Nervous System – General Nervous System Structure

cells, tissues and organs of body are all working for cells of the nervous system are highly specialized
organisms survival for receiving stimuli and conducting impulses to
various parts of the body
need to integrate all body activities for homeostasis
in humans, these nerve cells have become organized
need good communication and control: into the most complex and least understood of the
body’s systems
Nervous System
Neuroendocrine CNS: brain PNS: cranial nerves
Endocrine System System spinal cord spinal nerves

receptor ! integration ! effector Main tissues of the Nervous System

General Functions of the Nervous System two major cell/tissue types in Nervous System:

1. maintain homeostasis by receiving sensory 1. neurons – impulse conduction

information and coordinating and transmitting the
appropriate responses through muscles and glands 2. neuroglia (=glial cells) – support, protection,
insulation, aid in function of neurons
2. working with the endocrine system to integrate
rapid reflex responses with slower hormonal Neurons
responses
neurons – impulse conduction
3. generate complex neural pathways of all higher
brain functions: communicates by:
self awareness
electrochemical impulses (=nerve impulses)
thinking, learning
cell-to-cell chemicals (=neurotransmitters)
speech, communication
emotions
~100 Billion neurons

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most neurons divide only during prenatal development two types; axons and dendrites
and a few months after birth
Dendrites
after that they increase in size, but not numbers

highly specialized to: shorter; branching

respond to stimuli receptor regions

conduct messages in the form of nerve impulses ! each neuron receives info from dozens to 10’s of
1000’s of other neurons
generally don’t divide after birth
specialized for information collection
(eg. dendritic spines)
!live up to 100 years
thinly insulated
very high metabolic rate:
convey messages toward cell body
require glucose, can’t use alternate fuels
Axons
require lots of O2 – only aerobic metabolism
can’t survive more than a few minutes without each neuron has a single axon
O2
long, slender process
all neurons have cell body and 1 or more processes
up to 3-4 feet long (eg. motor neuron of toe)
cell body:
thick insulation
contains: most cytoplasm
nucleus
most organelles at terminus, axon branches profusely
no centrioles (don’t divide) (up to 10,000 branches)
neurofibrils
each branch ends in enlarged bulb
processes: = synaptic knob (=axonal terminal)
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 c. multipolar
!3 processes; 1 axon, many dendrites
neurons can be classified by:
most common
1. function
2. structure (# of processes) in very general terms, shape is related to
function:
1. Function
many unipolar
sensory neurons
a. sensory neurons & bipolar
interneurons
in nerves of the PNS mostly multipolar
conduct impulses toward the CNS motor neurons

b. interneurons (association)
Neuroglia Cells (glia)
in CNS (brain and spinal cord made of these)
where integration occurs neuroglia (=glial cells) are used for support,
99% of neurons in body protection, insulation, aid in function of neurons
c. motor neurons (efferent) [need specialized cells because of unique sensitivity of
neurons to their environment]
in nerves of the PNS
conduct impulses away from the CNS
10 times more neuroglia cells than neurons (>1 trillion)

2. Structure some mitosis

a. unipolar several different kinds of neuroglial cells:

single short process that splits into two longer 1. astrocytes

processes that together act as an axon
2. microglia CNS
b. bipolar 3. ependymal cells
4. oligodendrocytes
2 processes; 1 axon, 1 dendrite
5. Schwann cells PNS
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! prevents sudden and extreme fluctuations

1. Astrocytes in composition of tissue fluid in CNS

have numerous branches producing a star- ! protects irreplaceable neurons from damage
like
shape capillaries in brain are much less leaky than
normal capillaries
largest and most abundant type
! comprise >90% of the tissue in some parts of the brain
! tight junctions: materials must pass
through cells
astrocytes cover the entire brain surface and most
of the nonsynaptic regions of the neurons in astrocytes form an additional layer around
the gray matter of CNS these capillaries to further restrict
exchange
also most functionally diverse type
! astrocytes help regulate flow into CSF
form supportive framework for nervous tissue
small molecules (O2, CO2, alcohol) diffuse rapidly

direct the formation of tight webs of cells around larger molecules penetrate slowly or not at all
brain’s capillaries
substances easily, rapidly passed by diffusion:
=blood/brain barrier H2O
O2
because of “irritability” of nervous tissue and CO2
sensitivity to 02, glucose etc neurons are lipid soluble solutes:alcohol, caffeine, nicotine,
heroin, anesthetics, steroids
isolated into their own “fluid compartment”
some pass by means of membrane carriers:
this blockage of free exchange between glucose
amino acids
capillaries and tissues is unique for some ions
nervous tissue
substances that cross more slowly
creatinine
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 urea help to produce and circulate Cerebrospinal Fluid
most ions (Na+, K+, Cl-)

substances not passed 4. Oligodendrocytes (oligodendroglia) (CNS)

proteins
antibodies smaller cells, fewer (up to 15) processes

other functions of astrocytes: clustered around nerve cell bodies

! secrete growth factors that promote neuron growth and
synapse formation each process reaches out to nerve fiber and wraps
around it to produce myelin sheath
!communicate electrically with neurons and may affect
synaptic signalling
(electrical insulation) around neurons in CNS
[myelin=fatty substance]
!regulate chemical composition of tissue fluid

! when neurons are damage form hardened masses of scar myelin (in CNS and PNS) can be:
tissue and fill in the space = sclerosis
thick = “myelinated fibers”, “white matter”
2. Microglia (CNS)
thin = “unmyelinated fibers”, “gray matter”
small cells; act as the brains personal WBC’s by
removing dead or damaged cells and Multiple Sclerosis
pathogens autoimmune disease possibly triggered by a virus in genetically
susceptible individuals

in inflamed or degenerating brain tissue they: oligodendrocytes and myelin sheaths of CNS deteriorate and are
replaced by hardened scar tissue
enlarge & move about engulfing microbes
and cellular debris occur esp between 20-40 yrs of age
nerve fibers are severed

