▪ Cement, one of the most important building materials, is a binding agent that sets

and hardens to adhere to building units such as stones, bricks, tiles, etc. Cement
generally refers to a very fine powdery substance chiefly made up of limestone
(calcium), sand or clay (silicon), bauxite (aluminum), and iron ore, and may include
shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast furnace slag, slate. The raw ingredients are
processed in cement manufacturing plants and heated to form a rock-hard
substance, which is then ground into a fine powder to be sold. Cement mixed with
water causes a chemical reaction and forms a paste that sets and hardens to bind
individual structures of building materials.
▪ Cement is mainly classified into two categories depending on the hardening and
setting mechanism. These are-
▪ Hydraulic Cement-As the name indicates, hydraulic cement is those which harden
by hydration in the presence of water. Limestone, clay, and gypsum are the main
raw material to produce hydraulic cement. This raw material is burned at a very
high temperature to manufacture Hydraulic Cement.
▪ Non-hydraulic Cement-The non-hydraulic cement doesn't require water to get
harden. It gets with the help of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air. This type of
cement needs dry conditions to harden. Lime, gypsum plasters, and oxychloride
are the required raw material to produce non-hydraulic cement. Example: slaked
lime is a non-hydraulic cement.
▪ Along with these main types, depending on the composition and characteristics there
are many types of cement. Followings are the other cement types:
▪ Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
▪ Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
▪ Rapid Hardening Cement
▪ Quick Setting Cement
▪ Low Heat Cement
▪ Sulphate Resisting Cement
▪ Blast Furnace Cement
▪ High Alumina Cement
▪ White Cement
▪ Colored Cement
▪ Air Entraining Cement
▪ Expansive Cement
▪ Hydrophobic Cement
▪ Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is the most common cement used in general concrete
construction when there is no exposure to sulphates in the soil or groundwater
▪ Portland cement clinker is a hydraulic material which shall consist of at least two-thirds
by mass of calcium silicates, (3 CaO·SiO2, and 2 CaO·SiO2), the remainder consisting of
aluminium- and iron-containing clinker phases and other compounds. The ratio of CaO
to SiO2 shall not be less than 2.0. The magnesium oxide content (MgO) shall not exceed
5.0% by mass.
▪ Produces highly durable and sound concrete due to very low percentage of alkalis,
chlorides, magnesia and free lime in its composition.
▪ Almost negligible chloride content results in restraining corrosion of concrete structure
in hostile environments.
▪ Significant saving in cement consumption while making concrete of grades M15, M20,
M25, M35 and pre-cast segments due to high strength.
▪ Pozzolans are natural or synthetic materials that contain silica in reactive forms. It
reacts with calcium hydroxide generated by hydrating cement to form additional
cementations materials when it is finely divided.
▪ The composition of Portland Pozzolana Cement: OPC clinker, Gypsum, Pozzolanic
Materials (Fly ash, volcanic ash, and Calcined clay or silica fumes.)
▪ Higher durability of concrete structure due to less permeability of water.
▪ More resistance towards the attack of alkalies, sulphates, chlorides, chemicals.
▪ Better work ability.
▪ Low heat of hydration.
▪ Due to high fineness, PPC has better cohesion with aggregates and makes more
dense concreteness.
▪ When finely grounded Tri-calcium silicate (C3S) is present in OPC with higher content,
it gains strength more quickly than OPC. This type of OPC is called Rapid Hardening
Cement. It’s initial Setting Time 30 minutes and Final Setting Time 600 minutes.
▪ The strength achieved by Rapid Hardening Cement in 3 days is equivalent to the
strength achieve by Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) in 7 days.
▪ The improved early strength is achieved by the fineness of cement.
▪ There is a reduced shrinkage during curing and hardening of cement.
▪ Rapid hardening cement is resistant to sulphate attacks.
▪ It is a very durable cement which matches the fast pace of construction and budgets
required to make projects operational.
▪ Rapid hardening cement is used in areas like road pavements so that the traffic can be
opened early. It is also used in manufacturing precast slabs, posts, electric poles,
concreting in cold countries.
