MINERALOGY
DEFINITION OF MINERALOGY
Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal
structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts.
Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation,
classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization.
Knowledge of mineralogy is necessary for a civil engineer because physical properties of rocks
are dependent upon the properties and composition of their constituent minerals.
Mineralogy is divided into 3 parts:
● Crystallography – the study of internal and external geometry of crystals.
● Chemical Mineralogy – the study of chemical structure and properties of minerals.
● Physical Mineralogy – the study of physical properties of minerals.
PROCESS OF MINERAL ORIGIN AND FORMATION
Minerals form under an enormous range of geologic conditions. There are probably more ways
to form minerals than there are types of minerals themselves. Some of these methods of mineral
formation will be discussed below.
Formation from Hot Material
A rock is a collection of minerals. Imagine a rock that becomes so hot it melts. Many
minerals start out in liquids that are hot enough to melt rocks. Magma is melted rock
inside Earth, a molten mixture of substances that can be hotter than 1,000oC. Magma
cools slowly inside Earth, which gives mineral crystals time to grow large enough to be
seen clearly.
Granite is rock that forms from slowly cooled
magma, containing the minerals quartz (clear),
plagioclase feldspar (shiny white), potassium
feldspar (pink), and biotite (black).
When magma erupts onto Earth’s surface,
it is called lava. Lava cools much more
rapidly than magma when it is below the
surface. In a cooling lava, mineral crystals
do not have time to form and are very
small. The chemical composition will be
the same as if the magma cooled slowly.
Formation from Solutions
Water on Earth, such as the water in the oceans, contains chemical elements mixed into a
solution. Various processes can cause these elements to combine to form solid mineral
deposits.
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Minerals from Salt Water
When water evaporates, it leaves behind a solid precipitate of minerals, as shown
in Figure below.
When the water in glass
A evaporates, the
dissolved mineral
particles are left behind.
Water can only hold a
certain amount of
dissolved minerals and salts. When the amount is too great to stay dissolved in the
water, the particles come together to form mineral solids, which sink. Halite
easily precipitates out of water, as does calcite.
Some lakes, such
as Mono Lake in
California (Figure
shown) or The
Great Salt Lake in
Utah, contain many
mineral
precipitates.
Minerals from Hot Underground Water
Magma heats nearby underground
water, which reacts with the rocks
around it to pick up dissolved
particles. As the water flows through
open spaces in the rock and cools, it
deposits solid minerals. The mineral
deposits that form when a mineral fills
cracks in rocks are called veins.
Quartz veins formed in this rock
(Figure above).
When minerals are deposited in open
spaces, large crystals form.
Amethyst formed when
large crystals grew in
open spaces inside the
rock. These special rocks
are called geodes.
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Minerals can also form in several other ways:
● Precipitation from aqueous solution (i.e., from hot water flowing underground,
from evaporation of a lake or inland sea, or in some cases, directly from seawater)
● Precipitation from gaseous emanations (e.g., in volcanic regions)
● Metamorphism — formation of new minerals directly from the elements within
existing minerals under conditions of elevated temperature and pressure
● Weathering — during which minerals unstable at Earth’s surface may be altered
to other minerals
● Organic formation — formation of minerals within shells (primarily calcite) and
teeth and bones (primarily apatite) by organisms (these organically formed
minerals are still called minerals because they can also form inorganically)
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS
Minerals are classified according to their chemical composition. This is important because one
of the major differences between the different types of minerals-forming geological
environments is their chemistry. This means that from a clear macroscopic property, like a
mineral’s cleavage, we can potentially know something about its structure, which we can relate
to its chemistry, and which we can use to know something about the geologic environment in
which it formed.
Classification of Minerals
1. Native Elements - simplest class of minerals. Composed of only one element that are
naturally occurring elements that have a crystalline structure. They are divided into
metals, semimetals, and nonmetals.
Metals:
● Silver
● Platinum
● Gold
● Copper
Semimetals:
● Bismuth
● Antimony
● Arsenic
● Selenium
● Tellurium
Nonmetals:
● Diamond
● Graphite
● Sulfur
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2. Oxides - the oxide class is restricted to minerals where one or more type of cation is
ionically bonded only to oxygen. Oxide minerals can be broken down into two groups:
❖ Simple Oxides: which only contains cations of identical charge.
Examples:
● Cuprite
● Periclase
● Hematite
● Rutile
● hydrogen oxide
❖ Spinels: which contain cations of dissimilar charge.
3. Halides - recognized by the presence of a halogen ion, those are halogen elements that
include chlorine and fluorine. The halides are the most ionic of the minerals and are
usually very soluble in water.
Halite, or sodium chloride, is a common halide mineral and it often precipitates during
the evaporation of seawater.
Examples:
● Fluorite
● Sylvite
4. Sulfides - are minerals that contain a single anion are the sulfides. Unlike the oxides and
halides, the bonding in sulfides is very complex and can range from ionic-covalent to
metallic-covalent depending on what it is bonding with.
