The Islamia University of Bahawalpur

Computer Network
BS-CS 4th Semester

Computer Network Models

A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software. Early attempts for
implementing the software for such subsystems were based on a single, complex, unstructured
program with many interacting components. The resultant software was very difficult to test and
modify. To overcome such problems, the ISO has developed a layered approach. In a layered
approach, the networking concept is divided into several layers, each assigned a particular task.
Therefore, we can say that networking tasks depend upon the layers.

Layered Architecture
The main aim of layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.
Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to
manage communications and run the applications.
It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between subsystems.
It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower to higher
layers without defining how the services are implemented. Therefore, any modification in
a layer will not affect the other layers.
The number of layers, functions, and contents of each layer will vary from network to
network. However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service fa from a lower to a
higher layered hiding the details from the layers of how the services are implemented.
The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.

❖ Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.

❖ Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange information with
peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of the
messages used.
❖ Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to
another layer.
In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will communication with the l n on another
machine, and the rules used in a conversation are known as a layer-n protocol.
Let's take an example of the five-layered architecture.

In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one machine to layer
n of another machine. Instead, each layer passes the data to the layer immediately just
below it, until the lowest layer is reached.
Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual communication takes place.
In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small and
manageable tasks.
The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface. A Layered
architecture provides a clean-cut interface so that minimum information is shared among
different layers. It also ensures that the implementation of one layer can be easily replaced
by another implementation.
A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.
Why do we require Layered architecture?
Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a design process in
such a way that the unmanageable tasks are divided into small and manageable tasks. In
short, we can say that this approach reduces the complexity of the design.
Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides the independence
of layers, which is easier to understand and implement.
Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that implementation in one layer
can be changed without affecting other layers.
Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed and tested individually.
OSI Model
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for inter-computer
communications.
OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model:

The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they
are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both
the end user and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper
layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer
and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the
lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is
mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.
Functions of the OSI Layers
There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers
are given below:
Physical Layer
Data-Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Physical layer

The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node
to another node.
It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:
Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex
or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
 Data-Link Layer

This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

It defines the format of the data on the network.
It provides reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network.
It contains two sub-layers:

▪ Logical Link Control Layer

• It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that
is receiving.
• It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
• It also provides flow control.
▪ Media Access Control Layer
• A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and
the network's physical layer.
• It is used for transferring packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known
as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which
is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.
Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the
header.
Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no
data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with a higher
processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then the
receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control
over the link at a given time.
Network Layer

It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network
conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the
routing services within an internetwork.
The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Functions of Network Layer:
Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It
provides a logical connection between different devices.
Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the
frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best
optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts
them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol
(IP).
Transport Layer

The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which
they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection
between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:
Transmission Control Protocol
o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data
into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using
multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The
transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the
receiving end.
User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
Functions of Transport Layer:
Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this
reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer
to another computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds
the header that contains the address known as a service-point address or port address. The
responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another
computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the
correct process.
Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the
upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned
with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has
arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their
sequence numbers.
Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service
and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual
packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented
service makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before
delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single
route.
Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-
to-end rather than across a single link.
Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures
that message reach at the destination without any error.
Session Layer

It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which
can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.
Presentation Layer

A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
It acts as a data translator for a network.
This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:
Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods,
the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods.
It converts the data from a sender-dependent format into a common format and changes
the common format into a receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is the process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sending the resulting
message over the network.
Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such
as text, audio, and video.
Application Layer

An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage
the files in a remote computer.
Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various objects.
TCP/IP model
The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network
layer, data link layer and physical layer.
The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four
layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them
provides specific functionality.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-
level protocols.
Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in
the OSI reference model.
It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on
the same network.
The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
Internet Layer
An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and
they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
Following are the protocols used in this layer are:
IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.
Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:
IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses.
The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to
provide internetwork routing.
Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be
transmitted.
Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport
layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it
encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by
data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP
datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller
units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the
sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to
form an original message.
Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN,
WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant
network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the
IP datagram through various devices such as routers.
ARP Protocol
ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP
address.
The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it
broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and
process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its
physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address
both to its cache memory and to the datagram header
ICMP Protocol
ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram
problems back to the sender.
A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable
to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on
fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that the
datagram is undeliverable.
An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is
responding or not.
The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them.
The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers because
the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the router that
it is passed to.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data
which is being sent over the network.
The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to
the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application
program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the
application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does
not contain any ID of a data segment.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

❖ It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

❖ It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the
duration of the transmission.
❖ TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before
the transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
❖ At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as
segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for
reordering the frames to form an original message.
❖ At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on
sequence numbers.

Application Layer
An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer,
it forwards its data to the transport layer.
There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed
inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication system. For
example: a text editor cannot be considered in the application layer while a web browser
uses the HTTP protocol to interact with the network where the HTTP protocol is an
application layer protocol.
Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:
HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the
data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, and
video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a
hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used
for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports
e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data
to another e-mail address.
DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use names instead of
addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain
Name System.
TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection
between the local computer and the remote computer in such a way that the local terminal
appears to be a terminal in the remote system.
FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting files from one computer to another computer.