▪ Quick setting cement is the cement which sets in a very short time. The initial
setting time is 5 minutes and the final setting time is 30 minutes.
▪ The composition of Quick Setting Cement: Clinker,Aluminum sulfate (1% to 3% by
weight of clinker),The aluminum sulfate increases the hydration rate of silicate.
▪ It is used in underwater construction.
▪ It is also used in rainy & cold weather conditions.
▪ It is used a higher temperature where water evaporates easily.
▪ Used for anchoring or rock bolt mining and tunneling
▪ It is a spatial type of cement which produces low heat of hydration during the
setting. Some chemical composition of Ordinary Portland Cement is modified to
reduce the heat of hydration.
▪ The chemical composition of low heat cement: A low percentage (5%) of tricalcium
aluminate (C3A), A higher percentage (46%) of declaiming silicate (C2S).
▪ It is used for the construction of dam’s large footing, large raft slabs, and wind
turbine plinths.
▪ It is also used for the construction of chemical plants.
▪ Sulfate resisting cement is used to resist sulfate attacks in concrete. Due to the
lower percentage of Tricalcium aluminate, the production of calcium sulpho-
aluminates gets reduced.
▪ Construction in contact with soils or groundwater having more than 0.2% or 0.3 %
g/l sulfate salts respectively.
▪ Concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and drying such as bridge piers,
concrete surface in the tidal zone, apron, Building near the seacoast.
▪ Effluent treatment plans, Chimney, Chemical industries, water storage, sumps,
drainage works, Cooling towers, Coastal protective works such as sea walls,
breakwaters, tetrapods, etc.
▪ Portland cement clinker and granulated blast furnace slag are intergraded to make
blast furnace cement. A maximum of 65 percent of the mixture could be comprised
of blast furnace slag.
▪ It is highly sulfate resistant
▪ Frequently used in seawater construction.
▪ High Alumina cement is obtained by mixing calcining bauxite (it’s an aluminum
ore) and ordinary lime with clinker during the manufacture of OPC. In which the
total amount of alumina content should not be lesser than 32% and it should
maintain the ratio by weight of alumina to the lime between 0.85 to 1.30.
▪ It is used where concrete structures are subjected to high temperatures like
workshops, refractory, foundries, etc.
▪ It also used where the concrete is subjected to frost and acidic action.
▪ White cement is quite similar to Ordinary Portland Cement except for color.
Amounts of iron oxide and manganese oxide are low in White Cement. It is
expensive then OPC so not economical for ordinary work.
▪ It is usually used in decorative work.
▪ It can also use for traffic barriers, tile grouts, swimming pools, roof tiles patching
materials, and terrazzo surfaces.
▪ White cement can be pigmented to achieve various colors without the need for
paint or stains thus eliminating VOCs.
▪ To make 5 to 10 percent of suitable pigments are ground with OPC. Types of
pigments are selected according to the desired color.
▪ Colored cement is used for different decorative work.
▪ It is seen that entrainment of air or formation of gas bubbles while applying cement
increases resistance to frost action, fire, scaling, and other similar defects. Air-
entraining cement is a special type of cement which entrains tinny air bubbles in
concrete.
▪ It is produced by grinding minute air entertaining materials with clinker by adding
some resinous materials e.g. vinsol resin to ordinary portland cement.
▪ When the water in concrete gets frizzed due to low temperature, it expands. When
air-entraining cement, the air voids in concrete provides space for water to expand
without cracking concrete. But this type of cement does not provide high strength
in concrete.
▪ Especially it is used in areas where the temperature is very low.
▪ It also resists the Sulphet attack.
▪ It is used where the de-icing chemical is used.
▪ In the hydration process, the expansive cement expands its volume. It can be
possible to overcome shrinkage loss by using expansive cement.
▪ There are three types of expansive cement based on raw materials: K Type
expansive cement, M Type expansive cement, S Type expansive cement.
