CHAPTER-02

ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

2.1. Complex Functions and related Definitions

2.1.1. Complex Variables
Definition: If a symbol z stands for any one of a set of complex numbers, then z is
called a complex variable and is written as z  x  iy  ( x, y ) , where x and y are real
variables.

2.1.2. Complex Functions

Definition: Let S       . A rule f which assigns to each z  S a complex variable
w   is called a complex function and is written as f : S   . The complex variable w
is called the value of f at z or the image of z under f and is denoted by
w  f ( z )  u ( x, y )  iv( x, y ) , where u ( x, y ) and v( x, y ) are real-valued functions of real
variables x and y.

Here z is called the independent variable and w is called the dependent variable.

The set S is called the domain of f : S   and  is the codomain of f.

The set of all values of f is called the range of f : S   and is denoted by

Range  f   Im  f   f ( S )   .

Note: For graphical representation of f, it is customary to locate the points z  ( x, y ) in

the z plane and w  (u, v) in the w plane separately.

Example-2.1. w  f ( z )  z 2 is a complex function.

2.1.3. Real and Imaginary Parts of a Complex Function

Definition: If w  f ( z )  u ( x, y )  iv( x, y ) where z  x  iy , then u ( x, y ) and v( x, y ) are
respectively called the real and imaginary parts of the complex function w  f ( z ) .

Example-2.2. w  f ( z )  z 2  ( x  iy ) 2   x 2  y 2   i 2 xy  u ( x, y )  iv( x, y ) .

Here u ( x, y )  x 2  y 2 and v( x, y )  2 xy are respectively called the real and imaginary parts
of w  f ( z )  z 2 .

2.1.4. Single-valued and Many-valued (Multiple-valued) Functions

2.1.4-1. Single-valued Functions

Definition: A complex function w is said to be a single-valued function of z if it takes

only one value for each value of z.
2.1.4-2. Many-valued (Multiple-valued) Functions

Definition: A complex function w is said to be a many-valued or multiple-valued

function of z if it takes more than one value for each value of z.

Example-2.3. w  f ( z )  z 2 is a single-valued and w  f ( z )  z1/3 is a multiple-valued

function.

2.1.6. Limit of a Complex Function

Definition: A function w  f ( z ) is said to tend to limit l as z tends to z0 along any path

in a defined region and we write lim f ( z )  l if for any positive number  (however
z  z0
small) there exists a positive number  (depending on  ) such that f ( z )  l  
whenever 0 < z  z0   .

i.e.  a deleted neighbourhood of the point z  z0 in which f ( z )  l can be made as

small as we please.

Example-2.3.1. Evaluate each of the following using theorems on limits:

(2 z  3)( z  1) z3  8
(i) zlim ( z 2  5 z  10) (ii) zlim (iii) lim
1 i 2 i z2  2z  4 z  2 e i /3 z 4  4 z 2  16

Solution:
2.1.7. Continuity

Definition-1: A function w  f ( z ) is said to be continuous at a point z0 if

(i) f ( z0 ) is defined, (ii) lim f ( z ) exists, (iii) lim f ( z )  f ( z0 ) .

z  z0 z  z0

Definition-2:  - or ( ,  ) definition.

A function w  f ( z ) is said to be continuous at the point z0 if for given   0 , there

exists a number   0 (depending on  and z0 ) such that

f ( z )  f ( z0 )   whenever z  z0   .

Note: Some Authors use  - or ( ,  ) in place of  - or ( ,  ) .

2.1.7-1. Continuous Functions

Definition: A function w  f ( z ) defined in a certain domain D is said to be a
continuous function on D, if it is continuous at each point of its domain D.
2.1.8. Discontinuity
Definition: If a function f ( z ) is not continuous at a point z0 in its domain in the z
plane, then f ( z ) is said to be discontinuous at z0 and z0 is called a point of
discontinuity of f ( z ) .

2.1.8-1. Removable or Removal Discontinuity

Definition: If lim f ( z ) exists but lim f ( z )  f  z0  , then f ( z ) is said to have a
z  z0 z  z0
removable or removal discontinuity at z  z0 because f ( z ) can be made continuous by
redefining f  z0  so that lim f ( z )  f  z0  .
z  z0

2.1.9. Uniform Continuity

Definition: A function w  f ( z ) is said to be uniformly continuous in a region  if for

given   0 , it is possible to find a number   0 (depending on  only) such that
f ( z1 )  f ( z2 )   holds for every pair of points z1 , z2 of the region  for which z1  z2   .

2.1.10. Differentiability

Definition-1: Let w  f ( z ) be a complex function defined at all points in some

neighbourhood of a point z0 . The derivative or differential coefficient of f ( z ) at z0 is
written as f   z0  and is defined by

f  z  f  z0 
f   z0   lim z  z0 …(1)
z  z0
provided that the limit exists.

f is said to be differentiable at z0 when its derivative at z0 exists.

