Chapter 1

Nature of Mathematics

Our daily life is full of mathematics and it would not be an exaggeration to say that mathematics is
universal in nature. People around the world use math to do their daily tasks. It also helps us make
important decisions like which item to buy, choosing the most profitable investment plan, or deciding
which path to take to reach our destination or goal with the least possible amount of time and effort.
Mathematics also helps us in understanding patterns, and we live in a world of patterns. The natural
world, though diverse and complex, has the most interesting aspect and that is, it is made up of patterns.
These patterns are formed naturally from the forces that act in the natural world. At the most basic level
these patterns can often be described using mathematical principles. In a sense, mathematics helps us in
understanding the world, and through the world, we can understand and appreciate mathematics.
In this chapter, we will see Mathematics as a vital part of nature and the universe, how it contributes
to the many aspects of life such as it helps organize patterns and regularities of the world and in
predicting the behavior and nature of phenomena in the world.

1.1 Patterns and Numbers in Nature

Have you ever thought about how nature likes to arrange itself in patterns in order to act efficiently?
Nothing in nature happens without a reason, all of these patterns have an important reason to exist and
they also happen to be beautiful to watch. In his book, Nature's Numbers: The Unreal Reality of
Mathematics, Mathematician and author Ian Stewart said that “Mathematics is the science of patterns, and
nature exploits just about every pattern that there is.”
So what is a pattern? Pattern is a repeated design or recurring sequence. It is an ordered set of
numbers, shapes, or other mathematical objects, arranged according to a rule.
Observing the patterns around us will help us identify relationships and find logical connections to
form generalization and make predictions.

Example 1
What is the next figure in the pattern below?

Solution 1
We can observe from the figures that the number of sides of the regular polygon increases by one. So, it is
easy to see that the next figure in the pattern is a hexagon or a polygon with 6 sides. But notice that the
colors of the polygons seemed to also follow a pattern. These are the colors that we see in the rainbow and
these colors are red, orange, yellow, green, and so on. Thus, the next figure in the sequence must be a
green regular hexagon.

Seatwork 1

1
What is the next figure in the pattern below?
Solution for Seatwork 1

Example 2
What comes next in A, 2, C, 4, E, 6, ____ ?

Solution 2
Looking at the given pattern, every other letter of the English alphabet appears starting with A and even
numbers starting with 2 are placed in between these letters. Hence the answer is G.

Seatwork 2
What comes next in 23, 11, 27, 11, 31, 11, _____?

Solution for Seatwork 2

Patterns in Nature
Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world. These patterns recur in
different contexts and can sometimes be modeled mathematically. Natural patterns include symmetries,
trees, spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tessellations, cracks and stripes. Symmetry refers to a sense of
harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance. It can be defined as a structure that allows an object to
be divided into parts of an equal shape or size. There are two types of symmetry, line or bilateral
symmetry
(also called as reflective symmetry) and rotational symmetry.

In line or bilateral symmetry, an imaginary line can be drawn across an object and the resulting
parts are mirror images of each other. This is evident in most animals, including humans.

2
 Human beings, insects, and animals all show bilateral symmetry

In rotational symmetry, the object or image can be turned around a center point and match itself
some number of times. It means that if you rotate the object by several degrees, you can still achieve the
same appearance as the original position. The smallest angle that a figure can be rotated while still
preserving the original formation is called the angle of rotation. To compute for the angle of rotation, we
use the following formula:

Angle of rotation = ��������

��

Here �� refers to the order of rotational symmetry (��-fold rotational symmetry) of a figure,
that is, ��/�� of a complete turn will leave the figure unchanged.

A honeycomb is an evidence of 6-fold symmetry, a geometrical pattern evident in nature. The bees have
instinctively found a solution to problem known as
“Packing Problems” which involve finding the
optimum method of filling up space such as cubic or
spherical container. The honeycomb cells hold the most
amount of honey while using the least amount of wax,
Thousands of years ago, Roman Scholar Terrentius
Varro conjectured that the hexagon is the shape that most
efficiently breaks flat space up into little units but he
couldn’t prove this idea. It was only in 1999 that
mathematician Thomas Hales proved it.

Example 3
Find the angle of rotation of the shape used in each cell of the honeycomb.

3
Solution 3
The hexagonal shape of a honeycomb cell makes it a 6-fold symmetry. Hence the angle of rotation is
equal to ��������
��
��= ���� .
 Seatwork 3
Find the angle of rotation of the starfish.

Mathematics in the Modern World Name________________________________

 5
Problem Set 1.1
Date: _______________ Section_______________ Score_________

1. Determine what comes next in the given patterns.

a. B, D, F, H, J, L, ____
b. 21, 2, 23, 5, 28, 8, _____
c. 1B3, 4E6, 7H9, _____
d. 41, 36, 31, 26, _____
e. 11, 5, 16, 5, 21, 5, _____

2. What is the next figure in the pattern?

a.

b.
3. Find the angle of rotation of the figure to the
right.

4. Determine the order of rotational symmetry of a figure whose angle of rotation is ������. 5.

Aside from those already mentioned, give at least 3 patterns in nature that you can find around you.

6
1.2 The Fibonacci sequence

In this section, we consider one of the most beautiful ideas in the mathematical world that came out
during the medieval period. It was that 13th century Italian mathematician, named Leonardo of Pisa (better
known as Fibonacci), who discovered a sequence of numbers that reflect various patterns found in nature.
In 1202, after a trip that took him to several Arab and Eastern countries, Fibonacci wrote the book Liber
Abaci (Book of Calculation). This book contains a problem created by Fibonacci that concerns the birth
rate of the hypothetical population of rabbits based on idealized assumptions. Here is a statement of
Fibonacci’s rabbit problem.

At the beginning of a month, you are given a pair of newborn rabbits. After a month the rabbits have
produced no offspring; however, every month thereafter, the pair of rabbits produces another pair of
rabbits. The offspring reproduce in exactly the same manner. If none of the rabbits dies, how many
pairs of rabbits will there be at the start of each succeeding month?

The solution of this problem is a sequence of numbers that we now call the Fibonacci sequence.
The following figure shows the numbers of pairs of rabbits on the first day of each of the first five
months. The larger rabbits represent mature rabbits that produce another pair of rabbits each month. The
numbers in the second column—1, 1, 2, 3, 5—are the first five terms of the Fibonacci sequence.

Fibonacci observed that after each monthly generation, the number of pairs of rabbits increased from
1 to 2 to 3 to 5 to 8 to 13 to 21 and so on. That means that the number of pairs of rabbits for any month
after the first two months can be determined by adding the numbers of pairs of rabbits in each of the two
previous months. The table below shows the first 10 terms of the Fibonacci sequence.
7

�� 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

��� 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
�

Here �� and ���� denote the month and number of pairs of rabbits respectively. The
 mathematical notation ���� will also be used to represent the ��th Fibonacci number in our
definition below and in the succeeding examples and discussion.

Recursive Definition of the Fibonacci Number

���� = ��, ���� = ��, ���� = ����−�� + ����−�� for �� ≥ ��.

Example 1
Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find the 11th Fibonacci number.

Solution 1
Using the definition, we get ������ = ������ + ����. The table above give the value of ����
and ������ to be 34 and 55 respectively, hence, ������ = ���� + ���� = ����. Thus
the 11th Fibonacci number is 89.

Seatwork 1
Find the 24th Fibonacci number given that the 25th Fibonacci number is 75,025 and the 23rd Fibonacci
number is 28,657.

Solution for Seatwork 1

A Nonrecursive Formula for the nth Fibonacci number

We can find any term after the second term of the Fibonacci sequence by computing the sum of the
previous two terms. However, this procedure of adding the previous two terms can be tedious. For
instance, what is the 100th term of the Fibonacci sequence? To find the 100th term, we need to know the
98th and 99th terms. Many mathematicians tried to find a nonrecursive nth-term formula for the
Fibonacci sequence without success, until a formula was discovered by Jacques Binet in 1843. The
advantage of this formula over the recursive formula ���� = ����−�� + ����−�� is that you can
determine the nth Fibonacci number without finding the two preceding Fibonacci numbers.
�� Example 2 ��
Binet’s formula: ���� ]
− (��−√�� ��)
=��√��[(��+√�� ��)

Use Binet’s formula and a calculator to find the 30th Fibonacci number.

