Germination

• The re-growth of the embryo

after a period of dormancy, if
the environmental conditions
are suitable
• Germination is the start of the
process of an embryo developing
into a adult plant.
• Dormancy causes the embryo to
halt its growth. So, germination
means that this growth resumes.
• Environmental factors play key roles
in seed germination. Favorable
environmental conditions must exist
for successful germination.
• Critical factors for germination
include moisture, air, optimal
temperatures, and possibly light or
darkness.
Environmental Conditions for the
germination of a typical seed.
Seeds require a combination of:
• Moisture or water
• Oxygen
• Temperature
• Light
Moisture or water
Water is an essential factor to
trigger off the process of seed
germination
Dry seeds do not germinate.
Germination cannot occur unless
and until the seed is provided
with an external supply of water.
• A dormant seed is generally
dehydrated and contains hardly 6-15%
water in its living cells. The active
cells, however, require about 75-95%
of water for carrying out their
metabolism. Therefore, the dormant
seeds must absorb external water to
become active and show germination.
Water is absorbed by a dry seed
through the micropyle and the
seed coat.
Water performs a number of
functions during the
germination of seeds, where:
(a) It softens seed coats causes
their rupturing, increases
permeability. Increased
permeability allows better
gaseous exchange.
(b) Water activates the
protoplasm of the seed cells.
(c) Converts the insoluble food into
soluble form for its translocation to
the embryo where it diffuses from
the storage region to the embryo
axis.
(d) Several enzymes which are
essential for growth and
germination activate only in
the presence of water so,
water is necessary for
enzymes to work (to
metabolically activate the
cells)
(e) Water is also sometimes
needed to leach away a
germination inhibitors within
the seed. The inhibitor is
often abscisic acid (ABA).
Oxygen
• Aeration of the soil is absolutely
necessary for the germination of
the seed because oxygen is
necessary for the cellular aerobic
respiration by which the seeds get
the requisite energy for the
growth of the embryo (converting
stored food into energy).
• The germinating seeds obtain this
oxygen from the air contained in the
soil. It is for this reason that most
seeds sown deeper in the soil or in
water-logged soils (i.e. oxygen
deficient) often fail to germinate
due to insufficient oxygen.
• Ploughing and hoeing aerate the soil
and facilitate good germination.
Temperature
• Extremely low or cold temperature is
not favorable for seed germination.
They prefer higher temperatures. The
germination rate of seed is directly
proportional to the rise in temperature.
• Suitable temperature is necessary
for enzymes to work (for optimal
function of enzymes).
• Plant species have evolved whereby
their seeds germinate within a
certain range of temperatures.
• Temperature influences the speed
of metabolic activities within the
seed. In general, metabolism is
faster when temperatures are warm
than when temperatures are cool.
• Moderate warmth is necessary for
the vital activities of protoplasm,
and, therefore, for seed
germination. Though germination
can take place over a wide range of
temperature (5-40°C), the optimum
for most of the crop plants is around
25-30°C. The germination in most
cases stops at 0°C and over 45°C.
Light

• Seeds of some plants need exposure

to light before they will germinate.
Seeds of other plants require
darkness in order to germinate, and
there are those that are not
influenced by light or darkness.
Plants differ as to the effect of light on
their germination where:
• Seeds of many plants are light
indifferent or nonphotoblastic, i.e., their
germination is not influenced by the
presence or absence of light. Most of
our important crop plants belong to this
category.
• Other seeds are affected by light and described as
photoblastic
The photoblastic seeds are of two types:
1. The positively photoblastic seeds: require light for
germination, e.g., lettuce, tobacco, many grasses
and several epiphytes.
These seeds require the red portion of the light
spectrum, while far red light inhibits germination.
Many small seeds with low amounts of storage
reserves (such as lettuce) show such a red light
requirement
• These seeds must not be buried below the
soil so deeply that light cannot penetrate.
Although research suggests that even a
few minutes of exposure will allow the
germination to occur
• Seeds that are light sensitive have a
photoreceptor pigment, called
phytochrome, found in the seed coat or
cytoplasm. This pigment sends
messages to the seed instructing it to
initiate or to stop germination.
• Phytochrome senses the presence of red
light. The red-absorbing form of
phytochrome changes to the far-red
absorbing form when it absorbs red light
(660 nm) and back again when it absorb
far-red light (730 nm). Thus the presence
of the far-red form of phytochrome ends
the inhibition of germination in these
seeds
2. The negatively photoblastic: cannot
germinate in the presence of light e.g.,
Tomato, Onion, Lily, etc.
Other Factors Affecting Germination
Process of Seeds:
• Soil: During growth, seeds require mineral
elements for further growth which is obtained
from the soil.
• Viability of the seeds: After the seeds are
formed, they remain viable up to certain
period which may vary from plant to plant or
seed to seed. Many seeds die or incapable of
supporting growth after a certain period of
time.
• Dormancy period: Many seeds do not germinate
abruptly after they are produced. Certain seeds
undergo a resting time through which they stay
dormant and germinate when conditions are
favourable. Presence of growth inhibitors like abscisic
acid induce dormancy in seeds.
• Thinness or thickness of seed coat: Different seeds
have varying degrees of thickness. Seeds with a thin
seed coat tend to germinate faster than those with
thicker seed coats.
Stages in Germination
• Imbibitions:
The initial step in the development of seed
germination is to absorb water or imbibitions
The seed absorbs water and as a result it
swells. The swelling of seed causes the seed
coat to rupture and allows the radicles to move
downward forming the root.
• Respiration:
When the seed absorbs water, it also respires.
While in the beginning the respiration is
anaerobic and later it becomes aerobic.
 Steps in Germination I
• Water and oxygen is absorbed through the
micropyle.
• This activates enzymes which digest
Fats → Glycerol and Fatty Acids
Starch → Sugars
Proteins → Peptides and amino acids
• The products of digestion are moved to the
embryo.
 Steps in Germination II

