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Linear Transforma�ons

video: Matrices as linear transforma�ons

A method to change a set of values

linear transforma�on: method to change the value of a set points to a new set of
points

• as we have seen before a matrix can be mul�plied by a vector,

• hence matrix can be used to perform linear transforma�ons,
• a vector can be a linear coordinate,
• hence, we can perform linear transforma�on using matrices and mulitple vectors

example:

• if we were to see a square as it’s ver�ces and the ver�ces a set of vectors,
we can perform a linear transforma�on on the square
• for this we mul�ply each ver�ce with the matrix, the resultant ver�ces will form a
parallelogram

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• if we were to now imagine the en�re plane as our set of points,

• the en�re plane will transform

• in this new plane we can a find a point from the original plane by naviga�ng the
same through the transformed points as we navigated through the original points

video: Linear transforma�ons as matrices

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• ini�ally, we turned a matrix into a linear transforma�on

• now, we will derive a matrix from a linear transforma�on

example

• suppose the transforma�on below

• from the vectors above we only need 2 fundamental vectors, (0, 1)&(1, 0)

• the vectors transforma�on to the mystery matrix is this

? ? 0 2
• [ ][ ] = [ ]
? ? 1 3

? ? 1 3
• [ ][ ] = [ ]
? ? 0 −1

• the matrix is very simple to derive,

1
• the first col. is determined by [ ] 's transforma�on
0

3
which here is [ ]
−1

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? ? 3 ?
• hence, [ ]=[ ]
? ? −1 ?

0 3 ? 3 2
• the 2nd col is vice versa but with [ ] hence, [ ]=[ ]
1 −1 ? −1 3

Ungraded Plugin: further examples [linear

transforma�ons]

video: Matrix mul�plica�on

combining Linear transforma�ons into one

• Suppose a linear transforma�on occurring on a square twice from two different

matrices,

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• we know how to calc. the final matrix that can transform the ini�al square into the
final one,

• but how can we derive the final matrix from the prev. two?

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• for this we mul�ply the two matrices

for mul�plica�on we use the dot products of the vectors present in the matrices

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video: The iden�ty matrix

special matrix I

• It is a special matrix I

• where any matrix M when mul�plied by it is unchanged

1 0 0 0 …
0 1 0 0 …
I= 0 0 1 0 …
0 0 0 1 …
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱

M ×I =M

• it is considered the number 1 for matrices

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• the reason is that the 1′ s correspond to the values in the other matrix’s row and dot
products only leave behind one value

Linear transforma�on with I

• the points remain unchanged

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video: Matrix inverse

• when we think of an inverse number we think of mul�plying it by the number and

ge�ng 1

a × a−1 = 1

• similarly, can be thought for matrices,

M × M −1 = I

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• An inverse is a linear transforma�on matrix is such with which when mul�plied the
transforma�on will revert back to its original form

finding the inverse

• we can perform classic linear eqns to solve for inverse matrix

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example solu�ons

solu�on 1

No Inverse?

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video: Which matrices have an inverse?

not every number has an inverse

• we are aware of the fact that not every number has an inverse such as 0
• the same can be said for matrices

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“A singular matrix has NO inverse”

• a.k.a, A matrix with a zero determinant has no inverse

Bases in Linear Algebra

Defina�on

• Basis: Any 2 set of vectors that can reach any point on the plane

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• if all of these are bases, then what are not bases?

Not Bases

• set of vectors that cannot reach a point in the graph cant be considered bases

as seen, in the plane one point is reached, the other cannot be reached by those
same vectors

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Span in Linear Algebra

Defina�on

• Span: the set of points that can be reached by a set of vectors

> The span of the above 2 vectors is Here the span is the line which
the en�re plane encompasses both vectors

Another example of linear span

Are these vectors basis now?