Solution 2

������ =��√��[(��+√�� = ������, − (��−√�� ��) ]

������
���� ����
��)

8
Seatwork 2
Find the 41st Fibonacci number using the Binet’s formula and a calculator.

Solution for Seatwork 2

Fibonacci Numbers in Nature
Fibonacci numbers appear in nature often enough to prove that they reflect some naturally occurring
patterns. You can commonly spot these by studying the way in which various plants grow. The sunflower
is an example. When we pay
attention to the arrangement of seeds in its
head, we
can notice that they form spirals. In certain
species,
there are 21 spirals in the clockwise
direction and 34
spirals in the counter clockwise direction. In
various
species, you can count some with 34 and 55,
or 55 and
89, or 89 and 144. The numbers 21, 34, 55,
89 and 144
are the eight to twelfth numbers in the
Fibonacci
sequence. This arrangement keeps the seeds uniformly
packed regardless of how large the seed is. It allows
the sunflower seeds to occupy the flower head in a way
that maximizes their access to light and necessary
nutrients.
The same natural phenomenon also occurs in the
number of petals that can be found in different flowers. If you count the number of petals on a flower,
you'll often find the total to be one of the numbers in the Fibonacci sequence. For example, lilies and
irises have three petals, buttercups and wild roses have five, delphiniums have eight petals and so on.
Fibonacci sequence can also be observed in cauliflower florets, spirals in pine cones, and the bands
winding around pineapples, and many other examples around us.
You can even observe Fibonacci sequence in the human body. Take a good look at yourself in the
mirror. You'll notice that most of your body parts follow the numbers one, two, three and five. You have
one nose, two eyes, three segments to each limb and five fingers on each hand.

The Golden Ratio

Also known as the divine proportion, golden mean, or golden section, the golden ratio is a special
number approximately equal to ��. ������������. It is often symbolized using �� (Phi),
after the 21st letter of the Greek alphabet. It can be found by dividing a line into two parts so that the
longer part, ��, divided by the smaller part, ��, is also equal to the whole length, �� + ��, divided
by the longer part, ��. That is,

��
��+��
��=

��= ��. ��������������������... .

This ratio, considered as the most aesthetically proportion, is visible in many works of art and
architecture such as in the Mona Lisa, The Notre Dame Cathedral, and the Parthenon. Geometrically the
golden ratio can be visualized as a rectangle perfectly formed by a square and another rectangle, which
can be repeated infinitely inside each section. Following are examples of designs in nature and in human
art and architecture that illustrates the relationship between the Fibonacci sequence and the golden ratio.

Golden rectangle with the golden spiral in the snail’s shell

The Parthenon is said to exhibit the application of the Golden Ratio

Interestingly, the golden ratio can also be observed in honeybees, sunflowers, and in the human
body. In honeybees, the ratio of female bees to the male bees in any given hive is approximately equal to
1.618. In sunflowers, the number of seeds in the opposing spirals of seeds has a 1.618 ratio between the
diameters of each rotation. In a human body, the ratio of the distance from your shoulder to your
fingertips to the length from your elbow to your fingertips is equal to the golden ratio. Also, the ratio of
the distance from your head to your feet, to the length from your belly button to your feet is equal to the
golden ratio.

10
The Fibonacci Sequence and the Golden Ratio

It is interesting to note that the ratios of successive Fibonacci numbers approach the Golden Ratio.
To see this, do the following exercise. For ease of computation, we will use the rounded value 1.618034
for the golden ratio.

Compute the ratio ����+��

����for �� = ��, ��, ��, … What happens to the ratio as the value of �� gets bigger?

You may have noticed that as �� gets bigger, the ratio ����+��
����approaches to ��. ������������, the golden ratio.
��
For example, ����
������,������
������=
������,������= ��. ������������. .. is closer to the golden ratio than
��
����
����
����=

����= ��. ������������. ..

Seatwork 3
Find the ratio ������
������. How does this compare with the value of the golden ratio?

Solution for Seatwork 3

11

Mathematics in the Modern World Name________________________________

 12
Problem Set 1.2
Date: _______________ Section_______________ Score_________ 1. Find the value of ������

given that ������ = ����, ������ and ������ = ����, ������.

2. Use a calculator and Binet’s formula to find the following Fibonacci numbers.
a. ������
b. ������
c. ������

3. Evaluate the sum ���� + ���� + ⋯ + ���� for �� = ��, ��, �� and ��. Determine
the pattern in the successive sums.

4. Use the pattern in exercise 3 to find the sum ���� + ���� + ⋯ + ������.

5. Determine whether each of the following statements about Fibonacci numbers is true or false.
a. ���� + ���� + ⋯ + ���� = ����+�� − ��
b. ������ − ����−�� = ����+�� for �� ≥ ��
c. ������ > ����+�� for �� ≥ ��
d. ������ is an even number
e. ����and ����+�� for �� ≥ �� are relatively prime.*

6. To what value will ����

����+��approaches to as �� gets bigger?

7. How should a 2-meter board be cut so that the ratio of the longer part to the shorter part is equal to the
golden ratio. Use 1.618034 as the value of the golden ratio.

8. Write a paragraph describing some examples of Fibonacci sequence and golden ratio in your everyday
surroundings.

13
1.3 Mathematics for our World
We have seen in the preceding sections how mathematics is a vital part of nature and the world and
numbers and patterns are evidences that everything around us is made up of mathematics. In this section,
we will see mathematics as a tool in predicting the behavior and nature of phenomena in the world.

World Population
Mathematics can be used to model population growth. The formula for exponential growth �� =
��������, where �� is the size of the population after it grows, �� is the initial number of people,
�� is the rate of growth, and �� is time, has been an essential tool to estimate or predict the world
population.

Example 1
The exponential growth model �� = ����������.������ describes the population of a
particular city in thousands, �� years after 2009. What is the city’s population in 2009? What is the
city’s population in 2029?

Solution 1
The city’s population in 2009 is the initial population given in the model which is 680,000 since in 2009,
�� = ��. In 2029, �� will be 20 years. The total population in 2020 is obtained by plugging in this
value of �� into the exponential growth model �� = ����������.������. Therefore, the
city’s population in 2020 is approximately 1,239,041.

Seatwork 1
The exponential growth model �� = 7.6��0.0109�� describes the current world population in
billions. Determine the world population in 2050.

Solution for Seatwork 1

Seatwork 2

The exponential growth model �� = 50,000��0.02�� describes the population of a particular city
in 2015. After how many years will the population become 1 million?

Solution for Seatwork 2

14
Fractals
Predicting the location, size, and timing of natural disasters such as hurricanes, floods, earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, wildfires and landslides, may seem to be very impossible. Who would have thought
that mathematics could make it possible? It is due to fractals. Earth scientists are now able to predict the
future of these hazards in nature using fractals.
Fractals are mathematical sets, usually obtained through recursion, that exhibit interesting
dimensional properties. We can observe fractals all over nature. Similar patterns can be seen over and
over in trees and ferns, in mountains, icicles, clouds, ocean waves, coastlines, bacterial colony, lightning,
leaf veins, and bodies of water like waterfalls and rivers. The idea of self-similarity is a characteristic of
most fractals.

Self-similarity
A shape is self-similar when it looks essentially the same from a distance as it does closer up.

Self-similarity can often be found in nature. In the Romanesco broccoli pictured below , if we zoom in on
part of the image, the piece remaining looks similar to the whole.

Likewise, in the fern frond below, one piece of the frond looks similar to the
whole.

Similarly, if we zoom in on the coastline of Portugal , each zoom reveals previously hidden detail, and the
coastline, while not identical to the view from further way, does exhibit similar characteristics.

15
Iterated Fractals
This self-similar behavior can be replicated through recursion: repeating a process over and over.

Example 2
Suppose that we start with a filled-in triangle. We connect the midpoints of each side and remove the
middle triangle. We then repeat this process.

Initial Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

If we repeat this process, the shape that emerges is called the Sierpinski gasket. Notice that it exhibits
self-similarity – any piece of the gasket will look identical to the whole. In fact, we can say that the
Sierpinski gasket contains three copies of itself, each half as tall and wide as the original. Of course, each
of those copies also contains three copies of itself.

We can construct other fractals using a similar approach. To formalize this a bit, we’re going to introduce
the idea of initiators and generators.
Initiators and Generators
An initiator is a starting shape.
A generator is an arranged collection of scaled copies of the initiator.

To generate fractals from initiators and generators, we follow a simple rule:

16
Fractal Generation Rule
At each step, replace every copy of the initiator with a scaled copy of the generator, rotating as
necessary

This process is easiest to understand through example.

 Example 3
Use the initiator and generator shown to create the iterated fractal.

initiator generator
Solution 3
This tells us to, at each step, replace each line segment with the spiked shape shown in the generator.
Notice that the generator itself is made up of 4 copies of the initiator. In step 1, the single line segment in
the initiator is replaced with the generator. For step 2, each of the four line segments of step 1 is replaced
with a scaled copy of the generator:

Step 1 Scaled copy A scaled copy replaces each line

of generator segment of Step 1 Step 2

This process is repeated to form Step 3. Again, each line segment is replaced
with a scaled copy of the generator.

