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CELL Rough endoplasmic reticulum: Synthesizes

proteins and transports them to the Golgi
apparatus.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: Manufactures

lipids and carbohydrates; detoxifies harmful
chemicals; stores calcium.

Golgi apparatus: Modifies, packages, and

distributes proteins.

Lysosome: Contains digestive enzymes.

Peroxisome: Serves as one site of lipid and

amino acid degradation.

Proteasomes: Break down proteins in the

Cells are the basic units of all living things,
cytoplasm
including humans.
Mitochondria: “POWERHOUSE OF CELL”
Plasma (plaz′ma ̆) membrane or cell membrane,
Are major sites of ATP synthesis when oxygen
forms the outer boundary of the cell, through
is available.
which the cell interacts with its external
environment. Centrioles: Serve as centers for microtubule
formation.
The nucleus (noo′kleˉ-u ̆s) is usually located
centrally; it directs cell activities. Cilia: Move materials over the surface of cells

Cytoplasm is located between the plasma Flagellum: In humans, propels spermatozoa

membrane and the nucleus.
Microvilli: Increase the surface area of the
Organelles specialized structures perform plasma membrane for absorption and secretion.
specific functions.
PLASMA MEMBRANE
FUNCTION OF CELL
The plasma membrane is the outermost
Cell metabolism and energy use. Cell component of a cell.
metabolism involves all chemical reactions that
occur within a cell. Intracellular those inside the cell.

Synthesis of molecules. The different cells of the Extracellular those outside the cell.
body synthesize, or produce, various types of
Membrane potential electrical charge difference
molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and
across the plasma membrane.
lipids.

Communication. Cells communicate with each TWO MAJOR TYPES OF MICROSCOPES ARE
other by using chemical and electrical signals. USED TO STUDY CELLS:

Reproduction and inheritance. Most cells Light microscopes allow us to visualize the
contain a complete copy of all the genetic general features of cells, such as the nucleus.
information of the individual.
Electron microscopes order to study the fine
CELL PARTS structures of cells.

Plasma Membrane: Functions as the outer scanning electron microscope (SEM) can reveal
boundary of the cell; controls the entry and exit features of the cell surface and the surfaces of
of substances. internal structures.

Nucleus: This is the control center of the cell; transmission electron microscope (TEM) allows
DNA within the nucleus regulates protein. us to see “through” parts of the cell and thus to
discover detailed aspects of cell structure.
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
Glycocalyx: the collection of glycolipids,
Ribosome: Serves as the site of protein glycoproteins, and carbohydrates on the outer
synthesis. surface of the plasma membrane.
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Transport proteins are integral proteins that

allow ions or molecules to move from one side
of the plasma membrane to the other.

 Specificity means that each transport

protein binds to and transports only a
certain type of molecule or ion.
 Competition is the result of molecules
with similar shapes binding to the
transport protein.
 Saturation means that the rate of
movement of molecules across the
MEMBRANE LIPIDS membrane is limited by the number of
available transport proteins.
Phospholipids readily assemble to form a lipid
bilayer, a double layer of phospholipid
MEMBRANE PROTEIN
molecules, because they have a polar (charged)
head and a nonpolar (uncharged) tail. Marker molecules Allow cells to identify other
cells.
Hydrophilic polar heads are attracted to water
molecules. Attachment proteins Anchor cells to other cells
(cadherins) or to extracellular molecules
Hydrophobic not attracted to water molecules. (integrins).
the fluid-mosaic model describes the plasma
TRANSPORT PROTEINS
membrane as being neither rigid nor static in
structure. Channel proteins may be leaked or gated

Cholesterol is other major lipid. Carrier proteins (transporters) Move ions or

molecules across the membrane.
The hydrophilic hydroxyl (–OH) group of
cholesterol extends between the phospholipid ATP-powered pumps Move specific ions or
heads to the hydrophilic surface of the molecules across the membrane.
membrane.
Receptor proteins Function as binding sites for
MEMBRANE PROTEINS chemical signals in the extracellular fluid.