▪ It is used in the construction of the pre-stressed concrete component.
▪ It is also used for sealing joints and grouting anchor bolt.
▪ In the construction of different hydraulic structures, this type of cement is used.
▪ To resist the hydration process in the transportation or storage stage, clinkers are
ground with water repellent film substance such as Oleic Acid or Stearic
Acid. These chemicals form a layer on the cement particle and do not allow water
to mix and start the hydration process. When cement and aggregate are thoroughly
mixed in the mixer, protective layers break and start normal hydration with some
air-entrainment which increases workability.
▪ Usually, it is used in the construction of water structures such as dams, spillways, or
other submerged structures.
▪ It is also used in the construction of underground structures like tunnel etc.
▪ Fineness of cement
▪ Soundness
▪ Consistency
▪ Strength
▪ Setting time
▪ Heat of hydration
▪ Loss of ignition
▪ Bulk density
▪ Specific gravity (Relative density)
▪ Fineness of cement
▪ The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of good
cement is achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of cement
production process. As hydration rate of cement is directly related to the cement
particle size, fineness of cement is very important.
▪ Soundness of Cement
▪ Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good
quality cement retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion, which is
caused by excessive free lime and magnesia.
▪ Consistency of Cement
▪ The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.
▪ Compressive Strength
▪ It is the most common strength test. A test specimen (50mm) is taken and subjected
to a compressive load until failure. The loading sequence must be within 20
seconds and 80 seconds.
▪ Tensile strength
▪ Though this test used to be common during the early years of cement production,
now it does not offer any useful information about the properties of cement.
▪ Flexural strength
▪ This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is performed in a
40 x40 x 160 mm cement mortar beam, which is loaded at its center point until
failure.
▪ Setting Time of Cement
▪ Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary
depending on multiple factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water ratio,
chemical content, and admixtures. Cement used in construction should have an
initial setting time that is not too low and a final setting time not too high. Hence,
two setting times are measured:
▪ initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs within 30-
45 minutes)
▪ Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load (occurs
below 10 hours)
▪ Again, setting time can also be an indicator of hydration rate.
▪ Heat of Hydration
▪ When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration.
Hydration generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be
beneficial in maintaining curing temperature during cold weather. On the other
hand, when heat generation is high, especially in large structures, it may cause
undesired stress. The heat of hydration is affected most by C3S and C3A present in
cement, and also by water-cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature. The heat
of hydration of Portland cement is calculated by determining the difference
between the dry and the partially hydrated cement (obtained by comparing these
at 7th and 28th days).
▪ Loss of Ignition
▪ Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant weight is
obtained) causes weight loss. This loss of weight upon heating is calculated as loss
of ignition. Improper and prolonged storage or adulteration during transport or
transfer may lead to pre-hydration and carbonation, both of which might be
indicated by increased loss of ignition.
▪ Bulk density
▪ When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there would
normally be air. Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not very important.
Cement has a varying range of density depending on the cement composition
percentage. The density of cement may be anywhere from 62 to 78 pounds per
cubic foot.
▪ Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
▪ Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations. Portland
cement has a specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement (for example,
portland-blast-furnace-slag and portland-pozzolan cement) may have specific
gravities of about 2.90.
▪ Strength of Cement
▪ Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and
flexural. Various factors affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio, cement-fine
aggregate ratio, curing conditions, size and shape of a specimen, the manner of
molding and mixing, loading conditions and age. While testing the strength, the
following should be considered:
▪ Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not directly related.
Cement strength is merely a quality control measure.
▪ The tests of strength are performed on cement mortar mix, not on cement paste.
▪ Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of performing the test should
be mentioned.
▪ There are six main stages of the cement manufacturing process.
