices from Italian, English, German, and French sources when considering the style

of such a cosmopolitan composer as Handel. Handel was born in Germany, spent his

formative years in Italy absorbing the Italianate practices of composition and

ornamentation, and enjoyed his most successful and mature years in England, where a

more reserved and modest application of ornamentation was the convention. These

varying influences must be understood within the context of the late Baroque era in order

to discover a characteristic style of Handelian ornamentation.

Origins of Handel's Ornamentation Style

Handel spent the years 1706 to 1710 in Italy where he met leading Italian

composers and studied their works. During this period he travelled to Rome, Florence,

and Venice composing cantatas, sacred music, and opera. He absorbed the Italian vocal

style of flowing melody, flexible rhythm in recitative, and fluency in the setting and

treatment of Italian verse. He benefitted from contact with such composers as Domenico

and Alessandro Scarlatti, Antonio Caldara, Bernardo Pasquini, Agostino Steffani, and

Arcangelo Carelli, all of whom with the exception of Carelli were opera composers. 164

164
Winton Dean and John Merrill Knapp, Handel's Operas: 1704-1726 (Oxford:
(continued ... )
 79

Most scholars agree that Handel's ornamentation style is rooted in Italian practice, having

evolved from exposure to Italian opera and its conventions in Italy, as well as the

widespread Italianate operatic influence in his native Germany. Handel is one in a long

line of German composers who went to Italy for musical training and who returned to

Germany with a working knowledge of the Italianate style of operatically-influenced

florid melody and improvisational ornamentation. 165

·Recent studies reveal the ways in which Handel blended native Germanic

compositional techniques with an Italianate gift of melody. Ellen Harris argues that

Handel's music was not so dominated by Italian compositional styles as was previously

thought by many scholars. 166 She cites that Handel exhibits "notable" Germanic

compositional influences in the harmony, rhythm, meter, phrasing, key schemes, and

continuo texture in the solo cantatas. Harris also specifically notes the influence of the

(... continued)
Clarendon Press, 1987), 81-84.
165
The Thirty Years' War (which began in 1618) resulted in such political and cultural
chaos that it caused Germany to lag behind its Italian and French neighbors in
establishing an indigenous style of opera in the Baroque period. Consequently, German
operatic productions in the Baroque were an amalgam of Italian, French, and English
musical styles, librettos, language, and performance practice. Many German vocal
compositions of the period reflect the heavy Italian operatic style of florid vocal writing,
but they also contain a certain conservativism as influenced by the church and indigenous
folk song, which points to a less heavily ornamented style. For more information on
Germanic vocal styles and practice in the Baroque period see Allen's dissenation,
"German Baroque Opera (1678-1740)," as well as the excellent discussions of each
European country's ornamental style developments in Aldrich, "The Principal Agrements
of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries."
166
See Ellen T. Harris, "The Italian in Handel," in Journal of the American
Musjcologjcal Society 33, no. 1 (Spring, 1980): 468-500.
 80

concept of Affektenlehre. 167 Winton Dean and Merrill J. Knapp also note Handel's

particular retention of such Germanic qualities as "intellectual force," "resourceful and

varied treatment of the orchestra, sense of harmonic adventure, and contrapuntal density

and intricacy." 168 These Germanic roots underpin the intangible, but unmistakable, gift

of graceful melody which was awakened during his stay in Italy. Contact with Italian

composers and singers led to Handel's lifelong preoccupation with dramatic vocal music,

a genre in which the ornamental practice was unmistakably Italianate in origin.

The Italian influence in Germany created what Frederick Neumann refers to as

the "Italo-German" style. 169 Mter 1700, Germany slowly began to absorb more

numerous influences from France which brought about the eventual shift from the

Baroque to the galant style of the mid-eighteenth century. 170 This French influence,

which included a more homophonic compositional style with emphasis on the obligatory

graces, 171 was based in "dry constructivism" quite foreign to the sentimental

167
Ibid., 474.
168
Dean and Knapp, 84.
169
Neumann, Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music, 37-38.
170
Allen notes how gradually the balance between Italian and French influences at
the Hamburg opera shifted from year to year during its development. In the late
seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, operas by Lully were often heard in
translation, and many German librettos were based on those by Quinault. The French
style of singing was eventually favored by the north Germans, as this oft-repeated
quote by Johann Mattheson (1739) indicates: "the Germans bleat, the Italians blat, the
Spanish howl; only the French sing." Johann Mattheson, Der yolkommene Capellmejster
(1739); reprint, Documenta Musicologica, Erste Reihe: Druckschriften-Faksimiles, no. 5
(Kassel: Barenreiter-Verlag, 1954), 110; quoted in Allen, 83.
171
Neumann, Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music, 37-38. By the
(continued ... )
 81

emotionalism of the Italians' more arbitrary, free style of flowing melody and

improvisational ornamentation. 172 The French influence on composition and

omamentation was more prominent in Handel's harpsichord music than in his vocal

ornamental style, 173 which remained ltalianate in origin.

Handel Autograph Examples of Ornamentation

The most valuable source for discerning Handel's preferred style of vocal

ornamentation is an actual aria ornamented in his own handwriting; a very few such

autograph scores do exist. As far as is known today, there are the four arias from the

opera Ottone for which Handel added vocal ornamentation to a previously existing

melody line, and one ornamented aria from the opera Amadigi di Gazda. Also, there are

a few autograph ornamental additions to the cantata, Dolce pur d'amor l'affanno (ca.

1707-1709). The only other ornamentation Handel is known to have provided for singers

are two vocal cadenzas for the oratorio Samson. Beyond these few examples, one must

look to the keyboard transcriptions of opera arias (those by both Handel and his

contemporaries) and to Handel's own style of florid melody and variation 174 for clues as

(... continued)
mid eighteenth-century the French commonly wrote out or indicated all their ornaments
(Smiles, "Directions for Improvised Ornamentation in Italian Method Books of the Late
Eighteenth Century," 497, note).
172
Neumann, Ornamentation jn Baroque and Post-Baroque Musjc, 39.
173
lbid., 171.
174
lt should be mentioned that Alfred Mann cites a pair of arias which Handel wrote,
"one without, and the other with vocal ornamentation," as lessons in continuo realization
and improvisation for Princess Anne (Alfred Mann, Bach and Handel· Choral
(continued ... )
 82

to an appropriate ornamental style for use in his works today. Another primary source

for discerning Handel's preferences in ornamentation is that of his own singers and their

contemporaries, such as Faustina Bordoni and Carlo Broschi Farinelli.

Arias

The first group of arias ornamented by Handel to be considered consists of those

from the opera Ottone, housed in the Bodleian Library at Oxford (MS Don. c.69). The

manuscript contains two cantatas in Handel's own hand, plus six opera arias in the hand

of John Christopher Smith the elder, 175 four of which contain added embellishments in

Handel's own hand. 176 Three of the arias, "Alia fama," "Affanni del pensier," and

"Benche mi sia crudele" contain considerable embellishment. These three arias have

(... continued)
Performance Practice [Chapel Hill, NC: Hinshaw Music, Inc., 1992], 82). These arias
are printed in facsimile in Georg Friedrich Handel, Aufzejcbnungen zur
Komposjtionslebre [Composition lessons], ed. Alfred Mann, in Ha11iscbe Hiindel-
Ausgabe (Kassel: Barenreiter, 1978), Supplement, Vol. 1:38-43. This author notes that
these arias were written as keyboard works, and that the only concrete similarity between
the two pieces is the first four notes, which are identical in pitch and rhythm (except for
the addition of a passing tone in the second aria). Beyond the opening measure, there is
"considerable variation in the structure of the two works," which seem to have been
written with a purely "didactic intent" (Ibid., 39). Ornamental notes in the second aria
include trills, crescendi, and various scale passages, but there is little melodic similarity
between the two pieces from which to make a comparative study of Handel's vocal
ornamentation practice.
175
He was Handel's assistant during Handel's last years of blindness.
176
Hall and Hall, 31.
 83
been printed in two modern perfonning editions, one edited by Winton Dean, and the

other edited by Hellmuth Christian Wolff. 177

Each editor has transcribed some portions of the ornamented passages differently

with regard to notes and rhythms. Dean's edition provides no text setting for the

embellished line, but rather prints the embellishing notes and passages directly above tl1e

original melodic line. Wolffs edition prints both lines in full (ornamented and

unornamented), each with text setting. 178 Therefore, a comparison of the two editions

reveals significant differences in interpretation. Dean sheds light on the reason for

possible differences in interpretation of some of the ornamentation: he says that Handel's

added little notes "can generally be deciphered," but "that their exact rhythm is

sometimes in doubt," acknowledging that Handel did not always clearly notate rhythmic

values or notes which the ornaments were designed to replace. 179

It must be noted that both editions, Wolff (1972) and Dean (1973), were made at

about the same time. The editors disagree, however, as to the authorship of the vocal

embellishments. Wolff cites the castrato Gaetano Guadagni (1729-1792) as author, most

likely based on the contention by Hall and Hall that these ornaments may have been

177
Hellmuth Christian Wolff, ed., Original Yocallmpmvisatjons from the 16th - 18th
Centuries, trans. A. C. Howie, Vol. 41 of Anthology ofMysjc· A CoUectjon of Complete
Musical Examples Dlnstrating the History of Music, ed. K. G. Fellerer (Cologne: Arno
Volk Verlag, 1972), 109-32.
178
Note that Handel merely added embellishments to a pre-existing Smith copy of
the arias; therefore the Bodleian manuscript does not contain two complete lines of
melody, each with text. Any textual setting, which includes decisions of syllabification,
must be that of an editor or perfonner.
179
Dean, ed., G F Handel· Three Ornamented Arias, Preface.
 84
180
written for Guadagni. Neither the Halls nor Dean refute the authorship of Handel. 181

Since the Dean edition is by a noted Handel scholar and appears to have less editorial

manipulation than that of Wolff, Dean's edition will be referred to in all subsequent

references to the Ottone ornaments.

That Handel did take the time to write down embellishments is very unusual,

since most singers of his day would have known how to embellish arias in the

fashionable style. The ornamented Ottone arias are transposed down either a fourth or a

fifth from the original key into the alto clef, presumably for a contralto, possibly English,

who was not well versed in the Italian style of ornamentation. The occasion for which

these ornaments was written is not known; it is possible that they were possibly prepared

for an abortive revival performance of the opera or for a concert. 182

The ornamentation runs throughout in only two of the four arias. The incomplete

nature of the embellishments in two of the alias cannot be fully explained by scholars;

yet, for some reason, Handel did not finish his task. "Falsa imagine" contains only one

0Wolff, 109, and Hall and Hall, 32 and 34.

18

181
See Hall and Hall, 32, and Dean, ed., G F Handel· Three Ornamented Arias,
Preface.
182
Dean (1976) conjectures that the Ottone embellishments were possibly prepared
for a revival of Ottone in 1727, or for a concert performance. Hall and Hall ( 1957)
cite the year 1751 as the possible date for the embellishments, noting failing eyesight
as Handel's reason for a shaky, hard-to-decipher handwriting and incomplete
ornamentation. However, the date of the Ottone embellishments can be pinpointed to
the 1720's because of the paper and handwriting style (Dean, ed., G F Handel· Three
Ornamented Arias, Preface, and Hall and Hall, 32-34). For further discussion about
the possible reason for which these ornaments were written, see "The Recovery of
Handel's Operas," in Music in Eighteenth-century England· Essays in Memory of
Char]es Cudworth (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 110.
 85
tiny embellishment in its first vocal phrase. In "Alla fama" the embellishments end after

bar 46, little more than halfway through the A section of this da capo aria. Omaments

are present, however, throughout both the A and B sections of the arias "Affanni del

pensier" and "Benche mi sia crudele." It is most likely that the ornaments in the A

sections would have been sung during the repeat, although it is known that singers did

frequently add some ornamentation to the first statement of the A section. 183

Hall and Hall have noted three main categories of ornamentation in Handel's
184
embellishment of these arias. The first emphasizes particular beats and interval leaps

by the insertion of divisions and/or "fixed" ornaments such as trills, appoggiature, and

mordents. Notably, nearly every phrase of "Affanni del pensier" and "Benche mi sia

crudele" in both the A and B sections has been omamented to some extent. Most of the

longer note values in the original melodic line (such as quarter and dotted quarter notes)

are embellished by the addition of modest divisions as described above. These longer

note values occur usually, though not always, on accented syllables or particularly

important words, and melismatic lines (which are also embellished) are used invariably

on words of textual significance.

Short original note values such as eighth or sixteenth notes are often embellished

with even smaller sixteenth or thirty-second notes. Each ornamented line follows the

contour of the original melody, permitting it to be discerned, even in its embellished

form. Sometimes ornamented passages include notes a third, a fourth, or even higher

183
For more discussion about Handel and ornamentation in his da capo arias, refer
to the section on "Ornamentation of Handelian Arias by Singers" of this chapter.
184
Hall and Hall, 36-38.
 86
than the original line. Embellishing notes rarely stray further than a primary beat's length
-
from the original melodic shape, however. Fig. 13 displays added notes in the form of

turns around the principal notes of the meiody in mm. 24-26, as well as a downward

scale passage on the words "finse bella" that incorporates a much wider melodic range

than the original melody.

Fig. 13. Handel's ornamental additions to "Alla fama" from Ottone (Dean, ed., .G...E..
Handel· Three Ornamented Arias, 11)

1 f r ~v r r r
I
lfin.se---
f::-
IJ.
1
1
_,,_il ,~ sie • ro Quan -do3 te mi fin ' J

I: )! 7

-I
1- -~-~· :

Note the vocal flexibility and increased melodic range required by the quickly moving

added notes in Fig. 14.

 87
Fig. 14. Handel's ornamental additions to "Affanni del pensier" from Ottone (Dean, ed.,
G F Handel· Three Ornamented Arias, 4)

~
2 • ~
.· • .:z .' '
lI
OJ
Ip ,
l
A

s'~itg
.\

ar O.~c<:u pace_:I! - men, E (XII tor- na 1c.

c
!( fi t
".•
piu f
;
i.:m
---
•
Cc:mbJ

The second category of embellishment noted by Hall and Hall emphasizes

Handel's frequent use of triplets to replace original duplet figures. Triplet figures often

fill in interval gaps and create rhythmic excitement, as in the melismatic passage in Fig.

15.

Fig. 15. Handel's ornamental additions to "Benche mi sia crudele" from Ottone (Dean,
ed., G F Handel· Three Ornamented Arias, 19)

JL

In Fig. 15, the triplets fill in the various intervals while leaving the basic melodic

compass of the original melody unchanged. In Fig. 16, Handel also follows the basic

contour of the melody while incorporating triplets and notes outside of its original

compass-yet swiftly returning within the original melodic framework.

 88

Fig. 16. Handel's ornamental additions to "Affanni del pensier" from Ottone (Dean, ed.,
G F Handel· Three Ornamented Arias, 5)

18

" tr iiJ. ;_ ;r~ ~;iF. c

Un snl nto-men - 10 ..

..,
p [scnza Cemh.J

~ -· CJJ (;/

:m
[JJ
.I

r wE E
.
~
j .u : w
rJl (JJ
=F I
I

~ fl L,.:=:::;::= 1. Jj Jj
CW±t d F
- ~:
; jI -#-
J
• IC 'c .;r.
:
fi,,
~
r .-.
l I s ~

's c J J II &
~ r 'g~ ~r
I
Hall and Hall's third category of embellishment involves the alteration of entire

phrases to obtain special effects, as in Fig. 17.

Fig. 17. Handel's ornamental additions to "Affanni del pensier" from Ottone (Dean, ed.,
G F Handel· Three Ornamented Arias, 8-9)

-1/
[ t>-)

!t:-1

j I • 4
ffcon Cemb.l
 89

These two phrases are the last of the B section, forming an in-time cadenza as described

in Chapter 2. Here the original melody is altered by the introduction of triplets and

smaller note values, of which a considerable number rise above the miginal melodic

compass. More rarely, Handel sometimes alters a phrase by struting on the original

pitch, but then moves in the opposite direction from the original melodic contour only to

return and finish on the original ending pitch.

Hall and Hall fail to mention a few pertinent facts about Handel's ornamentation

in their designation of three categories of embellishment found in the Ottone arias.

Phrases are rarely ornamented by beginning on a note other than the original melodic

pitch of the phrase. Fig. 16 (m. 20) illustrates a case where Handel ornamented a phrase

by beginning on a note other than the original note ("tornate"). Notes diffedng from the

original melodic line almost always begin on the second beat or later in the measure,

except occasionally when the second half of the first beat is embellished by the addition

of a note or notes connecting it to the second beat. Handel also occasionally connects

two phrases which were separated by a rest in the original; however, the second of the

original two phrases is still begun on the original pitch, even though now connected to

the first phrase (Fig. 14, m. 16, beat 3). When embellishing, Handel maintains the

harmonic and melodic integrity of sequences, albeit with considerable melodic

embellishment that follows the original melodic framework (7-6 sequence, Fig. 17, mm.

40-41, and also in "Benche mi sia crudele" (6-5 sequence in mm. 27-34).

One of the most interesting aspects of Handel's ornamentation is the frequent

difficulty of the intricate rhythmic values employed and the improvisatory, free-sounding
 90

nature of the ornaments when sung. In part, the improvisatory sound of the

ornamentation is achieved by Handel's inclusion of such unusual rhythmic figures as

quintuplets (Fig. 14, m. 16), a frequent use of triplets (Figs. 15, 16), and the freedom

with which ornamental notes are employed on unaccented syllables, such as in Fig. 14.

(m. 15, on the first syllable of "momento" and m. 17, on the first syllable of "tornate")

and Fig. 16 (m. 19, on the last syllable of "momento"). An improvisatory style is also

achieved by the inclusion of a few notes which elongate the original melodic phrase by a

beat's length (Fig. 16, m. 18, beat 1).