Examples:
● Galena
● Sphalerite
● Pyrite
● Chalcopyrite
● Cinnabar
OXYANIONS - Minerals with polyatomic anions composed of some atom covalently
bonded to oxygen atoms.
5. Carbonates - recognized by the CO3 anionic group, means carbon that has three
oxygens. Are minerals that contain the carbonate anion. Carbonates are commonly found
in biogenic sedimentary rocks and evaporite deposits, or rocks composed of minerals
formed through the evaporation of natural waters.
Examples:
● Calcite - calcium carbonate that reacts with acid,
● Dolomite
6. Sulfates - closely related to sulfides because of having sulfur however in sulfates are
bonded with 4 oxygens. Gypsum or hydrated calcium sulfate, is a common sulfate
mineral that has been used for building and construction since ancient times.
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Examples:
● Anhydrite
● Barite
7. Phosphates - when a combination of one or more elements can fill a specific
crystallographic site in a mineral, it is called solid solution; hence it is said that there is
solid solution between each endmember of the apatite group, those being
hydroxyapatite, chlorapatite, and fluorapatite. Much of your daily calcium intake
from foods and vitamins goes toward the construction of hydroxyapatite for your bones
and teeth. In geology, apatite can be an accessory mineral in igneous rocks or a
component of certain sedimentary rocks that are rich in skeletal fragments like fish bones.
8. Silicates - most common minerals on earth they account for over 95% of the continental
crust and almost 100% of the oceanic crust. They are primarily built out of silicon oxygen
tetrahedra.
Two broad categories:
❖ LIGHT SILICATES
➢ Nonferromagnesian silicates
- “Ferro” Latin for Iron and “magnesian” is from magnesium.
Minerals that don’t have iron and magnesium.
● Examples: Quartz, Feldspar, Muscovite
❖ DARK SILICATES
➢ Ferromagnesian Silicates
- Minerals having Iron and Magnesium.
● Examples: Olivine, Pyroxene Group, Amphibole Group,
Biotite, Garnet
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS
Mineral deposits in Asia:
● Iron: India and China have large iron deposits
● Tin: Countries like China, Malaysia, and Indonesia are among the world’s leading tin
producers
● China leads in the development of lead, antimony, and tungsten
● Asia also has significant deposits of manganese, bauxite, nickel, zinc, and copper
Mineral deposits in Europe:
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● Europe is a leading producer of iron in the world. Nations with enormous stores of iron
are Russia, Ukraine, Sweden, and France
● Copper, lead, zinc, manganese, and nickel are found in eastern Europe and Russia
Mineral deposits in North America:
● Situated in three zones: the Canadian district north of the Great Lakes, the Appalachian
region and the mountain ranges of the west
● Canadian Shield Region: Iron mineral, nickel, gold, uranium, and copper
● Appalachians region: Coal
● Western Cordilleras: Dusting of copper, lead, zinc, gold, and silver
Mineral deposits in South America:
● Iron: Brazil is the largest producer of high-grade iron ore in the world
● Copper: Chile and Peru are driving producers of Copper
● Tin: Brazil and Bolivia are among the world’s biggest producers of tin
● South America has huge stores of minerals
Stores in Africa:
● Africa is known for being the world’s biggest producer of precious metals: Gold, and
platinum
● Nations, for example, South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Zaire produce a huge share of the
world’s gold
● Different minerals found in Africa are copper, iron, chromium, uranium, cobalt, and
bauxite
● Oil is ground in Nigeria, Libya, and Angola
Mineral deposits in Australia:
● Australia is the greatest creator of bauxite on earth
● It is the main producer of gold, iron, tin, and nickel
● It has rich deposits of copper, lead, zinc, and manganese
● Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie in Western Australia have the biggest stores of gold\
Mineral deposits in Antarctica:
● Stores of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains
● Iron, gold, silver, and oil are additionally present in business amounts
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UTILIZATION OF MINERALS
The naturally occurring elements or compounds called minerals occupy a major portion of the
earth's crust. The importance of minerals lies in the fact that whatever we use/see in our daily
life, be it toothpaste or a toothpaste factory, everything and anything is made from minerals.
These are not just used in the making of material things but are also present in the food we eat.
Hence, it would not be wrong to say that minerals are an indispensable part of human life.
To get a better idea about the types of minerals and their uses, let us classify the minerals into the
following two categories:
● Metallic minerals (copper, bauxite, gold etc.)
● Non-metallic minerals (fossil fuels, graphite etc.)
What Are Metallic Minerals?
Metallic Minerals, as the term implies, are minerals that have one or more metals in them. These
are excellent conductors of heat and electricity and often exist as mineral deposits.
These can further be classified into:
● Ferrous ores: These are the ores that contain iron as a major component. The most
common ferrous ore is hematite, which is used to make pig iron (a type of steel).