▪ Stage 1: Raw Material Extraction/Quarry
▪ Stage 2: Grinding, Proportioning, and Blending
▪ Stage 3: Pre-Heating Raw Material
▪ Stage 4: Kiln Phase
▪ Stage 5: Cooling and final grinding
▪ Stage 6: Packing and Shipping
▪ Stage 1: Raw Material Extraction/Quarry
▪ The raw cement ingredients needed for cement production are limestone (calcium),
sand and clay (silicon, aluminum, iron), shale, fly ash, mill scale, and bauxite. The ore
rocks are quarried and crushed into smaller pieces of about 6 inches. Secondary
crushers or hammer mills then reduce them to an even smaller size of 3 inches. After
that, the ingredients are prepared for pyroprocessing.
▪ Stage 2: Grinding, Proportioning, and Blending
▪ The crushed raw ingredients are made ready for the cement-making process in the kiln
by combining them with additives and grinding them to ensure a fine homogenous
mixture. The composition of cement is proportioned here depending on the desired
properties of the cement. Generally, limestone is 80%, and the remaining 20% is clay. In
the cement plant, the raw mix is dried (moisture content reduced to less than 1%);
heavy wheel-type rollers and rotating tables blend the raw mix and then the roller
crushes it to a fine powder to be stored in silos and fed to the kiln.
▪ Stage 3: Pre-Heating Raw Material
▪ A pre-heating chamber consists of a series of cyclones that utilizes the hot gases
produced from the kiln in order to reduce energy consumption and make the cement-
making process more environment-friendly. The raw materials are passed through here
and turned into oxides to be burned in the kiln.
▪ Stage 4: Kiln Phase

▪ The kiln phase is the principal stage of the cement production process. Here, clinker is produced from the raw mix
through a series of chemical reactions between calcium and silicon dioxide compounds. Though the process is
complex, the events of the clinker production can be written in the following sequence:
▪ Evaporation of free water.
▪ Evolution of combined water in the argillaceous components.
▪ Calcination of the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to calcium oxide (CaO).
▪ The reaction of CaO with silica to form dicalcium silicate.
▪ The reaction of CaO with the aluminum and iron-bearing constituents forms the liquid phase.

▪ Formation of the clinker nodules.

▪ Evaporation of volatile constituents (e. g., sodium, potassium, chlorides, and sulfates).
▪ The reaction of excess CaO with dicalcium silicate forms tricalcium silicate.
▪ The above events can be condensed into four major stages based on the change in temperature inside the kiln:
▪ 100°C (212°F): Evaporation of free water

▪ 100°C (212°F)-430°C (800°F): Dehydration and formation of oxides of silicon, aluminum, and iron

▪ 900°C (1650°F)-982°C (1800°F): CO2 is evolved and CaO is produced through calcination
▪ 1510°C (2750°F): Cement clinker is formed
▪ The kiln is angled by 3 degrees to the horizontal to allow the material to pass through it, over a period of 20 to 30
minutes. By the time the raw mix reaches the lower part of the kiln, clinker forms and comes out of the kiln in marble-
sized nodules.
▪ Stage 5: Cooling and final grinding
▪ After exiting the kiln, the clinker is rapidly cooled down from 2000°C to 100°C-
200°C by passing air over it. At this stage, different additives are combined with the
clinker to be ground in order to produce the final product, cement. Gypsum added
to and ground with clinker regulates the setting time and gives the most
important property of cement, compressive strength. It also prevents
agglomeration and coating of the powder at the surface of balls and mill walls.
Some organic substances, such as Triethanolamine (used at 0.1 wt.%), are added as
grinding aids to avoid powder agglomeration. Other additives sometimes used are
ethylene glycol, oleic acid, and dodecyl-benzene sulphonate.
▪ The heat produced by the clinker is circulated back to the kiln to save energy. The
last stage of making cement is the final grinding process. In the cement plant, there
are rotating drums fitted with steel balls. Clinker, after being cooled, is transferred
to these rotating drums and ground into such a fine powder that each pound of it
contains 150 billion grains. This powder is the final product, cement.