Another aria ornamented in Handel's own hand is "0 caro mio tesor" from the

opera Amadigi di Gaula. This aria and a sketch of the overture are the only surviving

autograph copies of any music from the opera. 185 "0 caro mio tesor" is a copy which is

neither a sketch nor a part of the original score and is housed in the Fitzwilliam Museum,

Cambridge. 186 The version of this aria as printed in the Chrysander score of the opera

differs considerably from the Fitzwilliam manuscript (since no autograph copy of the

score was extant at the time, Chrysander's edition was made from an eighteenth-century

copy). Dean's comparison of the Chrysander and Fitzwilliam scores reveals differences

in accompanimental forces, tempo marking, rhythmic values, length of ritomelli, chordal

structure, as well as considerably more elaborate vocal melody in the Fitzwilliam

185
Another aria from Amadigi, also with autograph ornamentation, has recently
been discovered and is kept in the Malmesbury Collection (Dean and Knapp, 29).
18
<This is Fitzwilliam manuscript 30 H 6, pp. 41-43. This aria is discussed in Dean's
article, "Vocal Embellishment in a Handel Aria." The ornamented aria is printed in full
in Georg Friedrich Handel, Amadigi· Opera Seria in Ire Ani, ed. J. Merrill Knapp, in
Halliscbe Handel-Ausgabe (Kritjsche Gesarntausgabe), ed. Georg-Friedrich-Handel-
Gesellschaft, Serie II: Opern, Band 8 (Kassel: Biirenreiter, 1971), 58-62.
 91

(Handel autograph) score. Dean's explanation for these differences is that Handel was

probably writing down the aria from memory, perhaps for a concert performance, once

again for a singer not well versed in the ornamental style of the Italians. 187 Whatever the

reason for the ornamental version, it offers another unique glimpse of Handel's ideas

about ornamentation.

There are slight differences in the ornamental style between the Amadigi aria, "0

caro mio tesor" and the Ottone arias. Although both A and B sections of this da capo

aria are embellished, "0 caro mio tesor" is less florid than the Ottone arias and includes

entire phrases which remain unornamented. The reason for the sparser ornamentation is

not known, in part because the date of the ornamentation in the Amadigi aria cannot be

pinpointed. It is possible that the singer for whom this aria was embellished was not as

skilled in the art of florid singing as was the singer of the Ottone embellishments. 188 In

the A section of "0 caro mio tesor," the first twelve measures of the vocal line (mm. 10-

21) contain no embellishment. At mm. 22, 24, and 30, the cadence points of three

consecutive phrases are only slightly embellished with anticipations and a small, one-

measure melisma (m. 28). Beyond m. 36 more significant embellishment occurs.

187
Dean, "Vocal Embellishment in a Handel Aria," 159.
188
Amadigi di Gaula premiered in 1715 with the English soprano Anastasia Robinson
(ca. 1692-1755) singing the part of Oriana, for whom the aria, "0 caro mio tesor," was
originally written. The fact that Robinson was young and rather inexperienced in the
Italian vocal style may be a reason for Handel's unusual preparation of the vocal
ornamentation. According to Dean, however, it seems unlikely that Handel would have
provided a singer with a version of the aria so materially
different than that in the full score, unless he intended a modification of the aria. Dean
notes it is possible, though unlikely, that Chrysander's version is the latter of the two
(Dean, "Vocal Embellishment in a Handel Aria," 159).
 92
In the Ottone arias Handel's choice of ornamenting duple passages with triplet

rhythms was noted. In mm. 40-42 of "0 caro mio tesor" (Fig. 18) Handel does the

opposite and turns a triplet figuration into steady eighth notes in the ornamented version.

Furthermore, the steady eighth note rhythms in mm. 46-48 are changed to a more

complex melody of sixteenth notes, dotted eighth notes, thirty-second notes, trills, and

slide figures.

Fig. 18. Excerpt of "0 caro mio tesor" (Amadigi di Gaula) as ornamented by Handel
(Dean, "Vocal Embellishment in a Handel Aria," 155-156)

Chrys~nder

".
gz - - ---s
J • ...... ·-
: 3[
'tJ
: :z .: : J A '
~
." -
: l c:"i ll i.1m IT
' - '

... al-ma a-~n

l
I ::e e vie - ci ~

1:~
- - --
so lar--

'
-c==--
!if;'
;otJ
; • f: : lr 7E
c

-
B~ 0 F.i
: 1'1' ~
: t:r ~::"'" lr

'
~~
vte - ni ..
tJ
quesc'al-:na a -[ClAn ce e

'a rJ
~
~·
w~
:ou
• d

.L A
0?: :a;. : E;
=·
D
.C : e

I'

tJ
'
lr
b'"_:
-· '

con so - I ~ar quesc' ~l- :na a man - - Ce

 93

The B section of the Fitzwilliam manuscript is structurally different from the

Chrysander version. As in the A section, Handel does not ornament the first portion of

the B section (mm. 59-64), and he begins embellishment with simple cadential ornaments

in measures 65 and 68. Measures 70 ff. contain considerable differences from the

Chrysander copy, however, not only in the melodic line, but also in the bass line, which

radically change the harmonic movement of the whole passage. In the B section, Handel

was not only ornamenting but also recomposing. The melodic differences between the

Chrysander and Fitzwilliam versions in the B section of this aria represent more of a

melodic and harmonic reworking than a mere ornamentation of the melody.

The final source for autograph additions to a previously existing melody is the

Italian cantata Dolce pur d'amor l'affanno, 189 which contains embellishments in only 14

of 148 measures. It is interesting to note that these little note interpolations consist

mainly of tum figures and divisions that function as passing tones (Fig. 19). 190 The

interval-filling passing tones would require an extremely facile vocal technique in order

to be executed within the time constraints of the measure (Fig. 19, m. 2, and m. 9). This

type of rhythmic intricacy is characteristic of the ornamental examples known to have

survived from Handel.

18
~e autograph manuscript for this cantata is in the Fitzwilliam Museum in
Cambridge (MS 30-H-2). Robert Donington prints a facsimile portion of Handel's
autograph of this aria in Baroque Musjc· Style and Performance A Handbook (New
York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1982), 102.
190
Neumann, Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music, 555-56. Neumann
notes that these added ornaments are also reproduced in Adolf Beyschlag, rill<
Ornamentik der Musjk (1908; reprint, Leipzig, 1953 and 1970).
 94
Fig. 19. Handel's ornamental editions to the cantata Dolce pur d'amor l'affanno
(Neumann, Ornamentation jn Baroque and Post-Baroque Music, 556)

_, 10
(d 'a-)mcr l'af-fan- no
• r :7
se, cam - pa - gnc del Del-ee

; tj e' - PJ; ,
j
j #h

~·
,. v ; ... ·
pur d 'a - mer l'a!- fan - 110 se com - pa - - gnc

1;•
... J.
de!
' i)J vJ
tor • :-::en -
J~o
~
il
v
se
, le
=
- l ....
pe - ne- u
f
-
I II I t~
~~:
~
;
J. ~ Ij I
J a I J J I J I Jc
:u te van- ~0 c::~n !a s~ - me e can l'af-

1; ~ Ji J} p Jl J: I § ll J I, I g :A • J J I:; '! -1! J

~
., 1 : IJ jl

fet- to il cli-let-ro e pel mag-gtcr, u di-let- to e pci mag-gtcr

All of Handel's vocal writing contains melodic passages that reflect the florid

vocal style typical of the period, but Dolce pur d'amor l'affanno is the only cantata for

which Handel added embellishments to the finished piece. Some arias by Handel contain

particularly florid writing, almost as if Handel had written out the desired

embellishments as part of the composed piece. One aria in particular, "Siete rose

rugiadose," from the cantata of the same name, contains small note values in intricate

patterns, as if a singer's embellishments had been transcribed. Examination of this aria

reveals interesting clues about Handel's views on ornamentation. Fig. 20 contains fast

rhythmic values in turned figures, slides, and brilliant short scales similar to those in

Handel's harpsichord embellishments of his own opera arias. Handel also includes a few

little note designations of appoggiature. When ornamenting Handel's vocal works today,

one should take into consideration the amount of embellishment already provided in the
 95

melodic writing. An aria with as much composed decoration as this would require much

less adornment than one with more "space" for such additions.

Fig. 20. A section of the aria, "Siete rose rugiadose" from the cantata of the same name
(Lasecki and Legene, Part 3:105) 191

·J Tg -
... ~ ....

-=
bel-le bb - - bro. dd 11110 be."'-
,...._
Sic-tc ra .. - - :sc ru-p-

..
l l
bel- - - lc !.lb--bra del """be:!. Stc--tc ro- - -sc ru-p-
I ' ' ~

...

i ,'
: :.,;
I: -do - - JC bel-le l>b- - br> del """ ben. bcl-lcbb-----;------
l,.

I• t

: · ;..
1
------------------bn
. ;
be!- -le
..
bb--- bro.dd mao ben •

""-l I

Note that this excerpt includes a misprint: all vocal staffs should contain treble
191

clefs with subscript 8's, instead of regular treble clefs. The aria is printed in alto clef
in the Chrysander edition (Vol. 51, p. 115).
 96

Cadenzas

Cadenzas were an integral part of an eighteenth-century singer's art. Arias, and

even sections within arias, were often concluded with the addition of a few measures of

vocal display expressly to demonstrate the singer's vocal prowess. These displays,

ideally, would enhance the composer's unembellished cadences and contribute to the

Affekt of the arias. Surviving examples of Handel's cadenzas are rare. The Bodleian

manuscript which contains the ornamented Ottone arias shows "little or nothing" about

the way to embellish cadences, "presumably because the singer did not require

instruction [there]," according to Dean. 192 At the only point where Dean considers that a

cadenza would have been imperative, Handel added a tiny embellishment. This

embellishment consisted of three notes at the fmal cadence of the da capo alia, "Benche

mi sia crudele." 193

The only two surviving examples of cadenzas Handel wrote to be added to

previously existing melodies are for the oratorio Samson. The aria, "Oh mirror of our

192
Dean, ed., G F Handel· Three Ornamented Arias, Preface.
193
Ibid., Preface and 21. Dean does not elaborate about why he designated this spot as
imperative for a cadenza.
 97

fickle state," contains a fmal (two measure) cadenza (Fig. 21), but for reasons unknown,

this version of the aria was eventually not used in performance. 194

Fig. 21. Handel's cadenza for the aria, "Oh mirror of our fickle state" from the oratorio
Samson (Chrysander, v)

~·

This out-of-time oratorio cadenza is brief, adding two measures to the original

composition. It covers the range of a ninth and contains a series of interconnected

fourths. The embellishing run decorates one word, "deep," and outlines the iv and V

chords in F minor. The cadenza actually concludes prior to the cadential chords i - V -

i. 195 Note that Handel does not bother to notate the obligatory cadential trill, presumably

since the singer would have known to insert it.

The accompanied recitative, "Since Light so necessary is to life," also contains a

cadenza of one measure (Fig. 22). This recitative follows the famous ada, "Total

Eclipse" and was found only in the conducting score. Chrysander notes that the cadenza

"seems to have been set, by way of experiment, for 'Miss Robinson'" (italics by

Chrysander), and was most likely omitted from performance because the words were not

1
~s version of the aria was included in the 1742 revision of Samson. The
manuscript contained some portions crossed out in Handel's hand, including this cadenza
figure.
195
According to accepted Baroque practice, a cadenza should ideally be placed on the i
or V chord (Brown, 265).
 98
the most "lofty of noble impression." 19~ The in-time cadenza encompasses one octave,

and, in this case, ends with Handel's notation of the obligatory cadential trill and a slide

figure into the fmal pitch.

Fig. 22. Handel's cadenza for the accompanied recitative, "Since Light so necessary is to
life" from Samson (Chrysander, vi)

:;

•• T

This cadenza is especially noteworthy since it was composed to conclude an

accompanied recitative, rather than an aria. The cadenza presents evidence that Handel

considered the application of a very modest (in-time) cadenza appropriate at the end of

an accompanied recitative. Handel composed a half-note tied to a dotted quarter in the

strings and continuo parts creating a pause on which a brief cadenza could be placed.

Since the accompanimental forces are sustaining one chord, Handel could have

composed a longer, out-of-time cadenza figure, but he did not. An accompanied

recitative which did not include such a written-in pause (where the accompanimental

forces sustain a single chord) would not be an appropriate place to insert a similar type of

cadenza spanning several beats, because the figure would cause ensemble problems.

196
Chrysander, vi.
 99

The cadenza in the aria "Ev'ry Valley" in the J. C. Smith manuscript of the

oratorio Messiah is often attributed to Handel. 197 Several Messiah manusctipts from

Handel's era and shortly thereafter contain ornaments added in either pencil or ink, but

their authorship is also under serious debate. The two cadenzas Handel composed for

Samson are the only authentic autograph examples of individual cadenzas wiitten for

otherwise unornamented pieces.

Handel's relative silence on the subject of cadenzas is taken by some as a signal to

omit them totally from his vocal works. Italian opera, however, was famous for ornate

cadenzas and was a genre in which Handel flourished. We know that Handel permitted

the famous singers Gaetano Maiorano Caffarelli (1710-1783) and Matteo Berselli (jl

1709-1721) to add cadenzas ad libitum in Italian opera, but this was, according to

Charles Burney, a "compliment which Handel never paid to an ordinary singer." 198

Berselli was once allowed six points at which he could extempmize cadenzas, 199 but

Burney's comments make it clear that this sort of license for copious embellishment in

opera was the exception, not the rule. Burney notes that by 1741 the leading Italian

singers in Handel's last opera, Deidamia, "were only singers of the second class, ... and

the rest were below criticism. "200 Hall and Hall argue that Burney's comments "make it

197
Hall and Hall, 26-27; and Brown, 266.
198
Burney, quoted in Hall and Hall, 29.
1
~id. The Halls believe that these cadenzas were probably of short duration (Ibid.).

200
Ibid.
 100

most unlikely that they [the Deidamia singers] were permitted many cadenzas." 201

Burney goes on to note that the same Deidamia singers were subsequently used in

oratorio performances where, "the solo singers were not required to be equal in abilities

to those of the opera," inferring a less embellished vocal style in oratorio than in opera. 202

By consulting such eighteenth-century w1iters as Burney, Quantz, and Sir John Hawkins

(1719-1789), Hall and Hall argue that Handel usually prefen-ed sparing use of cadenzas

in the operas, but that he allowed those singers who were unusually adept at their

creation to add them occasionally. Burney's comments about Berselli and Caffarelli

seem to suggest that cadenzas may be employed more frequently by very skillful singers.

An eighteenth-century writer who seems to confirm the use of modest in-time

cadenzas in Handel's works is Tosi's English translator, J. E. Galliard. Galliard notes that

Handel's singers Faustina Bordoni (1700-1781) and Francesca Cuzzoni (1696-1778) were

the models of good taste and stylistic appropriateness to whom Tosi referred as ideal

performers, although Tosi strongly advised against imitating any performer directly. 203

Faustina's own embellishments include cadenzas of modest length, both in-time and out-

of-time, that are capable of being sung in one breath.204 Since she and Cuzzoni met

Tosi's standards for appropriate embellishment, and they were two of Handel's most

201
Ibid.
202
Ibid., 30.
203
Tosi [Galliard], 154.
204
Faustina's embellishments will be discussed in the section of this chapter entitled,
"Handel's Italian Singers."
 101

favored singers, evidence seems to suppmt the use of in-time as well as modest length

out-of-time cadenzas in Handel's works.

In studying the ornamental additions Handel made to the Ottone and Amadigi

arias, Dean notes that for Handel, "cadenzas were certainly not obligatory," though in

some of the Ottone arias, cadenzas are "clearly implied." 205 If cadenzas were "clearly

implied," as Dean asserts, why did Handel not notate them since he ornamented other

parts of the arias? The answer may be that Handel truly did not favor elaborate and long

cadenzas in his arias. 206 Berselli and Caffarelli's numerous cadenza insertions, however,

seem to indicate a less restrictive interpretation of Handel's own preferences for cadenza

placement and length.

Keyboard Arrangements of Opera Arias

Other indications of the type and extent of vocal ornamentation approved of by

Handel may be found in eighteenth-century keyboard arrangements of his opera arias

made by himself and his contemporaries. The first keyboard arrangement to be

considered is Handel's own two-part setting of the aria "Molto voglio" from Rinaldo

(1711), which Chrysander published in his second edition of the opera. 207 Handel's intent

205
Dean, "Vocal Embellishment in a Handel Aria," 154.
2
~arly in the nineteenth century, Bacon continued to assert that Handel's music
should be approached with solemnity and reverence. He was chagrined by the fact that
cadenzas ("cadences") had become the established custom by then, and that they were no
longer "a matter of choice." "It seems to me to have been the height of presumption to
have arrogated the last impression at the close of such a song as I know that my Redeemer
liveth. But custom has now established the usage ... "(Bacon, 33).
207
George Frederic Handel, Rinaldo· Opera di G F Handel, vol. 58b of The Works of
(continued ... )
 102

in this arrangement seems to be simplification, not embellishment of the original aria,

because the overall length of the original is truncated, and the melody is less complicated

than the original vocal line.

The A section of the keyboard arrangement is based on the instrumental

introduction of the original (mm. 1-8), which is lengthened four measures by the

repetition of mm. 5-8 (refer to Fig. 23a and 23b). The A section melody of the original

aria is not presented in full in the keyboard arfangement; however, the instrumental

introduction of the original alia as incorporated into the keyboard arrangement can be

seen as an embellished version of the opening vocal line, as it adds two measures of

sixteenth note divisions in the place of some of the original eighth note figures. The B

section is also a truncated version of the oliginal, as it is shortened from eight measures

to six. The sixteenth note melismatic phrases of the original (mm. 37-39), and a strong

internal A minor cadence (m. 38, beat 1) are omitted.