In Linear Span

• The set of vectors which define these linear spans, can they be considered their

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basis?
• No, A basis is considered A minimal spanning set
• Which means that it should contains as few vectors as possible, and any redundant
element must be expelled

• All of these individual vectors can be considered a Basis, but not anymore than one,
• Hence, A linear Span can only have one vector as it’s Basis

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• And more than one vector for a linear Span is NOT a Basis

In Planar Span

• Same for planar Span

• 2 is Basis for en�re plane, 3 is Not

Rela�on b/w dimension of Span and # of vectors

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Linearly [in]dependant vectors

• In order to understand the why this is the case we have to revise the concept of
linear dependence,
• Vectors that can be obtained from other vectors are linearly dependence

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Example

• This 3-eqn system is linearly dependent,

• As one of them is derived from other two,
• However the 2-eqn system combina�ons using these vectors are all independent

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Basis: A formal defini�on

We derived that:

• N - dimensional Span → N vectors,

• All of those vectors must be “linearly independent”

Interac�ve Tool For Span

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Planar Span in 3-D due to linear dependence

complete cubic Span due to linear independent vectors

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Eigenbases

Be�er Basis?

• Suppose these linear Transforma�ons below,

Fig.1 Fig.2

• The difference b/w the two is of the Basis,

• Fig.1 uses the fundamental bases to describe the linear Transforma�on

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• Fig.2 uses two bases to describe the linear Transforma�on

• However in Fig.2, the the vectors transformed stay parallel
• Because of this, It is now easier to describe the tranforma�on

• Now we can describe the tranforma�on as a

◦ ×2 scaling Horz.
◦ ×3 scaling Diag.

• Hence the basis in Fig.2 are more suited / useful than the fundamental bases as
there is no changing of direc�on,

Use case

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• Look at the point above,

• The point was transformed by a matrix
• It is now in a new direc�on
• Since we used the eigenbases, the transforma�on is now easier to describe

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

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• The image above shows 3 vectors,

• All three of them are transformed by a matrix,
• Two of them don’t change their direc�on
• One of them does,
• The two, that don’t change are Eigenvectors

• Eigenvectors are the the vectors that don’t change their direc�on a�er a linear
transforma�on is done on them by a matrix,
• Instead, they change their length/magnitude by a certain scale,
• This scale/constant is called Eigenvalue
• Both Eigenvectors & Eigenvalues come in pairs,

A set of Eigenvectors can be called Eigenbases

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Less Work?

• Since eigenvectors don’t require a complete matrix mul�plica�on for

transforma�on, they also require less work,
• Instead of a matrix mul�plica�on we can perform a scalar mul�plica�on

On non-Eigenvectors

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• Since the Eigenvectors are also the basis for the plane, any non-Eigenvector, can be
expressed through them
• now instead of the mul�plying the non-Eigenvector w/ matrix, we can mul�ply the
Eigenvectors w/ matrix

the Eigenvectors w/ matrix mul�plica�on is already done, subs�tute it in the

below equa�on

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subsituted, and now simple scalar mul�plica�on

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[! NOTE]:
There is s�ll calcula�on required for calcula�ng the eigenvectors of a matrix,
It can however be useful for mass linear transforma�on as now not every vector
requires a matrix mul�plica�on, a�er Eigenvectors, they require a scalar
mul�plica�on

Correct! By using the eigenvalues you found λ1 = 11, λ2 = 1, you solve the system of

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equa�ons to find the eigenvectors.

9 4
[ ] ⋅ [ ] = 1[ ]
x x
4 3 y y

Therefore, solving the linear system, you get the rela�on

x = 2y

So, any (x, y) sa�sfying such rela�on is an eigenvector. In this case, x=2,y=12x=2,y=21
2
sa�sfies. So, the vector [ ] is an eigenvector for the matrix. For the next eigenvalue, we
1
have to solve the following set of equa�ons:

9 4
[ ] ⋅ [ ] = 1[ ]
x x
4 3 y y

Leading to the following rela�onship between x and y :

2x = −y

−1
And x = −1, y = 2 sa�sfies such rela�on, so the vector [ ] is also an eigenvector
2
for the matrix.

