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Chapter 11 Force and Pressure

FORCE

Pushes and pulls are forces. The direction in which an object is pushed or pulled is called the
direction of the force. We apply force to perform various activities.

● You have to interact i.e. apply force to an object for it to move. Hence, objects must
interact with each other for a for to come into play.
● When forces are applied on an object in the same direction they add up. The net force
or resultant force of two forces on an object in the same direction is a single force
whose magnitude is the sum of the two forces. It acts in the same direction as the two
forces.
● When forces are applied on an object in the opposite direction, they oppose each other.
The net force on the object is the difference between the two objects. This net force
will act in the direction of the larger force. If the two opposing forces are equal, the net
force is zero.
● The object in the above case will move towards the direction in which the larger force is
going towards.

A force can be described by stating its magnitude and the direction in which it acts. When two
forces act on an object in the same or opposite directions, the effect on the object is due to
the net force acting on it. In this case it is the sum or difference of the two forces. When
two or more forces act on an object in different directions, the effect on the object is due to the
magnitude and the direction of the net force acting on it.

EFFECTS OF FORCE

What can force do?

1. Force can make a stationary object move, or can change its position of rest: when
you apply force to an object, it moves.
2. Force can change the speed of a moving object: when force is applied to an object at
rest it starts moving. When force is applied to an object which is moving, the object stops
its motion or slows down. If we apply the force in the same direction to which the object
is moving, then it would speed up if otherwise, the object will slow down or stop.
3. Force can change the direction of motion of a moving object: when a batsman hits
a ball with his bat, he applies force to change the direction of the motion of the ball.
● If you allow a moving ball to hit the palm of your hand, a force is exerted on the
ball which changes its direction of motion. The state of motion of a body
● The state of motion of a body is described by its speed and direction of motion.
The state of motion of an object at rest is the state of zero speed. A change in
the speed of an object, or its direction of motion or both is referred to as change
in the state of motion of the object.

Net Force: The sum of all the forces acting on an object is defined as the net force. Newton's Second Law
states that when an object accelerates, there must be a net force acting on it. If an object's net force is
zero, the object is not accelerating and is in a state known as equilibrium.
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● Force brings about a change in the state of motion of a body. However, a

force may not always bring about a change in the state of motion of an object.
4. Force can change the shape or size of an object: a force acting on a body can
change its shape or size like with chapatis, rubber band, squeezing a sponge etc. A
force acting on an object does not always bring about a change in its shape or size.

Describing a Force
A force can be described by stating its magnitude and direction in which it acts. A force is
represented by an arrow. The length of the arrow represents its magnitude. The direction of the
arrow shows the direction of the force. (1 and 2 are in subscript)
F1 and F2 represent two forces with F2 > F1 both acting in the same direction.
F1 F2
———→ —————→

TYPES OF FORCES

Some forces act on bodies only when they are in contact with the body like muscular and
frictional forces which are known as contact forces. Some other other forces can also act on
bodies which are not in contact like gravitational, magnetic and electrostatic forces which are
known as non-contact forces.

Contact Forces
Muscular Forces: when you lift your school bag, or kick a football, you apply force which is
exerted by muscles of your body and is called muscular force.
Frictional Forces: a cycle stops when we stop pedaling, it slows down and stops after some
time. If you kick a small block of wood, it will slide and stop after some time. This happens due
to friction. Friction is a force that slows things down or prevents things from moving.
Whenever one surface moves or tries to move over another surface, the force of friction starts
acting on the surfaces. It always opposes the motion. There is friction between the tyres of a
bicycle and road and b/w the block of wood and floor.
Friction arises due to contact b/w surfaces, it is a contact force.

Non-contact Forces
Gravitational Force: a force that acts on you and on all objects around you all the time is the
gravitational force. It is the force which the earth pulls everything towards itself. It is due to
gravitational force that things on earth fall downwards and not upwards. A ball thrown up slows
down and then falls down towards the earth because of the gravitational force.
It is the force of attraction b/w particles of matter. Every object exerts this force on every object.
The magnitude of this for depends on the masses of the 2 objects and the distance between
them.
2 cars pull each other with gravitational force even though it is very small.
Because the earth has such a large mass, objects on the earth are pulled towards earth(due to
gravity) more than they are pulled to each other. The earth pulls a car towards itself with a force
which is about 30,00,00,00,000 times more than the force with which the cars pull each other.
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Weight is a measure of the earth’s gravitational force on an object. It is the measure of the force
of gravity acting on a body. The formula for weight is given by: w = mg. As weight is a force its
SI unit is also the same as that of force, SI unit of weight is Newton (N).
When you weigh an object using a spring balance, you measure earth’s gravitational force on
the object. You would weigh less on the moon compared to earth because the moon has less
mass than the earth hence smaller gravitational force. It, therefore, pulls objects towards itself
with lesser force. You would weigh three times more on Jupiter which has greater mass than the
earth hence greater gravitational force.

Magnetic Force: the force to lift the iron pieces is called magnetic force or magnetism.
Magnetic force is exerted by a magnet on certain metals such as iron.
A magnet can act from a distance because it is surrounded by an invisible field of magnetic
force. Magnetic Field is the region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge within
which the force of magnetism acts. A pictorial representation of the magnetic field which
describes how a magnetic force is distributed within and around a magnetic material.
When large scraps of iron from garbage or small pieces get close to that field of force, they are
pulled towards the magnet thus, magnetic force is a non-contact force.
2 magnets attract or repel each other depending on which ends are facing each other. Like
poles repel each other, whereas unlike poles attract each other.

Electrostatic Force: when a comb is rubbed in your hair, it acquires a property called
electrostatic charge(Electrostatic charges. Static electricity or an electrostatic charge is a
deficiency or excess of electrons which occurs on ungrounded or insulating surfaces. It is
produced by triboelectric charges, charges that are generated by friction between two surfaces,
such as the movement of paper through a copier or printer). It can be positive or negative. It
exerts a force called electrostatic force. It is because the bits of paper move towards the comb.
Electrostatic force, also acts from a distance, and is a non-contact force.

PRESSURE

The effect that a force produces on an object depends on two factors:

● Magnitude of force applied-the greater the force, the greater its effect.
● Area over which the force is applied i.e. the area of contact between the 2 objects.

When we cut an apple with a knife, the area of contact is the area of the cutting edge of the
knife. If the knife has a sharp edge, the area of contact is small but if it is blunt, the area of
contact becomes larger. The smaller the area of contact i.e. the smaller the area over which the
force acts, the greater the effect of the force.
A quantity which takes into account the force applied as well as the area over which it is applied.
Such a quantity is pressure. Pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area.
P=F/A
where P is pressure, F is force, and A is the area by which the force is applied
perpendicularly. Smaller the area over which a force acts, the greater is the pressure and
therefore, the greater is the effect.
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(NOTE: the ‘force’ used in defining pressure is the force acting perpendicular to the area on
which it acts.)