Integral membrane proteins penetrate deeply Enzymes Catalyze chemical reactions either
into the lipid bilayer, in many cases extending inside or outside cells.
from one surface to the other.
TRANSPORT PROTEINS: SPECIFICITY AND
Peripheral membrane proteins are attached to COMPETITION
either the inner or the outer surfaces of the lipid
bilayer. Channel proteins are one or more integral
membrane proteins.
Marker molecules are cell surface molecules that
allow cells to identify other cells or other Leak ion channels, or nongated ion channels, are
molecules. always open and are responsible for the plasma
membrane’s permeability to ions when the
 glycoproteins proteins with attached plasma membrane is at rest.
carbohydrates.
Gated ion channels open and close depending on
 glycolipids lipids with attached
certain conditions of the cell.
carbohydrates.
Ligand (lig′and, lˉl′gand) is a generic term for
Attachment proteins are integral proteins that
any chemical signal molecule.
allow cells to attach to other cells or to
extracellular molecules. ligand-gated ion channels respond to these
signals
 Cadherins are proteins that attach cells
to other cells. voltage-gated ion channels open or close when
 integrins are proteins that attach cells to there is a change in the membrane potential.
extracellular molecules.
SATURATION OF A TRANSPORT PROTEIN
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Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder that affects

chloride ion channels.

Carrier proteins, or transporters, are integral

membrane proteins that move ions or molecules
from one side of the plasma membrane to the
other.

Uniport is the movement of one specific ion or

molecule.

Symport (cotransport) is the movement of two

different ions or molecules in the same direction.

antiport (countertransport) is the movement of

two different ions or molecules in opposite
directions.

Carrier proteins involved in these types of

movement are called uniporters, symporters, and
antiporters.

ATP-powered pumps are transport proteins that Solvent The liquid or gas.
require cellular energy to move specific ions or
molecules from one side of the plasma Solutes the substances dissolved in it.
membrane to the other. Diffusion is the movement of solutes from an
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) releases energy. area of higher solute concentration to an area of
lower solute concentration.
Receptor proteins are membrane proteins or
glycoproteins that have an exposed receptor site concentration gradient concentration difference
on the outer cell surface. between two points, divided by the distance
between the two points.
RECEPTORS LINKED TO CHANNEL PROTEINS
Solutes diffuse down their concentration
Some membrane-bound receptors also help form gradients (from a higher to a lower solute
ligand-gated ion channels. concentration) until an equilibrium is achieved.

RECEPTORS LINKED TO G PROTEIN Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to

COMPLEXES flow.

Some membrane-bound receptor proteins The osmotic pressure of a solution provides

function by altering the activity of a G protein information about the tendency for water to
complex located on the inner surface of the move by osmosis across a selectively permeable
plasma membrane. membrane.

The G protein complex acts as an intermediary DIFFUSION THROUGH THE PLASMA

between a receptor and other cellular proteins.
MEMBRANE

MOVEMENT THROUGH THE PLASMA Osmosis (os-moˉ′sis) is the diffusion of water

MEMBRANE (solvent) across a selectively permeable
membrane, such as a plasma membrane.
Enzymes can catalyze chemical reactions on
either the inner or the outer surface of the Selectively permeable means that the membrane
plasma membrane. allows water but not all the solutes dissolved in
the water.
selectively permeable—that is, it allows only
certain substances to pass through it. Aquaporins Researchers found that the cells of
the kidneys.
Passive Membrane Transport Membrane
transport mechanisms are classified as either Osmotic pressure is the force required to prevent
passive or active based on whether or not the water from moving by osmosis across a
cell expends metabolic energy during the selectively permeable membrane.
transport process.
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same osmotic pressure and are referred to as The plasma membrane may contain specific receptor
isosmotic. molecules that recognize certain substances and
allow them to be transported into the cell by
hyperosmotic (hˉl′per-oz-mot′ik) compared with phagocytosis or pinocytosis. This is called receptor-
the more dilute solution. mediated endocytosis, and the receptor sites
combine only with certain molecules.
hyposmotic (hˉl-pos-mot′ik) compared with the
more concentrated solution. If a cell placed Hypercholesterolemia is a common genetic disorder
characterized by the reduction in or absence of low
into a solution neither shrinks nor swells, the density.
solution is said to be isotonic.
Some cells release material through a vesicular
the shape of the cell remains constant, transport mechanism called exocytosis.
maintaining its internal tension or tone, a
condition called tonicity. Cytoplasm, the cellular material outside the nucleus
but inside the plasma membrane, is about half
causing the cell to shrink, the solution is called cytosol and half organelles.
hypertonic.
The fluid portion of the cytoplasm is cytosol.
causing the cell to swell, the solution is called
hypotonic. cytoskeleton supports the cell and holds the nucleus
and other organelles in place.
water moves by osmosis from the cell into the
hypertonic solution, causing the cell to shrink, a Microtubules are hollow tubes composed primarily
of protein units called tubulin.
process called crenation.
The microtubules are about 25 nanometers (nm) in
If the cell
diameter, with walls about 5 nm thick.
swells enough, it can rupture, a process called
Actin filaments, also called microfilaments, are small
lysis.
fibrils, about 8 nm in diameter, that form bundles,
-osmotic terms refer to the concentration of the sheets, or networks in the cytoplasm.
solutions.
Intermediate filaments are protein fibers about 10
-tonic terms refer to the tendency of cells to nm in diameter that provide mechanical strength to
swell. cells.