Step 2 Scaled copy

of generator Step 3

Notice that since Step 0 only had 1 line segment, Step 1 only required one copy of Step
0. Since Step 1 had 4 line segments, Step 2 required 4 copies of the generator.
Step 2 then had 16 line segments, so Step 3 required 16 copies of the
generator. Step 4, then, would require 16*4 = 64 copies of the generator.

The shape resulting from iterating this process is called the Koch curve,
named for Helge von Koch who first explored it in 1904. using the initiator generator approach
Notice that the Sierpinski gasket can also be described
Koch curve

17

Initiator Generator

Example 4
Use the initiator and generator below, however only iterate on the “branches.” Sketch several steps of the
iteration.
 initiator generator
Solution 4
We begin by replacing the initiator with the generator. We then replace each “branch” of Step 1 with a
scaled copy of the generator to create Step 2.

Step 1 Step 2
We can repeat this process to create later steps. Repeating this process can create intricate tree shapes.

Step 4 Final shape

18
Seatwork 3
Use the initiator and generator shown to produce the next two stages

Initiator Generator

Solution for Seatwork 3

Using iteration processes like those above can create a variety of beautiful images suggestive of

nature.
More natural shapes can be created by adding in randomness to the steps.

Example 5
Create a variation on the Sierpinski gasket by randomly skewing the corner points each time iteration is
made.

Solution 5
Suppose we start with the triangle below. We begin, as before, by removing the middle triangle. We
then add in some randomness.

19

Step 0 Step 1 Step 1 with randomnesss

We then repeat this process.

Step 1 with
randomnesss Step 2 Step 2 with randomnesss
Continuing this process can create mountain-like
structures. The
landscape to the right was created using fractals, then
colored and
textured.
 20

Mathematics in the Modern World Name________________________________

21
Problem Set 1.3
Date: _______________ Section_______________ Score_________
1. The exponential growth model �� = 30������ describes the population of a particular city in
thousands, �� years after 2005.
a. What was the population of the city in 2005?
b. What will be the population in 2020?

2. Substitute the given values in the formula �� = �������� to find the

missing quantity. a. �� = 135,000, �� = 8% per year, �� = 10
b. �� = 829,000, �� = 220,000, �� = 3% per year

3. Using the initiator and generator shown, draw the next two stages of the iterated fractal.

a.

b.

c.

22
Chapter 2
Set, Relation and Function

2.1 Sets

The concept of set, while extremely basic, is fundamental to the mathematical world. Any well-defined collection of
objects can be considered as a set. For example we have:
 • the set of all even integers

• the set of all whole numbers

• the set of all students enlisted in any Math in the Modern World class

All it takes to determine a set is some way of specifying the collection. If �� is a set, then the objects in the
collection �� are called either the members of �� or the elements of A. We write
�� ∈ ��
to denote that �� is an element of ��.

It is important for students to be familiar with the following notations:

• ℕ : The set of all natural numbers (i.e., 1, 2, 3, …)

• ℤ : The set of all integers (i.e., 0, natural numbers, and the negative of natural numbers) • ℚ
: The set of all rational numbers (i.e., fractions)
• ℝ : The set of all real numbers

• ℝ∗: The set of all non-negative real numbers.

̃
• ℚ : The set of all irrational real numbers.

A particular set may be specified by using roster notation, i.e., by listing all its elements enclosed by curly brackets.
For illustration, if �� is the set of all colleges in AUP, then

�� = {������, ������, ������, ������, ������,

������,������, ������, ������}.

If in case there are too many elements to enumerate, one may use the ellipsis notation. For example, if �� is the set
of natural numbers less than or equal to 100, one may write

�� = {1,2,3, … ,100}.
One may also write

ℕ = {1,2,3, … }.

Most mathematics instructors read “…” as “and so forth” or “and so on”.

Example 1

(a) Let �� be the set of all integers greater than −6 but less than or equal 2. Write all the elements of
��. (b) How many elements are there in ��?
(c) For each natural number ��, let ���� = {��, −��, ��2}. Find ��1 and ��2.

Solution 1

(a) �� = {−5, −4, −3, −2, −1,0,1,2}

(b) There are 8 elements in ��.
(c) ��1 = {1, −1},��2 = {2, −2,4}

A more compact way to denote a set is using the set builder notation. Set builder notation is a way of describing a
set by specifying a property or properties that the elements of the set must possess. A way to write a set in set

23
builder notation is

�� = {�� | ��(��)}

where ��(��) is the property that must be possessed. The notation “ �� |��(��) ” is read as “�� such
that ��(��)”. If it is necessary to specify the domain, say ��, where the ��’s are coming from, we may
write

�� = {�� ∈ ��|��(��)}.

Example 2

List all the elements of the following sets.

(a) �� = {�� ∈ ℕ | 2 < �� ≤ 10}

(b) �� = {����|��, �� ∈ ��, 2 ≤ �� ≤ 0, 3 ≤ �� ≤ 4}

Write the set below in set builder notation:

(c) �� = {14,24,34, −14, −24, −34, 0}

Solution 2

(a) �� = {3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
(b) �� = {−23, −13, 0, −12, −14}
(c) �� = {��4| − 3 ≤ �� ≤ 3}

Seatwork 1

(a) Let �� is the set of all integers greater or equal to −3 but less than 3. Write all the elements of
��. (b) How many elements are there in ��?
(c) For each natural number ��, let ���� = {1(−1)1
2(−1)2
��,
��(−1)��
��, ⋯ ,

��}. Find ��4.

Solution for seatwork 1

24
Seatwork 2

List all the elements of the following sets.

(a) �� = {�� ∈ ℕ | − 3 ≤ �� < 3}

(b) �� = {��(��−2)
�� −2∈ ℚ | − 2 < �� ≤ 0, 3 ≤ �� ≤ 5}
2
 Write the set below in set builder notation:

(c) �� = {14,24,34,15,25,35, 0}
Solution for seatwork 2

Set Relations

In what follows, the three types of set relations will be discussed, subset, proper subset and equal sets. Let ��
and �� be sets.

We say that �� is a subset of ��, denoted as �� ⊆ ��, provided that every element of �� is also an element of
��.

Aside from �� is a subset of ��, one may also read �� ⊆ �� as

�� is contained in ��, or �� contains ��.

The empty set, denoted by ∅ or { }, is the set that contains no elements. The empty is a subset of any set. We say

that �� is a proper subset of ��, denoted by �� ⊊ ��, if �� ⊆ �� and there is an element of �� that

is not in ��.

25
Example 3

We say that �� and �� are equal, denoted by �� = ��, if �� ⊆ �� and �� ⊆ ��, i.e., when
�� and �� have the same elements.

Consider the following sets

�� = {0,2,4,6,8}, �� = {2,4,8}, �� = {412,424,438}.

 Classify the statements below as true or false.

(a) �� ⊆ ��
(b) {0,2,8} ⊆ ��
(c) �� ⊊ ��
(d) {2,4,8} = {4,2,8}

Solution 3

(a) True
(b) True
(c) False
(d) True

Seatwork 3

Consider the following sets

�� = {1,3,5,7,9},�� = {1,3,9}, �� = {30,323,349} , ���� = {1, ��, 5}.

Classify the statements below as true or false.

(a) �� ⊆ ��
(b) �� = ��
(c) �� ⊆ ��

Give three possible values for �� that will make ���� a subset of ��.

Solution for seatwork 3

26
Power Set

Given a finite set ��, the power set of ��, denoted by 2��, is the collection of all subsets of ��.

If �� is the number of elements of the set �� then there are 2��elements in the 2��.

Example 4

Given �� = {��, ��, ��}, find all the elements of 2��.

Solution 4

2�� = {∅,{��},{��},{��},{��, ��},{��, ��},{��, ��},{��, ��, ��}}.

Note that there are 23(= 8) elements in 2��. In this case, the elements of 2�� are sets. For example, {��,
��} ∈ 2��. Seatwork 4

Given �� = {1,2,3,4}, list all the subsets of �� containing the element 1.

Solution for seatwork 4

27
Cartesian product

The ordered pair of two objects �� and �� (presented in that order) is an object (��, ��) associated with
these objects (in that order) such that two ordered pairs (��, ��) and (��, ��) are equal if and only if
�� = �� and �� = ��.

From the definition above, one can conclude that (1,2) ≠ (2,1).

Let �� and �� be sets. The Cartesian product of �� and ��, denoted by �� × ��,
is defined to be �� × �� = {(��, ��): �� ∈ �� and �� ∈ ��}.

Example 5

Let �� = {−1,0,1}, �� = {−2,2} and �� = {2,3,4,5,6}.

(a) Find �� × �� and �� × ��. Plot �� × �� in the Cartesian plane.

(b) Without listing them, how many elements are there in �� × ��?

