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ME 222: Manufacturing Technology I

Department of Mechanical Engineering

IIT Guwahati

Heat transfer and Deformation

 Based on working temperature -
 Cold Forming - Near room temperature
 Warm Forming - Between room temperature and recrystallization temperature.
Working temperature ~ 0.3 Tm
 Hot Forming - Above recrystallization temperature
Working temperature ~ 0.5Tm to 0.7 Tm
 Heatis generated in the workpiece - plastic deformation and interfacial frictional energy
Heat dissipation to the environment leads to reduction in temperature.
T → Ti + ∆Td + ∆ Tf –∆Tc
T = Total Temperature
Ti = Initial Temperature
∆Td = Temperature rise due to plastic deformation
∆Tf = Temperature rise due to friction
∆Tc = Temperature lost to environment by convection and radiation
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Heat transfer and Deformation

Temperature rise due to deformation energy

The amount of plastic work done per unit volume = σε

Total plastic work done = σεV where V is the volume
Considering α as the fraction of plastic work done. 𝜀
Therefore total plastic work done is ασεV. 𝜀ሶ =
𝑡
Internal stored energy is mCPΔTd within the workpiece
where CP = Specific heat capacity
ΔTd = Change in temperature due to deformation energy

Equating the energy balance mCPΔTd = ασεV

ΔTd = ασεV/mCP
ΔTd = ασ 𝜀ሶ tV/ mCP

Heat transfer and Deformation

Temperature rise due to friction
Frictional energy overcome between tool and workpiece
Wf = Shear force X velocity of flow = τAv = nτy Av
where, τ = nτy shear stress (sliding/sticking condition)
n = shear factor, 0 ≤ n ≤ 1;
τy = shear strength
v = velocity
A = Area of contact between tool and workpiece

Making energy balance, 𝑊𝑓 × 𝑡 = 𝑚𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇𝑓 where, t is time

nτy Avt = mCPΔTf

ΔTf = nτy Avt/mCP

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Heat transfer and Deformation

Comparison between cold and hot working
 Cold working - room temperature while hot working - 0.5 – 0.7 times of
melting point temperature
 Load required in cold working is relatively more than hot working
 Elongated grains - cold working while equiaxed grains - found in hot
working
 Strength of cold worked materials are relatively higher than the strength of hot
worked materials.
 Ductility of cold worked materials is lower than hot worked materials
 Dislocation density more in cold worked materials while less dislocation
density in hot worked material
 Annealing is often required after cold working

Heat transfer and Deformation

 Elastic deformation disappears completely when load is removed
 Plastic deformation is a permanent deformation without failure and takes place
when elastic range of the deformation has been exceeded.
 In plastic region, metal's behaviour is expressed by the flow curve: σ = Kε n
where σ is stress, K is strength coefficient, ε is strain and n is strain
hardening exponent.
 Stress and strain in flow curve are true stress and true strain.
 Generally for metals at room temperature, strength increases with the increase
in strain hardening.
 The value of K and n is temperature dependent. Strength and strain hardening
reduces with increase in temperature.
 While ductility of metal increases with increase in temperature.

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Heat transfer and Deformation

Quantification of flow stress value
It is considered to be the middle value between yield strength and ultimate strength of the
metal and is taken as a function of strain, and is expressed as:
𝜎𝑓 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛
where, 𝜎𝑓 is flow stress; ε is true strain; K is strength coefficient; n is strain
hardening coefficient

Therefore flow stress can also be defined as the stress required to sustain deformation at any
given strain

The average flow stress – based on work done under stress–strain curve from the
beginning of strain to the final value
𝜎𝑓 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛 Τ 1 + 𝑛
𝑎𝑣
ε = maximum strain
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Heat transfer and Deformation

Strain rate sensitivity

Strain rate is estimated as

𝜀ሶ = v/h
where, 𝜀ሶ = true strain rate
v = Speed of deformation
h = instantaneous height of the workpiece being deformed

As strain rate is increased, resistance to deformation increases.

At hot working temperatures, flow stress also depends on strain rate.

𝜎𝑓 = 𝐶 𝜀ሶ 𝑚
where C = strength constant, m = strain rate sensitivity exponent.

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Heat transfer and Deformation

 At room temperature, the effect of strain rate is almost negligible

 As temperature is increased, strain rate becomes significant in determining

flow stress

 In cold working strain rate have very small effect on flow stress

 Flow stress as a function of strain and strain rate can be expressed as,

𝜎𝑓 = 𝐴𝜀 𝑛 𝜀ሶ 𝑚 where A = Strength coefficient

Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

Thermomechanical processing

 A metallurgical process that combines mechanical deformation process like

metal forming processes with thermal processes like heat-treatment,
quenching or controlled heating and cooling process

 Purpose is to improve the mechanical properties of materials processed by

work hardening effect

 Better explain by Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain growth mechanism

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Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

Annealing

 It is a heat treatment process in which a material is exposed to an elevated temperature for

an extended period of time and then slowly cooled.