(... continued)
George Frederic Handel, ed. Friedrich Chrysander (1894; reprint, Ridgewood, N.J.:
Gregg Press, Incorporated, 1965), 116. The original manuscript is housed in the
Fitzwilliam Museum. In the preface to his edition, Chrysander comments that this
arrangement is possibly not by Handel, but more recent research by Alfred Mann has
revealed that it is an autograph transcription, probably dating ca. 1725 (fourteen years
after the original date of Rinaldo, 1711) (Rogers, 83).
 103

Fig. 23. Handel's original vocal version of the aria "Molto voglio" from the opera
Rinaldo as compared with his two-part keyboard arrangement of the same (Handel,
Rinaldo, 58b: 29-30 and 116)

a. Original vocal score

Till II fllli • ..olo.

-
. tar. rAtJ(/n ro~lio,aulta

Til Ill.

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tADl.lo ro.pio,JNJ{ln 1
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.f:
 104

. 4·-···
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14r,JNJIID.,..W. !'r"'·ro,...O..a'eN a'KAi.

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~

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::::.1--. - ~-- - ..... .--.

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. .
·-"-·
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1-

. ""
... Diaica:for.=acll*al.Joirll~pero '"-prOil JICIJrulotZs.soc,:d.Ja.r. tli rrWtfor.sa d!l"cl.to im pero 1a.prOil
I

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b. Keyboard arrangement
r:: :____41
105

The arias "Sventurato, godi o core abbandonato" from Floridante (1721/08 and

"Cara sposa" from Radamisto (1720) were also arranged by Handel for keyboard and can

be considered, along with the "Malta voglio" arrangement, the only authentic keyboard

arrangements by Handel. 209 In contrast with the "Molto Voglio" arrangement, the

"Sventurato" and "Cara sposa" arrangements are more sophisticated and highly

embellished. The use of ornamentation in the "Sventurato" and "Cara sposa"

arrangements is similar: both arrangements contain embellishment which is

characteristic of keyboard writing, such as trills, mordents, and scale passages, which

also could possibly used for singing. In the arrangement of "Cara sposa," Handel

included beaming and text underlay suitable for singing, whereas in the "Sventurato"

20
sne manuscript is in one of the volumes of the Aylesford Collection in the British
Museum (RM 18.c.2). A facsimile of page two of the manuscript is printed in Terence
Best's article, "An Example of Handel Embellishment," The Musical Times 110
(September 1969): 933.
2
~ogers, 83. In this ar-Jcle Rogers prints a facsimile of Handel's autograph of "Cara
sposa" (British Library, RM19 c9, f.106v), as well as a modern transcription. Rogers
also prints a larger and easier to read copy of the same modern transcription of the aria in
his book, Continuo Realization in Handel's Vocal Music, Studies in Music Series, ed
George J. Buelow, no. 104 (Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press, 1989), 235.
Although Rogers names the aforementioned arrangements as the only authentic
ones in Handel's autograph, three more keyboard arrangements do exist (in early scribal
copies): two from Muzio Scevola and one from Radamisto (all in transposed keys).
According to Dean and Knapp, one of these is "certainly Handel's own work." These
copies are in the Coke and Malmesbury Collections (Dean and Knapp, 30).
 106

arrangement, he included only an occasional word as a frame of reference to the miginal

aria. In the "Molto voglio" arrangement Handel provided no aria text.

Terence Best has suggested that the transcription of "Cara sposa" is really a vocal

arrangement, based on the "vocal" beaming, good textual syllabification, and the

inclusion of the complete aria text. 210 Patrick Rogers finds difficulties in Best's

assessment, however, and points out inconsistencies in the "vocal" beaming which

include poor textual elision and problems in the textual underlay and syllabic

accentuation. 211 Rogers asserts that the arrangement was probably originally intended as

a keyboard piece, but that it was "perhaps freely based on pre-existing vocal

ornamentation"; in his opinion the embellishment is "more singable and expressive" than

that added to "Affanni del pensier" from Ottone. 212 Dean and Knapp suggest that the

ornaments fit the harpsichord or voice "equally wel1." 213

Each aria includes ornaments such as the application of frequent trills at cadential

points ("Sventurato" also contains a few trills on important words on the down-beats of

measures). interval-fllling scalar passages, slides, turns, and fully notated mordents.

Both arrangements contain largely conjunct melodic motion, but "Cara sposa" contains a

21
£Rogers, "A Neglected Source of Ornamentation," 88.
211
Rogers goes on to note that this aria contains a realization of the continuo part,
whereas in Handel's other known ornamentations (as in the Ottone arias) Handel
ornaments above a scribal copy. or provides a vocal line with a figured bass version (as
in the Amadigi aria). Rogers also notes that this is the only surviving example of
continuo realization for the harpsichord by Handel (Rogers, "A Neglected Source of
Ornamentation," 88-89).
212
Rogers, "A Neglected Source of Ornamentation," 88-89.
213
Dean and Knapp, 30.
 107

few large leaps, usually octaves, followed by interval-filling scalar passages of sixty-

fourth and thirty-second notes (Fig. 24, m. 10). Here, as in the Ottone embellishments,

Handel incorporates elaborately intricate rhythmic values in his ornamentation (Fig. 24,

mm. 10 and 15). There are no out-of-time cadenzas, no copious use of trills. no

arpeggiated figures, and no obscuring of the contour or compass of the principal melodic

line.

The "Sventurato" arrangement incorporates melismatic string writing from the

accompaniment of the original aria into the melodic line where the original vocal line

contained long notes. These melismatic passages (as well as some vocal melismatic

passages of the original aria) are considerably embellished with small note values such as

thirty-second notes. Both the "Cara sposa" and "Sventurato" arrangements contain

intricate rhythms which would be difficult but not impossible, to sing (Fig. 24), as

evidenced in the similar rhythmic complexity of the Ottone embellishments.

Fig. 24. A portion of the A section from Handel's harpsichord arrangement of the aria
"Cara sposa" from Radamisto (as transcribed by Rogers in Continuo Realization jn
Handel's Vocal Music, 237-38)

spe - ne,

I
•
 108
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l ~ ~

#-!L v -....
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..
Both the "Sventurato" and "Cara sposa" arrangements provide a rare glimpse into

Handel's ornamentation style, even though it is unclear as to whether the style is based

upon a vocal model. These examples do present a consistent picture of a relatively

modest application of embellishing notes to an original vocal melody. If the arrangement

of "Cara sposa" was truly based on pre-existing vocal ornamentation, then its neat,

compactly-embellished style of interval-filling small notes is of interest to the modern

 109

singer. In addition, the absence of elaborate, out-of-time cadenzas in both ruTangements

is also significant. Today's singer would need a very flexible vocal technique, however,

to successfully cope with this amount of intricate florid embellishment.

Ornamentation by Handel's Contemporaries

William Babell

A popular set of keyboard arrangements of Handel's opera ruias (published during

his lifetime) was that by William Babell, The Harpsichord Dlustrated and Improved

(London, 1730), Part 6 of Peter Prelleur's Modern Musick Master. These an-angements,

which include arias from Handel's Rinaldo, II pastor fido (1712), and Teseo (1713), are

published in the Chrysander edition. 214 The Englishman Babell (ca. 1690-1723) was a

harpsichordist as well as a violinist, organist and composer. He was the harpsichordist in

Rinaldo, which was Handel's first London opera, and he was the first to arrange favmite

Italian opera arias for the keyboard. Interestingly, Babell's arrangements include the

names of the vocal soloists who sang each aria in the operas. Each piece is prefaced by

the heading, "Sung by.... ," leading one to surmise that the embellishments in the

keyboard arrangements included at least some of those as sung by the opera soloists.

Examination of these arrangements reveals some interesting points. Babell

generously used agrement signs for the smaller ornaments (see fig. 25), testament to the

growing influence of French ornamentation practices not only in Germany, but also in

England, at the beginning of the eighteenth-century. The French used a highly

214
Babell, 210-43.
 110

sophisticated and complex system of fixed ornaments that was notated in keyboard music

by the application of various signs above the melody. 215 Italian operatic singers in

Handel's era tended to improvise embellishments freely. If one wrote down the singers'

embellishments, however, one would have to resort to some system of shorthand to

notate the vruious trills and extremely intricate ornaments employed. So it is not cleru· if

Babell was transcribing embellishments of singers, if he was freely ornamenting the ruias

himself, or, more likely in this author's opinion, if the arrangements were a combination

of embellishments of singers and more characteristic harpsichord applications of tJ.ills

and fixed ornaments.

If the an·angements do indeed contain some actual vocal embellishments, they are

very valuable in a study of Handel's ornamentation style. In Babell's ruTangement of

"Lascia ch'io pianga" (Fig. 25), the general framework of the aria is retained, but the

melody is embellished by multiple fixed ornaments such as trills, mordents. and small

divisions. In this aria, Babell's coloratura passages consist mainly of embellishments

which fill gaps between phrases, an indication of the "accompanist's rather than the

singer's improvisation in actual operatic performance," according to Neumann. Neumann

also suggests that in this document the small graces possibly indicate that Handel did not

favor copious ornamentation. 216 At first glance, the arrangement seems to suggest a

language much more typical of keyboard embellishment than that used by vocalists.

215
Aldrich notes that Babell's agrement usage "probably contributed much towards
establishing the French ornaments in England" (Aldrich, "The Principal Agrements of the
Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries," xc).
21
~eumann, Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music, 555.
 111

Fig. 25. The first phrase from William Babell's harpsichord arrangement of Handel's
aria. "Lascia ch'io pianga" from the opera Rinaldo (Babell, 216)
CIIJ!fio.- I

·- ...
~:
I F
&1 & I~ ~ t 1 ..
j, f ;t: ..1.

i I~

One of Babell's arrangements, "Sulla ruota di fortuna" from Rinaldo, has been

edited and published by Wolff in a modem perfonning edition for singers. 217 This

edition shows the original vocal line as compared with the ornamented line from Babell's

arrangement. In Wolffs edition, Babell's keyboard arrangement is affixed with a text

setting made by the editor. The edition pennits easy comparison of each version

(Handel's original, and Babell's simple and elaborate statements) by notating one above

the other (Fig. 26).

217
Babell's arrangement has been transcribed for singers by Wolff in Ori gjnal Vocal
Jmpmvjsations from the 16th - 18th Centuries (1 0 1-8), which also contains the edition of
the Otrone arias discussed earlier in this document.
 112
Fig. 26. A portion of the A section of Handel's aria, "Sulla ruota," from the opera
Rinaldo, showing Handel's original vocal melody above Wolffs vocal transcription of
William Babell's harpsichord arrangement of the same (Wolff, 103-4).

=
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 113
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Babell's first statement of the A section is ornamented with the addition of

numerous fixed graces such as mordents, half-mordents, and/or trills on first notes of

phrases, accented syllables, and longer notes within melismas. He also incorporates

numerous divisions such as interval-filling passages of eighth note triplets and sixteenth

notes. If one assumes Babell's arrangement is that sung by "Signor Valentini," then the
 114

Italian singer did add quite a few embellishments to the first section of the da capo aria,

certainly more than implied by Handel's own ornamentation of the Ottone and Amadigi

arias and more than suggested by Tosi as truly appropriate. 218 Handel's own

embellishments of the Ottone and Amadigi mias imply that they were to be added during

the repeat of the A section. 219 His embellishments do not infmm us about his preference

of ornamentation in the first statement of the A section. If the Babell arrangement is

understood to be truly representative of an Italian singer's embellishment of a Handel aria

as sung in one of Handel's productions, it provides evidence that Handel permitted more

than the most simple embellishments to the initial statement of the A section in his

operas.

The da capo is embellished with entire phrases utilizing sixteenth note melismas

(Fig. 26, first phrase) and thirty-second note passages in place of original eighth notes

(Fig. 26, m. 25). The second-to-the-last vocal phrase is embellished with divisions

consisting of sixteenth and thuty-second notes which extend the melodic compass of the

original by the interval of a fifth, creating an in-time cadenza. Interestingly, the final

phrase of the da capo by comparison is left modestly embellished, with the last three

measures identical to the end of the first statement of the A section. This omission of a

21
s.rosi (Foreman), 59.
219
As noted in Chapter 2, one must keep in mind that in the case of the Ottone arias,
Handel was adding ornaments to a pre-existing score which precluded showing any
embellishment of the initial A section (as the da capo would have been notated as a
repeat of the A section, just as editions are printed today). In the case of Handel's
ornamented aria from Amadigi, he also wrote the A section out once, with the
embellishments presumably to be sung during the da capo.
 115

cadenza for the final cadence of the piece might indicate that one was improvised in

performance.

Ornamentation of Handel Arias by Singers

Handel endeavored to employ the finest singers available for his operatic

productions, even travelling, on occasion, to Italy to do so. His was the era of the

virtuoso singer, typified by castrati with voices of unusual power, agility, and tonal

beauty. Most of Handel's operatic singers, the vast majority of whom were Italians, had

attained the highest level of artistry, 220 a level that declined during the period when

Handel was forced to switch from operatic to oratorio writing (1730s). In the operas,

Handel's soloists were usually of the highest calibre in Italianate vocalism, but it must be

remembered that Handel's English soloists were totally eclipsed in vocal prowess by their

Italian contemporaries. 221

A number of manuscripts of various Handel opera arias is known to exist which

includes ornaments by singers from Handel's own era or slightly later. One such

manuscript is in the Barrett Lennard collection at the Fitzwilliam Museum (probably

copied sometime between 1760 and 1770), which contains ornaments written in pencil.

The aria is "Ombra cara" from Radamisto (first performed in 1720). Whether the

2
W0ean and Knapp provide additional information not revealed in The New Grove
Dictionary about Handel's singers in Hande]'s Operas C1 704-1 726), Appendix E,
"Handel's Singers" (666ff); Dean also provides additional information in Handel's
Dramatic Oratorios and Masques (London: Oxford University Press, 1959; reprint,
London: Oxford University Press, 1966), in Appendix I, "Handel's Oratorio Singers"
(651ff).
221
See Burney's description of the establishment of Italian opera in London (Burney,
A General History r:fMusjc, 2:651ff).
 116

ornamentation in this manuscript is actually from the 1720s is uncertain, but it does give

some indication of ornamentation typical of a Handel aria in that period.

Fig. 27. "Ombra cara" from Radamisto with eighteenth-century ornamentation (Knapp,
166)
Largo
s; : 2 = 2 'l. 2 :
G'
Om • b<a Q- r:l. Orn a - ra

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ri-

po-s;a.e lie-!a a- ~pel-la Ia ..., • <kr · b.

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,
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,., ¥en• dcr •
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The embellishment in Fig. 27 is very unpretentious and consists primarily of agrements

or "fixed" ornaments, similar to those used by Babell in his harpsichord arrangements of

Handel arias. The ornaments were likely intended for the da capo in accordance with

established convention. although they seem the type of simple embellishments that would
 117

have been appropriate for the first statement of the A section. There are frequent

appoggiature and long trills at cadences, which are easier to interpret than the other

signs. The signs .,I and + were used by J. C. Smith Sr. in his other copies of Handel

works, and Walsh and Chrysander printed them in their editions as mordents. J. Merrill

Knapp agrees with interpreting .,I as a mordent, but notes that the + probably represents a

turn or a short trill since it often falls to the right of the note affected. 222 However

interpreted, these small ornaments present a very modest style of ornamentation without

copious divisions or even the hint of a cadenza.

Other arias in the Lennard, Coke, and Malmesbury Collections also contain

inserted ornaments by contemporaries of Handel's era. The Lennard .collection includes

pencilled-in ornaments (though no cadenzas) for the oratodos Judas Maccabaeus (1747),

Alexander Balus (1748), and Jephtha (1752) that most likely date from after Handel's

death. 223 Dean and Knapp have made the following observations about the

embellishments: they are "simpler, less ambitious, and more predictable, but after the

same manner" as Handel's own ornaments. The embellishments also bear no

resemblance to the "wild excursions above the stave and into alien styles heard ... in

some recent productions." Dean and Knapp note (in reference to recent productions),

222
Knapp, 165. Knapp contends that the turn and short trill were "practically
synonymous" in the eighteenth century.
223
Dean, Handel's Dramatic Oratorios and Masques, 116, note.
 118

"there is not the slightest doubt which models should be followed in modern

performances. "224

Messiah has been popular since its creation, and numerous eighteenth-century

manuscripts by various scribes exist. Watkins Shaw has published some ornaments from

eighteenth-century manuscripts in his latest edition of the oratorio Messiah (1992),

including some from the "Goldschmidt" (ca. pre-1749) and "Matthews" (1761, with

additions in 1764-65) manuscripts. Some of these ornaments are those which were

actually used during Handel's lifetime and are, therefore, very illuminating.

Shaw "mixed" ornaments from both manuscripts and added some ornamental

suggestions of his own in a couple of the arias such as "I know that my Redeemer liveth"

(No. 45). This assortment of ornaments from different sources possibly does not paint

the clearest picture of authentic eighteenth-century style, and singers need to be aware of

this combination of ornaments and read the Preface notes carefully. For example, "He

was despised" (No. 23), contains ornaments from the "Goldschmidt" MS, plus some

editorial additions. One of the editorial additions is a simple in-time cadenza at the end

of the A section (m. 42), but it is most interesting to realize that the eighteenth-century

ornamentation did not include any cadenza indications in U.'lis aria.