The process of evaluating f   z0  is called differentiation or derivation.

2.2. Analytic (or Regular or Holomorphic) Functions

2.2.1. Analytic at a Point

Definition: A function f ( z ) is said to be analytic at a point z0 if  a neighbourhood

z  z0   at all points of which f ( z ) exists.

Note: Regular and Holomorphic are synonymous with Analytic.

2.2.2. Analytic in a Region or Domain

Definition: A function f ( z ) is said to be analytic in a region  if the derivative f ( z )
exists at all points z of  and is referred to as an analytic function in  or a function
analytic in  .

2.2.3. Singular Points or Singularity of a Complex Function

Definition: If a function f ( z ) fails to be analytic at a point z0 but is analytic at some
point in every neighbourhood of z0 , then z0 is called a singular point or singularity of
f ( z) .

Example-2.4. Let f ( z ) = 1z . Then f ( z ) is analytic except at z  0 .

So z  0 (i.e. the origin) is a singular point of f ( z ) = 1z .

2.2.4. Entire (Integral) Functions

Definition: A function f ( z ) is said to be entire or integral function if it is analytic

everywhere in the finite Argand plane or complex plane i.e. f ( z ) is analytic everywhere
except at the point at infinity.

Example-2.5. f ( z ) = z 2 is analytic everywhere in the finite z plane and so it is an entire

function.

2.3. Harmonic Functions

Definition: Any real-valued function H of two variables x and y having continuous

partial derivatives of first and second order in a region  and also satisfying Laplace’s
equation  H2   H2  0 , i.e.  2 H  0 is called a harmonic function.
2 2
x y
Example-2.6. u  x3  3xy 2  3x 2  3 y 2  1 is a harmonic function because

u u
 3x 2  3 y 2  6 x and  6 xy  6 y
x y

 2u  2u
  6x  6 and  6 x  6
x 2 y 2

 2u  2u
   6 x  6  6 x  6  0 which shows that u satisfies the Laplace’s equation.
x 2 y 2
Hence u is a harmonic function.

2.3.1. Harmonic Conjugate Function

Definition: If f ( z )  u  iv is a analytic function, then v (imaginary part) is called the
harmonic conjugate of u (real part).

2.7. Theorems on Analytic Functions

2.7.1. Cauchy-Riemann Partial Differential Equations
Theorem-2.6. Necessary condition for f ( z ) to be analytic.

Statement: The necessary condition for w  f ( z )  u ( x, y )  iv( x, y ) to be analytic at any

point z  x  iy in a region  is that the four partial derivatives u x , u y , vx , v y should exist
in  and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann partial differential equations

u x  v y and u y  vx i.e. u  v and u   v in  .

x y y x

Proof: Try yourself.

Theorem-2.7. Sufficient condition for f ( z ) to be analytic.

Statement: The sufficient condition for w  f ( z )  u ( x, y )  iv( x, y ) to be analytic in a

region  is that (i) the four partial derivatives u x , u y , vx , v y exist in  (ii) are continuous
in  (iii) satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations u x  v y and u y  vx in  .

Proof: Try yourself.

2.8. Construction of an Analytic Function

Let f ( z )  u  iv be an analytic function. Then u and v are the harmonic conjugates.
Since f ( z )  u  iv is analytic, so so u and v must be satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann
equations

u  v and u   v . ...(1)
x y y x

If either u ( x, y ) or v( x, y ) is known, then the other part and f ( z ) can be determined by

using the following methods:
2.8.1. Method-1: Direct Method
Case-I: When u ( x, y ) is given :

Step-1: We will find v by using Cauchy-Riemann equation v  u .

y y x

Step-2: Integrating v w.r.t. y, treating x as a constant

y

v( x, y ) =  u dy   ( x) ...(2)
x

where  ( x) is a function of x only.

Step-3: Now differentiating (2) partially w.r.t. x , we have

v  d u dy   ( x)
x dx  x

  u  d  u dy   ( x) [by C-R equation in (1)]

y dx x

 u   d u dy   ( x) . ...(3)
y dx  x

Step-4: Putting the values of u and u in (3) and simplifying, we get  ( x) as a

y x
function of x only. Integrating it we get  ( x) .

Step-5: Putting the value of  ( x) in (2), the required conjugate function will be
obtained.

Case-II: When v( x, y ) is given:

Step-1: We will find u by using Cauchy-Riemann equation u  v .

x x y

Step-2: Integrating u w.r.t. x, treating y as a constant

x

u ( x, y ) =  v dx   ( y ) ...(2)
y

where  ( y ) is a function of y only.