Solution 5

(a) �� × �� = {(−1, −2), (−1,2), (0, −2), (0,2), (1, −2), (1,2)} and

�� × �� = {(−2, −1), (−2,0), (−2,1), (2, −1), (2,0), (2,1)}.

28
 Plotting �� × �� on Cartesian plane

(b) 3 × 5 = 15

Seatwork 5

Consider the given sets in example 5.

(a) Find �� × �� and �� × ��.

(b) Let �� and �� be sets with �� having �� elements and �� having �� elements. How many
elements are there in �� × ��?

Solution for seatwork 5

 29

Mathematics in the Modern World Name________________________________

30
Problem Set 2.1
Date: _______________ Section_______________ Score_________ State whether the statement is
true or false.
 1. __________ The empty set ∅ is equal to {0}.
2. __________ The set �� = {1,2,3, … , 10} has four elements.
3. __________ Let �� the set of all even integers. Then �� ⊊ ℤ.
4. __________ If a set �� has 5 elements then 2�� has 32 elements.
5. __________ If �� = {−3, −2, −1,0} and �� has �� elements then �� × �� has 4�� elements.

Consider the sets �� = {0}, �� = {−1,0,1}, �� = {4,5},

�� = {��
��2 + 1| ��, �� ∈ ��, 5 ≤ �� ≤ 6 ������ − 1 ≤ �� ≤ 1}
and

List all the elements of the following: 6. �� = { , , , } 7. �� × �� =

1 4 9 16 25 36
�� = { 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.

___________________________________________________

8. �� × �� =
___________________________________________________

9. 2�� =
___________________________________________________

10. Describe �� and �� using set builder notation.

�� =
___________________________________________________

�� =
___________________________________________________

11. For each natural number ��, let ���� = {(−2)1

(−2)2
1,
(−2)��
2, ⋯ ,

��}. Find ��5.

��5 = { , , , , }
12. For each �� ∈ [0,1], define ���� = (�� − (1 − ��), �� + (1 − ��)). Find the interval ���� for ��
= 0.75.

31
Relations and Functions
2.2 Relations
 Let �� and �� be sets. A relation �� from �� to �� is a subset �� × ��. So basically, the elements
of a relation �� from �� to �� are ordered pairs (��, ��) where �� ∈ �� and �� ∈ ��.

Example 1

Let
�� = {1,2,3} and �� = {2,4}.

Then

�� × �� = {(1,2), (1,4), (2,2), (2,4), (3,2), (3,4)}.

Since

�� = {(1,2), (2,2), (2,4), (3,4)} ⊆ �� × ��,

we can conclude that �� is a relation from �� to ��.

Example 2

Let

�� = {1,2,3} and �� = {2,4}

and �� to be a relation from �� to �� such that

(��, ��) ∈ �� if and only if �� < ��.

We will verify which of six elements of �� × �� are elements of ��. Following are the verifications:

1. (1,2) ↦ 1 < 2 ⇒ (1,2) ∈ ��

2. (1,4) ↦ 1 < 4 ⇒ (1,4) ∈ ��
3. (2,2) ↦ 2 = 2 ⇒ (2,2) ∉ ��
4. (2,4) ↦ 2 < 4 ⇒ (2,4) ∈ ��
5. (3,2) ↦ 3 > 2 ⇒ (1,2) ∉ ��
6. (3,4) ↦ 3 < 4 ⇒ (3,4) ∈ ��

Therefore �� = {(1,2), (1,4), (2,4), (3,4)}.

Example 3

Let �� be a relation from ℝ to ℝ such that (��, ��) ∈ �� provided ��2 + ��2 = 4.
Solve for �� for the following values of ��:

�� = −2, �� = −1, �� = 0, �� = 1, �� = 2.

32
Graph the resulting ordered pairs. Seatwork 1
 Let �� be a relation from �� = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} to �� = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} such that (��, ��) ∈ ��

provided �� = �� + 1. Solution for seatwork 1

Functions

Let �� and �� be sets. A function �� from �� to �� with domain �� and co-domain �� is a

relation from �� to �� satisfying the following properties:

(1) If �� ∈ �� then there exists element �� in �� such that (��, ��) ∈ ��.
(2) If (��, ��) ∈ �� and (��, ��) ∈ �� then �� = ��.

33
Example 4

Consider the relation �� from �� = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} to �� = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} such that (��, ��) ∈ �� provided

��2 + ��2 = 4.
As we have seen in example 3, we have

�� = {(−2,0), (0,2), (0, −2), (2,0)}.

Since (0,2) and (0, −2) are both element of �� and 2 ≠ −2, we conclude that �� is not a function from
�� to ��. Also, it violated the first condition.

Example 5

Let �� be a relation from �� = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} to �� = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} such that (��, ��) ∈ ��
provided �� = �� + 1. Then
�� = {(−2, −1), (−1,0), (0,1), (1,2)}.
While �� satisfy the (2) condition in the definition of function, it does not satisfy the first. More precisely, �� is
not a function having �� as domain.

Example 6

Let �� be a relation from �� = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} to �� = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} with

�� = {(−2,0), (−1,0), (0,1), (1,2), (2, −1)}.

First, notice that each element of �� was used as first entry in an ordered pair in ��. So the (1) condition is
satisfied. We shall now check the (2) condition. As we have seen no two ordered pairs have the same first entry. We
therefore conclude that �� is a function from �� to �� with domain ��. We can see this better by
constructing a diagram. See the figure below.

Relations and Functions as Graphs

In order to handle functions whose domain and co-domain consists of infinitely many points, we represent them
either by graphs or by an equation involving two variables, say �� and ��. Each point in the graph represents an
ordered pair. Correspondingly, by convention, if a relation is represented by an equation in terms of �� and ��,
all such ordered pair solution (��, ��) to the equation is an element of the relation. This section is solely
intended to identify whether a graph represents a function or just a relation. In order to do this we appeal to the
vertical line test. If every vertical line drawn intersect the graph once only then the graph represents a function, if
in case there can be drawn a vertical line that the graph more than once then the graph does not represent a function
but merely a

34
relation.

For starter, consider the linear function ��(��) = 3�� + 4 from ℝ to ℝ.

 Using vertical line test, one can immediately conclude that �� is a function.

Remark

At this point, we wish that the use of the notation ��(��) = 3�� + 4 instead of �� = 3�� + 4 will not
confuse the student. Please consult your professor for more details.

35
36

Mathematics in the Modern World Name________________________________

 37
Problem Set 2.3
Date: _______________ Section_______________ Score_________ Let �� = {2,3,4} and �� =
{8,9,10} and define a relation �� from �� to �� such that
��
(��, ��) ∈ �� if and only if ��is an integer.
13. List all the elements of ��. Show your verification below.

14. __________ Is �� a function from �� to ��? Justify your answer.

___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

15. Represent �� using diagram.

16. Using vertical line test, identify which of the following are functions and merely relations.
_____________ (a)
_____________ (b)
_____________ (c)
_____________ (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

38
Chapter 3
Problem Solving

When we hear problem solving, we usually immediately think of worded problems in college
algebra. Where in a particular problem is represented by an equation or system of equations, and solving
it would lead to the solution to the problem. For example consider the following problem:
Example 1

The sum of two numbers is 9 and their difference is 6. What are the numbers?

Here is a particular solution to the problem:

Solution 1

Let �� and �� be those numbers. Then

�� + �� = 9
and
�� − �� = 6.

We will be using substitution to handle the system. It follows from first equation

that �� = 9 − ��.

Substituting it to the second equation, we get

�� − (9 − ��) = 6.

Then

2�� = 6 + 9 = 15.

Finally,

�� = 7.5 and �� = 9 − �� = 9 − 7.5 = 1.5.

Consider the following problem as practice.

Seatwork 1

Two kids want to divide 5.00 pesos into two of them such that one would get 1 peso higher than the other.
How much should each of them receive?

39
Solution to Seatwork 1
Here is a trickier problem.

Example 2

There are a group of birds attempting to land on a group of posts. If the birds will land to the posts in one
to one manner then there will be one bird, which has no post to land on. If the birds will land to the posts
in two is to one manner (two birds in one post) then there shall be excess of one post. How many birds
and posts are there?

Solution 2

Let �� and �� be the number of posts and birds, respectively. Then �� −��2= 1 and �� − �� =
1. Solving this system will lead to the following solution
�� = 4 and �� = 3.
The world of problem solving does not end here. There are other interesting mathematical topics
in the world of problem solving. But considering limited time, we cannot discuss all them. Let us now
proceed with inductive reasoning.

3.1A Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is a method of reasoning in which the premises are viewed as supplying
some evidence for the truth of the conclusion; this is in contrast to deductive reasoning. While the
conclusion of a deductive argument is certain, the truth of the conclusion of an inductive argument may
be probable, based upon the evidence given. Many dictionaries define inductive reasoning as the
derivation of general principles from specific observations.