3. Ependymal Cells (CNS) & myelin sheaths in CNS are gradually destroyed
! short circuits; loss of impulse conduction

ciliated cells ! resemble cuboidal epithelium affects mostly young adults

common symptoms:
line ventricles and spinal canal visual problems
muscle weakness
clumsiness
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eventual paralysis Synapses

neurons are the “wiring” of the nervous system

5. Schwann Cells (PNS)
they take signals from place to place
found only in PNS
but the actual “functionality” of the nervous system
form a segmental wrapping around nerve fibers depends on what is happening where one wire
each segment is produced by 1 Schwann cell contacts another wire.
gaps between cells = Nodes of Ranvier
eg. any electrical device; computer, CD player, TV, etc
form neurilemma and myelin sheath in PNS
neurons neurons generally are not directly connected to each
other but are separated by a small gap
myelin sheath similar to that produced in
CNS by the oligodendrocytes the meeting point between a neuron and any other
cells
outermost coil of Schwann cell with most of = synapse
cytoplasm & organelles forms
neurilemma synapses are the functional connection between
neurons and another cell
! only in PNS neurons neuron ! neuron
! plays essential role in regeneration of neuron ! muscle fiber [=neuromuscular jct]
cut or injured neurons neuron ! gland [=neuroglandular jct]
neuron ! epithelial cells

[CNS neurons don’t regenerate]

at synapse the electrical signal is converted to a
a study done in 2011 placed nannotubes in a severed chemical signal
spinal cord of rats and found some return of
mobility in hind legs
=neurotransmitters

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1. the nerve impulse reaches axon terminal at the
-how many synapses are active
synapse and triggers release of a
neurotransmitter -which synapses are active

2. NT diffuses across synapse and binds to receptor -which neurotransmitters are interacting with each
other
proteins in cell membrane of target cell
-how the specific postsynaptic cell responds to the
3. triggers some response in target cell stimulation

-any modifications caused by surrounding glial cells

4. the neurotransmitter is then either broken down or
reabsorbed by the axon terminal synapses make neural integration possible

the whole process takes 0.3 – 5.0 ms ! each synapse is a “decision making” device that determines
whether and how the next cell will respond to the signal
_______________________ from the first

each neuron synapses with 1000 – 10,000 axonal

terminals

! ~1 quadrillion synapses in human brain

100’s of different neurotransmitters have so far been

discovered
eg. acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, etc

some stimulate the next neuron, some block the

next neuron and in some cases more than one
synapse must be stimulated to produce an impulse in
the next neuron

whether the cell after the synapse is stimulated

depends on many factors including:
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Protection of CNS
contains blood vessels
both brain and spinal cord are heavily protected:
3 extensions of the meninges form partitions
1. bone: skull and vertebral column between various parts of the brain:
2. adipose cushion around spinal cord
3. meninges: tough flexible covering falx cerebri
largest partition
4. liquid cushion: cerebrospinal fluid between cerebral hemispheres

Meninges falx cerebelli

separates cerebellar hemispheres
not in sheep brain
composed of 3 layers:
tentorium cerebelli
1. dura mater separates cerebrum from cerebellum

strong fibrous connective tissue meninges continues around spinal cord and extends
beyond the end of the spinal cord
outer layer in skull is periosteum of cranial !safer site for lumbar puncture to get CSF
bones
Meningitis = inflammation of arachnoid, pia and CSF
usually bacterial or viral; may lead to encephalitis
2. arachnoid layer
Encephalitis = inflammation of brain tissue itself
delicate cobwebby layer
Cerebro Spinal Fluid
subarachnoid space = between arachnoid layer and pia
mater
as further protection against damage the brain and
3. pia mater spinal cord have a cushion of fluid around and
within
transparent
! brain actually “floats” in CSF (~140 ml of CSF)
adheres to outer surface of brain and cord
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CSF provides buoyancy and protection to delicate
! only 100-160ml at a time in circulation
brain tissues also produces chemical stability
Circulation of CSF
CSF mainly in:
fluid moves from lateral ventricles through duct to
a. brain ventricles and ducts 3rd ventricle

b. central canal of spinal cord another duct moves fluid to 4th ventricle

c. in subarachnoid space of the meninges fluid moves to central canal of spinal cord
!space between arachnoid layer and pia mater
fluid moves out to subarachnoid space around
ventricles are fluid filled cavities inside brain: cord and brain

1st & 2nd inside cerebral hemispheres reabsorbed from subarachnoid space into
= lateral ventricles arachnoid granulations of the meninges

3rd small slit inside diencephalon if circulation is blocked by tumor or other means
(mainly thalamus) during fetal development may cause
hydrocephalus
4th diamond shaped expansion of
central spinal canal in brainstem ! fluid is still produced but can’t circulate and
be reabsorbed
capillary beds called choroid plexuses are found in
each of the 4 ventricles of the brain where they
secrete cerebrospinal fluid

the capillaries are surrounded by astrocytes

forming a blood brain barrier that controlls
what kinds of chemicals enter the CSF

produces ~500ml of CSF/day

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Central Nervous System very little in reserve