cytoplasmic inclusions, which are aggregates of

Facilitated diffusion is a mediated transport
chemicals either produced or taken in by the cell.
process that moves substances into or out of
cells from a higher to a lower concentration. lipochromes(lip′oˉ-kroˉmz) are pigments that
increase in amount with age.
These molecules and ions cross the membrane
by mediated transport. nucleus is a large, membrane-bound structure
usually located near the center of the cell. It may be
Active transport is a mediated transport process that
spherical, elongated, or lobed, depending on the cell
requires energy provided by ATP.
type.
Secondary active transport involves the active
nucleus consists of nucleoplasm surrounded by a
transport of an ion, such as sodium, out of a cell,
nuclear envelope.
establishing a concentration gradient, with a higher
concentration of the ions outside the cell. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is mostly found within
the nucleus
SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT (SYMPORT)
OF NA+ AND GLUCOSE The DNA and associated proteins are organized into
discrete structures called chromosomes
Endocytosis (en′doˉ-sˉl-toˉ′sis) occurs when material
moves through the plasma membrane and into the histones (his′toˉnz), which are important for the
cytoplasm by the formation structural organization of DNA, as well as other
proteins that regulate DNA function.
phagocytosis (faˉg-oˉ-sˉl-toˉ′sis), which means “cell-
eating,” solid particles are ingested and phagocytic the chromosomes are dispersed throughout the
vesicles of a vesicle. nucleus as delicate filaments collectively referred to
as chromatin.
Pinocytosis (pin′oˉ-sˉl-toˉ′sis), which means “cell-
drinking,” is distinguished from phagocytosis in that
smaller vesicles.
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ribonucleic acid (RNA), which can leave the nucleus The outer membrane has a smooth contour, but the
through nuclear pores. inner membrane has numerous infoldings called
cristae
A nucleolus (noo-kleˉ′oˉ-lu ̆s) is a dense region
within the nucleus. The material located inside the inner membrane is
called the matrix.
Ribosomes (rˉl′boˉ-soˉmz) are the sites of protein
synthesis. centrosome (sen′troˉ-soˉm), a specialized zone of
cytoplasm close to the nucleus, is the center of
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) produced in the nucleolus of microtubule formation in the cell.
the nucleus and proteins produced in the cytoplasm.
Within the centrosome are two centrioles
Free ribosomes primarily synthesize proteins used
inside the cell. Microtubules called spindle fibers extend out in all
directions from the centrosome.
Endoplasmic Reticulum The outer membrane of the
nuclear envelope is continuous with a series of Cilia (sil′eˉ-a ̆) are structures that project from the
membranes distributed throughout the cytoplasm of surface of cells and are capable of movement.
the cell.
Dynein arms, proteins connecting adjacent pairs of
rough endoplasmic reticulum is called “rough” microtubules, push the microtubules past each
because ribosomes are attached to it. other.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, which is an basal body (a modified centriole) is located in the
endoplasmic reticulum without attached ribosomes, cytoplasm at the base of the cilium.
manufactures lipids, such as phospholipids,
cholesterol, and steroid hormones, as well as Flagella (fla ̆-jel′a ̆) have a structure similar to that of
carbohydrates. cilia, but they are longer (45 μm).