Example 3

Predict the next number in each of the following lists by applying inductive reasoning.

40
(a) 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?
(b) 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, ?
Solution 3

The elements of the sequence in (a) are increasing by 3. Hence, following this observation, the next
number would be 18.

For part (b), one can easily observe that the difference is not constant. In particular, it is increasing. The
sequence of differences is
3, 4, 5, 6.

Hence, via this observation, the difference of the next number from 21 should be seven and hence the next
number is 28.

Seatwork 3

Apply inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the next number.
(a) 4, 11, 18, 25, 32, ?
(b) 1, 2, 6, 15, 30, ?

Solution for Seatwork 3

For 90’s kids, the next example will be very much familiar.

Example 4

Consider the following set of commands:

(1) Think of a number
(2) Multiply it by 10
(3) Subtract 6 from the product
(4) Divide the difference by 2

41
(5) Add 3 to the quotient
(6) Divide the sum by 5
Suppose we pick 5:

(1) 5
(2) 10(5) = 50
(3) 50 − 6 = 44
(4) 44 ÷ 2 = 22
(5) 22 + 3 = 25
(6) 25 ÷ 5 = 5

Starting with 5, the procedure produces 5 also. If we try 6, we will also get 6. We had more experiments
with the following results.
Input Output

9 9

15 15

100 100

200 200
Based on this experiment, we conjecture that the procedure produces the original number.

Example 4

Consider a procedure that has the following results.

Input Output

1 1

4 2

9 3

16 4

25 5

36 6

(a) Using the table above, what will be the output if the input is 49?
(b) If the input is quadrupled what will happen to the output?

Solution 4

(a) We conjecture that the output is 7.

(b) Here, we got 3 samples to base our conclusion: 1 → 1 and 4 → 2, 4 → 2 and 16 → 4, and 9 →
42
3 and 36 → 6. Hence we conjecture that if the input is quadrupled the output is doubled.

Seatwork 4

Consider the following table:

Time (in sec) Distance traveled

5 55

10 90

15 125

20 160

25 195

30 230

(a) How long will be the distance travelled for 35 seconds?

 (b) Considering the samples above, derive a formula for calculating distance travelled.

Solution for Seatwork 4

3.1B Deductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning, also deductive logic, is the process of reasoning from one or more statements
(premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion. Deductive reasoning goes in the same direction as that
of the conditionals, and links premises with conclusions. If all premises are true, the terms are clear, and
the rules of deductive logic are followed, then the conclusion reached is necessarily true.
Example 5

43
Apply deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is twice the
original number.

(1) Think of a number

(2) Multiply it by 20
(3) Subtract 6 from the product
(4) Divide the difference by 2
(5) Add 3 to the quotient
(6) Divide the sum by 5

Solution 5

Suppose you start with ��.

(1) ��
(2) 20��
(3) 20�� − 6
(4) 20��−6
2= 10�� − 3
(5) 10�� − 3 + 3 = 10��
(6) 10��
2= 2��.
Seatwork 6

Apply deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is three times the
original number.

(1) Pick a number

(2) Multiply the number by 6
(3) Add 10 to the product
(4) Divide the sum by 2
(5) Subtract 5.

Solution for Seatwork 6

Seatwork 7

Identify whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive reasoning or deductive
reasoning.

44
(a) In the past 20 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year the tree did not
produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.
(b) All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated that my home
improvement would cost $35,000. Thus my home improvement will cost more than $35,000.

Solution for Seatwork 6

Example 8

Each of four neighbors, Sunny, Mary, Sandra, and Benny, has a different occupation (editor, banker,
cook, or director). From the following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.

(1) Mary gets home from work after the banker but before the director.
(2) Sandra, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
(3) The director and Sandra leave for work at the same time.
(4) The banker lives next door to Benny.
Solution 8

Let us consider the four hints to solve this problem:

(1) Mary gets home from work after the banker but before the director.

This implies that Mary is not the banker and also not the director. So we have the following table.
Editor Banker Cook Director

Sunny

Mary X1 X1

Sandr
a

Benny

Let us now take a look at the improvement on the table by adding the information from the second hint.

(2) Sandra, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.

Here it is clearly stated that Sandra is not the editor. Furthermore, considering hint (1), which tells us that
banker cannot be the last to get home, Sandra cannot be the banker. Hence we have the following

45
improvement on the table.
Editor Banker Cook Director

Sunny

Mary X1 X1

Sandra X2 X2

Benny

(3) The director and Sandra leave for work at the same time.

From this, we immediately conclude hat Sandra is not the director. Check the table below.
Editor Banker Cook Director

Sunny

Mary X1 X1

Sandra X2 X2 X3
 Benny

From the table above, it is now clear to us that Sandra is the cook. Hence we have the following
improvement.
Editor Banker Cook Director

Sunny X3

Mary X1 X3 X1

Sandra X2 X2 X3

Benny X3

Furthermore, we can now conclude that Mary is the editor. So here is the final table after hint (3):
Editor Banker Cook Director

Sunny X3 X3

Mary X1 X3 X1

Sandra X2 X2 X3

Benny X3 X3

The remaining task is to identify who between Sunny and Benny is the banker and the director. But
finally, we the following hint:

(4) The banker lives next door to Benny.

Which tells us that Benny is not the banker. Hence we conclude that Benny is the director and Sunny is

46
the Banker. Check the table below.
Editor Banker Cook Director

Sunny X3 X3 X4

Mary X1 X3 X1

Sandra X2 X2 X3

Benny X3 X4 X3

Seatwork 8
Jannah, Bryan, Tyler, and Ashley were elected as the new class officers (president, secretary, treasurer,
auditor) of the sophomore class at Summit College. From the following clues, determine which position
each holds.
(1) Ashley is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
(2) Jannah and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the youngest members of the
group.
(3) Tyler and the secretary are next-door neighbors.

Solution for Seatwork 8

Table of improvement for hint (1):

President Secretary Treasurer Auditor

Jannah

Bryan

Tyler

Ashley

Table of improvement for hint (2):

President Secretary Treasurer Auditor

Jannah

Bryan

Tyler

Ashley

Table of improvement for hint (3):

47

President Secretary Treasurer Auditor

Jannah

Bryan
 Tyler

Ashley

Notes

48
49

Mathematics in the Modern World Name________________________________

 50
Problem Set 3.1
Date: _______________ Section_______________ Score_________

1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number.

(a) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, ? _____
(b) 2, 7, 17, 32, 52, ? _____
(c) 13,35,57,79,911, ? _____
(d) 1, −2, 4, −8, 16, ? _____
2. An experiment was done on painting classroom chairs. The results of the experiment is in the
following table:
No. of students doing the painting No. of tables painted in every four hours

1 1

2 4

3 9

4 16

3. Apply deductive reasoning to prove that the following procedure produces a number that is equal
to the original number: (1) Pick a number. (2) Multiply the number by 6 and add 8. (3) Divide the
sum by 2, subtract twice the original number, and subtract 4.

4. The cities of Makati, Pasig, San Juan, and Muntinlupa held conventions this summer for collectors
of coins, stamps, comic books, and baseball cards. From the following clues, determine which
collectors met in which city.
(a) The comic book collectors convention was in August, as was the convention held in Pasig.
(b) The baseball card collectors did not meet in San Juan, and the coin collectors did not meet in
Muntinlupa or Pasig.
(c) The convention in Makati was held during the week of July 4, whereas the coin collectors
convention was held the week after that.
(d) The convention in Pasig had more collectors attending it than did the stamp collectors
convention.
Coins Stamps Comic Book Baseball cards

Makati

Pasig

San Juan

Muntinlupa

51
3.2 Sequences
A particular order in which related events, movements, or things follow each other is called
sequence. In general, sequence of numbers would take the form
 ��1, ��2, ��3, ��4, … , ����, …

An example is the sequence below:

1, 4, 8, 13, 19, …

where ��1 = 1, ��2 = 4, ��3 = 8, ��4 = 13 and ��5 = 19.

The most interesting part of talking about sequence is knowing the rule that govern the sequence
which will eventually tell us the missing terms of the sequence. As an initial approach, Aufmann
considered constructing the difference table as shown below.

Sequence: 1 4 8 13 19
First Difference: 3 4 5 6
Second Difference: 1 1 1

One can easily follow on how this table was constructed. So basically, the pattern suggest that in the first
difference the next entry would be

6+1=7
and the next entry of the sequence would be
19 + 7 = 26.

In general, in constructing the difference table, one should reach the ����ℎ difference having
constant entries.

Seatwork 1

Use difference table to predict the next entry of the sequence

3, 8, 25, 60, 119, 207, …

52
Solution for Seatwork 1
Example 2

Consider the pattern manifested by the tiles below.