Brain & Spinal Cord
decrease in glucose:
dizziness
Brain convulsions
unconsciousness
one of the largest organs in body:
one of the brain’s most impressive features is it’s
men: 1,600 g (3.5 lbs) ability to store information:
women: 1,450g (3.2 lbs)
compared to computer memory one estimate of the brain’s
[brain size is proportional to body size not intelligence storage capacity based in number of neurons and number
! Neanderthals had larger brains than us!!] of synapses is 1 Million Gigabytes

early thoughts on function of brain: ! the equivalent of ~3 million hours of DVD images
ancient Greeks weren’t particularly impressed with the brain
where snot was generated
cooling device for blood Some General Terminology for CNS:
the brain is one of most metabolically active organs in
one of the most obvious feature of the surface of the
body
brain are the folds:
comprises only 2% of total body weight it yet
gyri = raised areas
! gets 15% of blood
sulci = fissures between the gyri
!consumes 20% of our oxygen need at rest
-found in the cerebrum and the cerebellum
(more when mentally active)

blood flow and O2 increase to active brain areas gray matter = thin myelin; mostly cell bodies
dendrites & synapses
1-2 min interruption of blood flow may impair brain -outer layer of brain = cortex
cells
-inner layer of spinal cord
>4 min w/o oxygen ! permanent damage -nuclei: small areas of gray matter deeper inside the brain

besides O2 must get continuous supply of glucose

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white matter = thick insulation; mostly axons all ascending and descending tracts from spinal
cord and brain = white matter
nerve tracts = bundles of axons that interconnect various parts
of the brain
most tracts cross over as they pass through
-inner layers of brain: the medulla
-outer layer of spinal cord also contains nuclei (gray matter) that are
important reflex centers that help to control
The Brain is Subdivided Into: several vital functions

1. Cerebral Hemispheres cardiac reflex center

rate and force of heartbeat
“human” part: thought, creativity, communication

vasomotor control center

2. Diencephalon controls diameter of blood vessels
controls the distribution of blood to specific organs
moods, memory, manages internal environment controls blood pressure

3. Cerebellum respiratory center

regulates the rate and depth of breathing
coordinating movement and balance
polio especially affects this center in medulla
4. Brain Stem ! resp failure (iron lungs)

basic bodily functions = vegetative functions also contains many nonvital reflex centers
(nuclei):
Brain Stem speech
swallowing
vomiting
1. Medulla coughing
sneezing
lowest portion of brainstem hiccuping
2. Pons
continuous with the spinal cord
just above medulla
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bridge connecting spinal cord with brain and parts also contains a nucleus of gray matter called the
of brain with each other substantia nigra

contains 2 additional respiratory centers (nuclei) ! suppresses unwanted muscle contractions

that help to regulate breathing
Parkinsons Disease
also contains nuclei that affect sleep and bladder progressive loss of motor function
begins in 50’s or 60’s
control can be hereditary
due to degeneration of dopamine releasing neurons in
substantia nigra (inhibitory neurons)
3. Midbrain leads to hyperactivity of basal nuclei and involuntary muscle
contractions
results in shaking hands, facial muscles become rigid, range of
in the form of 4 lobes above and behind pons motion decreases
(= Corpora Quadrigemina) develops smaller steps, slow shuffling gait with forward bent
posture and a tendency to fall forward
speech becomes slurred, handwriting illegible
control centers(nuclei) for some visual
& auditory reflexes:
4. Reticular Formation (~Reticular Activation System)
a. pupillary reflex
diffuse system of interconnecting fibers extending
b. reflex centers for coordinating through several areas of brain including brain
eye movement with head and stem
neck movement in response to
-comprises a large portion of entire brainstem
visual stimuli -extends into spinal cord and diencephalon
-interlacing of gray and white matter
c. control center for auditory
reflexes: Functions of RAS - both sensory and motor

eg. reflex centers for movements of 1. Sleep and consciousness

head and trunk in response to
auditory stimuli to locate sound
maintains consciousness and awakens
eg. startle response to loud noises from sleep ! alarm clock

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 barbiturates depress RAS, decrease alertness & encloses a fluid filled cavity = 3rd ventricle
produce sleep

amphetamines stimulate RAS producing wakefulness mainly a sensory relay center

general anesthetics may produce unconsciousness by ! “Rome of the Nervous System”

depressing RAS or
“gateway to cerebral cortex”
falling asleep may be caused by specific
neurotransmitters that inhibit RAS ! main relay station for sensory impulses
that reach cerebral cortex from spinal
2. helps control muscle tone, balance cord, brain stem and cerebellum
and posture during body movements
eg. taste, touch, heat, cold, pain, etc
3. filters flood of sensory input
(=habituation) 3. Hypothalamus

highlights unusual signals; disregards rest forms the floor of the 3rd ventricle
(99%)
includes the pituitary gland (the “master gland”
LSD interferes ! get flood of sensory stimuli of the endocrine system)

Diencephalon part of the brain most involved in regulating

internal environment
1. Epithalamus
a. link between “mind” and “body”
includes roof of 3rd ventricle
controls and integrates many autonomic
mainly pineal gland – an endocrine gland that (automatic, unconscious) activities
controls cyclic activities
means by which emotions express themselves
2. Thalamus: by altering body functions

the largest part of the diencephalon ! ?role in psychosomatic illnesses

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produces a crude appreciation of some sensations;

b. regulates body temperature
eg. pleasure, fear, anger, pain
has receptors that monitor blood temperature
but can’t distinguish their location or intensity

c. regulates food and water intake eg. contains pleasure center

has receptors that monitor osmotic pressure -rats pressing bar for stimulation of pleasure center
! thirst center -ignore sleep, food, water, sexual partners
-continue until exhausted (50-100x’s/min)
-willing to cross electrified grid to seek reward
4. Limbic System [420 "amps vs 60-180 "amps for food]

diencephalon is a main part of a diffuse group of in humans stimulates erotic feelings

structures called the Limbic System
opioids and endorphins are concentrated
= the emotional brain in limbic pathways

limbic system perception & output is geared !is site of action of many addictive
mainly toward the experience & drugs
expression of emotions
a few who lack the amygdala (part of the limbic system)
eg. pain, anger, fear, pleasure have no sense of fear

continuous back & forth communication between also involved in the formation of memories
limbic system and frontal lobes of cerebrum
Cerebellum
! much of the richness of your emotional life
depends on these interactions 2nd largest part of brain