▪ Stage 6: Packing and Shipping
▪ Cement is conveyed from grinding mills to silos (large storage tanks) where it is
packed in 20-40 kg bags. Most of the product is shipped in bulk quantities by
trucks, trains, or ships, and only a small amount is packed for customers who need
small quantities.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS DURING CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS

▪ The reactions that take place (after evaporation of free water) between the reactants in the kilning phase of cement
making process are as follows:
▪ Clay Decomposition:
Si2Al2O5(OH)2 → 2 SiO2 + Al2O3 + 2 H2O (vapor)
KAlSi3O8 (orthoclase) + 0.5 SO2 + 0.25 O2 → 3 SiO2 + 0.5 Al2O3 + 0.5 K2SO4
▪ Dolomite Decomposition:
CaMg(CO3)2 → CaCO3 + MgO + CO2
KMg3AlSi3O10(OH)2 + 0.5 SO2 + 0.25 O2 → 0.5 K2SO4 + 3 MgO + 0.5 Al2O3 + 3 SiO2 + H2O (vapor)
▪ Low-Temperature Calcite Decomposition:
2 CaCO3 + SiO2 → Ca2SiO4 + 2 CO2
2 MgO + SiO2 → Mg2SiO4
Ca5(PO4)3OH + 0.25 SiO2 → 1.5 Ca3(PO4)2 + 0.25 Ca2SiO4 + 0.5 H2O (vapour)
▪ Alumina and Oxide Reaction:
12 CaCO3 + 7 Al2O3 → Ca12Al14O33 + 12 CO2
4 CaCO3 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 → Ca4Al2Fe2O10 + 4 CO2
4 CaCO3 + Al2O3 + Mn2O3 → Ca4Al2Mn2O10 + 4 CO2
▪ The reaction of Remaining Calcite:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
▪ Sintering:
Ca2SiO4 + CaO → Ca3SiO5
USES OF CEMENT
▪ It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.
▪ It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
▪ It is used for the water-tightness of the structure.
▪ It is used in concrete for laying floors, and roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs, pillars, etc.
▪ It is used where a hard surface is required for the protection of exposed surfaces of structures
against the destructive agents of the weather and certain organic or inorganic chemicals.
▪ It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts, etc.
▪ It is used in the construction of important engineering structures such as bridges, culverts, dams,
tunnels, lighthouses, etc.
▪ It is used in the preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths, etc.
▪ It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis courts, lamp posts, telephone
cabins, roads, etc.
GRADES OF CEMENT
▪ There are different grades in Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)which is the most widely
used cement in the world for producing concrete, mortar and non-specialty. There are
three main classes or grades of OPC; 33 grade cement, 43 grade cement and 53 grade
cement.
▪ 33 GRADE ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT
▪ 33 grade cement refers to cement that has a mean compressive strength of 33N/mm2 at
the end of 28 days of curing standard mortar cubes. This grade is achieved when the
mortars cubes are composed of one part of cement and three parts of standard sand
(1:3 mix ratio).The initial setting time for this grade is greater than 75 minutes while its
soundness is 10mm as per European Standards.
▪ This grade of cement is used for general construction work under normal
environmental condition such as plastering works, low rise buildings (suspended slabs)
and masonry. Since it has a low compressive strength, therefore it is not used where
higher load bearing cements are used instead
▪ 43 GRADE ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT
▪ This grade of cement refers to cement whose mean compressive strength is 43N/mm2
at the end of 28 days of curing standard mortar cubes. It is the most popular
cement used worldwide, suitable to make concrete mix up to M30.
▪ The initial setting time is greater than 60 while the soundness is 10mm as per European
Standards.
▪ This grade of cement is used for plain concrete work such as blocks, tiles, asbestos
products like sheets and pipes, and for non-structural works such as plastering, flooring
etc.
▪ 53 GRADE ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT
▪ 53 grade cement refers to cement with mean compressive strength of 53 N/mm2 after
28 days of curing standard mortar cubes. It is used when there is a need for higher
strength concrete at very economical cement content.
▪ It is suitable for a concrete mix of M20 and above so as to achieve 8 to 10 % saving in
cement.