 The purpose is to relieve stresses, increase softness, ductility and toughness

 It consists of 3 stages
 Heating to the desired temperature
 Holding or soaking at that temperature
 Cooling usually at room temperature

Rate of heating or rate of cooling is important – too high rate create temperature gradient and
internal stresses - may lead to wrapping or cracking
The actual annealing time must be long enough to allow for any necessary transformation
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reactions.

Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

Process annealing

 It is a heat treatment process of cold worked material - that is to soften and

increase the ductility of previously strain-hardened metal

 Commonly used that require extensive plastic deformation - to allow a

continuation deformation with high reduction ratio

 Recovery and recrystallization occurs during the process

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Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

Normalizing

 Steels that have been plastically deformed by metal working processes and
consists of a grains of pearlite with irregularly shaped and relatively large with
wide distribution of grains

 Normalizing is used to refine the grains i.e. decrease the average grain size and
produce a more uniform and desirable size distribution

 Produced fine-grained pearlite steels are tougher than coarse-grained ones

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Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

Full anneal
 Full anneal is often utilized in low- and medium carbon steels that experience
extensive plastic deformation during a forming operation

 Heating to a desired temperature and followed by cooling

 Slow cooling in the furnace is followed
 Recovery is the main mechanism

 Produce coarse pearlite that is relatively soft and ductile

 The full anneal process is time consuming – but beneficial in the form of small
grains and a uniform grain structure

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Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

 Plastic deformation of polycrystalline at specific temperature –

A change in grain shape
Strain hardening
An increase in dislocation density

 Some fraction of the energy is stored in metal as strain energy

 The strain energy is associated with various lattice defects, mainly the dislocations.
 Retained energy – depends on composition of materials, and rate and temperature of
deformation
 Lowering the deformation temperature and changing from pure metal to an alloy, the
amount of stored energy increases
 Release of strain energy by recovery process – annihilating excess dislocations
 Large energy release with the formation of strain free crystals – recrystallization
 Followed by grain growth
 Function of strain, strain rate and temperature 15

Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

 Recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth occur - during annealing after cold deformation
or during hot working of metals
 Recrystallization occurs - nucleation and growth of grains
 Key mechanism to control microstructure evolution during hot working and subsequent heat
treatment
- dynamic recovery, dynamic recrystallization, static recovery, static recrystallization,
and grain growth

Dynamic recovery: Static recrystallization occurs after

 Occurs at high temperature the deformation, mostly in cold
 Movement of dislocations to grain forming process
boundary
 Lowers the strain energy Dynamic recrystallization occurs
 Lowers the effective rate of work during deformation process, mostly
hardening in hot forming process 16

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Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

Formation of nuclei:
 Favorable positions are high lattice strain energy such as slip-line intersections,
twin intersections and grain boundaries
 The growth rate and nucleation rate is difficult to measure
Grain growth: Grain boundary energy and the curvature of the boundary
𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐷 1
∝𝜌 = 𝑘. 𝜌 - curvature
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐷
𝐷𝑛 − 𝐷0𝑛 = 𝑘𝑡
2
𝐷 = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶
k, n – time independent constants
𝐷 2 − 𝐷02 = 𝑘𝑡 and n ≥ 2

If D0 is very small, 𝐷2 = 𝑘𝑡 𝐷 = 𝑘′ 𝑡
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Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

Recrystallization kinetics: Impingement
Nucleation period = 𝑡0
N = Rate of nucleation X Growth
R = Mean radius of spherical grain
R = G(t - t0) Nucleation
𝑑𝑅
G = Growth rate = 𝑑𝑡 t
Johnson-Mehl equation:
Recrystallized volume fraction, 𝜋
𝑡
4 𝑋 = 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑁𝐺 3 𝑡 4
𝑋 = න 𝑁 𝑑𝑡. 𝜋𝑅 3 3
𝑡0 3
𝑡 Assumptions:
4 𝜋
= න 𝑁 𝜋𝐺 3 𝑡 − 𝑡0 3 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑁𝐺 3 𝑡 − 𝑡0 4  Grains are spherical
𝑡0 3 3  Rate of growth and nucleation are
𝜋 constant
If nucleation time t0 is very small 𝑋 = 𝑁𝐺 3 𝑡 4
3  Nucleation time is small and randomly
This is valid if 𝑋 ≪ 1 distributed

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Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

Higher temperature of working, lower strain energy stored, which will lead to a
higher recrystallization temperature

The rate of recrystallization is an exponential function of temperature. Since

recrystallization process is a complex one - the activation energy for
recrystallization cannot be treated as a fundamental constant.

Rate of recrystallization increases with amount of cold work

It require a critical amount of cold work to cause recrystallization

Recrystallization is easier in pure metals than in alloys and occurs at lower

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temperature.

Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

 Recrystallization temperature depends on many variables and is not a fixed

temperature like melting temperature

 A smaller original cold-worked grain size reduces the recrystallization

temperature

 Increasing the annealing time reduces the recrystallization temperature

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Super plastic deformation

Flow stress: To describe the stress necessary to continue plastic deformation at any stage of
plastic strain
Strain-rate dependence of flow stress

Superplasticity: Necks are extremely gradual like chewing gum

Effects: Grain growth may occurs

Low flow stress and high elongations

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Thank you
for your kind attention

End of Module 3
Metal Forming

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