all sensory impulses are shunted through the just below and posterior to cerebrum
limbic system
only other part of brain that is highly folded
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consists of 2 hemispheres diseases of cerebellum produce Ataxia
eg. tremors
grey matter outside speech problems
difficulty with equilibrium
white matter inside
NOT paralysis
= arbor vitae (tree of life)
Cerebrum
Functions of Cerebellum:
largest portion of brain (~60% of brain mass)
helps to coordinate voluntary muscles:
divided into two cerebral hemispheres
but does not send impulses directly to muscles

two hemispheres joined by nerve tracts = corpus

1. acts with cerebrum to coordinate different
callosum
groups of muscles
smooths and coordinates complex sequences of heavily convoluted surface: gyri and sulci
muscular activity needed for body movements
folding allows greater area of cortex in smaller space (area =
2. controls skeletal muscles to maintain balance 2,500 cm2 = area of 4.5 textbook pages or 1 keg of beer)

receives input from proprioceptors in muscles, each hemisphere:

tendons and joints and equilibrium receptors and
eyes
a. outer gray matter = cerebral cortex (2-4mm)
! compares intended movement with
actual movement this is where the synapses, the connections
between neurons occur
3. learning and storing motor skills
the cortex is the “functional part” of the
eg. playing musical instrument, riding a bike, typing, etc
cerebrum
4. recent research indicates that the cerebellum also has roles in
awareness, emotion and judging the passage of time
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b. inner white matter = tracts b. sensory areas

provide conscious awareness of sensations
! bundles of myelinated axons
the white matter connects the various
c. association areas
functional parts of the cerebrum for
integrate wide variety of information
integration (the wiring)
from several different areas of brain
c. nuclei = islands of gray matter in the interior
each hemisphere is mainly concerned with sensory
of brain
and motor functions of the opposite side of the
! cell bodies and sometimes dendrites body

eg. basal nuclei (=basal ganglia) eg. left hemisphere controls right hand
clusters of gray matter around thalamus (5)
help direct skeletal muscle movements
3. in addition to the general functions of the
Function of Cerebral Cortex: cerebrum, each hemisphere has its own specific
jobs to do
1. cerebrum is responsible for our most “human”
traits =Lateralization of Hemispheres

conscious mind a division of labor

abstract thought
memory ! each hemisphere takes on
awareness complementary functions

! most of these will be discussed later under integration Left Hemisphere:

2. the cerebrum also contains some more basic ! repository of language: processes many
functional areas: aspects of language: syntax,
semantics, etc
a. motor areas
“does all the talking”
that control voluntary motor functions

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 ! more involved in analytical skills 4. the cerebrum also has larger grooves (= fissures)
that divide each hemisphere into 4 main lobes or
eg, math, logic
regions
Right Hemisphere:
each lobe is named after the bone it lies under:
! nonverbal communication: interprets more
subtle aspects of language - metaphor, Lobes of the cerebrum
allegory, ambiguity 1. frontal
2. parietal
! also concerned with emotions, intuition 3. occipital
4. temporal
eg. reading facial expressions
within each lobe is a further specialization of function:
eg. recognizing faces

1. Frontal (& prefrontal)

! mainly concerned with visuospatial
tasks a. most anterior part of the frontal lobe (just
the “artistic” duties of the brain behind forehead (=prefrontal)
elaboration of thought
Hemispheric Dominance: intelligence
motivation
in ~90% of population ! left hemisphere are dominant personality
more verbal, analytical abstract ideas
are right handed judgement
planning
in 7% of population ! right hemisphere are dominant “civilizing behaviors”
visuospatial tasks
are left handed damage:
more likely to be males wide mood swings
loss of attentiveness
in 3% of population ! functions are shared equally become oblivious to social constraints
=bilateral (no right or left dominance) careless about personal appearances
often ambidextrous
sometimes leads to confusion and dyslexia prefrontal lobotomy
reduced anxiety
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but lost initiative some part of body

had mood swings
motor and sensory cortex, like other areas are malleable
b. Olfactory Cortex
eg. learning Braille
the area representing touch in the finger used in
small area just above orbits learning braille expands into areas previously
perception of odors, smells devoted to neighboring fingers

c. at the back of the frontal lobe is the Motor relates sensations to past experiences
Cortex
b. Gustatory Cortex
directs conscious control of muscle
contractions conscious awareness of taste stimuli

coordinates groups of muscles; not individual muscles 3. Occipital Lobe

if damaged may cause paralysis
the entire lobe is devoted to visual processing
or person has trouble directing learned muscular
coordination eg typing, tying shoes
image is 1st mapped onto visual cortex
based on nerve impulses received from
can visualize specific body zones
the eyes
! homunculus

2. Parietal Lobe image is analyzed in terms of its elementary

features
a. sensory processing areas Sensory Cortex
orientation
color
at the front of the parietal lobe texture
depth
presence of movement
receives information from muscle, tendon and
joint sensations, and touch
other areas interpret and associate image with
past visual experiences
when stimulated patient reports “feeling” in
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 Spinal Cord
! recognize people, flowers, etc
located in the spinal canal of the vertebral column
4. Temporal Lobe
17 – 18 inches long
a. hearing is processed by the Auditory Cortex
extends from foramen magnum to lower border of
interprets sounds: pitch, rhythm, loudness 1st lumbar vertebrae

b. area for balance and equilibrium subdivided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral
regions
awareness of position and orientation, etc
spinal cord terminates in a bundle of nerves
= cauda equina (horses tail)

Cross Section of Spinal Cord:

Post. Median Sulcus Post. Horn of gray matter

Tracts

Central Canal Lateral Horn of gray matter

Ant. Horn of gray matter

Ant. Median Fissure

white matter: myelinated, divided into columns

and tracts; “highways”
numerous tracts can be identified in the spinal cord

spinal cord tracts serve as 2-way conduction paths

between peripheral nerves and brain

each tract is composed of bundles of axons

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ascending tracts & descending tracts