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum also participates in Microvilli (mˉl-kroˉ-vil′ˉl) are cylindrically shaped
detoxification, the process by which enzymes act on extensions of the plasma membrane about 0.5–1.0
chemicals and drugs to change their structure and μm in length and 90 nm in diameter.
reduce their toxicity.
GENES AND GENE EXPRESSION
Golgi Apparatus composed of flattened,
Genes are the functional units of heredity.
membranous sacs, containing cisternae, stacked on
each other like dinner plates. Heredity is the transmission of genetic traits from
parent to offspring.
These proteins are later packaged into transport
vesicles that then move to the Golgi apparatus. The production of RNA and/or proteins from the
information stored in DNA is called gene expression
Lysosomes (lˉl′soˉ-soˉmz) are membrane-bound
vesicles that form at the Golgi apparatus. Because the book cannot be checked out, the cook
makes a copy, or transcription, of the recipe.
Lysosomes also digest the organelles of the cell that
are no longer functional, a process called autophagy. The changing of something from one form to
another (from recipe to cake) is called translation.
Peroxisomes (per-ok′si-soˉmz) are membrane-bound
vesicles that are smaller than lysosomes. Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA, tRNA, and
rRNA molecules based on the nucleotide sequence in
Proteasomes (proˉ′teˉ-a ̆-soˉmz) are large protein
DNA.
complexes containing enzymes that break down and
recycle other proteins within the cell. RNA polymerase is an enzyme that synthesizes the
complementary RNA molecule from DNA.
secretory vesicles that pinch off from the Golgi
apparatus move to the surface of the cell, their Before a pre-mRNA leaves the nucleus, it undergoes
membranes fuse with the plasma membrane, and several modifications called posttranscriptional
the contents of the vesicles are released to the processing, which produces the functional mRNA
exterior by exocytosis. that is used in translation to produce a protein.

Mitochondria (mˉl-toˉ-kon′dreˉ-a ̆) are the A 7-methylguanosine cap is added to one end of

organelles that provide the majority of the energy mRNA, and a series of adenine nucleotides called a
for the cell. poly-A tail, is added to the other end.

In a process called alternative splicing, various

combinations of exons are incorporated into mRNA.
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a start codon, which signals the beginning of Mitosis (mˉl-to′sis) is the division of a cell’s nucleus
translation. into two new nuclei, each containing the same
amount and type of DNA as the original nucleus.
stop codons, which signal the end of translation.
the chromatin becomes very densely coiled to form
compact chromosomes called mitotic chromosomes.

Translation is the synthesis of a protein at the

ribosome based on the sequence of the codons of
mRNA Each copy is called a chromatid

Ribosomes consist of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and The chromatids are attached at the centromere
proteins.
kinetochore (ki-neˉ′toˉ-koˉr, ki-net′oˉ-koˉr) is a
The amino acid binds to one end of its specific tRNA protein structure that binds the centromere and
molecule. Another part of the tRNA, called the provides a point of attachment for microtubules that
anticodon, consists of three nucleotides and is will separate and move the chromatids during
complementary to a particular codon of mRNA. mitosis.

cluster of ribosomes attached to the same mRNA REPLICATION OF A CHROMOSOME

iscalled a polyribosome
Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase,
genetic code is the information contained in mRNA metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
and it relates the nucleotide sequence of mRNA.
During prophase, the chromatin condenses to form
The resulting cluster of ribosomes attached to the mitotic chromosomes.
same mRNA is called a polyribosome
metaphase, the chromosomes align near the center
proproteins, and the extra piece of the molecule is of the cell.
cleaved off by enzymes to make the proprotein into
a functional protein. At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids
separate.
proproteins of those enzymes are called
proenzymes. During telophase, nuclear envelopes form around
each set of chromosomes to form two separate
CELL LIFE CYCLE nuclei.

cell life cycle includes the changes a cell undergoes Cytokinesis (sˉl′toˉ-ki-neˉ′sis) is the division of the
from the time it is formed until it divides to produce cell’s cytoplasm to produce two new cells.
two new cells.
Apoptosis (a ̆p′op-toˉ′sis), or programmed cell death,
Interphase is the phase between cell divisions; is a normal process by which cell number within
nearly all of the life cycle of a typical cell is spent in various tissues is adjusted and controlled.
interphase.
CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING
DNA replication is the process in which the two
strands of a DNA molecule each serve as the Cellular clock. One hypothesis of aging suggests the
template for making complementary new strands of existence of a cellular clock that
nucleotides.
Death genes. Another hypothesis suggests that there
The production of the new nucleotide strands is are “death genes,” which turn on late in life.
catalyzed by DNA polymerase, an enzyme that adds
DNA damage. Other hypotheses suggest that,
new nucleotides to the 3′ end of the growing
through time, DNA is damaged, resulting in cell
strands.
degeneration and death.
One strand, called the leading strand,
Free radicals. DNA is also susceptible to direct
a continuous strand, whereas the other strand, damage, resulting in mutations that may result in
called the lagging strand, cellular dysfunction and, ultimately, cell death.

The Okazaki fragments are then spliced by DNA Mitochondrial damage. Mitochondrial DNA may be
ligase. more sensitive to free-radical damage than nuclear
DNA.
Cell division produces the new cells necessary for
growth and tissue repair.
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