In other instances, Shaw provides more than one cadenza choice, albeit from

different manuscript sources. Some of these eighteenth-century cadenzas are the out-of-

time type for quick arias ("Ev'ry valley," No.3, and "Rejoice greatly," No. 18, Version 2

[12/8]). The out-of-time cadenzas occur at the close of the arias and add at least one

224
Dean and Knapp, 30.
 119

measure of extra material. Note that the eighteenth-century singers used out-of-time

cadenzas sparingly, inserting them in fast pieces and only at the final cadence of the aria.

The rest of the eighteenth-century ornaments are modest in conception and

include the following: numerous appoggiature which create stepwise passages, 225 as in

"If God be for us" (No. 52, Version 1 [soprano]), and "He was despised" (No. 23);

passing tones, slide figures, trills, and appoggiature (throughout A and B sections in "He

was despised," and "But thou didst not leave his soul in hell" [No. 32]); as well as in-time

cadenzas (as in "But thou didst not leave"). Although "I know that my redeemer liveth"

(No. 45) is a modified da capo form, ornaments are present throughout the first statement

of the A section (mostly from the "Goldschmidt" MS), which lends support to the

contention that Handel approved of modest ornamentation of the first statement of the A

section.

Handel's Italian Singers

Handel lived and worked in the realm of the star singer during the first half of the

eighteenth century. It was not uncommon for operatic stars to embellish arias so much

that barely any of the composer's origii!~l melody remained. In light of this practice, it is

most interesting to discover that some of Handel's most prized soloists evidently did

favor a more modest style of ornamentation. This simpler style of embellishment was in

contrast to the popularity of wild and copious flights of ornamental fancy in opera seria

225
Some of the appoggiature indicated in "If God be for us" might be performed in the
"dragging" style (in a dotted rhythm) as discussed in Chapter 2 of this document in the
discussion of articulation.
 120

promoted by many Italian artists in the mid to late eighteenth century. The

ornamentation style used by some of Handel's operatic artists including Faustina

Bordoni, Francesca Cuzzoni, and Senesino will be discussed below. The great casn·aro

Farinelli will also be introduced as one who indulged in excess ornamentation.

The Prime Donne

Faustina Bordoni

Mezzo-soprano Faustina Bordoni (1700-1781) was engaged by Handel at

London's Royal Academy of Music in 1726 to sing in Alessandro. He also subsequently

engaged her for Admeto (1727), Riccardo Prinw (1727), Siroe (1727), and Tolomeo

(1728). The cast of each of these operas also included fellow superstar singers Senesino

(Francesco Bernardi, ?-1759, Handel's leading castrato) and her most famous rival,

soprano Francesca Cuzzoni (1696-1778). Faustina was celebrated for her surp1isingly

neat and quick ability to sing divisions, her long sustained notes, her su·ong and rapid

trills, her perfect intonation, and her beauty and intelligence. Although the range of her

voice was small by today's standards (B-flat below middle C to G below high C), she

gained international fame after a run of performances in London. 226

An example of Faustina's style of ornamentation can be seen in a Library of

Congress manuscript that includes her embellishments to the aria "Sciolta dallido" by

226
For more detailed descriptions of Faustina's vocal abilities and her performances in
London, see Burney, 2:738-46.
 121

Giuseppe Vignati (ca. 1768).227 Handel's soloists Faustina, Cuzzoni, and Anastasia

Robinson (ca. 1692-1755) were all praised for their vocal abilities. and this aria provides

a rare glLrnpse into the manner in which one of the foremost female singers of the day

would have ornamented a da capo aria. Although this is not a Handel aria. Faustina's

written embellishments are extremely important in the study of Handelian omamentation,

since she was one of Handel's most celebrated opera singers.

When studying Faustina's embellishments for this particular aria, it immediately

becomes apparent that these are unpretentious in conception when compared with the

documented embellishment style of many of the castrati who were her contemporaries.

Buelow suggests that too many performance practice scholars have been overly

impressed by the art of the castrati, whereas many of the "superhuman" qualities of their

technique (range and power coupled with "gymnastic" agility) were beyond the physical

capabilities of the female singers of the day. 228 Although Faustina's ornamental

technique cannot be completely discerned from a single aria, one cannot fail to note that

the embellishment style closely matches Handel's own in that the music, rather than the

artist, is the primary focus. A principal means by which this style is achieved is that the

original melodic outline is faithfully maintained throughout in all but the major cadential

points, regardless of the amount of ornamentation employed.

227
This manuscript in the Library of Congress (Music Division, M1500 S28 05)
contains twenty miscellaneous opera arias, two duets, and one quartet. Two of the arias
included provide the names of the singers involved in the performances, Margru.ita Zani
(dates unknown) and Faustina Bordoni (Beulow, 79-96).
228
Beulow, 95.
 122

Faustina's ornamentation is entered in the manuscript on a second staff

underneath the original vocal line and is presumably to be sung during the da capo of the

A section of the aria. According to Tosi's instructions for appropliate embellishment, the

fust statement of the A section required only the smallest addition of graces, such as an

occasional appoggiatura or cadential trill, so that the basic melody would be heard in its

relatively pure and unadorned form; 229 therefore, as in Handel's own written

embellishments, no ornamental indications or instructions were probably necessary for

the amount required. The B section remains almost totally unadorned except for the

addition of a modest cadenza for which two choices are written. Faustina does add two

measures to each of the cadenzas at the end of the B section. These two added measures

of simple divisions take place while the accompaniment sustains a fermata, an indication

for the singer to freely embellish (Fig. 28).

Fig. 28. An example of Faustina's embellishments to the aria "Sciolta dallido" by

Giuseppe Vignati (Beulow, 93)

a. Original vocal line and continuo part from B section with symbol showing placement
of a cadenza

eel - La =:: - :Ot" - 11e

..
I

22
9-yosi (Foreman), 59.
 123
......--....
I,...": ; : ~ I:\

E ~ t if
9
IJ Q S l
I n - tor - ne r:l..
~-
~ I:\
!:) ~
:
A.

: : :
)_; j ...

I I ....
b. Two choices for a cadenza to conclude the B section.

...
-
- n - tor--:r= I I ne - ra..
.. I
~.... - I~,
--..-;:1 J
n - tor-------------------------

Faustina's embellishments of the A section increase in energy with each

successive phrase. She utilizes smaller note values (sixteenth notes and sixteenth note

triplets) to fill in chordal tones and create scalar passages while still maintaining the

original melodic contour (Fig. 29).

Fig. 29. Ritornello embellishment by Faustina in "Sciolta dallido" by Giuseppe

Vignati (Beulow, 86-88). First statement A section ritornello mm. 20-35, second
statement A section ritornello, mm. 40-51.

Sciol- t:1. i
j_
ll - do con fl. - do.
__I
Sciol - :.a dal li - do con ve: - to_in L:l.-

. Caru;..u,assi Soli 16 ~
 124
[2Sj
II

..
- - I sec -
~~-
la D.3. vi
-I eel Ia ~ glio
I
va.

.. __.
D.3. - V1 - eel - la. ~ - gllo va.

..
Se:>

.... r :
•
I

:;:
l f I

§j
" ....-....
..
" ..-.......
I

- ~--
...

..
!
J J-

-~ ....--
~
:e:-r t r J! =r r:l J
1-~~-
~ sco - gl!o va..

~ r ,. E I
r p l:i
:. f
1 :

-t ..
1..
9
·~
~r
;;
11

...
sco - &llo

~ -.
~.
va. •

~
........--.....

- ta - do con

J
J ""
Sciol - :.:!. li - do con
ve~n~=;=:=::to::-i.n -
,/ II '
§.]
- 125

fl. - do Ia
_.. ..
::::1 - ~..L-1 eel - Ia al :seo gUo

II ' ~

-:r
..
.J
fl. - do Ia
J
::::1 - vi. eel - Ia a1 :seo
c
gUo
::::.,
~ ~
A I I

/II ~ I

II
va

-- ..
-
I~ -~
va
"

I
I
I
*"
~
I
L
'
...
I
.._I

,_

The end of the da capo is embellished with a cadenza which adds two measures

to the original composition where the accompaniment contains no fermata or long held

note, however, it is more modest than might be expected in light of the castrati technique

of the period (Fig. 30). The cadenza utilizes the rhythm of triplets, which have been used

throughout the ornamentation, and is based upon a similar downward scale passage of

triplet figures alr~ady heard in the da capo (mm. 75-76). Note that Faustina added
 126

measures for cadenzas in an aria in which the tempo was designated Svelto e con spirito,

suggesting a quick speed and brilliant ornamental technique.

Fig. 30. Faustina's cadenza for the end of the da capo in "Sciolta dallido" by Giuseppe
Vignati (Beulow, 89-90).

[1:"11

103. n - vt - Ice~ 1.:1.._al- Isco~~ ,n. j.

"
·-·
!03.
.. ::03.
.j

- vt
...
- eel
[r.;' I

I
['-!II
J
J"
-
1.:1.

t
a1 sco
- gllo

:;:
va.

One of the most interesting features of this manuscript is Faustina's inclusion of

trillo technique as described in the preceding chapter. Trillo technique was not often

heard in the late Baroque, and her ability to produce it distinguished her from many of

her contemporaries. Measure 52 begins a passage in which the symbol, , used to

designate a trill in this manuscript, is interpreted as a series of repeated notes with

smaller note heads. This symbol is not written out in similar fashion in other portions of

the aria. Beulow comments that, "this indication can only be interpreted as a symbolic

notation for the trillo of the seventeenth-century monodists.... "230 The

number of note repetitions represented by the small note heads (which in this case are

eighth notes) should not be taken as a literal indication of the number of pitch

23
'Thid., 91. Beulow also suggests that this ornament should be reintroduced in the
music of Handel today. He notes its rarity in today's vocal technique partially because of
its difficulty and unusual sensations which "many singers tend to find ... unpleasant to
execute" (92).
 127

reiterations, according to Beulow. 231 The performance speed of the ornamental trilla

would probably have been at the speed of sixteenth notes or greater.

Fig. 31. Examples of Faustina's trilla indications in the aria" Sciolta dallido" by
Giuseppe Vignati (Beulow, 88)

La :13. - vi.
-I eel

·~
l:a. aa. - vi - eel

I I I ... II.

-
---
11

"' I I - 1:1_1l \ 3CO -g~o """ I

I
I
-
11 !
I
'- ! l:lal sco -gUo v:a.
I
.II. w ~
====
3
.~ .... .6-....
i - - - - - . . . . ;:::::: :-----
~ ~~~£ I -....
. I
v I

Francesca Cuzzoni

Faustina's principal rival was another of Handel's most celebrated prime donne,

the soprano Francesca Cuzzoni. Cuzzoni's style of ornamentation was described by

Burney as follows:

231
Ibid. Trillo technique as practiced in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
involved the rapid acceleration of note values, but Handel's composed passages of trilla
often contained only simple repeated eighth or sixteenth notes.
 128

The art of conducting, sustaining, increasing, and diminishing her tones by

minute degrees, acquired her, among professors, the title of complete mistress of
her art. In a cantabile air, though the notes she added were few, she never lost a
favourable opportunity of enriching the cantilena with all the refinements and
embellishments of the time. Her shake was perfect, she had a creative fancy ...
232

Cuzzoni was known for facile divisions, wonderful high notes, perfect intonation, messa

di voce, and a naturalness of tone which enabled her to sing pathetic airs well. 233

Burney's description of her ornamental talents, "though the notes she added were few,"

matches the style as evidenced by Faustina in the examples previously cited. Cuzzoni

appeared with great success in Ottone (1723), Flavia (1723), Giulio Cesare (1724),

Tamerlano (1724), Rode linda (1725), Scipione (1726), Alessandro (1726), Admeto

(1727), Riccardo Prinw (1727), Siroe (1727), Tolomeo (1728), and several revivals,

including one of Radamisto (1728).

The Castrati

Sene sino

Prime donne such as Faustina and Cuzzoni competed for the spotlight with the

castrati. Handel's leading castrato of the 1720s, Senesino, was known for the simplicity

of expression in his style, in contrast to the elaborateness of that of many castrati,

notably Farinelli. 234 Quantz heard Senesino in 1718-19 and again in 1727 and told

232
Burney, 2:736-37.

233Ibid.

234
Burney praised Senesino as giving greater satisfaction to the English audience than
any other foreign singer, including Farinelli, Caffarelli, Conti detto Gizziello
(continued ... )
 129

Burney in 1772, "He [Senesino] never loaded adagios with too many ornaments, but he

delivered the original and essential notes with the utmost refinement." 235 This comment

can be interpreted as indicative of Handel's preferred style of ornamentation because

Senesino was one of his most favored singers. Senesino's ornamental style matched the

style of embellishment revealed in Handel's own ornamented arias, as well as that

revealed in Faustina's aria discussed above. Senesino was also known for his expert

delivery of recitative, and his pure style of singing was well-suited to the English

oratorios of the 1730s. Senesino's roster of performances for Handel indicates the high

esteem afforded him: Muzio Scevola (1721), Floridante (1721), Ottone (1723), Flavio

(1723), Giulio Cesare (1724), Tamerlano (1724),Rodelinda (1725), Scipione (1726),

Alessandro (1726), Admeto (1727), Riccardo primo (1727), Siroe (1728), Tolomeo

(1728), Poro (1731), Ezio (1732), Sosarme (1732), Esther (1732), Acis and Galatea

(1732, using both English and Italian languages), Deborah (1733), and several revivals,

including two of Radamisto (1720 and 1728).

(... continued)
(Gioacchino Conti, 1714-1761), and Giovanni Carestini (ca. 1704-ca. 1760). He
impressed "without high notes or rapid execution, by the majesty and dignity of his
person, gestures, voice, and expression" (Charles Burney, "Sketch of the Life of Handel,"
in An Account of the Musical Performances in Westminster-Abbey. and the Pantheon
.In Commemoration of Handel [1785; reprint, Amsterdam: Frits A.M. Knuf, 1964],
23*).
235
Johann Joachim Quantz as quoted in Henry Pleasants, The Great Singers· From the
Dawn of Opera to Our Own Time (New York: A Fireside Book published by Simon and
Schuster, 1966), 63. Unfortunately, no written examples of Senesino's ornamentation
style are known to this author.
 130

Farinelli

Although he appeared in only one Handel opera, Ottone, Farinelli (1705-1782)

cannot be omitted from any discussion of early eighteenth-century vocal ornamentation.

Farinelli, whose real name was Carlo Broschi, was the most famous and celebrated of the

castrati. His vocal talent was extraordinary, and many of his own embellishments

survive, helping to illuminate the prodigious feats of the star singer atmosphere in which

Handel worked. 236 He sang the role of Adelberto in Handel's last revival of Ottone

(1734), which was produced by the Opera of the Nobility. 237 Handel allowed Farinelli to

insert seven arias into the opera, none of which was written for Ottone (although five

were from other Handel operas). 238 The Italian actor and historian Luigi Ricoboni

praised Cuzzoni and Senesino for preserving the "true manner" of Italian singing, while

236
Many of Farinelli's embellishments have been preserved. The most notable
collection is Franz Habock's posthumous piano-vocal anthology of forty-two
miscellaneous arias and fragments from arias sung by Farinelli between 1720 and 1737.
Regrettably, however, this volume contains no bibliographic information as to the
sources of the music or the orchestral forces originally employed (see Habock, .I2k
Gesangskunst der Kastraten, vol. 1, A Die Kunst de Caya1iere Car]o Broscbj Farinelli
B Farinellis beriihmte Arien).
237
Farinelli's popularity in Handel's rival opera company, the Opera of the Nobility,
"contributed to Handel's eventual withdrawal from the operatic scene" (Robert Freeman,
"Farinella and His Repertory," in Studies in Renaissance and Baroque Music in Honor of
Artbur Mendel, ed. Robert L. Marshall [Kassel: Barenreiter, 1974], 304).
238
For an excellent discussion of this practice of "portable" arias, see Daniel E.
Freeman, "An 18th-century Singer's Commission of'Baggage' Arias," Early Music 20
(August 1992): 427-33.
 131

he disparaged the new style of singing of Faustina Bordoni and Farinelli: "the artificial

has taken the place of the beautiful and simple." 239

The "artificial" must refer to the amount of copious embellishment for which

Farinelli was so famous; the single known aria embellished by Faustina does not match

Riccoboni's judgement of her style, however. In Chapter 2 of this document, there is an

example of the liberties Farinelli took in cadenzas including lengthy improvisation at the

ends of an excessive number of phrases (Ch. 2, Fig. 12). Fig. 32 shows another splendid

indication of his typical style of ornamentation. This excerpt includes only a tiny pmtion

of the aria which is similarly embellished throughout. Here Farinelli's ornamentation is

shown above the original melodic line. These embellishments were probably used in the

da capo repetition, although free embellishment was no doubt used in the first statement

of the A section, as well. Note the excessively long string of trills and repetitious use of

lengthy scale passages. Farinelli's division on the word "mar" (partially excerpted in Fig.

32) takes three pages plus one measure of printed score, but it must be noted that Hasse's

original division is just as long, although not nearly as vocally difficult. Obviously, both

Hasse and Farinelli were musically depicting the tumultuousness of the sea.

239
Luigi Riccoboni, Reflexjons bjstoriques et critiques sur les differens theatres de
l'Europe (1738), quoted in Robert Freeman, 305.
 132

Fig. 32. A portion of the bravura aria, "Son qual nave che agitata," from Adolf Hasse's
opera, Anaserse showing Farinelli's embellishments above the original melodic line
(HabOck, 182)

Pfr fr tr tr lr lr tr lr fr tr lr 'tr lr lr

II ]J
~~·------------------------------------~----~

It) ... ... + ..... + .

m~--------------------------------------------

..,
----
It) _ ..._... ---
... ...