▪ This cement grade is used for specialized works such as pre-stressed concrete
components, precast items such as paving blocks, etc., runways, concrete roads,
bridges, and other Reinforced Concrete Cement (RCC) works where the grade of
concrete is M25 and above.
▪ Concrete, in technical terms, is any product or mass created with the use of a
cementing medium. Concrete is the most extensively used building material in the
construction industry and is made up of a composite man-made materials. It’s
made up of a well-balanced mix of binding materials like lime or cement, fine and
coarse aggregates, water and admixtures.
▪ This mixture is then poured into moulds or forms and left to cure for a particular
amount of time or days, depending on the application. Concrete is significantly
stronger in compression than it is in tension. As a result, it is reinforced with steel to
withstand tensile stresses.
▪
▪ Concrete in its hardened form and concrete in its plastic state have
different properties. The properties that concrete should possess at both stages are
listed below.
▪ Properties in Hardened State-Durability, Shrinkage, Strength, Creep,
Impermeability, Thermal Expansion
▪ Properties in Plastic State-Workability, Harshness, Segregation, Bleeding.
▪ Plain Cement Concrete
▪ Lime Concrete
▪ Pre-stressed Cement Concrete
▪ Reinforced Cement Concrete
▪ Light-Weight Concrete
▪ Heavy-weight Concrete
▪ Damp proof Concrete
▪ Self-compacting Concrete
▪ Cellular Concrete
▪ Rapid-strength Concrete
▪ Low-strength Concrete
▪ High-strength Concrete
▪ Saw-dust Concrete
▪ Fiber-reinforced Concrete
▪ Polymer Concrete
▪ Vacuum Concrete
 PCC RCC DPC
▪ It stand for Plain cement ▪ It stand for Reinforcement Cement ▪ It stand for Damp proof concrete.
Concrete. Concrete.
▪ It is same like pcc which is
▪ This is the mixture of cement, ▪ This is the mixture if cement, sand , generally provided below the
sand , aggregate and water aggregate,water as well as steel plinth level of the building or
only. rods. structure. It’s depth is about 50mm.
It is kept about 1 feet or according
▪ Reinforcement is not provided ▪ It can be used for column, beam, to design of structure from ground
in concrete while construction. slab etc which have to bear load or level.
compressive force or tensile force. ▪ It is not constructed for bearing
▪ It can not be used for column,
any load.
beam, slab etc which have to ▪ It is more safe for structures as
bear load or tensile force. compare to the pcc. ▪ As it’s name. It’s main reason to
provide is to protect wall and floor
▪ It can bear compressive load to get moisturizing.
only so, it can be used for
making floor, retaining wall, ▪ It also prevent from capillary
road etc. action of the water to the
superstructure from the ground.
GRADES OF CONCRETE
▪ Grades of concrete are defined by the strength and composition of the concrete,
and the minimum strength the concrete should have following 28 days of initial
construction. The grade of concrete is understood in measurements of MPa, where
M stands for mix and the MPa denotes the overall strength.
▪ Different mixes (M) come in various mix proportions of the various ingredients
of cement, sand and coarse aggregates. For instance, M20 comes in the respective
ratio of 1:1:5:3. You can see other examples below in the table.
CEMENT MORTAR
▪ mortars are composed of a cementitious material, fine aggregate, sand, and
specific amount of water. Mortar can be used for a number of purposes such as
plastering over bricks or other forms of masonry, for flooring etc., and with the
addition of coarse aggregate, it can also be used to make concrete.
Cement mortar also provides a superior medium to create a smooth surface on
walls made from bricks or other forms of masonry.
▪ the preparation of the cement mortar involves following steps:
▪ Selection of Raw Materials- The Portland cement is used to make mortar. For
making composite mortars, Lime is also used. Sand must be of good quality and it
should be free of impurities like clay, dust, oxide of irons etc. It must be cleaned
completely before mixing with cement. Sand provides strength, resistance against
shrinkage and cracking. It provides bulk to mortars, hence, making it economical.