• Embryo undergoes rapid metabolism

fuelled by the products of digestion.
• Aerobic respiration results in the food
reserve getting used up.
• Mass of the seed drops as carbon dioxide
is produced and diffuses out of the cell.
 Stages in Germination III

• Cell growth and division

• Differentiation of cells into tissues and organs
– Root system from the radicle
– Shoot system from the plumule
• Photosynthesis begins as shoots and leaves
develop
• Finally, the mass of the seedling increases
when:
rate of photosynthesis > rate of respiration
 Changes in dry mass of the germinating seed:
Answer the Click to
Seed loses weight as it uses up listen to an
question on the
starch stores in the cotyledons explanation
worksheet
as the seedling cannot
photosynthesise yet

Dry mass/g
Weight increases as
the seedling can
photosynthesise and
Dry mass is the plant grows
mass of solid
matter with all
water removed

Days

Flower Structure Pollination Fruit Development Seed Dispersal Germination Test

 Whilst germinating the plant uses food stores in the
cotyledon to provide energy for growth

The seedling can now

light photosynthesise and
make its own food

germination Plant growth and development

soil
Flower Structure Pollination Fruit Development Seed Dispersal Germination Test
Metabolic processes during germination of a
starchy seed.
•The metabolic events of seed
germination:
a) Water absorbed and the
activation of cotyledon cells
b) Synthesis of gibberellin which is a
plant growth substance.
c) The gibberellin brings about the
synthesis of the carbohydrase
enzyme amylase

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

 d) Starch is hydrolysed to
maltose before being
absorbed by the embryonic
plant
e) The maltose can be further
hydrolysed to glucose for
respiration on polymerised to
cellulose for cell wall
formation.

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall
The seed contains the embryo plant and cotyledons
(starch stores)
Testa Water enters the seed
through the micropyle
and activates enzymes.
Plumule
(embryo shoot)

The water also softens the

testa to allow it to split.

Radicle
(embryo root) Label the diagram of
the seed

Micropyle Cotyledon

Flower Structure Pollination Fruit Development Seed Dispersal Germination Test

 Enzymes are used in seed germination
Plumule

The enzymes break

starch down into
starch maltose and then
glucose. The glucose is
used in respiration to
amylase
provide energy for
secreted
embryo plant growth

maltose

Radicle
This is the first part to
grow out of the seed
as it needs to absorb
more water

Flower Structure Pollination Fruit Development Seed Dispersal Germination Test

Germination Types
Epigeal germination
• Epigeal germination implies that
the cotyledons are pushed above ground.
The hypocotyl (part of the stem below the
cotyledon) elongates while the epicotyl (part
of the stem above the cotyledon) stays the
same length. In this way, the hypocotyl
pushes the cotyledon upward
• In this, the cotyledons are raised out of the
soil and generally become green and
photosynthetic. In dicots, they are pushed up
by rapid extension of hypocotyl before
growth of the epicotyl. Epigeal germination
occurs in castor, sunflower etc.
Hypogeal germination
• Hypogeal germination implies that
the cotyledons stay below the ground.
The epicotyl (part of the stem above the
cotyledon) grows, while the hypocotyl (part of
the stem below the cotyledon) stays the same
length. In this way, the epicotyl pushes the
plumule above the ground
• In this type of genmination, the cotyledons
remain underground. Hypocotyl growth is
restricted. The epicotyl grows to raise the
first leaves out of the soil. Hypogeal
germination occurs in dicotyledenous seeds
of broad bean, pea, mango, ground nut etc
and in monocotyledons like rice, maize,
wheat etc.