(a) Choose one study in which social learning theorist(s) investigated gender development.

1.
Describe how the social learning theorist(s) investigated gender development in this study.

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(3)

(b) Explain one methodological or one ethical issue that arose in the study that you have
described in your answer to part (a).

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(2)
(Total 5 marks)

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 Outline social learning theory as an explanation for gender development. Explain one strength of
2. social learning theory as an explanation for gender development.

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(Total 6 marks)

Read the article below.

3.
Is your child watching you?
Research by social learning theorists into gender development has shown that
children learn many of their gender-related behaviours from others. There are many
examples of children copying the behaviour of adults, such as a young girl trying on
her mother’s make-up. Of course, there are many reasons why some adult behaviours
or actions seen by children are not copied.

Briefly explain what social learning theorists mean by modelling in relation to gender
development. Refer to the article above in your answer.

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(Total 2 marks)

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 Read the item and then answer the questions that follow.
4.
Social psychologists are writing a report about their research into children’s toys.
They write, ‘Parents still tend to buy pink for girls. In fact, it is hard to find any
adverts aimed at girls that are not ‘pink and fluffy’. For boys, parents tend to buy
more competitive or combat-type toys. Good against evil is a common theme in
adverts aimed at boys. Even at school, playground activities are different. As
children get older, boys and girls tend to have more shared interests like music’.

Discuss the influence of culture and media on the development of gender roles. Refer to the
report above in your answer.
(Total 16 marks)

Using a gender-related example, explain one reason why some adult behaviours or actions seen
5. by children are not copied.

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(Total 2 marks)

Discuss biological and social learning explanations of gender development.

6. Refer to evidence in your answer.
(Total 16 marks)

Describe research into social influences on gender.

7.
(Total 8 marks)

Discuss the importance of social influences on gender.

8.
(Total 16 marks)

Use research evidence to assess the influence of social factors on gender

9. roles.
(Total 16 marks)

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 Outline social factors that may influence gender roles.
10.
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(Total 4 marks)

Choose one study in which cultural variations in gender-related behaviour were investigated.
11.
Explain one methodological problem in relation to this study.

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(Total 3 marks)

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Mark schemes

1. (a) [AO3 = 3]

Up to three marks for relevant detail of what the psychologist(s) did, ie the
methodology used, the sample used, the procedure involved in the study, the
materials used, how the participants were allocated to conditions in the study, the
measure used, what was done with the data, etc.

Accept any studies which involve social learning / socialisation / imitation of gender.

Likely studies: Fagot – parents treatment of boys and girls in the home; Dweck et al –
teachers use of feedback in the classroom; Perry and Bussey – children’s
preferences for imitation of same-sex models; Masters et al – sex in / appropriate
behaviour and imitation in children; Smith and Lloyd – Baby X; Urberg – Who is
brave?; DeLoache – Three bears story; Mead Three Tribes study; Furnham and
Farragher – TV advertisements, or the content analysis studies of Manstead and
McCulloch.
Bandura must focus on the gender development aspects of the study, ie use of
male and female models, for the third mark.

(b) [AO3 = 2]

One mark for brief explanation of a relevant issue.

One mark for how / why it is an issue in relation to the study chosen.

Likely issues: bias on the part of the researcher / issues with reliability / validity /
cultural constraints / recording methods / issue of consent / integrity of the researcher
/ protection of participants, etc.
Credit plausible answers to (b) if answer to (a) not creditworthy as a SLT study of
gender development.

[AO1 = 3 AO3 = 3]
2.
Level Mark Description

Outline is clear, coherent and mostly accurate, with some detail.

3 5-6 Strength is clearly explained. Specialist terminology is used
effectively.

Outline is appropriate but has minor inaccuracy or lack of clarity.

2 3-4 Strength is appropriate but lacks clarity. Specialist terminology is
sometimes used appropriately OR one aspect at Level 3.