Peripheral Nervous System
each tract is a structural and functional unit: Nervous system consists of
eg. spinothalamic tract
all axons originate from cell bodies in spinal cord CNS = brain and spinal cord
and terminate in thalamus of brain
all are sensory (ascending) all interneurons

~90% of all neurons in body are in CNS

gray matter: unmyelinated, cell bodies & dendrites,
synapses PNS = nerves, ganglia & nerve plexuses
sensory and motor neurons

~10% of all neurons in body are in PNS

PNS is our link to the outside world

without it CNS us useless

sensory deprivation ! hallucinations

some terminology:

CNS PNS
bundles of axons tract nerve
cell bodies, dendrites, nuclei ganglia
synapses

Nerves

each nerve is an organ composed mainly of

nervous tissue (neurons and neuroglia) and
fibrous connective tissue with rich supply of blood
vessels
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arranged in pattern similar to that of muscle organs: examples of PNS ganglia:

endoneurium !around each individual neuron Nerve Plexuses

perineurium !around bundles of neurons (=fascicles)
weblike interconnected fibers from several
epineurium !around entire nerve different nerves

2 kinds of neurons can be found in nerves:

sensory (afferent) neurons

~2-3M; 6-8x’s more sensory than motor fibers

motor (efferent) neurons

~350,000 efferent fibers

Nerves can be classified according to the kinds of

neurons they contain:

a. sensory nerves – contain mainly/only sensory

neurons

b. motor nerves – contain mainly /only

different kinds of motor neurons
(somatic or autonomic)

c. mixed nerves – contain a combination of both

Ganglia

= groups of cell bodies and sometimes

dendrites and synapses associated with nerves
of PNS
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Cranial Nerves XII. Hypoglossal [tongue]

V. Trigeminal [cutaneous senses of head and face,
chewing muscles]
PNS consists of 43 pairs of nerves branching from the VII. Facial [sense of taste, facial expression]
brain & spinal cord: X. Vagus [sensory and motor to larynx, heart,
lungs, digestive system]
XI. Accessory [shoulder and head]
12 pairs of cranial nerves
31 pairs of spinal nerves severe head injury often damages one or more cranial nerves

most cranial nerves originate from the brainstem Spinal Nerves

which contains most of the automatic (vegetative)
functions of the body 31 pairs

some cranial nerves are sensory nerves, some are all are mixed nerves
motor and some are mixed nerves
all but 1st pass through intervertebral foramina
a. sensory cranial nerves
they are named and numbered according to the level
I. Olfactory [sense of smell] of the vertebral column from which they arise:
II. Optic [sense of sight] 8 cervical
VIII. Vestibulocochlear [senses of hearing and balance] 12 thoracic
has a few motor fibers 5 lumbar
-injury causes deafness 5 sacral
1 coccygeal
b. motor cranial nerves
each spinal nerve is attached to spinal cord by two
III. Oculomotor
IV. Trochlear [eye movements]
roots:
VI. Abducens
-injury to VI causes eye to turn inward dorsal (posterior) root ! sensory neurons and a
ganglion
c. mixed cranial nerves
–contain a large number of both sensory and motor ventral (anterior) root ! motor neurons
neurons
the two roots joint to form a mixed, spinal nerve
IX. Glossopharyngeal [sense of taste, swallowing]
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 emerging nerves include:
Dermatomes
axillary (C5,C6) ! to deltoid
sensory neurons of each spinal nerve innervate the radial (C5-C8,T1) ! triceps and forearm extensors
skin and skeletal muscles in the roughly same median (C5-C8,T1) ! flexor muscles of forearm and
hand
order in which they emerge from the spinal cord ulnar (C8,T1) ! wrist and hand muscles

! segmental arrangement of spinal nerves this plexus is sometimes stretched or torn at birth
leading to paralysis and numbness of baby’s arm
this is clinically useful since physicians can determine if untreated may produce “withered arm”
the site of spinal damage by simple pinprick exam prolonged use of crutch may injure this plexus
= crutch palsy
Spinal Nerve Plexuses
[most thoracic spinal nerves (2-12) do not form a
after the spinal nerves exit the intervertebral foramina plexus]
they branch and interconnect to form plexuses
Lumbar Plexus
from these plexuses new nerves emerge that contain formed from fibers in L1 to L4
a mixture of fibers from various spinal nerves
innervates abdominal wall, genitals, parts of leg
Cervical Plexus
emerging nerves include:
formed from C1 – C4,5
femoral nerve (L2-L4) ! thigh and leg muscles
supplies sensory and motor neurons to head, neck
and upper shoulders
Sacral Plexus
formed from fibers in L4 & 5, S1 to S4
emerging nerves include:

phrenic nerve (C3-C5) ! diaphragm supplies nerves to buttocks, perineum, leg

Brachial Plexus emerging nerves include:

formed from fibers in C5 to C8, & T1
sciatic nerve (L4,L5, S1-S3) ! leg muscles; largest nerve in
body
innervates shoulders and upper limbs
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sciatica
sharp pain that travels from gluteal region along
Autonomic Nervous System
posterior side of leg to ankle
90% of cases result from herniated discs or the PNS is made up of sensory and motor neurons
osteoarthritis of lower spine
can also be caused by infections, pelvic fractures,
spinal stenosis there are two different kinds of motor neurons:
also sitting on wallet, or edge of hard chair too long
about half the time the pain resolves somatic motor neurons - innervate skeletal
spontaneously in about a month
(voluntary) muscles

autonomic motor neurons – innervate smooth

and cardiac (involuntary) muscles and glands

Somatic Autonomic
voluntary effectors: involuntary effectors:
striated muscles smooth & cardiac muscles,
glands

somatic reflexes visceral reflexes

single motor neuron usually 2 neurons with synapse

from spinal cord (ganglion) between from
to target organ spinal cord to target organ
presynaptic vs postsynaptic