Calcula�ng Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Other sources: Source1-invidious, Source1-YT

Fig 2.1 Fig 2.2

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Fig 2.3 Fig 2.4

2 1
• Look at the matrix [ ] above,
0 3

2 0 3 0
• In Fig 2.1 and Fig 2.2, when comparing with the matrices [ ] and [ ]
0 2 0 3
some vectors are transforming in the same direc�on in both the comparisons

• The transforma�ons are intersec�ng at infinitely many points, something non-

singular is happening

• When looking at their differences they are non-singular

2 1 3 0 −1 1
[ ]−[ ]=[ ]
0 3 0 3 0 0

2 1 2 0 0 1
[ ]−[ ]=[ ]
0 3 0 2 0 1

non-singular aka. det(M − N) = 0

• What is also common above is that the matrices are also 3I, 2I respec�vely,

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• Hence the coeff. 3, 2 are λ “Eigenvalues” (N = λI)

• Hence we have determined:
◦ that for a Matrix M , determinant of it’s difference with the eigenvalue iden�ty
matrix product is zero,

det(M − λI) = 0

Finding Eigenvalues

• Via the equa�on determined above, we can now calculate Eigenvalues of any Matrix
• Using the Eigenvalues we can calculate the Eigenvector as well

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Example

9 4
Suppose a Matrix [ ]
4 3

Calcula�ng Eigenvalues

det(M − λI) = 0

9 4 1 0
• det([ ] − λ[ ]) = 0
4 3 0 1

9−λ 4
• det([ ]) = 0
4 3−λ

• (9 − λ)(3 − λ) − 16 = 0

• λ2 − 12λ + 11 = 0

λ = 1, 11 ← Eigenvalues

Calcula�ng Eigenvectors

For λ =1:

M v = λv
M v − λv = 0

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(M − λ)v = 0
(M − λI)v = 0, (Iden�ty matrix used as it is equal to one)

9 4 x
[ ][ ] = 1[ ]
x
4 3 y y

([ ])[ ] = 0
9 4 1 0
] − 1[
x
4 3 0 1 y

8 4 x
[ ][ ] = 0
4 2 y

• Now there are Infinite Eigenvectors to this solu�on, as have seen previously,
• We just want the rela�on b/w x & y , and show a simple Eigenvector where x =1

8x + 4y = 0,
4x + 2y = 0,

2x = −y,
2x = −y,

1
x=1→[ ]
−2

1
[ ] ←Eigenvector
−2

For λ = 11 :

([ ])[ ] = 0
9 4 1 0
] − 11 [
x
4 3 0 1 y

−2 4
[ ][ ] = 0
x
4 −8 y

−2x + 4y = 0,
4x − 8y = 0,
x = 2y

1
if: x =1→[ ]
2

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1
[ ] ←Eigenvector
2

Example w/ 3x3 Matrix

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On the Number of Eigenvectors

Always dis�nct eigenvalues & vectors?

• Previously we saw 3x3 Matrix with 3 dis�nct eigenvalues with 3 dis�nct

eigenvectors
• But is that always the case?

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Repeated eigenvalues - Example 1

• Here the Matrix has only 2 dis�nct eigenvalues

1st eigenvalue 2nd eigenvalue

• However with 2nd eigenvalue we get 2 unique eigenvectors

• This is due to in the eqn "x1 = 2x2 − 0.5x3 " we first assume
◦ x2 = 1 then,
◦ x1 = 1

Hence,

(3 × 3) → 2Eval → 3Evec

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Repeated eigenvalues - Example 2

• 2 dis�nct eigenvalues

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1st eigenvalue 2nd eigenvalue

• However 2nd eigenvalue now only has 1 eigenvector

Hence,

(3 × 3) → 2Eval → 2Evec

Summary

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• The more dis�nct the eigenvalues are the more certainty of:
n × n ⟹ #nEvec

meaning that a n×n matrix will more likely have #no. eigenvectors

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