Farinelli was so skilled at florid embellishment that his brother wrote an aria which

became known as the famous "concerto for larynx" because of its wealth of vocal

gymnastics. It was an example of what many (including Tosi) referred to as excessive

"bad taste" and included leaps of a tenth, many repeated notes, syncopation, numerous

240
arpeggios and a high E.

Farinelli was unquestionably admired and rewarded for his athletic vocal style

and beautiful timbre. Wild vocal feats created a mystique which fueled the castrati's

24
0por a brief excerpt see Pleasants, 73.
 133

success. Although such castrato singers were financially successful and immensely

popular with audiences, it remains a paradox that their vocal displays were adamantly

criticized by influential critics and musicians such as Tosi. Copious embellishment is

known to have increased among Italian-trained operatic singers in the decades following

the 1730s.

Performance Practice

The style of ornamentation employed in Handel's vocal works was dependent on

the amount and type of embellishment approved of by Handel, the vocal prowess of his

singers, the prevailing Affekt of the music, the intended audience, the site of the

performance, and, of course, any musical considerations such as tempo, compass of the

melody, etc. In addition to, and because of these various influences, the author believes

that a distinction should be drawn among the omamentation styles employed in Handel's

works for each of the various genres of cantata, opera, and oratorio. 241 Tosi distinguished

three styles of singing in his treatise which support this conclusion: the theater, the

chamber, and the church. He noted that the "Ancients" (singers of the seventeenth

century) made the following distinctions in perfonnance: "for the theater, the style was

charming and varied; for the chamber, embellished and finished; and for the church,

tender and solemn." 242 According to Tosi, the "Moderns" (his eighteenth-century

241
Jens Peter Larsen, Handel Haydn and the Viennese Classical Style, trans. Uhich
Kramer, Studies in Musicology Series, ed. George J. Buelow, no. 100 (Ann arbor, Mich.:
UMI Research Press, 1988), 47.
24
~osi (Foreman), 58.
 134

contemporaries) usually did not adhere to these subtle differences, but they should

have. 243

One of the major factors in support of a distinction in ornamental styles among

the genres is the documented decline in the technical and ornamental prowess of Handel's

vocal soloists in the 1730s. a time during which Handel made the deliberate switch from

opera to oratorio composition. The following narrative describes the change in

ornamental style caused by Handel's gradual shift from his accustomed use of exclusively

Italian soloists in the cantatas, to his use of predominately Italian soloists (as described

above) in the operas, to his use of predominately English soloists in the oratorios.

Cantata

Handel's writing of solo vocal cantatas while in Italy (1706-1710) provided a

training ground for dramatic expression during a time when the Catholic church had

forbidden public opera performances in Rome (1698-1709). While in Rome, Handei

wrote cantata, oratorio, and serenatas, all of which were similar in compositional style

and performance practice. 244 Handel's vocal cantatas were intended to be sung for a

243
Ibid. Although Tosi noted a decline in singers' adherence to these pe1formance
practice distinctions, Bacon (1824) spent a large part of his treatise discussing the
differences between the style and manner of chamber, church, theater, and concert (solo
voice with orchestra) singing. Bacon is particularly eloquent on this subject which is
barely hinted at in other sources. Because of Bacon's evidence, one may assume that the
differences in various styles of singing for the various genres were not totally discarded
in eighteenth-century England. Bacon notes a considerable difference in singing style
(amount of vocal force) and ornamentation required between chamber and opera singing
which probably was not as great in Handel's era, owing to the relative difference in the
size of operatic orchestras and the recorded increase in ornamental abuses (Bacon, 48).
244
Dean and Knapp, 80-81. Handel's composition from this period which can be
(continued ... )
 135

small, but discriminating, audience of aristocratic listeners, who, dming another period.

would have patronized the ope~a. They were perlormed for literary gatherings and

musical academies under the patronage of the Ruspoli family, Rnman cardinals, or

Ferdinanda's court in both Rome and Florence. 245 Many of his cantatas were w1itten for

soprano Margherita Durastanti (jl. 1700-1734),246 and it is probable that "Nell'at!icane

selve" (HWV 136) was written for the "sepulchral" bass Antonio Francesco Carli (jl.

1698-1723), who was an opera soloist for Caldara and others. 247 These singers were

immersed in the Italian operatic style of florid embellishment, a style used in cantatas as

well.

Opera and Oratorio

Although Han.del wrote only a few solo vocal cantatas after he left Italy, he

retained the Italian operatic vocal style in subsequent cantatas. In the first two decades of

the eighteenth century, Handel achieved great success in London with the production of

his Italian operas, but his involvement in this genre completely ceased at the end of the

244
( ••• continued)
classified as oratorio is Oratorio per Ia Resurrezione di Nostro Signor Gesii Cristo
(1708). This work would not have utilized the same English-influenced vocal
ornamental style as the oratorios of the 1730s and succeeding years.
245
Reinhard Strohm, Essays on Handel and Ita.Uan Opera (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1985), 7.
246
Female singers were only allowed to sing for private gatherings in Rome.
247
Dean and Knapp, 81.
 136

1740-1741 season. 248 Italianate vocal calisthenics (the type promoted by many of the

reigning castrati) increased in the decades during which Handel was composing opera

seria, 249 and the rigid conventions of opera seria, many of which evolved from the desire

to feed the egos of the star singers, contributed to the eventual decline of such virtuosic

displays, both in England and on the continent. According to Burney, in the 1730s

Handel's singers "brought over a new style of singing, and were possessed of vocal feats

of activity to which he was never partial." 250 Burney's comment, "Vocal feats of

activity," refers to numerous embellishments, the type for which Giovanni Carestini (ca.

1704-ca. 1760), Caffarelli,251 and Farinelli were famous. Handel's conservative attitude

is reflected in the refined style of his own ornamentation, in comments by Quantz and

248
In the 1740-17 41 season, Deidamia became Handel's last Italian opera wlitten for
the London stage. For the 1741-1742 season, Handel travelled to Dublin, where he
produced the first performances of the oratolio, Messiah (1742). In the late summer of
1742, Handel returned to London where he remained for the rest of his life. He
experimented with unstaged works in English around 1720 with A cis and Galatea, and
began alternating oratorio and opera performances in 1732 with Esther. By 1742,
English oratorio (in concert, not staged form) supplanted Handelian opera seria
performances in London.
249
See Burney, A General History ofMusjc, 2:813-14.
25
onus quote also states that the "new style of singing" occurred after Handel's
"schism" with his primo uomo, the castrato Senesino (1733) (Burney, "Sketch of the Life
ofHandel," *23).
251
Burney names Carestini and Caffarelli specifically, and also notes that Handel was
"unwilling to flatter" these two singers. Burney provides the following humorous
anecdote: The famous aria, "Verdi prati" (from Alcina) was originally returned to
Handel by Carestini as "unfit for him to sing," presumably because of its simple
unadorned style. Handel then promptly went to Carestini's house and cried out, "You
toe! Don't I know better as your seluf, vaat is pest for you to sing? If you vill not sing
all de song vaat I give you, I vill not pay you ein fiver" (Burney, "Sketch of the Life of
Handel," *24, note).
 137

Burney about Senesino's elegant and refined ornamentation, as well as in the Vignati aria

embellishments of Faustina. Handel's gradual switch from opera to oratorio writing

coincided with a reliance on English rather than Italian soloists, and the English favored

a less highly ornamental style of singing which was possibly more akin to his own tastes,

as well. 252

In reference to the differences in abilities of the soloists in the operas and

oratorios, historian Sir John Hawkins had the following to say:

Instead of airs that required the delicacy of Cuzzoni, or the volubility of

Faustina to execute, he [Handel] hoped to please by songs [in the oratorios], the
beauties whereof were within the comprehension of less fastidious hearers than in
general frequent the opera, namely, such as were adapted to a tenor voice. from
the natural firmness and inflexibility whereof little more is ever expected than an
articulate utterance of the words, and a just expression of the melody .... To such
a performance the talents of a second-rate singer, and persons used to choir
service were adequate. 253

Hawkins mentions the "less fastidious hearers," a reference to a middle-class audience,

which had replaced the aristocratic audience for all but the earliest oratorios. This

middle-class audience did not tolerate the conventions of the opera seria which had been

parodied in Gay and Pepusch's The Beggar's Opera of 1728.

252
Commenting on the quality and type of compositions Handel wrote after the schism
with the gifted and popular Senesino in the 1730s, Burney noted, "The voice part of his
songs was generally proportioned to the abilities of his singers, and it must be owned,
that, with a few exceptions, those of his late operas, and oratorios, were not possessed of
great powers either of voice, taste, expression, or execution" (Burney, "Sketch of the Life
ofHandel," 24).
253
Sir John Hawkins, A General mstory of the Science and Practice of Music, 5 vols.
(1776; new ed. with author's posthumous notes, 5 vols. in 2, London: J. Alfred Novello,
1853), 2:889.
 138

The demise of Italian opera in London caused many Italian singers to flee for the

continent. From 1732 to 1738 Handel employed English as well as Italian soloists such

as Senesino and Carestini (who only sometimes sang in English) 254 in the oratorio

performances, but by 1739 the soloists were local English singers who were "much less

professional than the Italian opera vhtuosos." 255 Winton Dean notes that all of these

singers were not English by bilth, but that they were "thoroughly Anglicized," and "were

none of them artists of the front rank, and so did not eclipse their native colleagues." 256

The change from Italian to English singers was necessitated by two factors: the

exclusive use of the English language in the oratorios, and the disappearance of many

Italian operatic virtuosos from the London scene. Since the two nationalities (Italian and

English) preferred different vocal styles and exhibited differing technical abilities, an

~is massacre· of the English language did not last long, as English soloists
eventually took over. This quote from the anonymous pamphlet, See and Seem Blind
voices the English audience's frustration over the poor diction of the Italians: "Senesino
and Bertolli made rare work with the English Tongue you would have sworn it had been
Welch; I would have wish'd it Italian, that they might have sung with more ease to
themselves, since, but for the Name of English, it might as well have been Hebrew."
This lack of diction was a common complaint, with one performance changing the line,
"I come, my Queen, to chaste delights," into "I comb my Queen to Chase the lice"!
(Dean, Handel's Dramatic Oratorios and Masques, 207).
255
Larsen, Handel Haydn and the Viennese Classical Style, 46. Italian soloists were
used in oratorio for a few bilingual performances in 1741 and 1744 "due to linguistic
deficiencies of fresh singers" (Dean, Handel's Dramatic Oratorios and Masques, 107).
256
In an effort to create dramatic consistency, Handel entrusted leading parts in the
oratorios to artists who were actresses, not primarily singers, such as Susanna Maria
Cibber (1714-1766), Kitty Clive (1711-1785), and Thomas Lowe (d. 1783). Dean,
Handel's Dramatic Oratorios and Masques, 107.
 139

"equalization" of performance practice today in the operas and oratorios is not

appropriate. 257

English Singers

Ironically, it was the English singers who, presumably by their captivating

performances, were responsible for the establishment of Italian opera in England. The

first English person to sing in Italian opera in England was soprano Catherine Tofts (ca.

1685-1756). Historian Sir John Hawkins notes that Mrs. Tofts was able to compete

admirably with her rival, Italian soprano Francesca Margherita de L'Epine (d. 1746), but

he also admits that, "between any other of our countrywomen and the Italians we hear of

no competition." 258 Hawkins also mentions a few other eighteenth-century accolades

afforded Mrs. Tofts, but the discerning Charles Burney acknowledges that most of her

vocalism was "easy and common," and he prints several excerpted passages of her

divisions. 259

Burney's assessment of Mrs. Tofts's singing is not unusual. In reference to the

English singers Jane Barbier (ca. 1692-d. after 1740), Mrs. Pearson (dates unknown), and

Richard Leveridge (ca. 1670-1758), Burney commented in 1712, "though good second

and third rate performers, [they] were not sufficiently captivating to supply the place of

257
Larsen, Handel Haydn and the Viennese Classical Style, 47.
258
Sir John Hawkins, A General History of the Science and Practice of Music, 5 vols.
(1776; new ed. with author's posthumous notes, 5 vols. in 2, London: J. Alfred Novello.
1853), 2:815. According to Burney, Margarita de L'Epine's singing involved "real
difficulties;" in other words, it was not so simple (Burney, A Genera] History of Music,
2:670-71).
259
Burney, A General History of Music, 2:651ff, and 2:668-69.
 140

such singers as the town had then been accustomed to." 260 The singers which London

had "been accustomed to" were the Italians Handel had employed in Rinaldo (1711),

including Nicolini (Nicolo Grimaldi, 1673-1732), Valentini (Valentino Urbani, fl. 1690-

1722), Vanini-Boschi (Francesca Vanini [Boschi], d. 1744), et al. Both Barbier and

Leveridge, however, went on to sing in several of Handel's operas. Although the English

singers were capable of less vocal display and creativity in embellishment than their

Italian contemporaries, some of them still managed to compete and perform with world-

famous singers such as Faustina, Cuzzoni, Senesino, and Farinelli.

One of Handel's favorite and most popular soloists was Anastasia Robinson, the

"darling of the aristocracy." 261 She first studied singing with the Englishman "Dr. Crofts"

[sic] (William Croft, 1678-1727) but went on to study with the Italian singing master

Pier Giuseppe Sandoni (1685-1748, Cuzzoni's husband), as well as the opera singer

Joanna Maria Lindelheim, known as "the Baroness," (jl. 1703-17, d. 1724) so that "her

taste in singing might approach nearer to that of the natives of Italy. "262 This comment

revealed the general need for her to be better schooled in the art of Italian bel camo

technique. An interesting footnote to Mrs. Robinson's career is that she sang frequently

2
~bid., 2:681.
261
Dean and Knapp, 154. Anastasia Robinson began with minor roles and graduated
to primary roles in every one of Handel's London operas beginning with Rinaldo (1711)
and ending with Giulio Cesare (1724) (including some revivals).
262
Burney, A General History of Music, 2:690.
 141

with the Italian opera company at the Haymarket in London and never sang in any

English operas or masques. 263

Conclusions

This chapter has revealed the need for a varied approach in ornamenting Handel's

cantatas, operas, and oratorios. In addition, Handel's own ornamental style has been

shown to be more refined and modest than that of many of his contemporaries. When

Handel's ornamentation style is referred to as "modest" or "conservative," it must be

remembered that these descriptions are relative in comparison to the elaborate

embellishment style made popular by the eighteenth-century public's insatiable appetite

for vocal calisthenics and star personalities. The ornamentation of the superstar castrati

was regarded as improper by many eighteenth-century critics. It included such

embellishments as repetitious scalar passages and arpeggios, rocket figures, and the

destruction of the original musical form by the insertion of passaggi and excessively long

and frequent cadenzas at improper musical and textual points. None of these

improprieties are apparent in the ornamentation of Handel, nor are they evident in the

sources examined in this document by those known to have worked with him.

It must also be remembered that the terms "modest," "conservative," "simple," et

cetera are in comparison to the vocal technique of Handel's contemporaries, not to that of

present-day singers. For example, a singer's attempt at ornamentation today often

consists of the insertion of a few appoggiature and obligatory cadential trills. This

263
Dean and Knapp, 154, note.
 142

amount of ornamentation would have been appropriate during the first statement of the A

section of ada capo aria in Handel's era, but would have been considered sparse in the B

section and the da capo in all but the most solemn oratorio arias. Handel's ornamentation

includes the obligatory trills and appoggiature in addition to divisions and passaggi of a

highly refined, intricate, and sophisticated nature. In comparison to the amount of

ornamentation frequently heard today, the ornamentation revealed in this chapter seems

abundant. These embellishments, however, remain within the bounds of propdety and

subservience to the music in that they stay within the original melodic compass, preserve

the style characteristics of each genre, and enhance the overall Affekt in each case. The

vocal ornamentation and keyboard arrangements presented in this chapter by Handel's

contemporaries, and the embellishment technique of his preferred soloists all point to an

ltalianate ornamental style subservient to the genius of the music.

Understanding Handel's own preferred style of ornamentation is the basis for any

attempts at ornamenting his music today. The remainder of this chapter discusses the

three basic genres of Handel's vocal music, the type and amount of ornamentation

appropriate in each, and how the principle of Affekt functions in each genre. These

conclusions have been drawn from the research presented in this document in order to

reveal its implications for performance today. Chapter 4 is the implementation of these

ornamental principles in performance score form.

Before a discussion of the individual genres, a few general points need to be

made. Excellent eighteenth-century ornamentation incorporated embellishments which

enhanced the composer's original musical and dramatic intent. Singers today should
 143

remember this precept first and foremost when ornamenting. In all the genres.

ornamentation should be employed that is totally within the individual singer's vocal

technique. For instance. if a singer cannot sing a clear scalar passage. then this ornament

should be eliminated from pe1fo1mance until he or she can execute one properly.

Musical considerations. in addition to those of text and general A.tfekt. are often the

impetus for embellishment. such as cadential points. repeated musical ideas. melodic

shape and structure, or long held notes.

Contrasts in Affekt

Despite the fact that there are differences in the ornamentation style appropliate

for the various genres, one consideration for the type and extent of ornamentation

employed in each remains consistent: the particular Affekt desired. Affekt is an aspect of

the ornamentation process which is often the determining factor for the type and amount

of embellishment chosen. although the ornamentation employed should conf01m to the

style constraints of each genre. For example. ornament-; might appropriately include

trills and the addition of a few modest divisions in the oratorio aria, "Oh. had I Jubal's

lyre" (Joshua). and copius trills. trilla, messa di voce, numerous divisions. and passaggi.

such as cadenzas would be appropriate in the descriptive opera aria, "Myself I shall
 144

adore" (Semele). 2CH The overall effect of an aria can be completely changed by an

incorrect or casually determined sense of the emotional stimulus of the piece.