NT always stimulatory NT stimulatory or inhibitory

ACh released at synapse ACh or NE released at synapses

No firing at rest Baseline firing – speeds up when

stimulated

effector at rest is flaccid effector at rest has intrinsic tone

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finally, there are two major kinds of autonomic motor
neurons: and some sacral spinal nerves

sympathetic (sympathetic branch) ganglia are usually near organs they innervate

parasympathetic (parasympathetic branch) no chain ganglia, not all interconnected

Structure of the Sympathetic Branch all synapses of parasympathetic fibers secrete

ACh as the neurotransmitter
formed mainly by neurons from thoracic spinal
nerves Function of the Sympathetic Branch

sympathetic neurons branch from spinal nerves as acts as an emergency system

they exit intervertebral foramina and form emergency or stress that threatens
interconnected ganglia (= chain ganglia) on homeostasis
each side of vertebral column “fight or flight”

sympathetic fibers are all interconnected adapts body for intense physical activities:
increases alertness, blood pressure, air flow,
synapses of sympathetic fibers rely mainly on 2 blood sugar concentrations, blood flow to
neurotransmitters: heart and skeletal muscles

ACh is secreted from preganglionic fibers acts as a unit = mass activation

(inside chain ganglia)
more diffuse, body-wide response involving
NE is secreted from most post ganglionic hormones
fibers (at organ innervated)
!effects are longer lasting
Structure of the Parasympathetic Branch
Studies show that animals cannot live in nature without a
functioning sympathetic NS

formed by neurons from a few cranial nerves

mainly the vagus nerve
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Function of the Parasympathetic Branch

normally, both systems are active; it is the ratio
most active in non-stressful, non-emergency between the firing rate of sympathetic and
situations parasympathetic fibers that determines the
function of most organs
“resting and digesting”
eg. heart
tends to have a calming effect on body: > sym stimulation ! faster
> parasym stimulation ! slower
reduced energy expenditure and
normal body maintenance
eg. digestive tract
> sym stimulaton ! inhibits
organs are individually activated > parasym stimulation ! promotes
no mass activation
eg. respiratory system
ACh is quickly produced and quickly destroyed > sym stimulation ! dilation (inhibition) of
! short lived, localized effects air passages
> parasym stimulation ! constriction

promotes normal daily activities:

GI tract works to process food
> glandular secretions
> peristalsis

blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rates

maintained at low levels

Interactions between two branches of ANS

the body doesn’t alternate between only sympathetic

or parasympathetic activity

most visceral organs receive dual innervation of both

branches of ANS
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 Neurophysiology
! more + inside; more – outside
Membrane Potential
this reversal of charge is called an
there are small differences in electrical charge action potential
between inside and outside of cell membranes
-++++++++++
more – ions on inside; more + ions on the + - - - - - - - - - -
outside of cell membranes + - - - - - - - - - -
-++++++++++
+ + + + + + + + + + +_
- - - - - - - - - - - - once an action potential is produced it causes the
- - - - - - - - - - - - areal of the membrane immediately adjacent to
+ + + ++++++++ the action potential to do the same thing

this differences in charge = membrane potential this in turn triggers the next area and so on
potential difference is stored energy (like a battery)
! the action potential moves down the neuron
it is measured as voltage (like batteries)
as new area is depolarizing, original area is
resting cells (all cells in body) have a membrane potential that
averages ~ 0.1 volts/cell
repolarizing and returning to resting potential

only nerve and muscle cells can use this stored energy ! at any one time action potential occurs at only
to do something one small area of axon

= resting potential + + + + + - + + + + +_
- - - - - + - - - - - -
if the nerve cell (or muscle cell) is stimulated in some - - - - - + - - - - - -
way it causes + ions to rush into the cell + + + ++-+++++

briefly reverses the resting potential =nerve impulse: a self propagating wave of action
potentials moving down an axon
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all block nerve impulses by reducing membrane

Characteristics of a Nerve Impulse permeability to ions, mainly Na+

1. nerve impulse is all-or-none (like AP) ! No Na+ ! no action potential

above threshold – fires
below threshold – doesn’t fire d. Cold Temperature

2. does not decrease in strength as AP moves along interrupts blood flow

axon block delivery of oxygen and glucose to neurons

3. a stronger stimulus increases frequency of impairs their ability to conduct impulses

cold ! numb
nerve impulse
e. Continuous Pressure
not the size of the nerve impulse
interrupts blood flow as well

4. just as with motor end plates, a number of physical eg. foot goes to sleep
and chemical substances can affect the generation ! when relieved impulses begin
of a nerve impulse ! create prickly feeling

a. Calcium ions

low Ca++ ! repeated transmission of AP

! muscle spasms

eg. decrease of Ca++ in blood of pregnant women

sometimes produces spasms

eg. spasms can also be produced by diarrhea, vit D

deficiency, etc.

b. Caffeine

lowers threashold of nerve impulse

!causes neuron to fire more easily

c. Alcohol, sedatives, anesthetics

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 Reflexes very few complete neural circuits are simple reflexes

reflexes are the most basic functions of the nervous most are more complex reflexes with numerous
system interconnections to many parts of the brain

reflex = a rapid, automatic, predictable motor

response to a stimulus
unlearned
unplanned
involuntary

! “hard wired” into our neural anatomy

many of the body’s control systems occur at this most

basic functional level of neural activity
! reflexes

the simplest reflexes are the result of a circuit called

the reflex arc

= simplest functional unit in nervous system

(just as the motor unit is the simplest functional part of the
muscular system)

components of a reflex arc:

receptor
sensory neuron
integration center (CNS)
motor neuron
effector

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Higher Brain Functions also, cant be all reflex

what we consider some of our most human traits Language involves up to 6 or 7 areas in cerebral
result from much more elaborate interconnections cortex:
of neurons and synapses
1. Broca’s speech area (frontal lobe)
motor aspects of speech and language
involve complex processing active when speaking
or when moving tongue and hands
some examples of higher cerebral integration and muscular coordination for speech
damage: aphasia
processing: slow and poorly articulated speech
loose ability to speak fluently and grammatically
1. Language and Speech and to express ideas in writing
comprehension not affected

