Lecture Link
I. Flight Mechanics Intro
Questions determining aircraft parameters:
- How far can we glide? (180km)
- How far can an aircraft fly with a given amount of fuel?
- How long can an aircraft fly?
- Maximum altitude
- How fast?
- How slow?
Aircraft Morphology: What shape is necessary for which performance?
Motion parameters:
- Aerodynamics
- Strictures (aircraft weight)
- Pilot (operation of aircraft)
- Propulsion system
- Atmosphere
II. Equations of Motion
➢ Objective: Using airpath-axis system to derive equations of motion
Newton's 1st law ONLY applies to a certain frame of reference
Earth-axis system: Earth’s frame of reference
Is the following an inertial frame of reference (aircraft to ground)?
→ technically, no (bc earth is round there is a centrifugal force)
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BUT, the outwards acceleration is so small, we can neglect it
→ Flat earth assumption
AND also the Earth is rotating
→ BUT it is still considered an inconsequential
amount unless you are going high speed/altitude
→ Based on the assumption that earth is flat and
not rotating, the plane/ground system becomes
an inertial frame of reference.
Reference Frames attached to the aircraft:
- Moving Earth-axis system (XE – ZE)
- Body-axis system (XB – ZB)
- Airspeed vector (v)
- Airpath-axis system (XA – ZA)
- α = Angle of attack
Force Vectors:
- L = Lift
- D = Drag
- W = Weight
- T = Thrust
- αT = Thrust angle of attack
Defining acceleration vectors:
→ Experience shows airpath-axis system is most convenient
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Horizontal acceleration: ax = dV/dt
Vertical (perpendicular to motion) Acceleration: az = V*d𝛾/dt (derivation shown above)
Equations of Motion:
(Derived below using Newton’s 2nd Law 𝚺F = ma → spend time understanding the blackboard)
III. Aerodynamics
➢ Objective: Expressing drag as a function of airspeed
Variables in the equations of motion
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Express aerodynamic force variables (T, L, W, D) as a function of state variables (v, 𝛾)
→ removing variables
CD0 = Not dependent on lift
C2L/𝜋A𝜙 = Drag from lift
3D finite wing → Tip vortices appear
Tip Vortices: Due to air pressure difference, circular motions of air appear on wingtips
→ Also the cause of aerodynamic drag (lift-induced)
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A → How slender the wing is (determined by b2/s → the larger, the more 2D it is)
𝜙 → Measure for lift distribution over the wing (ideal case = 1)
Parasite Drag - Drag generated from fuselage, antennae, vertical stabilizer
Approximating CD (including parasite, induced, and profile drag)
→ approximately a parabola (shown in figure below)
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Oswald Efficiency Factor (e)
e is used instead of 𝜙 (wing-efficiency factor) for a COMPLETE aircraft (not just wing)
(※ CD0 (zero lift drag) is also bigger for a full aircraft than a wing-only case)
→ Expressing aerodynamic force variables (T, L, W, D) as a function of state variables (v, 𝛾)
● Use lift equation = weight
→ CL = W/s*2/⍴*1/v2
● Parabolic lift-drag polar → convert from drag coefficient to drag force → substitute lift
coefficient with values
→ D = CD0*½*⍴*v2*s + k1w + k2*w2/s*2/⍴*1/v2 = f(v2) + f(1/v2)
- One part of aerodynamic drag increases with more
speed → CD0*½*⍴*v2*s
- One part of aerodynamic drag decreases with more
speed → k2*w2/s*2/⍴*1/v2
- Low speeds → drag mainly consists of induced drag
- High speeds → drag mainly consists of zero-lift drag
- Somewhere between, there is a point of min. drag
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- Fighter jets → high speeds → mainly deal with zero-lift drag → thin & small wing, low
aspect ratio
- Passenger jets, drones → lower speeds → mainly deal with lift-induced drag → larger
aspect ratio
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IV. Propulsion I
Last time, we expressed drag as a function of v under assumption that L = W
→ similarly, trying to express propulsive force (T) as a function of airspeed
➢ Objective: Introduce concepts of efficiency, leading up to thrust as a function of airspeed