Arias in a slower tempo. such as the cantabile. "Ombra mai fu" (Serse) and

"Ombra cara" (Radamisto) lend themselves to divisions and flourishes more delicate and

gracious (similarto Handel's own embellishment of "Affanni del pensier." from Ottone.

previously discussed in this chapter). rather than a more bravura style replete with scalar

passages. In such slow tempo arias with pensive emotions. ornamentation may be

generous, with multiple fixed ornaments. divisions. and passaggi of a limited compass,

owing to Handel's example. Other slow. cantabile atias of a particularly sorrowful

character, however. such as "Total eclipse!" (Samson), necessitate a more somber and

pensive delivery without excessive elaboration. Obligatory cadential t1ills. appoggiature.

and mordents are suitable in this case.

Some arias contain two distinct emotions. such as "Cara sposa" (Rinaldo), in

which the A section is marked largo and the prevailing Affekt is sad, and the B section

allegro portrays defiance and anger. The tempo and Affekt of each section suggest the

appropriate amount of ornamentation in such arias. For instance, in "Cara sposa," the B

section (due to itc; faster tempo and angry sentiment) would appropriately receive more

intense and bravura-style embellishment. such as more frequent scalar passages, and a

strong in-time cadenza. Appoggiature should be generally avoided in a bravura section

264
This aria from Semele should be ornamented in the operatic style, although Semele
was a work in English to be performed in the unstaged manner of an oratorio. Semele's
thoroughly hedonistic libretto negates any oratorio-like indications. See Paul Henry
Lang, "On Handel's Dramatic Oratorios." in Bach and Handel. a special issue of
American Choral Review 17:4 (1975). 27.
 145

or aria because of their pattkular suitability to cantabile and/or pathetic styles. The /ar~o

A section. however. could employ numerous appo~giature (in order to emphasize

longing and sadness). modest divisions. tiills. messa di voce. and in-time cadenzas.

Corri cites two well-known Handel oratorio mias. "Angels ever bright and fair"

(Theodora). and "Comfort ye my people" (Messiah). as examples of arias which suffered

frequent ornamental abuses throughout the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

Corri describes the practice of inse1ting trills and even melismatic passages, on the

beginning syllables of the arias .

. . . it is the fashion to begin Handel's celebrated song 'Angels ever Bright and
Fair' by a shake on the first syllable 'an-'-and after the shake run a division of a
thousand notes. torturing the audience with suspense what word it is, till at length.
with exhausted breath, comes fmth '-gels'-

Also in the song 'Comfort Ye My People' the same liberty is taken with the sense
of the words, and the patience of the audience. -'Com '-a shake or
cadence-'fort'-the same impropiiety is too often apparent in the words of many
other arias. 265

In "Angels ever bright and fair" the first two syllables are set in quarter-notes, and there

is a rest in the accompaniment underneath the second syllable. This rest must have been

conceived by Corri's contemporaries as a "written-in" pause on which to freely embellish.

Stylistically appropriate embellishment in this aria would not include lengthening the

first vocal phrase by the addition of beats as suggested by Corri in the above desc1iption.

In "Comfort ye" there is a complete measure of rest with a fermata. which was a signal to

insert a cadenza ("cadence") in the Baroque period. "Comfort ye" is based on a very

peaceful text. and a lengthy cadenza here is also out of place-not only because of the

265
Corri, 3.
 14(i

sentiment involved. but also due to the fermata's position so close to the beginning of the

aria. One may wish to add a small flomish of a turn. ttill. or scalar figure covering a

small interval range: any ornamentation at this point in the aria. however. should be

within the time constraints of one measure (although a ce1tain ruharo in such a case is

perfectly acceptable). 266 The type of ornamentation described by Coni above is an

example of the ornamental abuse frequently encountered in the late eighteenth and early

nineteenth centuries.

As noted in Chapter 2. the Affekr of particular words or entire ruias can be

emphasized by the rate and amplitude of vibrato employed by the singer. Subtle

modifications of the vibrato are equally appropriate in the cantatas. operas. and oratorios.

These modifications are ideally made indirectly through the emotional state of the singer.

rather than by conscious physical manipulation. Even the highly expe1ienced singer,

whose vibrato rate remains relatively stable. finds that subtle changes in the vibrato rate

and amplitude occur naturally when he or she is emotionally involved in the text of the

266
A study of the various rhythmic principles of the Baroque is beyond this document.
but it needs to be acknowledged that Baroque singers did use a ce1tain degree of tempo
rubato in their application of ornamentation. especially at points of pause, such as in out-
of-time cadenzas and during fermatas. A certain amount of the tempo rubato in
ornamentation simply involved dynamic and a:"ticulatory stress of emphasis. such as the
slight delay of the principal note following an appoggiatura. According to Tosi, "He who
does not know how to use rubato in singing, does not know how to compose or
accompany himself. and remains deprived of the best taste and the greatest intelligence.
Stealing the time in the pathetic is a glorious theft in one who sings better than
others, provided that fhis] comprehension and ingenuity make a good restitution" (Tosi.
[Foreman], 99).
 147

composition. 267 For example. a spirited alle~m aria may instinctively use a faster rate of

vibrato than a cantabile andante or /ar~n aria which would benefit from a more languid

and relaxed vibrato. The spirited aria would also include more composed divisions

which. by their very nature. necessitate an extremely tlexible and facile vocal technique

(naturally inclined to vibrato). In cet1ain patticularly emotionally bleak moment<;, a

straighter tone may be consciously employed in order to provide an emotional vocal

contrast.

According to Greta Moens-Haenen (who supports a strictly ornamental approach

to vibrato), the qualities of a tone with vibrato are particularly suited to the representation
268
of such Affekts as gentleness. sadness. loveliness. as well as weakness. Tenderness and

other qualities traditionally associated with femininity in the Baroque such as peace,

earth. night sleep, and death are also well-suited to vibrato. 269 Moens-Haenen argues

that vibrato would occur more frequently in music of this character than in music

portraying such emotions as strength. rage, hate, and force. or happiness. brightness.

light, and joy. etc. 270 A healthy. well-supported. and facile vocal technique typically

includes vibrato. so that spirited arias with florid ornamentation naturally lend

themselves to a flexible vibrato. In this author's opinion. Moens-Haenen's contention that

267
William Vennard agrees that skilled singers vary the vibrato rate when emotionally
involved in song expression. He states, "This is one of the marks of a great artist, whose
technical foundation is so correctly established that he can afford to sing 'naturally,"'
implying involuntary emotional stimulation of the vibrato rate (Vennard. 196).
268
Moens-Haenen, "Vibrato im Barock," 384.
269
lbid.
270
lbid.
 l4X

arias containing angry and strong sentiments should not have as much vibrato as

camahile arias is more in keeping with efficient vocal function than her argument that

other happier emotions would not have used vibrato. 271 Moens-Haenen also points out

the obvious inherent quality of tremulousness in vibrato for use in the description of fear

and trepidation. 272

Opera

It is in the operatic literature of Handel that the greatest freedom with regard to

vocal ornamentation is found. Opera provided the greatest opportunity for

ornamentation and personal display in Handel's music because of the excellent vocal

abilities of his soloists, the secular nature of the librettos. and the general atmosphere of

indulgence present in the opera house. Today. recitative should include the necessary

appoggiature and. perhaps occasionally, a cadential trill or very modest in-time cadenza

at the end of the recitative. Such flourishes should not interrupt the musical flow of the

scene, however. Ornaments in the tirst statement of the A section of da capo arias

should be minimal: appoggiature. occasional trills, obligatory cadential trills. and

occasional divisions consisting of slides or interval-filling figures such as passing notes.

In a da capo aria. the return of the A section should contain the greatest amount

of embellishment, and this may be abundant providing it stays within Handel's melodic

271
Moens-Haenen does not take into account healthy vocal technique and is often
skeptical that natural vocal vibrato carried any significance for the Baroque musician
(Moens-Haenen, "Vibrato im Barock." 3&1-82).
272
Moens-Haenen, "Vibrato im Barock," 384.
 14':)

framework. Dean writes that Handel's own embellishment of the Ottone arias "gives

every encouragement to boldness." noting that Handel ornaments practically every

phrase. Dean also goes on to note the "all too common practice" today of decorating the

return of the A section so that a new 'llelody appears (one which is "necessarily inferior"

and withoutjustification). 273 By Handel's own ornamental example. the original melody

will be "changed" by embellishment. but it should not be obliterated beyond recognition

with regard to melodic contour or general compass, compositional style. or Affekt. Aria

embellishment which retains the basic framework of the melody even occasionally

touching above the original line (but always retaining the overall basic contour and

direction of Handel's melodic line). is appropriate. Divisions including scalar passages.

passing tones, sequential patterns. gap-filling patterns, trillo. ttiplet figures. and fixed

ornaments such as trills. appoRgiawre. turns. and occasional mordents are also

appropriate. Rhythmically. ornament<> should only be as complex as each individual

singer can execute. Wide leaps larger than the interval of a sixth (only occasionally did

Handel use the leap of an octave), are to be used spmingly. Leaps larger than one octave.

rocket figures, 274 full arpeggios or sequences of arpeggios are inappropriate and are much

better suited to the later classic or romantic music. 275

273
Dean, ed., G F Handel· Three Ornamented Arias, Preface.
274
Tosi considered rockets. which he characterized as passages of scales. are "for
beginners" (Tosi [Foreman]. 103). Tosi would have considered Farinelli's numerous
passages of repeated scale figures very inappropriate. "Rocket" can also be interpreted
to mean a rapid shooting upward scale passage.
275
Dean notes that, "We can be sure they [Handel's singers] did not improvise in
the style of Mozart or Bellini" (Dean. "The Recovery of Handel's Operas." 11 0).
 150

Operatic cadenzas should follow the established eighteenth-century conventions

and rules listed in Chapter 2 and should be of a modest nature. Cadenzas should usually

remain in time. especially at the conclusion of the first statement of the A section and the

end of the B section. Cadenzas should only involve the addition of a measure or two to

the aria when the accompaniment invites such action by Handel's own placement of a

fermata or sustained chord in the accompaniment. and. even in such a case. an out-of-

time cadenza is not mandatory. Sentiment. tempo. accompanimental structure. and the

technical facility of the singer should be determining factors as to length and placement

of cadenzas in Handel.

Cantata

In Handel's music. solo chamber cantata ornamentation is more similar to the

ornamentation practice of the operatic stage than that of the oratotio. Handel's cantatas

were written to be sung by Italians schooled in the operatic tradition: yet. as in any

Baroque chamber music, a certain amount of subtlety. refinement. and polish is necessary

because of the formal and intimate chamber setting. Much of the distinction between

cantata and operatic ornamental style relates to the amount of vocal force necessary due

to the differing sizes of the performance halls and accompanimental forces employed in

the two genres. Bacon includes a particularly insightful discourse on this subject:

The essential distinctions between public [opera] and private [chamber]

performance are many. They lie not only in extent and variety of power or in
finish. The accessory circumstances of place and audience operate in inverse
proportions in these particulars. Less power. less variety. is required in private:
but infinitely more polish than in public: nor does this explanation apply solely to
vocal execution. It applies equally to selection and to the manner: it applies to the
 151

quantity and the quality of tone. to omament and to expression in its general
acceptation. 276

Ornamentation in Handel's cantatas should be patterned on the same principles as

that for opera listed above. except with an even greater attention to the precise execution

of the intricate pattems. When singing a cantata. one should not incorporate the same

amount of volume. bravura-style scalar passages. and/or dramatic out-of-time cadenzas

as in opera.

The theater. orchestra fsolo voice with orchestra]. and chamber. are as three
degrees in all the branches of the art-and. as they descend, delicacy takes the
place of force, sober conception and execution. of excited imagination and
polished with the nicest accuracy-high finish, of display. All the pmts must be
reduced and polished with the nicest accuracy-prepm·ed as it were for the
approximation and microscopic examination of the connoisseur.... Tone is
mellowed by distance. In practising fsic] for the theater or the orchestra a singer
can scarcely be said to hear with his own ears. and hence it so often happens that
the stage ruins the individual for petformance upon any considerably smaller
scale. 277

Because textual clarity is very important in cantata. and elocution is less

important in opera, clear diction and rhythmic pacing in recitative should receive much

attention. A distinct clarity of textual delivery should be cultivated in the recitatives. and

they should be sung without trills and passaggi. 278 The chamber cantata. because of its

intimate setting. is well suited to an ornamentation style which incorporates numerous

fixed ornaments and intricately-styled rhythmic divisions that highlight the subtle vocal

abilities of the performer.

276
Bacon, 48.
277
Ibid .. 49.
27
'Tosi (Foreman), 42.
 152

Oratorio

Ornamentation in the oratmios should be on a much simpler scale than that in the

operas or cantatas. Solemnity. propriety. "dignity. simplicity. and pathos" are qualities

revered by the English in sacred music. 279 There should be no excessive displays of

individual vi1tuosity: "the singer must always remember that he is addressing himself to

his hearers upon the most impmtant subject that can occupy the human heart." 280

Delivery of the text is paramount: therefore. recitative must be sung with care and

simplicity using only the necessary appoggiature and only occasionally a final cadential

flomish of a ttill, or perhaps a modest in-time cadenza such as that which Handel wrote

for Samson.

Arias may be embellished with the most modest of ornaments: appoggiature,

trills, mordents. turns, small scalar passages. or passing tones. Elaborate decorations in

oratorio are not appropriate. A lack of omamentation in the oratorios is not appropriate.

but excessive displays are equally unsatisfactory. Cadenzas should be on a more modest

scale than those found in operas. and. in arias of the most reverent of sentiments, should

be reserved for the end of the aria. Elaborate out-of-time cadenzas are definitely

inappropriate. 281 The inclusion of cadenzas to conclude the first statement of the A

279
Bacon, 29.
280
lbid., 31.
281
Larsen is especially adamant about the "abuses" he feels occur in performances
today when singers freely ornament and add extensive cadenzas in the Italian manner
to the religious oratorios (Jens Peter Larsen. "Oratorio versus Opera." trans. Alfred
Mann, Opera Quarterly 3 [Autumn 1985]: 35-50).
 153

section and at the end of the B section is inappropriate except in the case of discreet in-

time decorations in addition to the obligatory cadential trill. 282

In all the genres, ornamentation should be conceived that appropriately displays

the singer's personal vocal abilities while remaining within the bounds of dignity and

propriety in service to Handel's musical and dramatic conception. Although one of the

inherent purposes of ornamentation was to display a singer's vocal prowess, the most

"tasteful" (according to Tosi, Burney, Quantz, et al) embellishments in each genre were

designed with grace, refinement, delicacy, and a certain amount of restraint in order to

refrain from being completely self-serving.

28
7his author disagrees with Peter Wishart who freely advocates out-of-time cadenzas
in the oratorios. Wishart's added cadenzas, as in "I know that my Redeemer liveth," are
what this author would call excessive. In this aria he suggests, "an expressive lingering
and curving figure," such as in m. 151 on p. 41 (the figure employs sixteenth notes with
five added beats to the cadence). Wishart notes, "editors and conductors should not write
cadenzas in tempo to save themselves problems of catching the singers. The trill should
look after that. If cadenzas were to be in time there would be no point in stopping the
orchestra" (Wishart argues that a pause in the accompanimental forces at cadences
justifies a cadenza in the oratorios). This author advises that all cadenzas in the oratorios
should remain in time, except in the most rare of cases (see Wishart's discussion of
cadenzas on pp. 6-7 of Messiah Ornamented).
 154

CHAPTER4

SELECTED ORNAMENTED ARIAS FOR SOPRANO

This chapter includes seven Handel ruias and two recitatives ornamented in a

style based on the author's reading of approptiate sources from Handel's time. These

ornamented selections seek to serve as a musical summary of the material presented thus

far in this document. Because of the subjective, improvisatory, and individualistic nature

of the art of ornamentation, the reader may disagree with some of the author's ornamental

additions. There are an infinite number of embellishments possible for each one of the

selections chosen, because each singer's ornamentation should match his or her own

vocal ability. The recitatives and arias presented in this chapter seek to provide the

modern singer with examples of fully ornamented selections (including fully wlitten out

da capo arias) from a variety of genres and compositional styles.

Selection

Tne selection of arias for this document was a formidable task because of the

scope of Handel's vocal output. Once the decision was made to limit the choices to those

arias originally written specifically for the female soprano voice, the choices were

narrowed, since many soprano roles in the operas were originally written for castrati. In

the selection of opera and oratorio arias, the decision was made to further limit the

choices to well-known works that included many arias in contrasting styles. The final

choices were two contrasting arias from the Italian opera Giulio Cesare, two from the
 155

oratorio Judas Maccabeus, a sh01t arioso from the English opera Semele, and two

contrasting arias from two different cantatas. The arias were selected with attention to

the representation of various tempos, meters, forms (both through-composed and da

capo), and dramatic emphases. Since ornamentation of recitative in the tlu-ee genres is

treated similarly, it was considered unnecessary to include separate examples of both

secco and accompagnato styles from each genre. Therefore, two recitatives are

presented-one secco from a cantata and one accompagnato from the opera Semele.

Editorial Procedures

Each of the ornamented selections uses as its basic frame of reference Handel's

own notation as presented in the Chrysander edition of the work. 283 The format of each

selection is the same: this author's ornamented melodic line is presented above Handel's

oliginal melody, which is above the continuo line. In the case of da capo arias, the da

capo repetition has been fully notated in order to reveal more clearly appropliate

ornamentation possible for both the first statement of the A section as well as its repeat.

Measure numbers and the author's own metronome markings have been added to

facilitate reference and study, and all tempo markings, dynamics, and figured bass

symbols have been retained that are not obviously part of Chrysander's editolial

additions. Tempo indications included above Chrysander's piano reduction of the scores

are editorial additions and are not included here.