Using just cement would not only make it extremely costly, but also impractical.
▪ Proportion of cement mortar-The Proportion means the relative quantity of
different components to be mixed to make good mortar, or simply the ratio
between different materials.
Following are the proportions of cement mortar which is commonly
recommended for different works:
▪ 01. Masonry Construction:
▪ For ordinary masonry work with brick/ stone as a structural unit. – 1:3 to 1:6
▪ Forreinforced brick work – 1:2 to 1:3.
▪ For all work in moist situations – 1:3
▪ For Architectural work – 1:6
▪ For Load Bearing structures – 1:3 or 1:4
▪ 02. Plaster Work:
▪ For External Plaster and Ceiling Plaster – 1:4
▪ Internal Plaster (If sand is not fine i.e. Fineness Modulus> 3) – 1:5
▪ For Internal Plaster (if fine sand is available) – 1:6
▪ For external plaster work, as per Government of India, ‘CPWD SPECIFICATIONS (VOL.-2)’ (Central
Public Works Department), the under coat shall consist of cement mortar 1:5 (1 cement: 5 coarse sand)
and the top coat shall be of cement mortar 1:4 (1 cement: 4 fine sand) unless otherwise specified.
▪ 03. Flooring Work:
▪ Mortar ratio of 1:4 to 1:8 (cement: sand, water to be judgmental), for 5 to 7 times thickness of verified
tiles, should be given as bed between RCC floor and tiles.
▪ 04. Pointing Work:
▪ For pointing work proportion of cement mortar should be 1:1 to 1:3
▪ Mixing of ingredients-To prepare cement mortar, cement and sand are properly
mixed in dry condition. Water is then added gradually and mixed using a shovel.
The water should be free from clay and other impurities.
Cement mortar can either be mixed manually (Hand Mixing) or mechanically
(Machine Mixing). For small construction, hand mixing is commonly used.
Mechanical mixing is required when the mortar is needed in large quantities and
needs to be used in continuous order.

Curing of Cement Mortar

▪ Cement gains strength with hydration. So, it is necessary to see that the mortar
remains wet until hydration occurs. After placing the mortar/concrete, the process
of ensuring sufficient moisture for hydration is called curing. Curing is ensured by
spraying water. Generally, curing begins 6–24 hours after using mortar. Initially,
more water is required for hydration, which can be reduced gradually. Curing for
cement mortar is recommended for 7 days.
▪ Well-proportioned and well laid mortar provides an impervious surface.
▪ When water is added to dry mixture of cement and sand, hydration of cement
occurs, and it binds with sand particles and the surrounding surfaces of masonry
and concrete.
▪ A rich mortar of more than 1:3 is prone to shrinkage.
▪ The leaner mix is not capable of closing the voids in sand, and hence the plastered
surface will remain porous.
▪ As per IS: 2260-1981 (Indian Standard), the strength of the mortar depends upon
the proportion of cement and sand. Strength obtained with the various proportions
of cement and sand are as follows.
▪ To bind masonry units like stone, bricks, blocks, cement
▪ For Plastering on walls and slabs to make them impervious.
▪ As a filler material in Ferro cement works and stone masonry.
▪ To fill cracks and joints in the wall.
▪ Use of cement mortar gives a neat finishing work to wall and concrete work.
▪ For pointing the joints of masonry.
▪ For preparing the building blocks
▪ Granolithic flooring is nothing but a final coat that are used over a cement
concrete floor for finishing purposes, thus making the surface resistant to wear and
tear caused due to abrasion action.
▪ Granolithic concrete is made of cement, sand and specially selected aggregates
like basalt or limestone or quartzite. In granolithic flooring, the grading of
aggregates plays an important role. The coarse aggregates are well graded from
13 mm. to I.S Sieve No. 240.
▪ The granolithic flooring concrete mix is generally in the proportion of 1:1:2 or
1:1:3.
▪ The granolithic concrete should be laid before the base concrete has set. The
minimum thickness of finishing should be 1/2″ .