Unit of pressure
In the SI system, the unit of pressure is newton per sq meter or N/m2(note: m squared). The
unit of pressure is commonly known as pascal (Pa) after the French scientist Blaise Pascal.
Pressure (in Pa) = Force(in Newton)/Area(in meter sq)

Application of force and pressure in daily life

● A camel is able to move fast on sand as it has flat broad feet which increases the area of
contact with the sand. Hence, the pressure exerted by the camel on the sand is reduced
and the camel’s feets ink muh less in the sand.
● Trucks are meant to carry heavy loads and have eight(rather than four) tyres to increase
the area of contact with the road. This reduces the pressure on tyres.
● Heavy tanks have broad chains called caterpillar tracks which considerably increase
the area of contact. The pressure on the tracks is therefore much less than if it had
wheels. This prevents it from sinking in terrain such as marshy land(where wheeled
vehicles of the same weight would sink).
● Cutting and piercing tools(like knives, needles and saws) have sharp blades or points to
reduce the area of contact so that they exert greater pressure with a comparatively small
force.
● It is easier to hammer a sharp into wood than a blunt one.

PRESSURE EXERTED BY LIQUIDS

Explanation of how liquids exert pressure through 2 examples:
Take a wide glass tube open at both ends. Tie a rubber balloon to its lower end. Pour water into
the tube. The balloon bulges downwards showing that liquids exert pressure on the base of the
container in which they are kept.
Take a vessel with a tap-like opening at its side. Tie a balloon to the opening and fill the vessel
with water. The balloon bulges outwards. Liquids exert pressure not only on the base of the
container but also sideways on the walls of the container. This sideways pressure is exerted by
liquids but not by solids.
Take a plastic container and make four holes in it at different heights. Fill the container with
water, and let water keep flowing into it from a tap. Notice the force with which water comes out
of the holes. Water comes out with greater force from the holes at greater depth. Water from the
bottom-most hole will be spurted out the farthest from the container. This shows that the
pressure in a liquid increases with increasing depth.
Take another plastic container and make holes all around it at the same depth by measuring
from the top of the container. Water comes out from all the holes with the same force. This
shows that at the same depth, the pressure is the same in all directions.

Measuring liquid pressure

An instrument used to measure liquid pressure is called pressure gauge. The simplest form of
pressure gauge is a manometer, which measures pressure difference.
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Improvised Manometer
Take a U-tube made of glass or transparent polythene. Fix it vertically on a stand. Pour coloured
water into it so that it is half-full of water. The level in both arms of the U-tube will be the same.
Attach a polythene tube to one end of the U-tube. At the other end of the polythene tube, attach
a thistle funnel. Stretch and tie a thin rubber balloon over the mouth of the funnel so that the
rubber remains taut.
Take a large glass jar full of water. Slowly lower the funnel into the water. As the funnel goes
deeper and deeper into the water, the difference in the liquid level in the U-tube goes on
increasing. If you double the depth from 10 cm to 20 cm, does the difference in liquid level also
double?
The difference in liquid levels in the U-tube is a measure of the pressure applied by the water.

Atmospheric pressure
The earth is surrounded by a layer of air called the atmosphere. We live at the bottom of this
layer. The air above presses down on us with a force equal to that exerted by a mass of 1
kilogram, on every 1 sq centimeter. This is called atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric
pressure is the pressure exerted on an object by the weight of the column of air over it.

We are not crushed under this weight as the fluids in our body exert a pressure which is equal
and opposite to the atmospheric pressure acting on our body and so cancels the effect of
atmospheric pressure.

Example: the area of the palm of your hand is about 100 sq cm. Thus a force equal to that
exerted by a mass of about 100 kg acts on your palm due to the atmospheric pressure. You
cannot feel it as an equal force is acting from within your hand, which balances the force due to
the atmospheric pressure, and cancels its effect.

Example: take a plastic bottle. Put some boiling water in it. The steam coming out of the water
will expel most of the air from inside the bottle. After about 2 minutes, screw the cap tightly on
the bottle. Put the bottle in a trough and pour some cold water mixed with ice on it. As the bottle
cools down and the steam condenses what do you observe? Why does the bottle get crushed?

Since the steam had expelled most of the air from inside the bottle, and since the steam inside
the bottle has also been condensed, the bottle now has very little air inside it. The atmospheric
pressure acting on the bottle from outside is, therefore, much larger than the pressure exerted
by the air inside it. This causes the bottle to get crushed.

Atmospheric pressure acts equally in all directions.

Factors affecting atmospheric pressure

Altitude: the atmospheric pressure is maximum at sea level. As we go to higher altitudes, the
air becomes thinner and the atmospheric pressure decreases.
Temperature: air expands on heating and becomes less dense. Therefore, atmospheric
pressure decreases with increase in temperature.
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Humidity: water vapor is lighter than air, therefore, humid air is lighter than dry air. Hence, air
pressure decreases as humidity increases.

Applications of liquid and atmospheric pressure

● The pressure at the bottom of the sea is much greater than near the surface. This is the
reason why deep-sea divers have to wear special suits to prevent their bodies from
getting crushed.
● A rubber or plastic suction hook sticks to the smooth surface of a window pane or a tile
when firmly pressed against it. This is because pressing it hard expels the air between
the sucker and the surface and reduces the air pressure. The higher atmospheric
pressure outside therefore pushes the hook firmly to the window pane.
● A drinking straw works on the principle of air pressure. When you suck on a straw, you
suck out the air in the straw, thus reducing air pressure inside the straw. The higher
atmospheric pressure on the surface of the drink forces the drink up the straw to your
mouth. The same principle is used to fill a dropper.
● When the plunger of a syringe is pulled out, the space below the plunger increases. This
reduces the air pressure inside. The higher atmospheric pressure on the surface of the
medicine forces the medicine inside the syringe.
● At the height at which a jet plane flies, the air pressure is very low. At such low pressure,
we can have problems like nose bleeding because the pressure exerted by the blood in
our body will be much higher than the pressure outside. This can cause blood vessels to
burst. That is why the pressure inside an airplane is maintained at the normal ground
level atmospheric pressure.

Chapter 12 Friction

WHAT IS FRICTION?

Friction is an opposing force that opposes the motion of our body over the surface of another
body. It prevents things from moving. You have to apply sufficient force to overcome friction
before an object starts to move. The force of friction acts in a direction opposite to the direction
in which the object tends to move. If you push from left to right, the force of friction acts from
right to left. If you push from right to left, the force of friction acts from left to right.
● It tends to stop a moving object
● It acts in the opposite direction to the movement.
● It also tends to prevent a stationary object from moving.
● It is a contact force.

WHAT CAUSES FRICTION?