Step-3: Now differentiating (2) partially w.r.t. y, we have

u  d v dx   ( y )
y dy  y

  v  d  v dx   ( y ) [by C-R equation in (1)]

x dy y
 v   d v dx   ( y ) . ...(3)
x dy  y

Step-4: Putting the values of v and v in (3) and simplifying, we get  ( y ) as a

x y
function of y only. Integrating it we get  ( y ) .

Step-5: Putting the value of  ( y ) in (2) the required conjugate function will be
obtained.

Example-2.8. If u ( x, y )  y 3  3x 2 y is a harmonic function then find the harmonic

conjugate function and corresponding analytic function.

Solution: Given that u ( x, y )  y 3  3x 2 y . ...(1)

Let v( x, y ) be the harmonic conjugate of u ( x, y ) .

Now u x ( x, y )  6 xy [differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. x]

 v y ( x, y )  6 xy . [by Cauchy-Riemann equation u x  v y ]

Integrating v y ( x, y ) w.r.t. y treating x as constant, we have

y2
v( x, y )  6 x    ( x)  3xy 2   ( x) …(2)
2

 vx ( x, y )  3 y 2   ( x) [differentiating partially w.r.t. x]

 u y ( x, y )  3 y 2   ( x) [by C-R equation u y  vx ]

   3 y 2  3x 2   3 y 2   ( x) [using (1)]

  ( x)  3x 2 .

3
  ( x)  3  x3  c  x3  c . [integrating w.r.t. x]

Putting the value of  ( x) in (2) we get

v( x, y )  3xy 2  x3  c  x3  3 xy 2  c .

The corresponding analytic function is

f ( z )   y 3  3x 2 y   i  x3  3 xy 2  c 

 i  x3  3x 2 (iy )  3 x(iy )2  (iy )3   ic  i  x  iy   ic

3

 i  z3  c  . [ z  x  iy ]
Example-2.9. If f ( z )  u  iv represents the analytic complex potential for an electric
field and v  x 2  y 2  2 x 2 , determine u.
x y

Solution: Given v  x 2  y 2  x . Then

x2  y 2

v  2 x   x  y 1 x2 x  2 x  y 2  x2
2 2

x  x 2  y 2 2  x 2  y 2 2

v  2 y   x  y 0 x2 y  2 y  2 xy .
2 2
y  x 2  y 2 2  x 2  y 2 2

Since f ( z )  u  iv is analytic, so by Cauchy-Riemann equations , we get

u  v  2 y  x2  y 2
and u   v  2 x 
2 xy
. …(1)
x y y x
 x2  y 
2 2  x 2  y 2 2

Now integrating u w.r.t. x treating y as constant, we get

x

dx  y  2 2
u ( x, y )  2 y  dx  y  2 xdx 2  2 y  x  y 
x y 
2 2  x 2  y 2 2
2 1
 2 xy  y
 x2  y 2    ( y )  2 xy 
y
  ( y) ...(2)
21 x2  y 2

u  x2  y 2 1 y2 y  x2  y 2
  2 x    ( y )  2 x    ( y ) ...(3)
y  x2  y 2  2
 x 2  y 2 2

x2  y 2 x2  y 2
 2 x   2 x    ( y ) [using (1)]
 x2  y 22
 x 2  y 2 2
  ( y )  0 , i.e.  ( y )  c , a constant. …(4)

y
Hence u ( x, y )  2 xy  c. [by (2) and (4)]
x2  y 2

Now f ( z )  u  iv  2 xy 
y
x2  y 2 
 c  i x2  y 2  2 x 2 .
x y 
 1 ( y  ix)  c  i  x 2  i 2 xy  i 2 y 2 
x2  y 2

i(iy  x)
 c  i  x  iy   xi iy  c  i  x  iy 
2 2

( x iy )( xiy )


 zi  c  iz 2  i z 2  1z  c . 
Problem-2.41 Show that function u  x 2  y 2  2 xy  2 x  3 y is harmonic and find the
harmonic conjugate v. Also find f ( z )  u  iv if f ( z ) is analytic.

Solution Given u  x 2  y 2  2 xy  2 x  3 y . Then we have

u  2 x  2 y  2 and u  2 y  2 x  3 …(1)
x y

 2u  2 and  2u  2 . …(2)
x 2 y 2

  u2   u2  2  2  0
2 2
x y

 u satisfies Laplace’s equation. Thus u is harmonic.