��1 ��2 ��3 ��4 ��5

(1) What is the nth-term formula for the number of colored tiles in the nth figure of the sequence?
(2) How many colored tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
(3) Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles?

Solution 2

(1) Counting the number of colored tiles, we get the following sequence of numbers:

4, 8, 12, 16, 20.

Hence the nth-term formula for the number of colored tiles in the nth figure wil be
���� = 4��.

(2) ��8 = 4(8) = 32.

(3) If 4�� = 320 then �� =320
4= 80. The answer is the 80 figure.
th

Example 3

Consider the pattern manifested by the tiles below.

53
 ��1 ��2 ��3 ��4 ��5

(1) What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure of the sequence?
(2) How many colored tiles are in the 8th figure of the sequence?

Solution 3

(1) Here, ��1 = 1, ��2 = 3, ��3 = 6, ��4 = 10, ��5 = 15. One can easily

observe that ���� = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + ��.

This formula is known to many and has the compact form

1
���� = 2��(�� + 1).

The sequence of numbers generated by the formula above is called the sequence of triangular
numbers.
(2) First approach:
1
��8 = 28(8 + 1) = 36.

Remark. One can also use the difference table to solve (2).

Seatwork 3

Consider the pattern manifested by the tiles below.

��1 ��2 ��3 ��4 ��5

(1) What is the nth-term formula for the number of colored tiles in the nth figure of the sequence?
(2) How many colored tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
(3) Which figure will consist of exactly 71 tiles?

54
Solution for Seatwork 3
Classroom Activity (The Tower of Hanoi invented by Edouard Lucas in 1883)

The puzzle has of three pegs and a number of disks of different sizes stacked on one of the pegs arranged
in the manner that the largest disk is on the bottom, the next largest is placed on the largest disk, and so
on as shown in the figure below.

The goal of the puzzle is to transfer the tower to one of the other pegs. The rules require that only one
disk be moved at a time and that a larger disk may not be placed on a smaller disk. All pegs may be used.

Determine the minimum number of moves required to transfer all of the disks to another peg for each of
the following situations.

(1) You start with only one disk.

(2) You start with two disks.
(3) You start with three disks.
(4) You start with four disks.
(5) You start with five disks.
(6) You start with n disks.

55
Solution for the activity
 56

Mathematics in the Modern World Name________________________________

57
Problem Set 3.2
Date: _______________ Section_______________ Score_________
 5. Predict the next term by constructing difference table
(e) 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72, ? _____
(f) -2, 3, 20, 55, 114, 203, ? _____

6. Compute the first five terms of the sequence define by the formula

���� = 2��2 − 5�� + 1.

For what value of �� is ���� = 151?

7. Consider the pattern manifested by the tiles below.

��2 ��3 ��4 ��5

(a) What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure of the sequence?
(b) How many tiles are in the 10th figure of the sequence?
(c) Which figure will consist of exactly 71 tiles?

8. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure of the sequence?

��2 ��3 ��4 ��5

58
3.3 Polya's four-step approach to problem solving

1. Preparation: Understand the problem

 ▪ Learn the necessary underlying mathematical concepts

▪ Consider the terminology and notation used in the problem:

1. What sort of a problem is it?
2. What is being asked?
3. What do the terms mean?
4. Is there enough information or is more information needed?
5. What is known or unknown?
▪ Rephrase the problem in your own words.

▪ Write down specific examples of the conditions given in the problem.

2. Thinking Time: Devise a plan

▪ You must start somewhere so try something. How are you going to attack
the problem?
▪ Possible strategies: (i. e. reach into your bag of tricks.)
1. Draw pictures
2. Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
3. Use a variable and choose helpful names for variables or unknowns.
4. Be systematic.
5. Solve a simpler version of the problem.
6. Guess and check.
7. Look for a pattern or patterns.
8. Make a list.
▪ Once you understand what the problem is, if you are stumped or stuck, set the

problem aside for a while. Your subconscious mind may keep working on it. ▪
Moving on to think about other things may help you stay relaxed, flexible, and
creative rather than becoming tense, frustrated, and forced in your efforts to solve
the problem.

3. Insight: Carry out the plan

▪ Once you have an idea for a new approach, jot it down immediately.
When you have time, try it out and see if it leads to a solution.
▪ If the plan does not seem to be working, then start over and try another
approach.
▪ Once you have thought about a problem or returned to it enough times, you
will often have a flash of insight: a new idea to try or a new perspective on
how to approach solving the problem.
▪ The key is to keep trying until something works.

59
4. Verification: Look back
▪ Once you have a potential solution, check to see if it works or check if it is
the only solution.
1. Did you answer the question?
2. Is your result reasonable?
3. Double check to make sure that all of the conditions related to the problem
are satisfied.
4. Double check any computations involved in finding your solution.
▪ If you find that your solution does not work, there may only be a simple mistake.
Try to fix or modify your current attempt before scrapping it. Remember what you
tried – it is likely that at least part of it will end up being useful.
▪ Is there another way of doing the problem, which may be simpler? (You need to
become flexible in your thinking. There usually is not one right way.)
▪ Can the problem or method be generalized so as to be useful for future problems?

Example 4

During a family gathering last Christmas, Mia was able to collect 12 monetary bills consisting of 20 Php
bills and 50 Php bills from Ninongs and Ninangs. She received a total of 360 Php from them. How many
of each bill did Angel received?

Solution 4

1. Preparation: Understand the problem

Basically, we want to find out how many 20-peso bills are the and how many 50-peso bilsl are

there. 2. Thinking Time: Devise a plan

There are only 11 ways of partitioning 12 into two: 11 + 1, 10 + 2, 9 + 3, and so on. Our plan is to make
a list of all of them and to each case compute the total amount.

3. Insight: Carry out the plan

Let us start from the partitioning 11 and 1.

No. of 20 peso bills No. of 50 peso bills Total amount

11 1 20(11) + 50(1) = 270

10 2 20(10) + 50(2) = 300

9 3 20(9) + 50(3) = 330

8 4 20(8) + 50(4) = 360

60
Hence the answer is: 8 20-peso bills and 4 50-peso bills.

4. Verification: Look back

It is clear from the computation below that the total amount for 8 20-peso bills and 4 50-peso bills is 360
pesos. But what we are not sure yet is whether this is the only solution. We will continue the listing.
No. of 20-peso bills No. of 50-peso bills Total amount

11 1 20(11) + 50(1) = 270

10 2 20(10) + 50(2) = 300

9 3 20(9) + 50(3) = 330

8 4 20(8) + 50(4) = 360

7 5 20(7) + 50(5) = 390

6 6 20(6) + 50(6) = 420

5 7 20(5) + 50(7) = 450

In the table above, 360 in the last column was not repeated, saying that we only have one solution. Notice
also that we ended the listing at 5 + 7. This is because 50(7) is already 350 – take note that we only have a
total amount of 360 pesos.

The method that we used to solve problems in the early part of this chapter is also applicable to this
problem. Please check the alternative solution below.

2. Thinking Time: Devise a plan

Let �� be the number of 20-peso bills and ��, the number of 50-peso bills. Since the total number of
bills is 12, we get
�� + �� = 12.

Further, having the representation �� and ��, the total amount of the 20-peso bills will be

20��
and the total amount of the 50-peso bills will be

50��.

Since the total amount is 360 pesos, we get

20�� + 50�� = 360.

Our plan is to solve this system of equation that will lead to the solution of the

problem. 3. Insight: Carry out the plan

61
From �� + �� = 12, we get

�� = 12 − ��.

Substituting this to second equation, we get

20�� + 50(12 − ��) = 360
20�� + 600 − 50�� = 360
−30�� = −240
�� = ��.

And hence

�� = 12 − 8 = ��.

4. Verification: Look back

The solution here coincides with our first approach.

Seatwork 4

Mark is planning to put up a rectangular garden with fixed area of 120 m2. If the dimensions of the garden
have to be whole numbers, determine the dimensions of the garden that will require the least mount of
fencing materials to enclose the garden.

62
Solution for Seatwork 4
 63

Mathematics in the Modern World Name________________________________

64
Problem Set 3.3
Date: _______________ Section_______________ Score_________
 1. Ed’s purse contains some 10-peso, 5-peso, 1-peso, and 25-centavo coins. How many of each type
of coin he has if the purse contains a total amount of 20.50 pesos? (Apply Polya’s approach.)

65
Chapter 4
Logic

Though one can summarize the subject matter known as logic as a science that deals with valid
reasoning, its applications covers much more than that. As one author says, “logic is the foundation upon
which our lives depend”. It helps one be rational in their decisions when they are faced with problems or
faced with a situation, which require them to choose between two options. It also helps to broaden our
sense of foresight and direction in our daily lives. Many professions make extensive use of logic.
Examples are lawyers and judges, programmers, mathematicians, and even electrical engineers. And it
will not be an exaggeration to say that people of all walks of life will find logic a necessity in their life.
So, the importance of the study of logic is not to be underestimated.
In this chapter, we will use logic to analyze information and the relationships between statements,
determine the validity of arguments, and determine valid conclusions based on given assumptions.