283
See the bibliography for full references of each of the Chrysander volumes.
 156

Certain specific notational practices need to be clarified. The author's added

appoggiature are notated as large, regularly-sized notes, except in the case of

appoggiature which precede a cadential trill, which are notated with little notes.

Performance notes on a few fixed ornament signs that have been employed for ease in

notation follow.

The symbol tr indicates a standard trill (either at cadential points or mid-phrase)

that should be performed for the full duration of the principal note. The author prefers

the upper auxiliary starting pitch for trills in all instances except in the case in which the

melody note preceding the note on which there is to be a trill is one half or one whole

step above it. In this case, a main note starting pitch is acceptable (see Chapter 2, p. 30).

Cadential trill endings (anticipatory or turned) are notated with regularly-sized notes in

all instances. Trill endings should be performed as the note values indicated, except

where tempo necessitates a shortened note value, as where the ending could be

rhythmically shortened to fit with the speed of the performer's trill (i.e., a sixteenth note

ending could be shortened to a thirty-second note value, etcetera).

In this document, the symbol ,M/ indicates a regular or half mordent (whichever

the tempo and principal note value allow), the symbol+ indicates an inverted mordent,

and the symbol "' indicates a standard five-note accented tum. Dynamic markings such

asp, mf, and fhave been introduced above the ornamented line on occasion in order to

show places where dynamic contrasts are desirable. These dynamic indications,

however, should be viewed as relative indications based on the size of the singer's voice.
 157

The Ornamented Arias and Recitatives

Cantata

The first aria to be ornamented is "Sarai contenta un dl" (You will one day be

pleased), from the cantata of the same name. Of particular interest is the unique opening

melodic phrase which encompasses the interval of a ninth with wide leaps for the voice.

Because this phrase is repeated several times, the aria lends itself easily to ornamentation.

Written in common ti:rpe, with an adagio tempo, it is the only adagio selected for

ornamentation in this study. 284 Handel's use of a minor key (F minor) helps to portray the

dejected nature of the text The translation is as follows: 285

Sarai contenta un di, You will one day be pleased;

Nice, mi partirb. Nice, I shall depart
Gia che tu vuoi cosl, Since you wish it thus,
t'ubbiddirb. thus shall I obey you.

The recitative and aria which follow "Sarai contento un dl" reveal that the protagonist's

lover has not taken his vows seriously, forcing a break in the relationship.

The ornamentation employed here represents the highly refined delicacy and

intricacy of embellishment necessary for an intimate and discriminating chamber

audience. Many phrases include small note values that highlight the singer's vocal

flexibility and precision. The author prefers a slow tempo (metronome marking )l =80)

284
No tempo indication is included in this score because there is none provided in
Chrysander's edition. However, the recent scholarly edition of A. V. Jones does indicate
an Adagio tempo. See Handel, G. F., 10 Solo Cantatas for Soprano and Basso Continuo,
ed. A. V. Jones (London:" Faber Music Limited, 1985), 1:26.
28
s.rne translations of each cantata excerpt printed in this chapter are taken from
Handel, G. F., 10 Solo Cantatas for Soprano and Basso Continuo, 1:39.
 158

which emphasizes the Affekt of resignation and permits the performance of rhythmically

intricate ornaments. Numerous appoggiature, which create harmonic tension followed

by resolution, are employed in order to emphasize the general Affekt of longing in this

relationship. Trills are frequently placed on words of significance such as, "partiro" (I

shall depart) and "t'ubbiddiro" (I shall obey you), and at cadential points.

The first statement of the A section of this da capo aria is ornamented with a

modest use of fixed ornaments including trills and appoggiature, and one use of divisions

in the form of passing notes in m. 10 on the oft-repeated phrase, "Sarai contenta un di."

As in all the arias ornamented in this chapter, the B section is ornamented following the

practice discussed in Chapters 2 and 3. Ornaments in the B section become more

intricate, with the insertion of interval-filling thirty-second notes often leading to

appoggiature, such as in measures 16-17 and 21-22. The sequence of7-6 suspensions in

mm. 18-19 is fully retained as tiills and appoggiature are inserted on the longer notes. In

measures 22, 23, and 24 appoggiature ornament the final notes of phrases on the

repeated text, "cosl t'ubbidiro." Similarly, Handel elongated phrases by as much as one

full beat's length (see Ch. 3, Fig. 16). Theda capo receives the most elaborate

embellishment with the addition of appoggiature, trills, turns, and divisions. The

divisions include the insertion of triplets and sextuplets in both sixteenth and thirty-

second note values (see mm. 27, 31-33), and a dragging style downward scale passage in

m. 29. Successive phrases and cadences receive more extensive embellishment as the

aria progresses, such as that on beat four of m. 33, which incorporates a thirty-second

note scalar passage leading to an upward appoggiatura. Phrases in measures 33, 34, and
 159

37 follow Handel's example of extending the melodic compass of the piece, only to

return to the principal melodic pitch at the end of the phrase.

The end of each major section of this aria is ornamented with an in-time cadenza,

owing to the fact that Handel provides no fermatas or suspended accompaniments on

which to freely extemporize out-of-time cadenzas. Thirty-second notes provide rhythmic

and melodic interest at the cadenzas at the ends of each major section. The cadenzas at

the end of the first statement of the A section (m. 13) and at the same point in the da

capo (m. 37) incorporate the most musical interest on the name, "Nice," instead of on the

more emotional word, "partiro," because Handel provided more embellishment space at

that point. The word "partiro" is the imperative point in the phrase upon which to insert

the cadential trill. The cadenza at the end of the B section (m. 24) is modest and in-time,

but the addition of the upper octave provides a heightened sense of drama before the

return of the A section. The intricate use of thirty-second notes in the final cadenza (m.

37) extends the melodic compass to a climactic high A-flat, yet stays with the time

constraints of the measure. The concluding syllable is elongated with an upward

appoggiatura and a written out inverted mordent figure. Upward appoggiature, when

used sparingly, can create particular musical poignancy.

 160
Sarai contenta un d1

Original

Continuo

6 6

Sa- rai con- ten - ta_J~n dt sa - rai con .. ten- t~un di Ni -

6fl
I ~ 1..
tr I:\ tr ~

~
ce mi par ti 1'0, Ni ce, si,
-
si mi par ti
_fl. I ~ 1.. ~

e)

-I -
r -I I • J I I
.,
r L J ..
 161

tr

r'b, sa - rni con - ten tn mi par ti ~. mi par ti

c cq

10
tr

'
ro, sa - rni con • ten Ni- ce nu par ti

tr
~~ I ,__, ~ tr ~ • ~ 1\

~
- ~==

1\ I
ro, par
,...._
- ti
~
ro, par ti
!-..
ro, Ni cenu-par-

~ - ti

~ P'

r T I I .. • ~

• 6 L I I I I L J
7~
 162

14

...
ro. Giac- che 1u vuoi co - st CO -
.
Sl giac •

,~
I ... ... ...
- rr tr

I
chl!
liiiiil
IU vuoi co-
~
51, IU vuoi
1::::::5!
co Sl, t'uh- bi --
di • ro,
~
r 1

l'ub-bi ;=_ ~.
" "'
t) r r r I" I

I r
7 7 6~ 7 (6) 6
7

tr
20

ro. ginc . . chC co - '

&1, IU

6
4
 163

t'uh - bi di - r~. co -

t'ub bi - di

27

Sa - rni con - ten - ta.-un sa

 164

29 tr

rni con - ten - 13 un d1. Ni ce mi par .. ti - rO, Ni -

'-"

6
3~ I ~ N tr b. ~,.......,

t)

II I
cc, si.
-
si rnipar--- ti-
~!..
ro.
r r
sa .. rai con • ten Ia

t)
- ---- v r I

J I I I

r 1 J ... 1.,..-J

33
I r:: A.... b. ~ • 11*-.

t r , r .... -..;;:::
mi par - ti - ro. mi par ti - ro, 511 - rni con - teo - ta-un
1\ I

t) , I" r

. I
 165

~_I ~ r!i~ tr
,...__ " - tr ~

e)
ili
I ~

~
Ni-ce
~
mi
,.
p:u-
..
- ti ro. par ti- ro. -
par - ti -
~

-
~""-""'"'!!
fl I
" ..
"
I
e)
'
:
b,.. .. .. I I ...
6 L I I

tr
37

ce mi pnr ti • ro.
 166

"Quando sperasti, o core" (When did you hope, o heart), from the cantata of the

same name, is a secco recitative in the key of G minor and leads directly to the following

aria in the same key. In this recitative Ha.J.del wrote out the obligatory cadential fomth

appoggiatura at the fmal cadence. There are several other occasions where appoggiature

may be added where Handel notated the melodic line with two successive notes of the

same pitch. For example, these include mm. 2 and 6 where descending fifth

appoggiature have been inserted, and mm. 3, 4, and 8, where this author used both

appoggiature from below (in order to stress particularly expressive words such as

"tormento") and above (as prepared by leap on beat one ofm. 7). Similarly, an

appoggiantra by step adds a pleading quality to the phrase "Torna, Fille" in m. 5. Two

brief passing notes have been inserted into m. 7 to link the interval of a fourth where

Handel composed three consecutive notes on the same pitch following the eighth rest.

The translation of the recitative is as follows:

Quando sperasti, o core, When did you hope, o heart,

cosi dolce alimento for such sweet fare
al tuo fi.ero tormento, for your fierce torment,
al tuo do lore? for your grief?
Torna Filli, e ritorna Return, Phyllis, and give back
la carapace all' alma; sweet peace to (my) soul,
e da tempeste and from storms
il sen torna a la calma. return my breast to calm.

"Non brilla tanto il fior" (The flower is never so bright) follows the recitative,

"Quando sperasti, o core." It is a fitting aria for ornamentation because of its typically

Handelian siciliano character, as well as its distinctive wide-ranging melody (the opening

phrase encompasses the interval of a ninth). Both of the cantata arias ornamented in this

document display Handel's more mature vocal style consisting of flowing melodic lines,
 167

as opposed to the angular intervallic jumps and abrupt harmonic changes found in many

of his early cantata arias (ca. 1706-1710). This graceful melody adapts itself more easily

to a characteristic style of cantata ornamentation, including numerous fixed omaments

and rhythmically intricate interval-filling divisions. The translation is as follows:

Non brilla tanto il fior The flower is never so bright

quando che riede il sol, as when the sun smiles
a dargli vita. to give it life.
Quanto che gode il cor, So the heart fmds pleasure
se riede a torgli il duol if delightful Phyllis smiles
Filii gradita. to take away the pain.

The ornamentation in the first statement of this da capo aria consists only of

cadential and end-of-phrase trills, appoggiature, messa di voce (m. 22, on the two tied

dotted-quarter notes), passing note figures (mm. 19-20), and, in mm. 25-26, modest

divisions (resembling an extended tum figure) which comprise the in-time cadenza to the

end of the A section. Ornamentation in the B sectio~ becomes more elaborate with the

inclusion of fixed ornaments such as trills, appoggiature, and a mordent, as well as

numerous divisions. Sixteenth note triplets (mm. 31, 38), and thhty-second note scalar

passages (mm. 32, 35), and interval-filling passing notes (m. 34) add delicacy and

flourish for a spring-like Affekt. The in-time cadenza in m. 38 incorporates a high B-flat

for emphasis at the end of the section (m. 38).

The embellishment of the da capo emphasizes the bright, sunny Affekt of the

entire aria through its increased use of intricate rhythmic and melodic patterns. The open

intervals of the third in the first two phrases (mm. 43, 44) provide ample opportunity for

passing notes, and cadential trills are also included. The phrases that follow receive

progressively more embellishment in the form of tiills, turns, appoggiature, messa di

 168

voce, and frequent use of triplet-figure divisions. Triplet figures fit well within the

siciliano tempo as they help to emphasize the inherent rhythmic lilt of the tliple division

of the beat. A quintuplet figure is employed to provide rhythmic and melodic interest as

the phrase nears the cadence in m. 50, similar to the one Handel incorporated in another

aria of siciliano tempo, "Affanni del pensier" (see Ch. 3, Fig. 14). The sequence in m.

53-54 is maintained and embellished with trills on the long notes.

 169

Recitative: Quando spemsti, o core

Alia: Non btilla tanto il fior

Qunn • do Sp<'· ro • <I i.o co • re co- si dol • c~ • li • men • to al tuo

Original

Continuo

al 1uo do-lo-re? Tor-nn. Fil- le e ri - tor- nn Ia ca· ra pa· c:.,.all'

tor • no.)II In cal • rna.

 170

Andante .L 40

11

13

Non bril In ton - 1'?_)1 fior quan-do che rie - de il

 171

15
tr

sol, qu3n- do che rie d~.)l sol-------- dar gli vi

17

Ill; non bril

tr

quan - do che rie - dc;jl sol, che rie - dcjl sol

 172

21

··-r
dnr gli vi Ill, 8 dnr gli vi

23

non bril Ia tan - t'Vl fior quan - do che vio - ne il sol a -

25 3

a dnr gli vi
 173

27

tr

che go - d<;,)l cor.--- se rie de a tor - gli il

3~ I
3
~ ~ ~
3

r"":"" ..
~
- ...
-
duel.--- se rie de a tor gli il duel, a tor slUl duel.
I ~ i
"
eJ
-
I

I
 174

33 tr

Fil - le s:ra - di ta! quan - to che go - dcil cor. sc

35 tr

tor - gl~il duol. tor - gl~ il duol, Fil lc gro- di

tr

le, Fil - lc gro - di ta.

 175

39

41

43 tr

Non bril In tan to il fior quan-do che ric de il

~
 176

45
tr

sol. quan-do ch~ rie de il sol dar - gli vi

47

ta; non bril lo tan toil

49
q tr tr
C".:>

~
quon- do che rie de il sol, che ric d~l sol a
 177

51 3

dar gli vi 1a, dar gli vi

53

1a, non bril Ia 1an • to•• )l fior qwm • do chc vie neil sol

55
 178

57

~I
 179

Opera

Italian Opera

Giulio Cesare is an excellent opera from which to select arias to be ornamented

because of the diverse types of arias w1itten for the prima donna, Cleopatra. The two

alias chosen are of contrasting tempi and Affekt: the well-known largo da capo aria,

"V'adoro, pupille" (I adore you, o eyes), and the allegro da capo aria with violin section

obbligato, "Da tempeste illegno infranto" (By tempests the ship wrecked). These arias

will be presented in the order in which they appear in the opera.

"V'adoro pupille" is sung in Act IT, scene 1, when Cleopatra and her attendants

receive Julius Caesar. In this aria, Cleopatra declares her love for Caesar through a

gracious and stately melody in triple meter in F major. Handel's setting of the unadorned

melody (consisting primarily of quarter and eighth notes) provides ample room for

embellishment. The amount and style of embellishment used (a generous mix of fixed

and free ornamentation) is influenced by the tempi and sentiments of the arias and the

regal character of Queen Cleopatra. The translation of the aria is as follows: 286

V'adoro pupille, You I adore, eyes,

saette d'amore, lightnings of Love,
le vostre faville [the] your sparks
son grate nel sen. are welcome in [the] (my) heart.
Pietose vi brama Compassionate you desires
il mesto mio core, [the] sad my heart
(My sad heart desires you to be
compassionate,)
ch'ogn'ora vi chiama for always you it calls,

286
Arthur Schoep and Daniel Harris, Word-by-Word Translations of Songs and
Arias Part II· Italian (Metuchen, N.J.: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1972), 130.
 180

l'amato suo ben. the beloved its treasure.

(for it always calls you,
its beloved treasure.)

This ornamented version employs modest embellishments such as trills,

appoggiature, messa di voce, and divisions, including slides and turned fi?ures, in the

first statement of the A section. As this section progresses, more ornaments are

introduced, culminating in a modest in-time cadenza (m. 30). Because of the repetitive

nature of the text and musical motives in the A section, most omament placements were

chosen from the standpoint of musical consideration and overall Affekt. In the B section,

ornaments embellish words of significance with passing notes, trills, and several five-

note accented turns, all within the basic framework of the original melody. Handel's

frequent practice of replacing duple figures with triplet figures was followed in m. 39.

The in-time cadenza at the end of the section (m. 47) utilizes a leap of a fomth in order to

incorporate a high A, which is immediately left by descending stepwise motion retuming

to within the original melodic framework. The cadenza concludes with a five-note

accented turn on the fmal pitch (m. 48). Julius Caesar's four measure recitative ("The

Thunderer in heaven lacks a melody to rival so lovely a song"), which Handel inserted

before the beginning of the da capo, is retained in this document. Two appoggiature are

included, one each in m. 51 and m. 52.

The da capo is liberally ornamented, yet the framework and direction of Handel's

melody is never destroyed. Such plentiful ornamentation is indicated by Cleopatra's

queenly character, the Affekt of courtly love (the declaration of her love for Caesar), the

largo tempo, and by Handel's repetitive treatment of the melodic phrases. Numerous
 181

trills are used at cadential points and in phrases which are repeated (mm. 53-60, and m.

80) enhancing the elegant and regal atmosphere of the scene. The sequence in mm. 62-

66 is maintained, although each phrase is ornamented with neighbming tones or turned

figures. Scalar passages, slides, passing notes, uiplet and quintuplet figures are also

employed by using both sixteenth and thilty-second notes. The concluding cadenza

remains in-time because there is no fermata or held note on which to freely extemporize.

In order to emphasize the final cadence, the cadenza rises to its conclusion one octave

above Handel's original.