v0 = inflow velocity of air = aircraft velocity
vj = jet velocity (velocity behind aircraft)
m-dot = mass flow of air
Mass flow coming out = m-dot + m-dotf
Based on conservation of momentum
→ Thrust = change in momentum rate
(only holds if the pressure at the exit of propulsion system = atmospheric pressure)
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IN REALITY:
- Pressure term is often much smaller than the momentum terms
- mfuel << mair → m-dotf can be assumed = 0
- So the thrust can simplify to (shown right):
→ T = m-dot * (vj - v0)
This presents 2 options:
- Can take small mass of air & accelerate to very
high speeds ex) jet engine
- Can take large mass of air & accelerate to small
speeds ex) propellers
Explanations of equations shown:
- Work equation: W = F*s = TΔx
- Power available: Pa = W/t = TΔx/Δt = T*v (arbitrary v: velocity)
- Thermal Power: Q = m-dotf * H (H: a constant chemical value showing amt. of energy
per unit fuel)
→ Total propulsion efficiency can be determined by ratio of thermal power to power
available i.e: ηt = Pa/Q
- Jet Power: Increase in Kinetic energy of the flow per second
= (Kinetic energy rate behind engine) - (kinetic energy rate in front of engine)
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● ηt = total efficiency
● ηth = thermal efficiency
● ηj = propulsive efficiency
- Propulsive efficiency can be expressed with aircraft velocity and jet velocity
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- ηj is always less than 100%
- Leaves behind kinetic energy in
atmosphere
- Also leaves heat
- Both dissipate
Example:
Conditions:
- Thrust = 1000N
- Mass flow = 10kg/s
→ T = m(vj - v) → vj - v = 100m/s
Case A:
- V = 100m/s → vj = 200m/s
- Using right formula, ηj = 66%
Case B:
- V = 200m/s → vj = 300m/s
- Using right formula, ηj = 80%
● Engines w high jet velocities → low efficiency at low speed, high efficiency at high speed
● Propellers → low speed applications
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V. Propulsion II
➢ Objective: Express thrust as a function of airspeed
○ For jet engines
○ For propellers
Case I. Jet Engine
Jet engine basics:
1. Air flows into the engine and is compressed
2. Fuel is injected
3. Combustion heats air up to a large temperature
4. Large temperature & pressure = wanting to expand
5. During expansion, it flows past turbine, driving the compressor
6. After turbine, it still has a lot of energy and expands through nozzle up till jet velocity
- Airspeed increase → Mass flow increase → Jet velocity stays constant = Velocity
difference decrease
- With mass flow increase and velocity difference decrease, there is more or less an
increase in thrust
- Graph shows 3 different throttle settings, can set any thrust level below maximum by
changing fuel flow
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→ Takeaway: Thrust can be assumed constant for a given flight altitude and throttle
setting
Power Available = T*v → becomes a linear function from the origin (since thrust = constant)
Case II. The Propeller
α = local angle of attack
φ = geometric angle of attack
β = angle of attack
- Increase in flight speed = Decrease in angle of attack → change of lift & drag
- Modern propellers - constant rotational speed + variable geometric pitch (shown below)
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- Varying pitch → angle of attack is controlled = thrust is controlled
- Shifting propeller pitch allows the optimum efficiency to be adjusted
- ηj (propellor efficiency) is defined by Pa (power available) / Pbr (shaft power)
- Power available is independent of flight speed for a given altitude & throttle setting
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- Thrust of propeller decreases with a 1/x (inverse proportional) shape w increasing speed
VI. Performance Diagram
- Force diagram is mainly used for jet engines
- Power diagram is mainly used for propellers
Graphs like the above are called performance diagram
- Using these function models and equations, thrust and forces can be calculated
analytically for aircraft
- Wtf is this shit i dont understand im gonna dieeeeee