● Non-ferrous ores: Ores that do not have iron as a dominant component are called non-
ferrous ores. The most common example is copper ore, which is used to make brass and
bronze.
Uses of Metallic Minerals
Since metallic minerals are sources of metals, they are good conductors of heat and electricity.
This is why they find use in a wide range of industrial applications. The following are a few uses
of some important metallic minerals:
● Aluminum: Aluminum is the most abundant metallic mineral in the earth's crust. It is
extracted from bauxite ore. It finds application in a number of industries
including,Automobile industry Building industry Electrical industry Manufacture of cans,
bottles etc.
● Copper: It is another important metallic mineral that has a wide range of uses.It is used
in making machine parts, electronic components, electrical wires etc. Coins and jewelry
are also made using copper. Plant diseases can also be treated using copper compounds
● Gold: Gold is a metallic mineral that is very lustrous. It is primarily used in making
jewelry. Hence, it is also an economical mineral. Being an excellent conductor of
electricity, it is also used in the electronic industry.
Types of Metallic Minerals
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Based on their structure and formation, metallic minerals can be classified into two broad types -
igneous minerals and sedimentary minerals.
● Igneous minerals: These are the minerals that are formed from the solidification of
molten rocks called magma. The most common example is granite, which is used to make
countertops and tiles.
● Sedimentary Minerals: Minerals that are formed by the deposition of sediments (small
pieces of rocks and other material) are called sedimentary minerals. The most common
example is coal, which is used to produce electricity.
What Are Non-Metallic Minerals?
Non-metallic minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids that do not have metal content.
Non-metallic minerals are a special group of chemical elements from which no new product can
be generated if they are melted. The most common examples are coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.
which are used to obtain energy in the form of heat and electricity.
What Are The Uses of Non-Metallic Minerals?
Non-metallic minerals are used as building materials. Some of the most common examples
include brick, stone, glass etc. which are used for construction purposes. They also find use in
manufacturing chemicals that help in agricultural activities and treatment of water bodies. Non-
metallic minerals have the potential to produce energy, which has become increasingly important
in recent years. There are many uses of minerals outside the earth's crust, including construction
materials such as marble, slate, sandpaper and ceramic tiles; gemstones such as diamonds for use
in jewelry; and agricultural fertilizers.
Common Uses of Minerals in Construction
Minerals play a vital role in the construction industry, providing the necessary raw materials for
various building materials.
Concrete, one of the most widely used construction materials, relies heavily on minerals
such as limestone, clay, and gypsum.
Limestone is used as an aggregate in the production of concrete, while clay and gypsum
are essential components in the manufacturing of cement.
Another mineral used extensively in construction is sand. Sand is crucial in the
production of concrete and mortar, providing the required granular structure and stability.
Additionally, sand is used in the production of glass, which finds its application in
windows, doors, and other architectural elements.
Granite and marble are popular natural stones used in construction due to their durability
and aesthetic appeal. These stones are commonly employed in the construction of
countertops, flooring, and decorative features, adding elegance and sophistication to
buildings.
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Lastly, asphalt, a mixture of aggregates, binders, and fillers, is widely used in road
construction.
Economic Uses of Minerals
As far as economic uses of minerals are concerned, non-metallic minerals or energy minerals
mainly serve the purpose. They are used in the agriculture industry, transportation industry,
power industry etc.
Apart from non-metallic minerals, precious metals like gold, silver and platinum also have great
economic importance.
Energy minerals like coal, petroleum, natural gas are the basic fuels and are used in thermal
power generation, automobile engines, cosmetic industries, manufacture of synthetic rubber and
much more. Ever wondered, what are the roads that we walk on or the houses that we live in are
made from? These are made from construction minerals like sand, gravel, clay or crushed rocks
that are used in the manufacture of bricks, concrete etc.
The uses of mineral resources are immense and the depletion of minerals can create a serious
impact on human life.
BSCE 2 Schedule 1 (GEOL 1, 10-12 WED)
Group 6 - Mineralogy (1st Reporters)
Charlotte Saludo
Cedrick Jess Nebril
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Carl Joshua Cardo
John Christian Baltazar
Reynold Ituriaga
References:
https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/technological-institute-of-the-philippines/engineering-
geology/module-2/33309910
https://unacademy.com/content/upsc/study-material/indian-geography/geography-class-8-
distribution-of-minerals/
https://www.vedantu.com/chemistry/uses-of-minerals
https://geo.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/Book%3A_Earth_Science_(Lumen)/
03%3A_Minerals/3.06%3A_Mineral_Formation
https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/2-5-formation-of-minerals/
https://hamed-geo.com/minerals-used-in-construction/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=A11b6tORIcM&pp=ygUaY2xhc3NpZmljYXRpb24gb2YgbWluZXJhbHM%3D
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ugdXW98JKxo&t=289s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-
7byaEmBs98&t=740s&pp=ygUaY2xhc3NpZmljYXRpb24gb2YgbWluZXJhbHM%3D
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