▪ After laying the surface is tamped and floated with wooden floats and finally
smoothened by means of steel trowel.
▪ A Concrete Block is a ‘Building Block’ composed entirely of concrete that is then
mortared together to make an imposing, long-lasting construction. These construction
blocks can be ‘Hollow’ or ‘Solid,’ formed of ordinary or lightweight concrete in various
specified sizes, depending on the precise requirements. Concrete blocks come in
various shapes and sizes, and they can be solid or hollow. 39cm x 19cm x (30cm or 20
cm or 10cm) or 2 inch, 4 inch, 6 inch, 8 inch, 10 inch, and 12-inch unit configurations are
the most popular concrete block sizes. Concrete blocks are made from cement,
aggregate, and water. In concrete blocks, the cement-aggregate ratio is 1:6.
▪ Types of Concrete Blocks:
▪ There are two types of concrete blocks:
1. Solid Concrete Blocks
2. Hollow Concrete Blocks
▪
▪ 1. Solid Concrete Blocks:
▪ Solid concrete blocks, which are highly heavyweight and formed by aggregate, are
primarily utilized in construction projects. They’re sturdy and give structures a lot
of solidities. These solid blocks are ideal for large-scale projects such as force-
bearing walls. They’re compared to bricks that come in big sizes. As a result,
constructing concrete masonry takes less time than brick masonry.
▪ 2. Hollow Concrete Blocks:
▪ In masonry construction, hollow concrete blocks are typically employed. It reduces
labour costs on the job site while also speeding up the construction process and
saving cement and steel. These blocks reduce the natural weight of masonry
structures while also improving physical wall qualities like noise and thermal
insulation. Standard hollow concrete blocks come in two sizes: Full size and half
size. Half-sized blocks are cubical and have one core, while full-sized blocks are
rectangular and have two cores. The nominal size of concrete blocks, according to
the ‘Research Designs & Standards Organization of Indian Railways,’ is as follows:
▪ i) 400, 500, or 600 mm in length ii) 200 or 100 mm in height iii) 50, 75, 100, 150, 200,
250, or 300 mm in width.
▪ Hollow concrete blocks come in various shapes, sizes, and designs, depending on
the shape, needs, and design.
▪ Fly ash blocks are lighter than clay bricks and are also more cost-effective. They
are commonly made from waste products resulting from coal combustion in
thermal power plants.
▪ Cement Bonded Particle Board is made from a mixture of wood particles and
cement. Cement board adds impact resistance and strength to the wall surface. It is
not actually waterproof, but it is highly resistant to absorbing moisture and has
excellent drying properties. One major disadvantage of cement board is the
weight per square foot which is quite high and makes its handling by one person
difficult.
▪ Advantages of Concrete Blocks:
▪ The reduced wall thickness due to narrower Concrete Blocks than a traditional brick masonry wall makes the space is
larger by increasing the carpet surface.
▪ Concrete block building is more systematic, faster, and stronger than brick masonry because of the vast size of the
blocks.
▪ Better thermal insulation is provided.
▪ It effectively absorbs sound and protects the interiors from noise pollution. Using concrete blocks provides additional
fire protection.
▪ Protects precious agricultural land that is extensively mined to produce clay bricks.

▪ Individual pieces can be manufactured to a larger customized size and shape, allowing for a quick building cycle
turnaround.
▪ Concrete Blocks, unlike traditional bricks, have a consistent size that lowers the need for plaster, making them a more
cost-effective solution. The mortar consumption rate is lower than in traditional masonry construction, but the overall
strength of the structure is increased.
▪ Disadvantages of Concrete Blocks:
▪ The expense of constructing a residence out of concrete blocks is significantly higher.

▪ Some of the blocks may need to be cut to reach critical systems.

▪ Concrete block homes aren’t usually attractive from the outside.
▪ Over time, concrete blocks may be subject to water seepage.
▪ Some regional preferences may not be compatible with this material.
▪ Windows and doors can easily detract from the environmental benefits.