It acts when one surface moves or tries to move over another surface.
When one surface moves over another, some microscopic grooves and ridges present on the
surface get caught up with each other to slow down the movement of the object which causes
friction. The smoother the surface is, the less friction there will be.
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Spring Balance: it is a device that measures force. It uses the principle that the greater the
force, the greater is the extension that the force produces in a coiled spring. It consists of a
coiled spring with a pointer attached to it. As the spring is stretched, the pointer moves on a
graduated scale. The reading on the scale gives the magnitude of the force.

Friction is more on an object when you press down because the interlocking of
irregularities(between the surfaces of the brick and the floor) increases when you press the 2
surfaces harder together.
● Friction depends on the nature of the surface in contact.
● Friction depends on the mass of the moving object.

FRICTION IN DAILY LIFE

Advantages of friction
● It would be impossible for us to walk without friction, it is because of our feet or shoes
and the ground that we are able to walk by pushing our feet against the ground. Without
friction, we would slip as soon as we tried to walk. It is very difficult to walk on ice or on a
very smooth and polished floor. This is because the friction b/w our shoes and these
surfaces is very little.
● Cars and buses are able to move safely on the road because of friction b/w the traded
tyres and the surface of the road.
● Brakes on cycles or cars work because of friction. When brakes are applied, the ‘shoes’
of the brakes rub against the wheels. The friction b/w them reduces the speed.
● It would not be possible to light a matchstick by rubbing it against the matchbox if there
was no friction.
● You would not be able to write on paper without friction b/w the pencil or pen and paper.
Neither could a teacher write on the blackboard.
● Friction causes nails and screws to hold on to walls.

Disadvantages of friction
● Friction causes wastage of energy. This is because any object that moves has to
overcome the force of friction.
● Friction wears out the rubbing surfaces. The soles of your shoes wear out in a few
months due to friction. The moving parts of a machine wear out with ti,e because of
friction.
● Friction generate heat. Sometimes this can be harmful. The heat produced in a fast-
moving machine is very high. Proper arrangements have to be made to cool the
machine, otherwise it can get damaged. If the cooling arrangement in a car does not
work properly, the engine can get jammed.

Minimizing friction
● By polishing: polishing a rough surface smoothens it and reduces friction.
● By lubrication: friction is decreased by lubricating surfaces with oil, grease or graphite.
The sliding surfaces then have a thin layer of the lubricant b/w them. The friction is then
b/w the surface \s and the lubricant layer which is much less. Graphite is used as a
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lubricant in machines where the moving parts reach very high temperatures. While
playing carrom, you put fine talcum powder on the carrom board to reduce friction.
● By streamlining to reduce fluid friction: fluids like water and air also exert friction on
moving objects through them. This frictional force that fluids exert on objects is called
drag. It depends on the nature of the fluid, the shape of the object and the speed of the
object with respect to the fluid. Friction is minimum for a streamlined shape, which is
rounded in the front and narrow at the back. Nature has given birds and fish streamlined
bodies. The bodies of airplanes, missiles, rockets, cars are streamlined to reduce friction
with air, called air resistance. Ships also have streamlined shapes to reduce friction
with water.
● By using wheels and ball bearings-rolling friction: when a spherical or cylindrical
object rolls on a surface, the resistance it encounters is called rolling friction. The
resistance that an object encounters when it slides is called sliding friction. It is easier
to roll an object than to slide it. Rolling friction is therefore less than sliding friction. This
is why vehicles are equipped with wheels. The principle that rolling friction is less than
sliding friction is also made use of in ball bearings which contain steel balls or rollers.
Ball bearings used b/w the wheel and axle of a car reduce friction considerably. Most
machines with moving parts use ball bearings.

It is not possible to reduce friction to zero as no surface is absolutely smooth.

Increasing friction
● Tyres have designs and patterns with grooves on the surface to increase friction with the
road. This prevents slipping of the tyres on a wet road.
● Sand and gravel is strewn on slippery ground during the rainy season to increase
friction. It is then easier to walk on the ground.
● Spikes are provided in the soles of shoes used by players and athletes to increase grip
on the ground.
● Gymnast apply a coarse substance on their hands to improve their grip.

Chapter 16 Reflection of Light

Luminous objects emit their own light while non-luminous objects don’t. We can see an object
when light from the object reaches our eyes.

When light falls on a non-luminous object, part of it bounces back from the object. We can see
the object when this light reaches our eyes. This bouncing back of light by objects is called
reflection of light.
● An opaque object absorbs some of the light that falls on it and reflects the remaining.
● A transparent object allows almost all the light to pass through it and reflects very little
light.
● A smooth and highly polished surface like a shiny stainless steel surface and a mirror
reflects almost all the light that falls on it.

REGULAR AND DIFFUSED REFLECTIONS

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The surface of a mirror is very smooth. Therefore, if a beam of light falls on it, the entire beam is
reflected in only one direction. This is called regular reflection.

The surfaces of most objects around us are not smooth. When the rays in a beam of light fall on
an object with an uneven surface, they get reflected in different directions. This is called
irregular or diffused reflection. It is because of irregular reflection that we can see objects
from every direction. Irregular reflection of sunlight by objects around us enables our room to
have light during the day even if sunlight does not directly fall into it.

LAWS OF REFLECTION

A ray of light is an idealization in reality,just like a ‘line’ in geometry which is not supposed to
have breadth. Even the narrowest beam of light that we can get is made up of several rays. For
simplicity, we use the term ray for a narrow beam of light.

The light falling on the mirror is called the incident ray. After reflection it is called the reflected
ray. If you rotate the mirror, this reflected ray also rotates. The reflected ray leaves the mirror at
the same angle at which the incident ray strikes it.

First law of reflection

Let us consider 2 other angles. At 0, called the point of incidence, draw a perpendicular to the
mirror, 0X. This is called the normal at the point of incidence. E cal ∠A0X the angle of incidence,
and ∠B0X the angle of reflection. Measure of ∠A0X and ∠B0X. You will see that ∠A0X and
∠B0X are equal.
Therefore, angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Or ∠i = ∠r
This is the first law of reflection.

Second law of reflection

Once you have drawn the incident ray and the normal, there is only one lane that can pass
through both of them. In this case it is the plane of the paper. The second law of reflection
states that the incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray all lie in the same plane.

To verify the laws of reflection experimentally:

Fix a sheet of white paper on a table. Draw a line MN and keep the mirror vertical exactly along
this line.
Draw an incident ray X0 which meets the mirror at an angle(say 45°). Fix 2 pins A and B, about
5cm apart, on this ray.
Now look at the reflections of A and B and fix a pin C in such a way that pin C and te refections
of pin A and B appear to be in a straight line. Fix another pin D after C, but nearer your eye,
such that D, C and the images of A and B appear to be in a straight line. Then the CD is the
reflected ray.
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Remove the pins and the mirror. Join DC and extend it to meet the mirror. If you have been accurate in
your work, this should meet the mirror line exactly at 0. Draw the normal 0T at 0. Measure ∠A0T and
∠D0T. You will find that these angles are equal.
● The ray of light from the source that strikes a given surface is called the incident ray.
● The point at which the incident ray strikes the surface is called the point of incidence.
● The perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence is called the normal.
● The angle b/ the normal and the incident ray is called ∠ of incidence.
● The ray of light that gets reflected by the surface at the point of incidence is known as
the reflected ray.
● The angle b/w the reflected ray and the normal is known as the ∠ of reflection.