Outline is limited / very limited. Strength is muddled or absent. The

1 1-2 answer lacks clarity and accuracy. Specialist terminology is either
absent or inappropriately used. OR one aspect at Level 2.

0 No relevant content.

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 Possible content:

• SLT explains gender development in terms of socialisation and experience

• involves observation and imitation of same-sex role model, e.g. parents, older siblings, TV
characters
• identification with same-sex model is more likely if model is attractive, high status, similar
etc
• vicarious reinforcement is important, e.g. child sees others rewarded for what is seen as
sex-appropriate behaviour and therefore imitates
• mediational processes are involved, e.g. attention, retention etc
• knowledge of theory embedded in evidence.

Possible strengths:

• use of evidence to support social learning explanations for gender, e.g. evidence that
young children do copy same-sex models
• SLT is consistent with findings that gender-related behaviours differ across cultures
• consistent with findings that suggest media influence in gender behaviour.

Credit other relevant material.

[6]

3. [AO1 = 1, AO2 = 1]

AO1

One mark for a brief explanation of modelling in gender development.

Likely answers: modelling is a process whereby a child / individual imitates the (gender-
related) behaviour of a chosen person – a role model.

AO2

One mark for application to the article.

The article suggests that the young girl models the behaviour of her mother by imitating
‘putting on make-up’.

Alternative answer: [When people produce behaviours they are modelling them – providing
an opportunity for others to learn how to do something.]
Modelling is when an adult exhibits (gender related ) behaviour for a child to imitate / copy,
(AO1). In the article, the mother is modelling ‘putting on make-up’ and the young girl
imitates this behaviour by trying to do the same, (AO2).

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4. [AO1 = 6 AO2 = 4 AO3 = 6]

Level Marks Description

Knowledge of influence of culture and media on the

development of gender roles is accurate and generally well
detailed. Discussion is thorough and effective. Application to
the stem is appropriate and links between influence of culture
4 13 – 16
and media and stem content are explained. The answer is
clear, coherent and focused. Specialist terminology is used
effectively. Minor detail and/or expansion of argument
sometimes lacking.

Knowledge of influence of culture and media on the

development of gender roles is evident. Discussion is
apparent and mostly effective. There are occasional
inaccuracies. Application to the stem is appropriate although
3 9 – 12
links to influence of culture and media are not always
explained. The answer is mostly clear and organised.
Specialist terminology mostly used effectively. Lacks focus in
places.

Knowledge of influence of culture and media on the

development of gender roles is present but is
vague/inaccurate or one only is present. Focus is mainly on
2 5–8 description. Any discussion is only partly effective.
Application to the stem is partial. The answer lacks clarity,
accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist terminology
used inappropriately on occasions.

Knowledge of influence of culture and/or media on the

development of gender roles is limited. Discussion is limited,
poorly focused or absent. Application is limited or absent. The
1 1–4
answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is
poorly organised. Specialist terminology either absent or
inappropriately used.

0 No relevant content.

Possible content:
• Social learning theory and modelling – role of factors such as observation, imitation,
identification, vicarious reinforcement
• Mediating cognitive variables – children more likely to imitate models who are
attractive, similar, high status etc.
• Cultural representations of gender and reinforcement in various forms of media (TV,
books, computer games etc)
• Role of direct reinforcement of gender stereotypical behaviours by parents, teachers,
peers

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 Possible applications:
• Parental reinforcement ‘parents still tend to buy pink for girls’ ‘parents tend to buy
more competitive or combat-type toys’
• Stereotypical media representations ‘.. adverts aimed at girls ‘pink and fluffy’ ‘good
against evil ….. adverts aimed at boys’
• Schools reinforce different activities ‘playground activities are different’
• Age as a mediating variable ‘more shared interests like music’

Possible discussion points:

• Use of evidence to support the influence of culture eg cross-cultural evidence of
differences in gender roles in different societies supports the view that gender is
socially determined; Serbin’s evidence of the effects of teachers on boys’ and girls’
behaviour
• Use of evidence to support the influence of media eg Wober’s study of ‘male’ and
‘female’ occupations
• Influence of media per se versus specific forms of media – not all representations are
stereotyped – discussion of degree of stereotyping in different forms of media eg TV
versus computer games versus books
• Age as a mediating variable
• Differences in effects for boys and girls
• Problems of inferring cause and effect and the issue of determinism
• Evaluation of evidence where used to discuss influence of culture and media
• Comparison with alternative explanations eg biological and evolutionary explanations

Credit other relevant information.