language is closely associated with distinctly human

2. Wernicke’s Area (temporal lobe)
brain functions comprehension of written and spoken word
active in children while reading
seems to be an innate process and in adults reading unfamiliar words
speech integration
impulses from visual and auditory assoc
!world’s languages are all governed by the same connects to Broca’s area
universal grammar damage: aphasia
rapid, fluid speech
no information content– “word salad”
! all infants are born with the ability to learn all no comprehension of spoken or written language
human languages
in right handed people these centers are found in left
hemisphere
however this ability diminishes with age
most left handed people have them in right hemisphere
integrated with memory and consciousness
3. neurons in Left frontal and midfrontal cortex
it can’t be all under conscious control since it happens responsible for semantics
so quickly word associations
symbolic processing
[originally thought this occurred in Werneke’s area]
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 also Wernicke’s area is reduced in size in dyslexics
4. Left Frontal Cortex
essential for enunciating verbs 2. Consciousness

5. Left temporal cortex What exactly is consciousness?

“whips out” nouns

little is actually known but some generalizations:

6. Occipital Lobe
color concepts and associations
1. involves simultaneous activity of large areas of
Disorders of Speech: cerebral cortex
! localized damage of specific region does not
Stuttering destroy consciousness but does alter it
affect 1% of adults
has been known from earliest history 2. is superimposed onto other types of neural
2002 research – found fibers in a speech motor control area on
left side of brain were 30% less tightly packed than in
activity
nonstutterers
another study found that the Wernicks and Brocas areas near 3. is totally interconnected
these fibers are also different between stutterers and
nonstutterers
there are many levels of consciousness; awake &
Dyslexia aware, sleep, coma, drug “trip”, locked-in state,
individuals have difficulty associating letters with etc
corresponding sounds and distinguishing
letters that are similar in form Awareness

may also read words backwards one of the simplest forms of consciousness is
awareness (=perception):
of surroundings
est 10-15% of population in US is affected of sensations
of relationships to those stimuli
more common in boys and left handers
! might involve deficit in development of not the same thing as sensation
dominance by left hemisphere ! sensation = sensory stimuli
! perception = conscious interpretation of
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stimuli and respond to them appropriately with

emotion
consciousness is often defined as “self” awareness (?the man who mistook his wife for a hat?)

what is self? or self identity eg Neglect patients

! requires interactions of numerous specific esp if Rt parietal lobe is damaged
brain areas
The right hemisphere has broad “sphere of
Role of Vision in Consciousness interest” encompasses both left and right
visual fields
one of most important senses that gives us
information about our surroundings and If right is damaged
interactions with it is vision ! temporary neglect of left side of body
doesn’t pay attention to left side of
! ~1/2 of all sensory neurons in body are in space or anything in it
optic nerve
eg. draw 1/2 of a picture
visual stimuli that reach brain are first mapped (left doesn’t exist)
into visual cortex eg. eat from only rt side of plate
visual imprint of retinal image: -one patient “knew something wasn’t right”
-rolled wheelchair in huge circle (clockwise)
from there it goes to ~30 areas in cortex for higher till she could “see” the left side of the
plate in her right field of view
level processing -never occurred to her that she could just
turn left
information from primary visual cortex is then -left didn’t exist
relayed through 2 pathways:
!also show “mirror confusion”
try to reach through mirror for objects
! How Pathway to parietal lobe
to discern spatial layout of outside world
! also may have difficulty reading maps
allows you to reach out for objects, know where you are or finding their way around the house
! What Pathway to temporal lobe
to recognize and name individual objects
is not blindness but indifference
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 receives sensation, lacks correct (not just vision)
perception of what they indicate
some experience “synesthesia”
visual awareness (perception) is not just the image
! hallucinatory welding of senses:
imprinted on retina
2 or more sensations are comingled
it’s a neural image formed in cortex
1 person in 2000 is a synesthete;
but may be even more common 1 in 300
that neural image is not a completely accurate
representation of what is going on in the more common in women: 6 women to 1 male
world
seems to run in families: genetic component
brain can “fill in” (eg. blindspot) by
extrapolation sensory impulses are not sent to appropriate sensory
eg. blind spot is filled in
eg. Necker cube areas of cortex
eg. faces/vase
eg. a musical note may taste like pickles
eg. a guitar chord may be felt as a brushing sensation on ankle
eg. the taste of chicken may feel “round”
some have larger areas of “blindness” due to eg. a boyfriends kiss was seen as “orange sherbert foam”
damage and fill in with hallucinations: eg. see brilliant blue after eating salty pretzel
! no reaffirming information to eg. specific letters or number ! associated with specific colors
eg. feel pain in colors
“squash” hallucinations
these perceptions are consistent over time for one
! sometimes patient “knows” they are person
hallucinating – but can’t get rid of
them but not necessarily the same for other synesthetes
eg. monkeys in lab
eg. cartoon characters
Is there a consciousness “center” in the brain?
Synesthesia
does consciousness arise from specialized brain
all of our senses contribute to consciousness circuits?
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! brain lesions that produce the most profound then thins again in adolescence
disturbances in consciousness are due to !2x’s # synapses in certain areas of child’s brain
“temporal lobe seizures” vs adolescent brain

temporal lobe is associated with auditory b. angular gyri in cerebral hemispheres is important
hallucinations, out of body experiences,
“religious” experiences eg. we know damage to angular gyrus in left
hemisphere can leave “intelligent” people unable to do
simple subtraction (eg. 100-7)
! epileptic seizures sometimes produce profound
experiences eg. we know damage to angular gyrus in right
hemisphere leads to disruption of artistic skills
! feelings of absolute omnipotence & omniscience
c. specific circuits are used for specific functions
! insights into “cosmic truths”