LOCATING THE IMAGE FORMED BY A PLANE MIRROR

The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual i.e. the image cannot be obtained on a screen.
The formation of images in a plane mirror can be understood by drawing ray diagrams.

Keep a plane mirror vertically along the line MN on a sheet of white paper. Place a pin at point 0
whose image we want to locate. Draw two incident rays 0A and 0B.
Place pins C and D on these rays. Locate the reflected ray EF by fixing pins E and F such that
E, F and images of 0 and C are in one straight line; and the reflected ray GH by fixing pins G
and H such that G, H and the images of ) and D are in one straight line.
Remove the mirror and extend the 2 reflected rays backwards. They meet at point 0’.

Notice that the reflected rays appear to come from 0’. Therefore, 0’ is the virtual image of 0. Join
00’. Measure the angle which 00’ makes with the mirror at point X. also measure 0X and 0’X.
You will find 00’ is perpendicular to the mirror at X and that 0X = 0’X. This means that 0’ is a
point which is at the same distance behind the mirror as 0 is in front of it.

A plane mirror, therefore, forms an image of an object at the same distance behinds the
mirror as the object is in front of it. This is why, if you walk towards a mirror, your image in
the mirror also walks forward. If you move back, the image also moves back.

Lateral inversion
In the image formed by a plane mirror, there is an interchange of left and right. This is called
lateral inversion and is an important property of the plane mirror image.

Characteristics of an image formed with a plane mirror

● Image framed is erect.
● Image is of the same size as the object.
● Image is laterally inverted, that is, the right side of the object appears as the left side of
the image.
● Image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
● Image formed is virtual, that is, it cannot be caught on a screen. There is no actual
meeting of light rays(incident and reflected).
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IMAGES FORMED BY MIRRORS AT AN ANGLE

If we keep 2 mirrors parallel to each other we will see infinite images. This is because the image
formed by one mirror serves as the object for the other mirror and so on.

Fix a white sheet of paper on a table. Take two plane mirrors and make them stand on the
paper such that one of theri vertical edges touch each other. Adjust the angle b/w they mirror to
90°. Keep a pencil b/w the mirrors and count the number of images you can see. You will find
that 3 images were formed. Change the angle between the mirrors to 30°, 45°, 60°, 120°, etc.
note down the number of images in each case.

We get many images of these objects because the image formed by one mirror acts as an
object for the second mirror. This continues till no more reflection by either mirror is possible.
This phenomenon is referred to as multiple reflection.

The number of images formed by mirrors at an angle is given by a simple formula. If θ is the
angle of inclination b/w 2 mirrors, then the number of images formed is b the formula:
n=(360/θ)-1

The kaleidoscope
The principle of forming multiple images by mirrors at an angle to each other is used in a toy
called kaleidoscope. It consists of 3 plane mirrors included at an angle of 60° to each other.
The arrangement is kept in a cylindrical cardboard box with a few pieces of coloured glass at
one end. The mirrors form multiple images of these glass pieces, resulting in beautiful patterns
when seen from the other end. On rotating the cylindrical box, the patterns change continuously
as the position of the glass pieces shifts.

Making a kaleidoscope
Firmly tape three mirror strips together so that they are at an angle of 60° to each other, with the
shiny surfaces facing inwards.
Take a piece of cardboard of the same length as the mirror strips. Bend and fit itt around the
mirror strips. Tape it in place. Cover the 2 open ends of the cardboard with clear plastic and
tape it in place. At one end place some broken pieces of coloured glass bangles on the
plastic(be careful while handling the bangle pieces). Tape some tracing paper on top of the
place, leaving enough space b/w the plastic and paper for the bangle pieces to move.
Hold your kaleidoscope towards light. Look through the other end and see the beautiful patterns
formed as you rotate the tube.

Uses of plane mirrors

● We commonly use plane mirrors in our homes to look at our reflection. In beauty parlors,
plane mirrors kept at an angle are used to view the side of the head. Plane mirrors
parallel to each other are used to view the back of the head.
● Plane mirrors are used to reflect light on an object. For example, during outdoor shooting
of a fil, metal sheets are used as plane mirrors to reflect sunlight on the actors.
● They are used in solar cookers to reflect light on the food being cooked.
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● They are used in periscopes. From a submarine under the sea, a sailor can see objects
and enemy ships on the surface of the sea by using a periscope.

Chapter 17 Refraction and Dispersion of Light

Take a powerful torch and cover its face with black paper with a small hole in the middle. It will
be your point source of light. In a dark room, shine the torch towards the surface of water taken
in a glass beaker. You can put a few drops of milk in the water to enable you to clearly see the
path of light in water.

When light enters the water, it bends at the surface. This bending of light as it passes from one
medium to another is called refraction. As light enters from air to water, it bends towards the
normal.

Keep a mirror at the bottom of the beaker and observe the path of light as it emerges from water
into the air. As light goes from water to air, it bends away from the normal.

Effects of refraction
Light travels at lower speeds in glass and water than in air. Glass and water are optically denser
than air. Optical density is a property of a transparent material. It is a measure of the speed of
light through the material.
● A ray of light going from an optically rarer medium to an optically denser medium
slows down and bends towards the normal.
● A ray of light going from an optically denser medium to an optically rarer medium
speeds up and bends away from the normal.
The speed of light in a glass is less than that in water. Therefore, glass is optically denser than
water. It can bend light more than water.

Effects of refraction
Real and apparent depth: place a thick glass slab, rectangular in shape, on the printed page of
a book. Look at the printed words on the page from the top of the glass slab. The words would
appear to be raised up. Similarly, a swimming pool appears to be less deep than it actually is,
when seen from above the surface of water. This shows that any optically denser material,
when seen from an optically rarer material, appears less deep than it actually is.

Consider a point D at the bottom of a swimming pool. The real depth of the swimming pool is
0D. The ray of light D0 along the normal does not bend as it emerges from the water. It,
therefore, goes along, goes along the path 0C. The ray of light DA bends away from the normal
and takes the path AB. The 2 emergent rays appear to come from D’.Hence, D’ is the virtual
image of D.
To a person looking into the swimming pool, the bottom of the pool would, therefore, appear to
be at depth 0D’. This is the apparent depth of the pool.
 13

Apparent bending of a pencil: if you dip a pencil obliquely in water, it appears to be bent at
the surface of water. This is because of refraction.
Rays of light(say A) on the pencil, refract away from the normal as they emerge from water into
air. The rays appear to come from a point A’ above A. Thus, A’ is the virtual image of A. in the
same way, each point on the dipped part of the pencil has a corresponding virtual image above
that point. The pencil, therefore, appears to bend your eyes.