5. [AO1 = 1, AO2 = 1]

AO1

One mark for the reason suggested.

Likely reasons: copying is not perceived to be appropriate; lack of identification or similarity
between model and other; presence of punishment or criticism for the behaviour; lack of
‘attractiveness’ of the model; lack of: attention to the behaviour or model / motivation to
produce the behaviour / retention of the behaviour / competence to produce the behaviour.

AO2

One mark for a gender-related example of a behaviour that is not imitated that matches the
reason given.
Possible answers: an example of presence of criticism would be the young girl does not
copy her father washing the car because she has been told, ‘that’s a man’s job.’

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6. Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 10

Level Marks Description

Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed.

Discussion / evaluation / application is thorough and
4 13 – 16 effective. The answer is clear, coherent and focused.
Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail and /
or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.

Knowledge is evident. There are occasional inaccuracies.

Discussion / evaluation / application is apparent and mostly
3 9 – 12 effective. The answer is mostly clear and organised.
Specialist terminology is mostly used effectively. Lacks
focus in places.

Some knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on

description. Any discussion / evaluation / application is only
partly effective. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and
2 5–8 organisation in places. Specialist terminology is used
inappropriately on occasions.
One explanation at Level 4

Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation / application

is limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer as a whole
lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly
1 1–4 organised. Specialist terminology either absent or
inappropriately used.
One explanation at Level 3

0 No relevant content.

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Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most mark
schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a bulleted list.

AO1

Marks for accurate description of the explanations of gender development provided by

biological theory and social learning theory (SLT).

Biological: Students may focus on some of the following: how genetic factors cause
gender-appropriate behaviour – gender and sex are interrelated; hormones, eg the
influence of androgens and testosterone Dabbs et al (1995), Tricker et al (1996) or
oestrogen and progesterone Van Goozen et al (1995), Hampson and Kimura (1988);
atypical sex chromosomes, eg XXY – Klinefelter’s syndrome; XO – Turner’s syndrome – in
terms of the effect these syndromes have on gender development. Students may choose to
focus on non-human research, eg Gorski et al (1980) found male rats’ sexually dimorphic
nucleus (SDN) to be larger in anatomical structure compared to female rats’ SDN which
might account for differences in behaviour, or on case studies such as Imperato-McGinley
et al (1978) or Money and Erhardt (1972), Diamond (1997).
SLT: the idea that gender behaviour is learned via observation in social contexts; the
influence on gender development of cognitive processes – including some of the following,
attention, retention and motivation, reproduction; modelling, Perry and Bussey (1979) and
identification; imitation, Masters et al (1979) and reinforcement, Fagot (1978), Dweck et al
(1978), Smith and Lloyd (1978) / Baby X studies.

AO3

Marks for discussion of the two explanations.

Students are required to refer to evidence in their response. This may be in support /
conflict for either approach. For example, Money (1975) suggested that nurture was
responsible for gender development thereby rejecting nature / biology. However, in a
follow-up study Diamond (1997), Brenda had never felt happy as a girl and resumed her
masculine identity (nature), thereby supporting biological explanations. Students may raise
methodological issues associated with the extrapolation of findings from animal research to
explain human gender development. They may reflect on the value of unusual case study
evidence in a universal explanation of gender development; the issue of cause and effect in
testosterone research and the possible impact of environmental factors on biological state.
Similarly for SLT weaknesses in the evidence as well as strengths might be considered –
the artificiality of laboratory-based research; weaknesses in the explanation of age-related
changes or differences in gender behaviours, despite the same environment, and
discussion of how these issues might be explained as due to cognitive factors mediating
the responses / chosen behaviours.