4.1A Propositions and Logical Connectives

Most sentences such as “5 is prime”, “Today is Saturday” are called propositions because they have
a truth value which is either true or false. But sentences such as “What is your name?” and “Go home” are
not propositions because they have no truth value.

A proposition is a sentence that has exactly one truth value: true, which we denote by T, or false,
which we denote by F.

Example 1

Which of the following are propositions? Give the truth value if the sentence is a
proposition. a. ���� = ����
b. This sentence is false.
c. The year 2020 is a leap year.
d. Are you afraid to fall in love?

Solution 1
a. This is a proposition. Its truth value is false
b. Not a proposition because it’s neither true nor false. It is an example of a paradox.

c and d are left as exercise.

Logical Connectives
A proposition can either be simple or compound. A simple proposition is one that conveys a single idea,
while a compound proposition conveys two or more ideas. By applying connectives we can form a
compound proposition from simple propositions. Note that we will find it convenient to use a variable or
variables to write propositions in symbolic form.
The negation of a proposition ��, denoted ∼ ��, is the proposition “not ��.” The proposition ∼
�� is true exactly when �� is false.
66
Example 2
Determine the truth value of the proposition and write its negation.
a. 7 is divisible by 2.
b. Today is not Monday.

Solution 2
a. The proposition is false. The negation is either “7 is not divisible by 2”, or “It is not the case that 7 is
divisible by 2.”
b is left as an exercise.
Conjunction and Disjunction
Given propositions �� and ��, the conjunction of �� and ��, denoted �� ∧ ��, is the
 proposition “�� and ��.” �� ∧ �� is true exactly when both �� and �� are true.

The disjunction of �� and ��, denoted �� ∨ ��, is the proposition “�� or ��.” �� ∨ ��
is true exactly when at least one of �� or �� is true.

The English words but, while, and although are usually translated symbolically with the conjunction
connective, because they have the same meaning as and.

Example 3
Let ��: 2 is prime, ��: 45 is a multiple of 3, and ��: 19 is composite. Write the proposition in
symbolic form and determine its truth value.
a. 2 is prime and 19 is not composite.
b. Either 19 is composite or 45 is a multiple of 3.
c. 2 is a prime and 45 is not a multiple of 3.
d. It is not the case that, 45 is a multiple of 3 or 19 is composite.
e. �� ≥ −��

Solution 4
a. �� ∧ ~��. This proposition is true because both �� and �� are true.
b and c are left as exercise.

d. ~(�� ∨ ��). This proposition is false because �� ∨ �� is true. The statement ~(�� ∨ ��) is
the negation of �� ∨ ��.

e is left as exercise.

Truth Tables for ~��, �� ∧ ��, and �� ∨ ��

A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound proposition for all possible truth
values of its components.

67
The statements ~��, �� ∧ ��, and �� ∨ �� are examples of a propositional form. The
variables ��, ��, and �� are called as propositional variables. A propositional form has a list of truth
values that depend on the values assigned to its propositional variables. This list is displayed by
presenting all possible combinations for the truth values of its variables in a truth table. The number of all
possible combinations is given by ����
where �� is the number of propositional variables in a given propositional form.
�� �� �� ∧
�� ~� ��
� �� �� �� ∨
TT T ��
T F
TF F TT T
F T
FT F TF T
FF F FT T
FF F
Truth Tables for ~��, �� ∧ ��, and �� ∨ ��

Frequently you will encounter compound propositions formed from more than two propositional
variables.

Example 4
a. Construct a truth table for (�� ∨ ��) ∧ ~��.
b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of (�� ∨ ��) ∧ ~��, given that ��
is true. �� is false and �� is false.

Solution 4
a. This propositional form consists of 3 propositional variables, ��, ��, and ��. Hence there
are ���� = �� possible combinations of truth values.
�� �� �� �� ∨ �� ~�� (�� ∨ ��)
∧ ~��

TTT TFF

TTF TTT

TFT TFF

TFF TTT

FTT TFF

FTF TTT

FFT FFF

FFF FTF

b. We use the 4th row of the truth table since �� is true. �� is false and �� is false. Hence the truth
value of (�� ∨ ��) ∧ ~�� is true.

Remark: There is an alternative method of constructing the truth table that students may find easier to
use. You can ask your teacher about it.

68
Seatwork 4
Determine the truth value of [(~�� ∨ ��) ∧ ��] ∨ ~�� given that �� is true �� is

true and �� is false. Solution for Seatwork 4

 69

Mathematics in the Modern World Name________________________________

70
Problem Set 4.1
Date: _______________ Section_______________ Score_________

1. Which of the following are propositions? Give the truth value of each proposition.
 a. �� is an irrational number.
b. How are you doing today?
c. 41 is a prime number.
d. A rectangle is a square.
e. 5 is an even number and 6 is an even number.
f. Either 2 is not odd or 2 is prime.
g. “We are the world” by Michael Jackson is a great song.
h. |−����| ≥ ����

2. Write each symbolic statement in words. Use the variables ��, ��, and �� as
defined. ��: Stocks are increasing.
��: Interest rates are steady.
��: John will invest in Stocks.
a. �� ∧ ��
b. ~�� ∨ ��
c. ~(�� ∨ ��)

3. Construct a truth table for the following propositional forms.

a. �� ∨ ~��
b. ~(�� ∧ ~��) ∨ ��

4. Determine the truth value of each propositional form given that �� is false, �� is
true, and �� is true.
a. ~�� ∧ �� d. ~(~�� ∧ ��) ∧ �� b. �� ∨ (�� ∧ ~��) e. (~��
∨ ��) ∧ (�� ∧ ~��) c. (�� ∨ ~��) ∧ �� f. ~(~��)

71
4.2 Tautologies, Contradictions, and Logical Equivalence

Some compound propositional forms always yield the value true just because of the way they are
formed; others are always false.

A tautology is a propositional form that is true for every assignment of truth

value to its components. This is usually denoted by ��.
A contradiction is a propositional form that is false for every assignment of
truth value to its components. This is usually denoted by ��.
Example 1
Determine whether each of the following is a tautology, a contradiction, or neither.
a. �� ∨ ~��
b. ~�� ∧ ��
c. (�� ∧ ~��) ∨ (~�� ∨ ��)
d. ~(~�� ∨ ��)

Solution 1
a. The truth table for this propositional form is shown below. Since the last column is all true, �� ∨
~�� is a tautology.
� ~�� �� ∨
� ~��

T FT

F TT

b and c are left as exercise.

d. The truth table for this propositional form is shown below. The last column is all false, hence
~(~�� ∨ ��) is a contradiction.
� ~�� ~�� ∨ �� ~(~��
� ∨ ��)

T FTF

F TTF

The ability to connect statements and recognize or write a statement equivalent to another is
particularly useful.

Equivalent Propositional Forms

Two statement forms are logically equivalent if and only if they have the same truth tables. The
logical equivalence of statement forms �� and �� is denoted by �� ≡ ��.

Example 2

Determine whether each pair of statements is equivalent.

a. ��, ~(~��)

72
b. ~(�� ∨ ~��), ~�� ∧ ��
c. �� ∨ (�� ∧ ��), (�� ∨ ��) ∧ (�� ∨ ��)
d. (�� ∧ ��) ∨ ��, �� ∨ ��

Solution 2
a. The truth table below shows that �� and ~(~��) are equivalent. That is, �� ≡ ~(~��).
� ~��
 � ~(~��)

T FT

F TF

b and c are left as exercise.

d. The truth table below is constructed using the alternative method. It shows that (�� ∧ ��) ∨ ��
and �� ∨ �� are not equivalent. That is, (�� ∧ ��) ∨ �� ≢ �� ∨ ��.
�� (�� ∧ ��) ∨ �� ∨
�� �� ��

TT TTT T

TF FTT T

FT FFF T

FF FFF F

Example 3

Show that each pair of statements below is equivalent.

a. ~(�� ∧ ��), ~�� ∨ ~��
b. ~(�� ∨ ��), ~�� ∧ ~��

Solution 3
a. The truth table shows that ~(�� ∧ ��) and ~�� ∨ ~�� have the same truth value.
Therefore they are logically equivalent.
�� ~ (�� ∧ ~�� ∨
�� ��) ~��

TT FT FFF

TF TF FTT

FT TF TTF

FF TF TTT

b is left as exercise.