 182

V'adoro. pupille
(Giulio Cesare)

V'o • do ro, pu • pi! le sa . . ct IC--- d'A·

Original
~I

Violoncelli

1110 ... re, lc vo - strc fa • vii le son gra tc ncl sen; v'o

10

ro, pu pi I le, lc vo • stre fo Vii • )c SOD

 183

14 tr tr

gm - te, son gra te nel sen,------- v'a-

19

F' J4! ~ j
D I F' •r DI EJr· p I PJJ. @I
l*b
I
a
do ro. pu pi! le, sa et te d'A - mo re, le

~ !-r -
F1 - - ... • r--= tr I •
~
- -
-
fa vii son te

-
vo - stre le gm nel sen.
fl
• I •
t! -
'""""'
- I ....
 184

27

le vo sire vii le son

30 ;...,. tr

te nel sen.

tr
~ 1'""'1 I ..-2-. A .:--!... tr

~I ~

Pie lo - se vi bra rna me - &10 mio co re, ch'ogn'

II I •
~
r

L l l I I I I I
 185

0 rn vi chin rna l'a - rna 10 suo b e n . - - - - - ch'ogn'

45 tr

vi chin l'n ben.

49 (CESARE)

Non hoin cie - 'e' To - nan - tc me- lo - dia. che pa - reg - gi un si bel
 186

(CLEOPATRA)
52 tr

V'n do ro, pu pil lc, sa

56 tr tr tr

,.___ _ _ d'A - rna - re, lc VO str~ fa vii lc son

60 tr

tc ncl sen; v'n - do ro, pu pil lc, lc

 187

64
3 tr

YO stre fa vii Je son gra te, son

v'a

ro, pu pi! Je, sa

 188
5
,...-:::: 3
tr

le vo stre fa vii le SOD--

tr

IC le

80 tr tr tr tr

YO Sire fa vii le son I!J"8 • IC• nel sen.

 189

65
 190

The second aria from Giulio Cesare, "Da tempeste illegno infranto," is a fiery

allegro in E major with the violin section in obbligato throughout. The violin obbligato

either plays in unison with the voice, echoes the voice, plays an accompanimental role, or

is silent for brief sections throughout the aria, which allows for more elaborate vocal

embellishment in those measures. For these reasons, the obbligato part has been fully

notated in this ornamented version in the hope that it will provide a better frame of

reference for the embellishments. The Affekt of this aria, revealed through the rigorous

sixteenth note divisions and the major key, is victory:

Da tempeste illegno infranto, By tempests the ship wrecked,

se poi salvo giunge in porto, if then safe it arrives in port,
non sa piu che desiar. not knows more what to desire.
(knows nothing more to desire.)
Cosi il cor tra pene e pianto, So the heart, amid pains and weeping,
or che trova il suo conforto, now that it finds [the] its comfort,
torna !'anima a bear. returns the soul to bless.
(makes the soul happy again.) 287

This aria was chosen for ornamentation because the allegro tempo in common

time is characteristic of many similar Handel arias. It is considerably ornamented

already by Handel's use of divisions, indicated trills, and passages of trilla (mm. 92-95).

Yet many of these passages are repetitive, and there are no indicated embellishments at

the obvious cadenza points, affording numerous opportunities for further elaboration in

each section of this da capo aria. Because of the melismatic nature of Handel's original

melodic line, the only embellishments employed in this ornamented version in the first

287
Ibid., 124.
 191

statement of the A section are cadential uills, a few passing notes, and a modest in-time

cadenza (mm. 58-59).

The B section is more elaborately embellished with the addition of trills and

various divisions that retain the basic framework of Handel's melody and two in-time

cadenzas at the major cadences. Appoggiature are not as appropriate in an allegro alia of

such a victorious Affekt as they are in a cantabile aria, yet a few are used in this aria at

textual points where the musical poignancy created by the appoggiatura is desired.

These points include m. 84 on the word "pianto" (tears), mm. 94 and 97 on "bear"

(bless), and an upward appoggiatura on "bear" atm. 99. The first major cadence of the

section (mm. 78-80, in the relative minor) is given an in-time cadenza which extends to

the neighboring tone of a high B-natural for the soprano. The concluding cadence of the

section (mm. 98-99) also extends to a high B-natural by the unexpected leap of a sixth

which quickly returns to round out the phrase with a uill and a concluding appoggiatura.

The da capo begins with the soprano and obbligato violin section in unison (m.

109), thus necessitating that any vocal embellishment not clash with the obbligato line. 288

Passing and neighboring notes are employed until m. 113, at which point the violins

begin an accompanimental figure of pulsated eighth notes. Accented five-note turns

embellish the disjunct melodic line, and trills, various turned figures, passing notes, and

288
It is unclear whether an obbligato section such as indicated in this score
(Chrysander notes the violin part as "violoni," plural) would have been ornamented. It
seems that ornamentation by a section would be unlikely since one of the hallmarks of
good embellishment was the art of improvisation. Solo obbligato players most likely
did ornament their obbligato lines in solo vocal arias (see John Spitzer, "Improvised
Ornamentation in a Handel Aria with Obbligato Wind Accompaniment," Early Music
16 [November 1988]: 514-22).
 192

scalar passages adorn the remainder of the aria. The triumphal nature of the text is

reflected in the increased use of omamental notes, including those reaching a higher

melodic compass than Handel's odginal melody in m. 121, the rapid coloratura effect of

trillo in mm. 123-124, 142-143, and 146-147, and a highly embellished statement of the

principal theme (once again with the violins in unison with the principal melodic line) in

m. 130ff. Sixteenth note triplets, similar to Faustina's usage (Ch. 3, Fig. 29, m. 40ff), are

inserted which give further brilliance to the arpeggios in mm. 130 and 133. Upward

appoggiature are also employed in mm. 149-150 in the da capo section as melodic

figures leading into the final melisma and cadenza. At mm. 150-151 the da capo is

elaborated with a higher tessitura than that of Handel's original melodic line, leading

directly to the concluding measures of this victorious aria. An unusual out-of-time

cadenza provides a fitting conclusion to the aria, because Handel provides space for such

with his inclusion of a one-beat rest preparation for the concluding cadence. Handel also

omits the obbligato at this point, allowing more freedom for ornamentation for the

singer. The exultant Affekt of this aria combined with the forceful allegro tempo,

pulsating melodic lines, and the regal character of Cleopatra all justify a splendid out-of-

time cadenza (m. 158).

 193
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 225
English Opera

Handel composed two works in English, Hercules (1745), and Semele (1744),

that defy the traditional categmies of Italian opera and English oratorio. Semele is based

on a hedonistic story from ancient Greek mythology; however, Handel described the

work as "after the Manner of an Oratorio," 289 presumably since he originally intended the

work to be performed without staging. 290 Today Semele is generally regarded as an

opera, whether presented unstaged in the traditional oratmio concert fmm, or staged as in

many twentieth-century performances. 291 Two selections from Semele, an accompanied

recitative and an arioso, have been selected for ornamentation in order to present the

embellishment style for this hybrid type of opera. Ornamentation in works such as

Semele or Hercules is operatically conceived, but tempered by the fact that by the time

these works were composed, Handel was using English soloists almost excl~sively. 292

"Ah me, what refuge," from Act I is the only example of accompanied recitative

in this document. In this recitative Semele laments that she must marry a mortal man

289
Larsen, HandeL Haydn and the Viennese Classical Style, 65.
290
Although Semele was never performed in a staged manner in his lifetime, Handel
made elaborate stage directions for the work. Such mental conceptions of the unstaged
works provided a vision which "controlled the form and gestures of the music itself'
(Dean, Handel's Dramatic Oratorios and Masques, 36).
291
Larsen, "Oratorio versus Opera," 10-11.
292
lt should be noted that Handel did use Italian singers in the only revival of Semele
ever produced in his lifetime (December, 1744), and that these singers substituted Italian
arias from his operas Arminio, Alcina, and Giustino (as well as some English songs) into
the performance. It is presumed that these singers sang in Semele with full Italian
operatic style replete with embellishment (Dean, Handel's Dramatic Oratorios and
Masques, 393).
 226

while in love with a god. The recitative is accompanied by strings and continuo

throughout (although only the continuo prut is printed here). Since a recitative of this

type is supported with the full stting section, a slightly more ornamental approach may

be taken with the melodic line, such as the connecting scalar passage (m. 5) and the

filling in of interval gaps (mm. 12-13) at emotional points. Appoggiar.ure are included in

the same manner as would be expected in Italian opera or English oratorio.

This recitative is followed immediately by a delicate larghetto ruioso, "Oh Jove!

in Pity," in which Semele further pleads with the god Jove (Jupiter) to show her what to

do. Handel's original melody is a marvelous example of a simple, repetitive melodic line

which invites judicious embellishment. The ornamentation in this aria consists of

numerous cadential trills prepared by mournful appoggiature (as notated by little notes),

and such divisions as connecting scalar passages. turned note figures, and passing notes.

Because Semele is a work in English, most embellishing notes. except those of the in-

time cadenza (mm. 62-63) and the connecting scalar passage in mm. 30-31, remain

totally within the melodic framework of the original in deference to the English

propensity for a simpler ornamental style.

 227

Recitative: Ah me, what refuge

Aria: Oh Jove in Pity
(Semele)

Ah me, ah me! what rc:· fuge now is

Original

Continuo

left me? how va-rious, how tor· mcnt ins nre my mi &~rics! Oh Jove,

4 6 6
2 5 6
2 3 4

as • sis! mel Can Se- me· le fore: • go lhy love, nod to a

2
 228

11

mor-tal's pas- sinn yield? Thy vengeance will o'er take such per fi- dy.

p .f

14

If I de - ny my fa-ther's wrath I fear.

p f

18 Larghetto andante. e sempre plano J=72

Oh Jove! in pit y teach me

""""

6 3 4 6 6 6
5 2
 229

25
tr

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~ tr

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38 tr tr

in cline me to com ply. or help me to re

tr
 230

44

fuse, in cline me to com ply, or help, or help me,

help me, or help me to--- re fuse I

tr

which 10 choose,

4
2
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 231

62

~)

or help me to re fuse!
 232

Oratorio

The well-known Judas Maccabeus provides numerous soprano arias from which

to choose interesting examples of embellishment. Judas Maccabeus was chosen as the

oratorio from which to provide ornamented ru.ias because the ever-popular Messiah has

already received ornamental treatment in several sources. 293 The first selection from

Judas Maccabeus to be ornamented here is "Pious Orgies," a through-composed aria in a

largo tempo.

The phrase "pious orgies" refers to reverent, devoted, unrestrained worship.

Because of this predominant sentiment and the fact that Handel's English oratorios were

embellished less than the other vocal genres, the ornamentation chosen for this ru.·ia is

very modest and restrained. The form is in three pru.ts (seven measures each), and each

part repeats the same text and remains in the key of G major. This ru.ia is not a da capo

form, yet one aspect of the third section (which begins in m. 19) resembles the first-the

upward scale passage on the text, "Will to the Lord ascend and move" (compare m. 22

and m. 9). This scale passage is the only true melodic repetition in the aria; therefore

ornamentation usually employed on repetitive phrases is not included in this ornamented

example. Instead, simple ornaments such as appoggiature are employed in order to

emphasize the emotional, devoted nature of the text, and trills, passing tones, and turned

figures complete the ornamental devices. Because of the largo tempo, trills are often

prepared with appoggiature notated by little notes. Slide figures adorn the repeated

293
These most notably include, Peter Wishart's Messiah Ornamented, Watkins Shaw's
1992 edition of Messiah, and the chapter, "Style in Performance," in John Tobin's
Handel's Messjab· A Critical Account of the Manuscript sources and Printed Editions.
 233

upward scale passage in m. 22. A very modest in-time cadenza consisting of a three-note

division and trill prepared by an appoggiatura concludes the aria. All embellishments

have been kept totally within Handel's miginal melodic compass because of the Affekt of

piety, devotion, and worship, and in the knowledge that Handel's English singers

preferred unadorned melody in oratorio arias, especially those of such serious sentiments.
 234
Pious Orgies
(Judas Maccabeus)
Largo. e sostenuto J=
.fO

Original

Continuo

Pi - ous or • gics. pi - ous airs,

7" II ~·~ ~

tJ
===--- - - .....
de - cent sor
ro~
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 235

tr

mnvo his pi • ty, his pi· ty and re • gain his love.

12 tr

Pi. ous or .. ~es, pi - ous nirs, sor-row, de· cont

tr

will to the Lord llS • cend and movo his pi. ty,
 236

16

his pi .. ty. and re- gain his love. Jli .. nus ur - gil-s. pi • ous airs. de - cent

21
tr tJ•

sor - row, de - cent prny'rn. move his pi· ty his

 237
"Come, Ever Smiling Liberty," in contrast to the devotional"Pious Orgies," is a

spritely andante in 6/8 time with a light-hearted theme that invites the singer to embellish

more freely. The ornamentation employed here, however, is still less elaborate than the

intricate embellishments appropriate to the cantata genre and the more bravura

embellishments of the opera. Ornaments used in this modified da capo aria include ttills.

appoggiature, inverted mordents, staccato articulation, and divisions such as passing

notes, neighbor tones, and scalar passages that frequently fill in interval gaps. Triplets

are often used to fill in larger note values (as in mm. 70 and 77), as well as to replace

duplet figures (m. 41). Because of the many repetitive phrases, dynamic variations such

as messa di voce and echo effects or crescendi are employed. As in the cantata and opera

arias ornamented in this chapter, embellishment increases as the alia progresses and as

melodic phrases are repeated.

An in-time cadenza adorns the end of each major section. The end of the first

statement of the A section includes the addition of a scalar passage of triplet figures

encompassing the interval of an octave (m. 41). This cadenza begins on a pitch other

than Handel's original because the addition of the brief high A for the soprano provides a

sense of climax to the section. The end of the B section's cadenza includes passing notes,

neighbor tones, appoggiature, and a trill (mm. 57-60). The final cadence includes triplet

figures and the lively addition of a quick octave leap incorporating a dotted-eighth note

high A. The cadenzas (mm. 41 and 78) are the only places, aside from an occasional

neighbor tone or slide figure, where the ornamented version significantly exceeds

Handel's original melodic compass.

 238
Come. Ever Smiling Liberty
(Judas Maccaheus)
Andante J. =r.a

Original

Continuo

Cnme, e • ver smil • iog li • ber- ty,

and wilhlheebring lhy jo cundtrain, come, e - ver

 239
f
tr

ing li - nnd with thee hring thy io cund train. come. c • ver smil iog,
tr

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jo- cund train. ond with thee bring thy

4
2

'/liP f

train. thy jo- cund trnin. thy jo- cund train. nnd with thecbring thy
 240

train. C'onJC, C' ~ ver

.r

come. c.- - ver •mil - in~ li - bcr - ty, and with thee bring thy

tr

jo - cund train thy jo - cund, jo cund trdin, and with thee bring thy
 241

~I

jo • cund train. thy jo • cund 1r;1in. and with th•e bring thy

For

thee we pant, and sigh for th•e. we pnnt for thee. with
 242

whom e • ter • n:tl pleu sure:-. reign. for thee we ("ant, we

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 243

cnmc. ~ .. vcr •mil - ing li - ber - ty,

3 3

e • ver smil ing li • her • ty. and with thi.'C brinr thy jo • cund train, thy

jo cund train. and with thee bring thy

244
 245

BffiLIOGRAPHY

Abraham, Gerald, ed. Handel· A Symposium. London: Oxford University Press, 1954;
reprint, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, Publishers, 1980.

Aldrich, Putnam. "The 'Authentic' Performance of Baroque Music." In Essays on Music

in Honor of Archibald Thompson Davison by His Associates, 161-171.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Department of Music, 1957.

____. "The Principal Agn5ments of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centmies: A

Study in Musical Ornamentation." 3 vols. Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1942.

Allen, Sheila Matie. "Getman Baroque Opera (1678-1740) with a Practical Edition of
Selected Soprano Arias." DMAdiss., University ofRochester, 1974.

Babell, William. "William Babell's Arrangements." In A Miscellaneous Collection of

Instrumental Music for the Organ Orchestra Chamber and Harpsichord by G F.
Handel. Vol. 48 of The Works of George Frederic Handel, edited by Friediich
Chrysander, 210-243. N.d.; Reptint, Ridgewood, N.J.: Gregg Press, Incorporated,
1965.

Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel. Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments.
Vol. 1, 1753; Vol. 2, 1762. Translated and edited by William J. Mitchell (2 vols.
in 1), New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1949.

Bacon, Richard Mackenzie. Elements of Vocal Science· Being A Philosophical

Enquiry Into Some of the Principles of Singing. 1824. Edited with Notes and
Introduction by Edward Foreman, Masterworks on Singing Series, Vol. I.,
Champaign, Ill.: Pro Musica Press, 1966.

Baird, Julianne Charlotte. "Johann Ftiedtich Agticola's Anleitung zur Singkunst (1757):
A Translation and Commentary." 2 vols. Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1991.

____. "An Eighteenth-Century Controversy About the Trill: Mancini v.

Manfredini." Early Music 15 (February 1987): 36-45.

Bayly, Anselm. A Practical Treatise on Singing and Playing With Just Expression and
Real Elegance. London: J. Ridley, 1771.
 246

Berard, Jean-Baptiste. L'Art du chant· dectie a Mme De Pompadour. 1755. Translation

with commentary by Sidney Murray, Milwaukee, Wis.: Pro musica press, 1969.

Best, Terence. "An Example of Handel Embellishment." The Musical Tim.e.s. 110
(September 1969): 933. ·

Beulow, George J. "A Lesson in Operatic Performance Practice by Madame Faustina

Bordoni." In A Musical Offe•ing· Essays in Honor of Martin Bems.tcin, edited by
Edward H. Clinkscale and Claire Brook, 79-96. New York: Pendragon Press,
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