Refraction by a glass slab

As a ray enters a glass slab from air, it bends towards the normal. As it merges from the slab
into air, it bends away from the normal. The net effect is that the emergent ray is parallel to
the incident ray but laterally displaced from it. This means that the light passing through the
glass slab is displaced, but its direction is not changed. This is because the 2 opposite sides
of the glass slab are parallel.
In the case of a rectangular slab where 2 reflecting surfaces are parallel to each other, the
emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.
Refraction by a prism
Triangular glass block is called a prism. In the prism PQR, let the light be incident on the
surface PQ. it bends towards the normal i.e. towards the base QR. As it merges from the
surface PR, it bends away from the normal. Because of the structure of the prism, the light ray
bends more in the direction, i.e. towards the base QR.
The incident and emergent rays are not parallel to each other. The emergent ray is deviated
from the direction of the incident ray by the angle of deviation marked in figure 17.6(diagram
later).

DISPERSION
When Sir Issac Newton placed a glass prism in the path of sunlight, he had expected to see a
white image of the sun on the screen. Though the incident beam falling on the prism was white
light, the emergent beam has spread out into many colors on the screen. The order of colors is
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. You will not be able to see all the colors
separately.
This happens because sunlight is a mixture of light of several colors. It is known as white light.
When white light passes through a prism, it is separated into its various constituent colors. The
splitting up of light into its constituent colors is called dispersion. The patch of colored light
obtained on the screen is known as spectrum.

Reason for dispersion

The reason for dispersion is that a transparent medium bends(or deviates) different colors of
light by different amounts. The deviation is maximum for violet and minimum for red. Therefore,
when white light passes through a prism, different colors present in it get deviated. Hence, they
separate out on emerging from the prism and form a spectrum.

LENSES
A transparent medium bounded by 2 surfaces of which at least 1 is spherical is called a lens.
They are of various shapes and sizes. They are classified into 2 types:
 14

● Converging (or convex) lens

● Diverging (or concave) lens

A converging (convex) lens is thick in the middle and becomes thinner at the edges. A
magnifying lens is a convex lens. It bends a ray of light passing through it inwards.

A diverging (concave) lens is thin in the middle and thicker at the edges. It has the property of
bending a ray of light passing through it outwards.

Terms related to lenses

● Principal axis: the line joining the centers of the 2 spheres C1C2 of which the lenses
form a part of the lens.
● Optical center: a ray of light passing through the center 0 of the lens is not deviated. It
does undergo a little displacement. However, since the lens is thin, this displacement is
very small and can be neglected. The point 0 is called the optical center of a lens. Thus,
the optical center of a lens is a point on the principle axis such that a ray passing
through it does not undergo any deviation.
● Principal focus: if a beam of light parallel to the principal is incident on a converging
lens, the ray of light after passing through the lens converges at a point F. This point is
called the principal focus or simply the focus of the lens. For a diverging lens, the
focus is the point from where the rays of light appear to come from, after passing
through the lens.
● Focal length: the distance b/w the optical center and the focus of a lens is called the
focal length of the lens (0F). The thicker the lens, the more it bends light rays, and the
smaller is its focal length.

Image formed by a lens

To lactate the image formed by a lens, we have to trace the paths of 2 rays coming from a point
on the object after they are refracted by the lens. The point where the rays meet or appear to
come from is the image.
● A ray parallel to the principal axis: in the case of a converging lens, after refraction,
this ray will pass through the focus. In case of a diverging lens, after refraction, it will
appear to come from the focus.
● A ray passing through the optical center: this will emerge undeviated.
● A ray passing through the focus: this will emerge parallel to the principal axis.

Image formed by a convex lens

The image formed by a convex lens varies in size, position and nature (erect or inverted, real or
virtual) depending upon the distance of the object from the lens.
● Object very far off (or at infinity): rays of light coming from an object that is very far
off (like the sun) are parallel to each other. If the rays are parallel to the principal axis,
they meet at focus. If the rays are not parallel to the principal axis, the image is still
formed at the focus. It is real, inverted and smaller than the object.
 15

● Object beyond 2F: image formed is b/w F and 2F on the other side of the lens. It is real,
inverted and smaller than the object. Being a real image it can be formed on the screen
placed at that point.
● Object at 2F: image is real, inverted and of the same size as the object. It is located at
2F on the other side of the lens.
● Object b/w F and 2F: image is real, inverted and larger than the object. It is situated
beyond 2F on the other side of the lens.
● Object at F: the refracted rays emerge parallel to each other. Therefore, no image is
formed as the rays don’t meet. However, since parallel rays are assumed to meet at
infinity, we say that the image is formed at infinity. The image formed is real and
inverted. It is higher in size than the object.
● Object b/w F and 0: incident rays diverge after refraction. Thus, a real image is not
formed. If the divergent rays are produced backwards they meet at a point. Thus, the
rays appear to come from this point. The image is, therefore, virtual. It is erect, bigger
than the object and is formed on the same side of the lens as the object. When a convex
lens is used as a magnifying glass, we keep the object to be viewed b/w F and 0 of the
lens.

POSITION OF THE POSITION OF THE NATURE OF THE SIZE OF THE IMAGE

OBJECT IMAGE IMAGE

Very far-off At F Real and inverted Smaller than object

Beyond 2F b/w F and 2F Real and inverted Smaller than object

At 2F At 2F Real and inverted Same size as object

b/w F and 2F Beyond 2F Real and inverted Larger than object

At F At infinity Real and inverted Much larger than

object

b/w F and 0 On the same side as Virtual and erect Larger than the
the object object

Image formed by a concave lens

Rays falling on a concave lens, after refraction, always diverge. Therefore, no matter where the
object is kept, a diverging lens always forms a virtual image, which is erect and smaller in size
than the object. It is formed b/w the optical center and the focus, on the same size of the lens as
the object.

EYE-THE NATURAL OPTICAL INSTRUMENT

The eye is a natural optical instrument. It enables us to see things around us by forming their
images on a screen called the retina. The eye consists of the eyeball which is nearly spherical
 16

in shape. Its front portion, called cornea, is made up of a transparent material. Light enters the
eye through the cornea. Cornea protects the eyes and helps in focusing light.

Behind the cornea is the iris with a hole in the center called the pupil. This is the small dark
circle seen in the center of the eye. Light goes into the eye through the pupil. It is the iris that
gives the eyes their characteristic color. The amount of light entering into the eye is controlled
by the iris. In bright light, it expands and reduces the size of pupil. In dull light, iris contracts to
increase the size of pupil to admit more light. This is why pupil appear smaller during the day
than dusk. The pupil appears to be black as all the light falling on it enters the eye and no light is
reflected back.