Method-1 (Direct method) : We have by Cauchy-Riemann equations

v  u  2 x  2 y  2 and  v  u  2 y  2 x  3 . …(3)
y x x y

 v    2 x  2 y  2  dy [integrating w.r.t. y keeping x as constant]

y2
 v  2 xy  2  2  2 y  F ( x) , F ( x) is an arbitrary real function of x

 v  2 xy  y 2  2 y  F ( x) …(4)

 v  2 y  F ( x)
x

 2 y  2 x  3  2 y  F ( x) [by (3)]

 F ( x)  2 x  3

 F ( x)    2 x  3dx [integrating]

2
 2  x2  3x  c  x 2  3x  c ...(5)

Using (4) and (5), we get

v  2 xy  y 2  2 y  x 2  3x  c  x 2  y 2  2 xy  3x  2 y  c .

Method-3 (Exact Differential Equation method):

v  v( x, y )  dv  v dx  v dy   u dx  u dy [by C-R equations]

x y y x

 dv   2 y  2 x  3 dx  (2 x  2 y  2)dy …(10)

 Mdx  Ndy , where M  2 y  2 x  3 and N  2 x  2 y  2 .

Now M  2 and N  2  M  N .
y x y x

 (10) is an exact differential equation.

Integrating (10), we get

v   Mdx   ( x-free terms of N ) dy  a constant

y -constant

   2 y  2 x  3 dx   (2 y  2)dy  c
y -constant

2 y2
 v  2 yx  2  x  3x  2   2y  c
2 2

 x 2  y 2  2 xy  3 x  2 y  c .

Last Part for Method-1 and Method-3:

To find f ( z ) from given function u & its harmonic conjugate v :

f ( z )  u  iv  x 2  y 2  2 xy  2 x  3 y  i  x 2  y 2  2 xy  3x  2 y  c 

 x 2  i 2 y 2  2ixy  i  x 2  i 2 y 2  2ixy   2( x  iy )  3i( x  iy )  ic

 f ( z )  ( x  iy )2  i  x  iy   2( x  iy )  3i ( x  iy )  ic
2

 (1  i ) z 2  2 z  3iz  ic , where z  x  iy .

Problem-2.42 Prove that the function u  3x 2 y  2 x 2  y 3  2 y 2 is harmonic. Find its

harmonic conjugate v and express u  iv as an analytic function of z.

Solution Given u  3x 2 y  2 x 2  y 3  2 y 2 . …(1)

u  6 xy  4 x and u  3x 2  3 y 2  4 y …(2)
x y

 2u  6 y  4 and  u2  6 y  4 .
2
…(3)
x 2 y

  2u   2u  6 y  4  6 y  4  0
x 2 y 2

 u satisfies Laplace’s equation. Thus u is harmonic.

Determination of the harmonic conjugate v of u and f ( z ) :

Method-1 (Direct method) : We have by Cauchy-Riemann equations

v  u  6 xy  4 x and  v  u  3x 2  3 y 2  4 y . …(4)
y x x y
 v    3x 2  3 y 2  4 y  dx [integrating w.r.t. x keeping y as constant]

3
 v  3  x3  3 y 2 x  4 yx  F ( y ) , F ( y ) is an arbitrary real function of y

 v   x3  3xy 2  4 xy  F ( y ) …(5)

 v  6 xy  4 x  F ( y )
y

 6 xy  4 x  6 xy  4 x  F ( y ) [by (4)]

 F ( y )  0

 F ( y )  c , a constant. [integrating]

Putting F ( y )  c in (5), we get

v   x3  3xy 2  4 xy  c . …(6)

Let f ( z )  u  iv , where z  x  iy . Then by (1) and (6), we get

f ( z )  u  iv  3x 2 y  2 x 2  y 3  2 y 2  i   x3  3xy 2  4 xy  c 

 f ( z )  2  x 2  y 2  2ixy    ix3  3x 2 y  3ixy 2  y3   ic

 2  x 2  i 2 y 2  2ixy   i  x3  3x 2iy  3xi 2 y 2  i3 y 3   ic

 2  x  iy   i  x  iy   ic
2 3

 f ( z )  u  iv  2 z 2  iz 3  ic , where z  x  iy .

Hence the harmonic conjugate of u is v   x3  3xy 2  4 xy  c

and the required analytic function is f ( z )  u  iv  iz 3  2 z 2  c1 .

Problem-2.43 Show that the function u  2 x  x3  3xy 2 is harmonic. Find its harmonic
conjugate v and express u  iv as an analytic function of z.

Solution Try Yourself.

Problem-2.44 Find the harmonic conjugate v of the function u   x3  3 xy 2  2 y  1 so

that u  iv is an analytic function of z.

Solution Try Yourself.

Problem-2.50 Show that u  e x ( x sin y  y cos y ) is a harmonic function and find a
function v such that f ( z )  u  iv is analytic.

Solution Try Yourself.

The End