Credit comparisons with other approaches only if the comparison makes clear the way in
which the value of the biological or SLT approach is evident or how either approach is
weakened by such comparison.
Credit reference to debates when it is made clear how these impact on strengths or
limitations of each explanation.
Credit use of evidence.

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7. Marks for this question: AO1 = 8

Level Marks Description

Description is accurate and generally well detailed. The

answer is clear, coherent and focused. Specialist
4 7–8
terminology is used effectively. Minor detail and / or
expansion sometimes lacking.

Description is evident. There are occasional inaccuracies.

The answer is mostly clear and organised. Specialist
3 5–6
terminology is mostly used effectively. Lacks focus in
places.

Some description is present. The answer lacks clarity,

accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist terminology
2 3–4 is used inappropriately on occasions.
One influence only at Level 4

Description is limited. The answer as a whole lacks clarity,

has many inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist
1 1–2 terminology either absent or inappropriately used.
One influence only at Level 3

0 No relevant content.

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most mark
schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a bulleted list.

AO1

Although ‘research’ includes theories and studies, candidates are likely to focus on some of
the many studies investigating the importance of social influences on gender. These
include the role of parents, peers, schools, and the media. Their significance for the
development of gender identity is likely to be the focus, but cross-cultural studies of social
influence on gender would also be relevant. Descriptions of studies should include some
detail of eg methods / findings / conclusions.

Overall approaches that attempt to explain social influences on gender, such as the
behavioural or social learning theories, would be an alternative route to credit.

Simple identification of social influence such as parents and peers may earn very limited
credit.

Note that this question requires description of more than one social influence.

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8. Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 10

Level Marks Description

Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed.

Discussion / evaluation / application is thorough and
4 13 – 16 effective. The answer is clear, coherent and focused.
Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail and /
or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.

Knowledge is evident. There are occasional inaccuracies.

Discussion / evaluation / application is apparent and mostly
3 9 – 12 effective. The answer is mostly clear and organised.
Specialist terminology is mostly used effectively. Lacks
focus in places.

Some knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on

description. Any discussion / evaluation / application is only
partly effective. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and
2 5–8 organisation in places. Specialist terminology is used
inappropriately on occasions.
One influence only at Level 4

Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation / application

is limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer as a whole
lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly
1 1–4 organised. Specialist terminology either absent or
inappropriately used.
One influence only at Level 3

0 No relevant content.

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 Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most mark
schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a bulleted list.

AO1

Students should refer to more than one social influence.

Relevant social influences would include: culture, media, references to relevant theory eg
social learning theory and related concepts eg role models, imitation, modelling,
identification, vicarious and direct reinforcement, factors affecting imitation eg status of
model, similarity, attention, retention and motivation to perform.

AO3

Credit use of research studies that have investigated impact of social factors on gender
roles. Use of findings from such studies are likely to provide the main source of credit.
Additional commentary could include the interaction between biological and social factors,
and gender and / or cultural differences. Candidates may introduce alternative approaches
and evidence, for instance on the role of biological factors. These can only earn marks if
used as part of sustained and effective commentary on the importance of social influences.

Relevant issues might include: more general approaches; nature-nurture; gender bias and
differences; cultural bias and differences; free will / determinism; ethical issues.

9. Please note that the AOs for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) have changed.
Under the new Specification the following system of AOs applies:

• AO1 knowledge and understanding

• AO2 application (of psychological knowledge)
• AO3 evaluation, analysis, interpretation.

Although the essential content for this mark scheme remains the same, mark schemes for the
new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) take a different format as follows:

• A single set of numbered levels (formerly bands) to cover all skills

• Content appears as a bulleted list
• No IDA expectation in A Level essays, however, credit for references to issues, debates
and approaches where relevant.