3. Intelligence Savants are mentally retarded yet some can:

! replay any music when heard once
! state exact time of day with no clock in sight
what is anatomical/physiological basis for intelligence? ! exact counts of numerous objects
! brain mass? eg “rainman”
! can tell you in span of 40,000 years, the day of the week
! # neurons in brain?, in cerebrum? any date you choose fell on
! # synapses?
*Jeremy can stand at the side of the railroad tracks and give you the
cumulative total of the serial numbers on the boxcars
where is it centered?
!is our intelligence part of our cortex? *George can tell you all the years in which your birthday fell on a
Thursday

* George can also tell you within a span of 40,000 years backward or
What we know: foreward, the day of the week on which any date you choose fell or will
fall

*Leslie, upon hearing Tchaikovskys Piano Concerto No 1 on the piano

a. intelligence may have more to do with when and for the first time can play it back flawlessly and without hesitation

how the brain grows than with its overall size *Ellen constructs complicated chords to accompany music of any type
she hears on radio or TV. She can sing back the entire soundtrack of
the musical Evita after one hearing while transposing orchestra and
!the brain regresses as it matures chorus to the piano

*Kenneth can give the population of every city and town in the US with
a population over 5,000; the names, number of rooms and locations of
eg. the cerebral cortex thickens in childhood, peaks and 2,000 leading hotels in the US; the distance from each city and town to
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 the largest city in its state; and the dates and essential facts of over
2,000 inventions cavities filled 95% of skull
*Jedediah can answer the question: “in a body whose three sides are
! ~ half had IQ’s > 100 (normal IQ=90-110)
23,145,789 yards, 5,642,732 yards and 54, 965 yds, how many cubicle
1/8th ‘s of an inch exist” after 5 hours of computation he has the eg. Hydrocephalic boy = honor student
correct 28 digit figure and asks “do you want it backwards or
forewards” had <20% of normal cerebral cortex
(his 1 mm (1/32”); normal = 4.5 cm (1.75”))
*David can be given the number of the bus and time of day, and tell
you on what corner you are standing in milwaukee
normal IQ = 90-110; his = 126

most savants are not truly “creative”

rote, not interpretive

some now believe that we all have these skills but

they only show up when higher order cognition
is shut down

d. there is lots of redundancy and plasticity in the

brain in terms of intelligence
John Lorber asks:
“Is your brain really necessary?”

most of brains higher functions are mediated by

cortex
!we view the cerebrum as what makes us
human

he studies hydrocephalic patients

! extremely large cavities in brain, brain mass, including
cerebral cortex is greatly reduced

many hydrocephalics suffer intellectual and

physical retardation

but of ~60 whose brain scans showed water

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Aging Central Nervous System Disorders of the

Nervous System
reaches peak development ~30
Multiple Sclerosis
by age 75 average brain weighs slightly half its 30 yr autoimmune disease possibly triggered by a virus in genetically
weight susceptible individuals
oligodendrocytes and myelin sheaths of CNS deteriorate and are
replaced by hardened scar tissue
gyri are narrower
occur esp between 20-40 yrs of age
sulci are wider
nerve fibers are severed
cortex is thinner
& myelin sheaths in CNS are gradually destroyed
more space between brain and meninges
! short circuits; loss of impulse conduction

neurons show signs of slower metabolism, accumulate affects mostly young adults
neurofibrillary tangles and lipofuscin pigment common symptoms:
visual problems
muscle weakness
less efficient signal conduction and transmission clumsiness
eventual paralysis
myelin sheath degenerates
Tay-Sachs Disease
fewer synapses hereditary disorder seen mainly in infants of Eastern European
Jewish ancestory
abnormal accumulation of a certain glycolipid (GM2)in myelin
less NT produced, fewer receptor proteins sheath
as it accumulates it disrupts conduction of signals
language skills and long term memory hold up better results in blindness, loss of coordination ,dementia
symptoms appear before 1 yr of age, death by 3 or 4
than motor coordination, intellectual function and
short term memory
migraine headaches:
often debilitating and excruciating headaches
10-12% of US !28M in US suffer;
~70% are women
92 M workdays lost/yr; $11 B/yr (AAS 97)
2 kinds:
Classic (with aura)
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 some or all of symptoms:
seeing zigzagging lines Parkinsons Disease
tingling or numbness in face, arm, leg progressive loss of motor function
seeing blind spots and tunnel vision begins in 50’s or 60’s
Common (without aura) can be hereditary
pain on one or both sides of head due to degeneration of dopamine releasing neurons in substantia
nausea nigra (inhibitory neurons)
sometimes vomiting leads to hyperactivity of basal nuclei and involuntary muscle
sensitivity to light, smell or noise contractions
throbbing, intense pain results in shaking hands, facial muscles become rigid, range of
may be due to: motion decreases
a. fluctuations in levels of serotonin develops smaller steps, slow shuffling gait with forward bent
posture and a tendency to fall forward
imitrex increases serotonin levels to stop speech becomes slurred, handwriting illegible
headache
b. excessive levels of dopamine
c. may be a genetic component

Tourette’s Syndrome
recurrent involuntary muscle contractions = tics
eg. eyeblinking, nose twitching, facial grimacing, head
shaking, shoulder shrugging
usually begins in childhood between ages of 2 – 15
worldwide, all races; males more than females
may affect 1 in 2000, worldwide; US ~100,000 affected
may be due to chemical abnormality in basal ganglia
one type of tourette’s in inherited

Alzheimers Disease
affect 11% in us over 65; 47% by 85
~half of all nursing home admissions
leading cause of death among elderly
AD may begin before 50 with very mild, undiagnosed symptoms
one of 1st symptoms is memory loss, esp of recent events
progresses with reduced attention span, disorientation, moody,
confused, paranoid, combative or hallucinatory
may lose ability to read, write, talk, walk, and eat
death usually from pneumonia or other complications of
confinement and immobility
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