The De Morgan’s Laws

The last example shows two pairs of equivalent propositional forms. These logically equivalent
statements are so useful that they are given a special name.
 73
De Morgan’s Laws
For any statements �� and ��,
a. ~(�� ∧ ��) ≡ ~�� ∨ ~��
b. ~(�� ∨ ��) ≡ ~�� ∧ ~��

Example 4
Use the De Morgan’s law to restate the following statements in equivalent form. a. It
is not the case that, Miss Scarlet is guilty or the crime took place in the ballroom. b. It
is not true that, I can sing and I was hired.

Solution 4
a. To avoid confusion, we can first write the statement in symbolic form. If we use �� for “Miss Scarlet
is guilty” and �� for “the crime took place in the ballroom”, the statement in symbolic form will be
~(�� ∨ ��). Using De Morgan’s law, this is equivalent to ~�� ∧ ~��. Thus, the answer is “Miss
Scarlet is not guilty and the crime did not take place in the ballroom”.

b is left as exercise.

Seatwork 4
Use De Morgan’s laws to write the negation of −�� < �� ≤ ��.

Solution for Seatwork 4

Knowledge of logically equivalent statements is very useful for constructing arguments. Some of the
most commonly used equivalent forms are presented here for future reference.

Laws of Equivalences
Given any propositional variables ��, ��, and ��, a tautology �� and a contradiction ��, the
following logical equivalences hold:
�� ∧ �� ≡ �� ∧ ��

(�� ∧ ��) ∧ �� ≡ �� ∧ (�� ∧

��)

�� ∧ (�� ∨ ��) ≡ (�� ∧ ��)

∨ (�� ∧ ��)

�� ∧ �� ≡ ��

�� ∨ ~�� ≡ ��
 ~(~��) ≡ ��

1. Commutative Laws �� ∨ �� ≡ �� ∨ �� 2. Associative Laws (�� ∨ ��) ∨ �� ≡ �� ∨

(�� ∨ ��) 3. Distributive Laws �� ∨ (�� ∧ ��) ≡ (�� ∨ ��) ∧ (�� ∨ ��) 4. Identity
Laws �� ∨ �� ≡ �� 5. Negation Laws �� ∧ ~�� ≡ �� 6. Double Negative Law

74

�� ∧ �� ≡ ��

�� ∨ �� ≡ ��

~(�� ∧ ��) ≡ ~�� ∨ ~��

�� ∨ (�� ∧ ��) ≡ ��

7. Idempotent Laws �� ∨ �� ≡ �� 8. Universal Bound Laws �� ∧ �� ≡ �� 9. De

Morgan’s Laws ~(�� ∨ ��) ≡ ~�� ∧ ~�� 10. Absorption Laws �� ∧ (�� ∨ ��) ≡
�� Note: The proof for the laws of equivalences will be left as exercise.

Example 4
Prove the following using the laws of equivalence.
a. ∼ (∼ �� ∧ ��) ∧ (�� ∨ ��) ≡ ��
b. �� ∧ (∼ �� ∨ �� ≡ ��

Solution 4
∼ (∼ �� ∧ ��) ∧ (�� ∨ ��) ≡ (~(~��) ∨ ~��) ∧ (�� ∨ ��) by De
Morgan’s Laws ≡ (�� ∨ ~��) ∧ (�� ∨ ��) by Double
Negative Law
≡ �� ∨ (~�� ∧ ��) by Distributive Laws
≡ �� ∨ (�� ∧ ~��) by Commutative Laws
≡ �� ∨ �� by Negation Laws
≡ �� by Identity Laws

b is left as exercise.

Note: We can also prove the equivalence in example 4.a using the truth table but one may find the
method illustrated above easier to use.

The laws of equivalences can also be used to show that a propositional form is a tautology or a
contradiction. The following example illustrates this.

Example 5
Show that (~�� ∨ ��) ∨ (�� ∧ ~��) is a tautology.

Solution 5

(~�� ∨ ��) ∨ (�� ∧ ~��) ≡ (~�� ∨ ��) ∨ (~�� ∧ ��)

 Commutative Laws ≡ ~�� ∨ [�� ∨ (~�� ∧
��)] Associative Laws
≡ ~�� ∨ [(�� ∨ ~��) ∧ (�� ∨ ��)] Distributive Laws
≡ ~�� ∨ [�� ∧ (�� ∨ ��)] Negation Laws
≡ ~�� ∨ (�� ∨ ��) Identity Laws
≡ ~�� ∨ (�� ∨ ��) Commutative Laws
≡ (~�� ∨ ��) ∨ �� Associative Laws
≡ �� ∨ �� Negation Laws
≡ �� Universal Bound Laws

Therefore, (~�� ∨ ��) ∨ (�� ∧ ~��) is a tautology.

75
Seatwork 5

Show that ~(~�� ∨ ��) ∧ (�� ∧ ~��) is a contradiction.

 76

Mathematics in the Modern World Name________________________________

77
Problem Set 4.2
Date: _______________ Section_______________ Score_________

1. Use either the truth table or the laws of equivalences to determine whether each statement is a
tautology, a contradiction, or neither.
a. (�� ∧ ��) ∧ ~��
b. [�� ∨ (�� ∧ ��)] ∨ ~��
c. �� ∨ ~(~�� ∨ ��)

2. Use the De Morgan’s laws to state the negation of the following statements.
a. I received a promotion and I did not buy a new car.
b. �� ≤ −�� or �� > ��
c. −�� < �� < ��

3. Use either the truth table or the laws of equivalences to prove that
(�� ∧ ~��) ∨ (�� ∧ ��) ≡ ��.

4. Supply the reason for each step to show the equivalence.

(�� ∨ ~��) ∧ (~�� ∨ ~��) ≡ (~�� ∨ ��) ∧ (~�� ∨ ~��) by
(a)_________________
≡ ~�� ∨ (�� ∧ ~��) by
(b)_________________
≡ ~�� ∨ �� by
(c)_________________
≡ ~�� by
(d)_________________

Therefore, (�� ∨ ~��) ∧ (~�� ∨ ~��) ≡ ~��.

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4.3 Conditional Statements

Sentences of the form “If ��, then ��” are the most important kind of propositions in
mathematics as well as in making a logical inference or deduction.
Conditional Statement
Let �� and �� be statements. A proposition of the form “If ��, then ��” is called a
conditional statement and is denoted symbolically by “�� → ��”; �� is called the antecedent
and �� is consequent. The conditional sentence �� → �� is true if and only if �� is false or
 �� is true.

The notation �� → �� indicates that → is a connective, like ∧ or ∨, that can be used to join
statements to create new statements. To define �� → �� as a statement, therefore, we must specify
the truth values for �� → ��. Consider an example.

Suppose your friend makes you the following promise: If you get the job, then I will treat you for a
dinner.

Under what circumstances are you justified in saying your friend spoke falsely? That is, under what
circumstances is the above sentence false? The answer is: You do get the job and she did not treat you for
a dinner. After all, your friend’s promise only says she will treat you for a dinner if a certain condition
(getting the job) is met; it says nothing about what will happen if the condition is not met. So if the
condition is not met, you cannot in fairness say the promise is false regardless of whether or not she
treated you for a dinner.

Hence it is safe to say that the only combination of circumstances in which you would call a
conditional sentence false occurs when the hypothesis is true and the conclusion is false. In all other
cases, you would not call the sentence false. This is shown in truth table.

The Truth Table for �� → ��

�� �� →
�� ��

TT T

TF F

FT T

FF T

Example 1
Determine the truth value of the following conditional statements.
a. If 2 is even, then 2 is not prime.
b. If today is Monday, then yesterday is Sunday.
c. If �� > ��, then �� + �� = ��.
d. If �� ≤ ��, then �� + �� ≤ ��.

Solution 1
a. This is a false statement because the antecedent is true and the consequent is false.

79
b and c are left as exercise.
d. We need only to check for when the antecedent is true. Since the consequent is true when the
antecedent is true, hence, the statement is true.

An Equivalent Form of �� → ��
The equivalent form of a conditional statement is occasionally used in everyday speech. This is also
called as the equivalent disjunctive form of a conditional.
An Equivalent form of �� → ��
�� → �� ≡ ~�� ∨ ��

Seatwork 1
Show that �� → �� ≡ ~�� ∨ �� using truth tables.

Solution for Seatwork 1

Example 2
Write the following in its equivalent disjunctive form.
a. If you do not get to work on time, then you are fired.
b. If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to class.

Solution 2
a. The equivalent disjunctive form is “You get to work on time or you are fired.”
b is left as exercise.

Common Forms of �� → ��
Every conditional statement �� → �� can be written in the following equivalent
forms. If ��, then ��. �� provided that ��.
Every �� is a ��. Not �� or ��.
If ��, ��. �� is a necessary condition for ��.
��, if ��. �� is a sufficient condition for ��.
�� only if ��. �� implies ��.

80