AO2 / AO3 = 16

There is a wealth of experimental studies on social influences on gender roles, including the role
of parents and peers, and media influences, and this research evidence should be the main route
to AO2 / AO3 credit. Additional commentary could include the interaction between biological and
social factors, and cultural differences. Answers not based on research evidence can receive a
maximum of 8 marks for AO2 / AO3. Candidates may introduce alternative approaches and
evidence, for instance on the role of biological factors. These can only earn marks if used as part
of sustained and effective commentary.

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Indicative issues / debates / approaches in the context of assessing the influence of social
factors on gender role: behaviourism and social learning theory; nature-nurture; gender bias and
differences; cultural bias and cultural differences; free will and determinism; observational
studies; ethical issues in psychological research.

Further sources of AO2 / AO3 credit may include methodological evaluation of relevant research
evidence; material relevant to How Science Works might include analysis and interpretation of
data; the tentative nature of scientific findings; accurate communication of ideas; social and
ethical implications of scientific ideas (eg social roles of men and women).

NOTE: Answers that interpret ‘such factors’ as factors other than social influences may earn
marks across the scale.

AO2/3 Mark bands

16 – 13 marks Effective
Commentary and evaluation demonstrate sound analysis, understanding and
interpretation. The answer is well focused and shows coherent elaboration and/or a
clear line of argument. Issues/debates/approaches are used effectively. Ideas are well
structured and expressed clearly and fluently. Consistently effective use of
psychological terminology. Appropriate use of grammar, punctuation and spelling.

12 – 9 marks Reasonable
Commentary and evaluation demonstrate reasonable analysis and understanding.
The answer is generally focused and shows reasonable elaboration and/or a line of
argument is evident. Issues/debates/approaches are used in a reasonably effective
manner. Most ideas appropriately structured and expressed clearly. Appropriate use of
psychological terminology. Minor errors of grammar, punctuation and spelling only
occasionally compromise meaning.

8 – 5 marks Basic
Commentary and evaluation demonstrate basic, superficial understanding. The
answer is sometimes focused and shows some evidence of elaboration. Superficial
reference may be made to issues/debates/approaches Expression of ideas lacks
clarity. Limited use of psychological terminology. Errors of grammar, punctuation and
spelling are intrusive.

4 – 1 marks Rudimentary
Commentary and evaluation are rudimentary, demonstrating a very limited
understanding. The answer is weak, muddled and incomplete. Material is not used
effectively and may be mainly irrelevant. If reference is made to issues/debates
/approaches, it is muddled and inaccurate. Deficiency in expression of ideas results in
confusion and ambiguity. The answer lacks structure, often merely a series of
unconnected assertions. Errors of grammar, punctuation and spelling are frequent and
intrusive.

0 marks
No creditworthy material is presented.

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10. AO1 = 4

Important influences on gender role include reinforcement from parents, family, and peers.
Observational learning (social learning theory) and vicarious reinforcement are also significant
factors, in particular the role of parents, media and schools. Candidates may outline the
principles / approaches behind influences or gender roles, or detail relevant factors, or use
studies to illustrate various factors. Material should be marked in the way most favourable to the
candidate, bearing in mind the mark allocations for this question part.

4 marks
Outline is accurate and coherent.

3 – 2 marks
Outline is limited, generally accurate and reasonably coherent.

1 mark
Outline is weak and muddled.

0 marks
No creditworthy material.

11. [AO3 = 3]

One mark for identification of a relevant problem.

Up to two marks for relating the problem to the study.
Likely studies: Mead – Three tribes; La Fromboise; Buss etc.

Likely problems: validity; researcher bias; ethnocentrism; subjectivity on the part of the
researcher, lack of inter-rater reliability etc.

Maximum of one mark if answer is totally generic and no study is identifiable.

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