The region b/w the cornea and the lens is filled with a transparent liquid called the aqueous
humour. Behind the pupil is the lens which is made of a jelly-like substance. It is a converging
lens that forms images of objects on a layer called retina located at the back of the eye. The
lens is held in place by the ciliary muscles, which can change the thickness of the lens and
hence its focal length.The region b/w the lens and the retina is filled with a transparent jelly-like
substance called the vitreous humour.

Retina contains several nerve cells which sense the image formed on the retina. These cells are
of 2 kinds:
● Cones which are sensitive to bright light, can detect color.
● Rods which are sensitive to dim light.

The image formed on the retina is smaller than the object and is inverted. It is sensed by the
nerve cells and then communicated to the brain through the optic nerve. The brain interprets
the image as erect and of the correct size.

Blind spot-the area of no vision

Blind spot is the region of the retina at the junction of the optic nerve and the retina. There are
no sensory cells at this spot, hence any image formed here cannot be seen.

Accommodation of the eye

A normal eye can see clearly from a distance of 25 cm to infinity. The distance from the lens to
the retina (screen) always remains the same. This is achieved by changing the thickness of the
lens and hence its focal length by the action of ciliary muscles.

When the eye is focused at far off objects, such as the moon the ciliary muscles are relaxed and
the eye lens is at its thinnest(maximum focal length). As the object comes close, the ciliary
muscles make the lens thicker (reducing its focal length). The converging power of the lens
increases and it can then focus nearby objects clearly on the retina.

The action of the ciliary muscles in a normal eye stops when the object is at a distance of about
25 cm. The coal length of the eye lens cannot be reduced further. Therefore, a normal eye
 17

cannot see objects closer than 25 cm. Then the image is formed behind the retina and the
object appears hazy.

This least distance at which the eye can see an object clearly is called the near point of the eye.
The far point of the eye is the maximum distance at which it can see clearly. For the normal eye,
it is at infinity.

The ability of the eye to alter the focal length of its lens so that it can clearly see all objects
within a certain range is called accommodation of the eye.

Defects of vision
There are 2 main defects the eye suffers from. These are:
● Myopia
● Hypermetropia
● Cataract

Myopia or short sightedness: a person suffering from this defect can see nearby objects
clearly but distant objects appear blurred. The ciliary muscles don’t relax sufficiently to make the
eye lens thin when viewing distant objects. As a result, the image of a distant object is formed
before the retina and cannot be clearly seen.

For a person suffering from myopia the far point is at a finite distance and not at infinity.

To correct this defect, spectacles with concave lenses of the required power are used. The
concave lens diverges the parallel rays coming from a distant object in such a way that they
appear to come from the far point of the defective eye. In other words, the lens forms a virtual
image of a far off object at the far point of the defective eye. The eye can see the distant object
clearly.

Hypermetropia or long sightedness: a person suffering this defect can see distant objects
clearly but nearby objects appear blurred. The ciliary muscles are unable to thicken the eye lens
enough to see nearby objects clearly. This defect generally occurs in old age when the ciliary
muscles become weak. The image of a near object is formed behind the retina, and therefore,
appears blurred.

For a person suffering from hypermetropia, the near point is beyond 25 cm.

To correct this defect, spectacles with convex lenses of the required power are used. Convex
lens converges the rays from a near object in such a way that they appear to come from the
near point of the defective eye. That is, the lens forms a virtual image of the object at the near
point of the defective eye. The eye then forms a sharp image of the object on the retina.

Cataract: it generally occurs in old age. In a person suffering from cataract, the eye lens
becomes cloudy leading to loss of vision.
 18

Cataract can be treated by surgically removing the eye lens and inserting in its place a new
artificial lens. Due to the use of modern technology, this surgery is now safe.

Care of the eyes

Simple precautions given below may help in protecting our eyes:
● Wash and clean your eyes with clean cold water at least twice a day.
● Don’t work or read in dim light or very bright light as it tires the eyes.
● Don’t look at very powerful light sources like the sun or a welding machine.
● Don’t read in a moving vehicle as it strains the eyes.
● Never rub your eyes if something gets into it. Wash your eyes with clean cold water. If
there is no improvement, consult a doctor.
● Avoid watching TV or working on a computer for long sessions. Take frequent breaks to
rest your eyes.
● Always read from the normal distance of vision. If you have problems with this, or if you
cannot properly see the blackboard in class, there may be a defect in the eyes.
● Eat a balanced diet. Vitamin A, which is found in raw carrots, broccoli, green
vegetables , cod liver oil, eggs, milk, curd, and in fruits like papaya and mango, is good
for eyes and can prevent night blindness.Vitamin C and E are also beneficial for eyes.

Persistence of vision
When an image of an object is formed on the retina, it stays for about 1/16 th of a second. This
is called persistence of vision. Moving images that you see on the TV or in cinema depend on
this property of the eye. If successive still images of a running dog are flashed before your eyes
at the rate of more than 16 images per second, you would see it as a movie of a running dog.

THE VISUALLY-IMPAIRED
There are an estimated 180 million visually-impaired people in the world while the number in
India is around 7,00,000. Some of them are born with these defects and others lose their
eyesight because of diseases such as cataract. Since visually impaired people depend a lot on
the senses of feeling and hearing, they often develop a very keen sense of touch and hearing.

Use of Braille
The Braille system is a method of writing for the blind. It employs groups of raised dots to
represent printed letters and numbers. It was invented by Louis Braille of FRance in the early
1800s. It is not a separate language but just another way to read and write any language.

The Braille Code

Every character in the braille code is based on an arrangement of 1 to 6 raised dots. Each dot
has a numbered position in the Braille cell. These characters make up the letters of the
alphabet, punctuation marks, numbers and also special characters.
 19

Another technology that is very useful for the visually impaired is audio books. Several books
are now available where text is read out and taped. They are available on CDs and also on e-
readers such as Kindle.

[The story of Hellen Keller and Ved Mehta in book]

Chapter 13 Sound
Sound helps us to communicate. It is difficult to communicate with each other without each
other. Window Panes rattle when there is thunder proving that sound is a form of energy.

HOW SOUND IS PRODUCED

Tie a rubber band to the wall and pull the other end. Now pluck the middle, with your finger.
Rubber band moves rapidly to-and-from from its fixed position when plucked, and with your
fingers, the sound also stops. Rapid to-and-fro movement of an object about a fixed position
called vibration (or oscillation). Sound is produced by vibration.

The wires of a guitar vibrate when you pluck them and they appear hazy.

In a laboratory, a tuning fork is used to produce sound for experiments. It has a handle and 2
prongs. When one of the prongs is struck, both prongs vibrate to produce sound. If you touch
the surface of water in a bowl with one of these vibrating prongs of the tuning fork, you will see
waves produced in the water by the vibrating prong.

Sound is produced by vibrations in strings and vibrations in stretched air or membranes, as well
as vibrations in air.

Sound is a form of energy that is produced when objects vibrate.

SOUND WAVES
 20

Sound travels through air, liquids or solids in the form of waves. The waves are different in
nature than water waves, they are represented in the same way as shown alongside.

Observing vibrations (or oscillations)

In an object producing sound, the vibrations are so rapid that they cannot be observed properly.
You can produce slower vibrations by hanging a weight from a thread. This arrangement is
called a pendulum. Weight is called the bob of the pendulum. When undisturbed the pendulum
stays in a fixed (or mean) position. If you give the bob a push, it performs slow to-and-fro
movements about the mean position. This movement of a pendulum is called oscillation.

Amplitude
Oscillations of a pendulum are small if you give the bob a small push. If you give a stronger
push, the oscillations are larger. Maximum distance by which the bob moves away from its
mean position is called the amplitude of the oscillation.

Amplitude of a vibration is the maximum distance by which a vibrating object is displaced from
its mean position.

In the wave ABCD, A, C and E are the mean positions, and B and D are the extreme positions
on either side. The amplitude is the distance marked.

Time period
Time taken for one complete to-and-fro movement, i.e. distance covered by the ball as it moves
from the central position 0 to extreme position A, back to 0, then to the extreme position B on
the other side, and then back to B, is one oscillation of the pendulum.

It is difficult to measure the time for a single oscillation. Therefore, if you measure the time taken
for 10 oscillations and divide the total time by 10, it will give you the time taken for one
oscillation. If you take several readings of the time taken for 10 oscillations for different
amplitudes, you will find that the time for one oscillation remains the same, no matter what the
amplitude.

The time taken by the pendulum for one oscillation is called the time period of the pendulum. It
remains fixed as long as the length of the pendulum does not change.

Frequency
If you count the number of oscillations of a pendulum in, say, 60 seconds and divide the number
by 60, it will give you the number of oscillations per second. This is called the frequency of
oscillation. For a pendulum of given length, the frequency remains constant. Frequency is
measured in hertz (Hz). if the pendulum makes 5 oscillations every second, its frequency is 5
hertz.

CHARACTERISTICS
 21

We can recognize most sounds even without seeing the objects that produce them. This is
because all those sounds are different from each other.

The factors which make sounds different from each other are called characteristics of sound.
These factors are loudness, pitch and quality.

Loudness
If you strike a drum softly, it produces a soft sound. If you strike it hard, its skin vibrates with
greater amplitude and a louder sound is produced. This shows that loudness of the sound
produced by a vibrating object depends on the amplitude of vibration.

Loudness is proportional to the square of the amplitude. This means that if the amplitude is
doubled, the loudness increases four times.

Pitch
It is a measure of how high or low a sound is. A shrill sound has a higher pitch than a dull
sound. For example, a woman’s voice normally has a higher pitch than a man’s voice.

Thus, the pitch of sound depends on the frequency of vibration of its source. Higher the
frequency, more high-pitched the sound.

Frequency of a woman’s voice is higher than a man’s voice. Thinner wires of a guitar or sitar
give out sound of higher pitch than the thicker wires, because thin wires vibrate with greater
frequency than thick wires. Also, the pitch of sound increases if the wire of a guitar is tightened
further. This is true for the skin of a tabla also. If you tighten the skin, it produces a sound of
higher pitch.

Quality
If the vibrating strings of a sitar and a guitar are adjusted to give the same pitch and loudness,
we can still distinguish their sound from one another. This is due to another characteristic of
sound known as its quality. Studies show that most vibrating objects don’t generate sound of
just one frequency. They also simultaneously generate sounds of other frequencies.

When a note is played on a sitar, it produces the ’basic’ sound of a certain frequency, called the
fundamental.

Along with it, it produces a mixture of sounds of other frequencies, each differing in loudness.
These are called harmonics.

If the same note is played on a guitar, the fundamental will be the same but the harmonics and
their relative loudness will be different. That is why you can distinguish a note played on a sitar
from the same note played on a guitar. Thus, the quality of a sound is determined by the
frequencies present in it and their relative loudness.
 22

HOW SOUND TRAVELS

When an object vibrates, it makes the adjacent air molecules vibrate with the same frequency.
These, in turn, transfer their vibrations to the neighboring molecules, and this process goes on.
Thus, waves of vibrations travel all around from the vibrating object. This is similar to the way
waves are produced in water by a stone. Just as the water waves die out after some distance,
the air waves also die out after traveling some distance. Greater the amplitude of vibration, i.e.
the louder the sound, the greater is the distance it will travel before dying out.

How we hear sound

Our ears are sensory organs that help us to hear sound. Only its outer fortune can be seen.
Rest of the delicate ear is buried deep inside of the skull.
● Outer ear: consists of the visible outer part of the ear called the pinna, and the eartube.
The eardrum is a tightly stretched membrane that separates the outer ear from the
middle ear.
● Middle ear: consists of three very tiny interlocked bones. Innermost bone is
connected to the inner ear through a tiny window.
● Inner ear: consists of a coiled organ of hearing, semicircular canals, which are
organs of balance, and the auditory nerve.

A vibrating object causes air molecules to vibrate. When these vibrations reach our ear, they are
collected by the pinna and funneled into the eartube. These then strike the eardrum, which
starts vibrating with the same frequency.

This causes the delicate bones of the middle ear to vibrate. These bones amplify the vibrations
and transmit them to the inner ear. The vibrations stimulate tiny hair cells in the hearing organ
which send a signal to the auditory nerve of our nervous system. Auditory nerve takes the signal
to the brain and we can hear the sound.

Audible and inaudible sounds

Our ears can only hear sound with frequencies between 20 hertz and 20,00 hertz. This is called
the audible frequency range. Low frequency sounds which we cannot hear are called
infrasonics. It is a boon that we cannot hear infrasonics, otherwise we would have heard even
the sounds produced by our muscles and by our body movements. Objects that vibrate at
frequencies of above 20,000 hertz produce sound which also cannot be heard by us. Such
sounds are called ultrasonics.

Animals like dogs can hear sounds above frequency 20,000 hertz also.

Technology has made use of ultrasonics in many ways. It is used to form images of organs
inside the body. For example, ultrasonics are used to study the growth of the foetus in the
uterus of a woman. They are also used to detect flaws in metals and structures.

Sound requires a medium to travel

 23

For sound to travel to our ears from a vibrating object, it is necessary to have molecules that
can vibrate in the space between the ear and the object. That is, for sound to travel, it is
necessary to have a medium b/w the vibrating object and the ear.

You cannot hear the sound when there is no air. This shows that sound cannot travel in
vacuum. Sound requires a medium to travel which can be solid, liquid or gas.

SPEED OF SOUND
Speed of sound in air at 20℃ is about 340 meters per second. If a person shouts to another
person 340 meters away, they would be able to hear the sound in 1 second.

In solids and liquids, molecules are closer to each other as compared to that in air. The
vibrations are transferred faster to other molecules in solids and liquids than in air.

Sound travels at a speed of about 1500 m/s in water and 5000 m/s but in air at 340 m/s.

Compare the speed of sound in air to the speed of light which is 3,00,000 kilometers per
second. Sound takes 3 seconds to travel 1 km where light travels that distance in almost no
time.

When a person strikes a hammer 200 m away from you, the sound will reach you a fraction of a
second after it strikes.

When a storm is raging, thunder and lightning occur at the same time in the clouds. You will
hear the thunder a few seconds after you see lightning.

Both these phenomena happen because light reaches you almost instantly while sound takes
some time to travel and reach you.

REFLECTION AND ABSORPTION OF SOUND

The echo
Sound can be reflected or absorbed. Echo is simply the reflection of sound by a hill or a large
building some distance away. Sound is reflected from a surface in the same way as a ball
bounces from a wall.

Surfaces reflect sound, whether they are far or near. We hear echo from a surface far away only
as if the echo reaches your ears very quickly, then ears are not able to distinguish it as a
separate sound. Your ears are able to distinguish 2 sounds as separate sounds only if the
second sound is received after 1/10 th of a second or more after the first sound.

Distance traveled by sound in 1/10 second = speed x time

= 340 m/s x (1/10) s = 34 m

Therefore, the echo can be heard only if the distance b/w a person and a wall is more than 17m.
 24

Sound absorption
Sound gets reflected in an unfurnished room again and again by the walls of the room, making
any sound to die out after a long time. When you speak, words overlap each other and it is
difficult to tell them apart. This doesn’t happen if the same room has curtains and furniture as
they absorb sound.

Just like heat or light, when sound falls on a surface, it is partly reflected and partly absorbed.

Walls of a room are good reflectors of sound. Wood, carpets, curtains, clothes and even our
bodies are poor reflectors of sound but absorb sound better. Soft surfaces are better absorbers
of sound whereas hard surfaces are better reflectors of sound.

Sound absorbing material in walls of auditoriums to stop undue reflections. It is also used in
offices, hospitals and factories to cut down noise.

SOUNDS PRODUCED BY HUMANS

We produce sound in the larynx of our throats. Larynx has two vocal cords, which are folds of
tissue with a slit like opening b/w them. When we speak, air passes through the opening and the
vocal cords vibrate to produce sound.

Women have shorter vocal cords (about 15 mm long) than men (about 20 mm long). Children
have very short vocal cords. That is why the frequency of sound produced by women and
children is of higher frequency than sound produced by men.

MUSICAL SOUND
Regular vibrations produce musical sound whereas irregular vibrations produce noise. The
tuning fork sounds flat whereas the sitar sounds rich. This is because the sound produced by a
tuning fork has only one frequency; it has no harmonics. Sound from a sitar has a number of
harmonics. They arise partly because it is not just the string that is vibrating but the whole
instrument. It is the sound of vibrations of the whole instrument that we hear.

Harmonics give richness i.e. musical quality of sound. To produce music, the different notes
played should have a definite relation to each other. Their frequencies should have a certain
ratio to each other. If they don’t, the music sounds out of tune (besura). In the musical scale,
eight notes make up an octave. These notes are in order of increasing frequencies.

Sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa (Indian)

Do, re, me, pha, so, la, ti, do (Western)

The first note can be of any frequency, but the other notes must have a definite relation to the
first frequency.

Musical instruments
 25

Musical instruments use vibrations of various kinds to produce music. Depending on the kinds
of vibrations produced, they are of three types- stringed, wind and percussion instruments.

Stringed instruments: sitar, guitar, violin sarod, etc. are stringed instruments. They use
vibrations in metal wires to produce sound. Frequency of sound is varied by varying the length
of the vibrating wire. In a sitar, for example, the shorter the length of the wire, the higher the
pitch it produces.

Wind instruments: flute, shehnnai, etc. are wind instruments. They use vibrations in air
columns to produce sound. Holes in a flute, for example, are opened or closed in order to
change the length of the vibrating air column. This changes the pitch of the sound.

Percussion instruments: drum, tabla, mridangam, etc. are percussion instruments. They have
a stretched skin whose vibrations produce sound. Loudness striking the skin harder. The pitch is
increased by stretching the skin more.

NOISE
An unpleasant disturbing sound, especially one that is loud is called noise. Irregular vibrations
produce noise. Excessive noise in our surroundings is known as noise pollution. It is harmful
to us.

The unit used to measure loudness of sound is called decibel (dB) .

RANGE OF LOUDNESS FEELING

1 - 10 Just audible

10 - 30 Very quiet

30 - 50 quiet

50 - 70 Moderately loud

70 - 90 Very loud

90 - 120 uncomfortable

120 - 180 painful

SOURCE SOUND LEVEL (dB)

silence 0

Average sound at home 30

 26

Speech (at 2 ft, normal) 60

Speech (at 2 ft, shouting) 77

Hair dryer 80

City traffic 90

truck 100

Car horn (1 m) 110

Loud thunder 120

Aircraft taking off 120

Rocket engine 180

Major sources of noise pollution

Road traffic: it is one of the most widespread and growing environmental problems. Main
reason is the tremendous increase in traffic in cities. Roads carrying heavy traffic run close to
residential areas, without any buffer zone (e.g. green areas) to absorb noise. A large number of
people are victims of levels of traffic noise that are harmful to health.

Air and rail traffic: in areas close to the airports and railway tracks, sound of airplanes and
trains are a major source of noise pollution.

Neighboring and domestic noise: barking dogs, car horns, loud music, TVs, loudspeakers,
building construction and household noise are some of the major sources of noise pollution.

Noise from industries: at many places, industries are located in close proximity of residential
areas or within the residential areas. There are many activities related to the industries like the
sound of machines, horns that cause noise pollution.

Harmful effects of noise pollution

● Exposure to sudden high noise levels can cause permanent hearing loss due to rupture
of eardrum.
● Prolonged exposure to noise with a volume more than 70 dB can cause gradual hearing
loss, and can even lead to permanent hearing loss.
● High noise levels can also lead to nervous tension and increase of blood pressure.
● People experiencing high noise levels experience sleep deprivation and increased
number of headaches, and therefore show increased reliance on sedatives and sleeping
pills.

How to control noise pollution

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● Planning land use to reduce noise: for example, making tree-lined buffer zones b/w
residential colonies and roads with heavy traffic; locating noise-producing factories far
away from cities.
● Reducing noise emissions by developing low-noise products, for example, better
silencers for automobiles.
● Measures such as screens and enclosures around machinery to obstruct the path of
noise. This helps people working in and living near factories. Ear plugs for people
working in high noise-producing industries.
● Measure at home such as double glazed glass in windows to keep out noise.
● Control over recreational noise such as use of loudspeakers. Certain areas such as
hospitals and educational institutes to be declared no-horn zones.
● Increasing public awareness by providing factual information of the harmful effects of
noise blowing horns, loud music and TV, so that people reduce noise generation.

These can be succeeded only by participation of the public.