Week 03: Site Investigation – lll

CV3013: Foundation Engineering

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Dr Yi Yaolin
Assistant Professor, CEE
Office: N1-1C-94
Email: [email protected]
Phone: 6790-6309
Week 03: Topics

Overview

Subsurface
exploration or drilling
Planning and In-situ testing
requirements methods
Soil sampling and Geophysical
laboratory testing methods
Groundwater
monitoring

2
Topic 1: Pressuremeter Test (PMT)
and Dilatometer Test
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Pressuremeter Test

Pressure

The pressuremeter consists of three cylindrical rubber

cells. Gas

Water Volume
The& cells are lowered into the borehole. The central indicator

cell expands against the borehole wall aided by air or

water pressure. During the expansion, it also records
-

the applied pressure and cell volume increase.

Guard cell
Soil
under Measuring cell
test
Guard cell
(Sheath)
Borehole
Knappett & Craig 2012
4
Pressuremeter Test

Pressure
a
The two- outer guard cells expand under the
same pressure without any volume ② Gas

measurement. It functionally- eliminates end Water Volume

effects, ensuring a state of plane strain
J -
indicator

adjacent to the measuring cell.

The membrane of a pressuremeter may be

Guard cell
① protected against possible damage by a thin
Soil
stainless steel sheath with longitudinal cuts. under Measuring cell
① test
They are designed to cause only negligible Guard cell

resistance to the expansion of the cell. (Sheath)

Borehole
Knappett & Craig 2012
5
Pressuremeter Test

Soil disturbance adjacent to a

- Pressuremeter Gage
Test (PMT)
borehole is inevitable due to boring
- ASTM D 4719 Tubing

process. Temporary Screw pump: Rubber membrane of

casing Each full rotation of probe expands as a right
piston cylinder forces an cylinder. Evaluated per
incremental volume of cylindrical cavity
Results of pressuremeter tests in pre- Pressuremeter water (or gas or oil) into expansion theory.
probe the PMT probe.
formed holes can be sensitive to the d = 73 mm Measure corresponding
Plot pressure versus
volume change V (or
L = 440mm pressure at each
method of boring. increment.
alternatively, volumetric
strain or cavity strain) to
Drill rod (“N”
or “A” type) find pressuremeter
parameters
Self-boring pressuremeter (SBPM) can Prebored hole Lower probe into P0 = Lift-off pressure
& pre-bored hole and E = Elastic modulus
overcome this problem. It is suitable in expand with Tmax = Shear strength
pressurised water PL = Limit pressure
most types of soil with special
insertion techniques required for sand.
6
Pressuremeter Test

Components of Control
Unit
a pressuremeter SPAD
Data Logger

Volumeter
Pressure
gauges

Inflated probe
Lines
in the air

Gas Cylinder Pressure

Regulator

7
Pressuremeter Test

Source: [Hakan Kuru]. (2016, Apr 30). Pressuremeter Test / Presiyometre Testi [Video
file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N93q1e7ITiE
8
Pressuremeter Test

Soil parameters: Derived from cell pressure and cell volume change (or cavity strain) using
-

theoretical model (cavity expansion) rather than empirical correlations

- -

① ②
Fine-grained soils: Undrained, no volume change
- -

& ① ③
Coarse-grained soils: Drained, volume change, dilatancy
- - -

Knappett & Craig 2012 9

Pressuremeter Test in Fine-grained Soils

• Pressuremeter test of cavity pressure versus cavity strain c data is plotted, from which
shear modulus, G, and in-situ horizontal total stress (lift-off pressure), h0, can be
directly determined.
• In practice, G is obtained from unloading–reloading cycle, thereby ensuring that soil
remains in an- ‘elastic’ state during unloading. This condition will be satisfied if the
reduction in pressure during unloading stage is less than 2 .
-
DP
reduction pressure
in .

<2

d
2 =
d

Knappett & Craig 2012

10
Pressuremeter Test in Fine-grained Soils

To obtain the undrained shear strength, c , cavity strains are converted into
volumetric strain (dV/V).
Plot against ln(dV/V). A straight line is fitted to data, the gradient of which is c .

1
=1
1+

Knappett & Craig 2012 11

Pressuremeter Test in Coarse-grained Soils

Plot cavity pressure versus cavity strain – Lift-off pressure defines . If the following is
completely unloaded, cavity pressure at which returns to zero represents the initial
pore pressure ( 0). Unload-reload cycles are usually conducted to determine G.
It is common to correct cavity pressures by subtracting u0 to give effective cavity pressure
( – 0). Lift-off pressure represents .

d
=
d

Direct in determination , h0 and 0 in coarse-grained soils from pressuremeter

test data: (left) uncorrected curve, (right) corrected for pore pressure 0. Knappett & Craig 2012 12
Pressuremeter Test in Coarse-grained Soils

To determine the strength parameters ( , ), replot data on different axes as

log( – 0) vs. log( ).
• Fit data with straight line
• Gradient is defined as s
and can be estimated using:

=
1+ 1
= + 1
: critical state angle of shearing resistance

Knappett & Craig 2012 13

Pressuremeter Test in Coarse-grained Soils

max). Its interpretation relies on .

Determination from drained triaxial tests on loose samples is recommend such that the peak
and critical state strengths are coincident ( is independent of density). In case it is
unavailable, the value may be estimated from the index test data.

Correlation of with index properties for coarse-grained soil.

Knappett & Craig 2012
14
Dilatometer Test

The measurement and principle of operation along with the properties of the
Dilatometer test (DMT) or flat dilatometer test is similar to the PMT. It involves
expanding a cavity within the soil to determine its mechanical properties.

0 1

1.1 mm

Source: Courtesy of Studio Prof. Marchetti 15

Topic 2: Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Cone Penetration Test

Soft=Easy Hard=Hard

17
Cone Penetration Test

Diagrammatic representation
of the CPT equipment

18
Cone Penetration Test: Components of Penetrometer

3
The penetrometer consists of a short cylindrical element which
has a cone in the end.

Penetrometer
fs
Friction
The cone has an apex angle of 60° and a cross-sectional area sleeve
of 10 cm2. 2
Nominal
Cone
cone area 1

= 1000 mm2
The penetrometer is pushed vertically into the ground at a qc
constant rate of 2 cm/s.

The load cell records resistance to cone penetration (tip

resistance qc) and the friction sleeve measures the interface
shearing resistance (fs).

More sophisticated piezocones (CPTU) measure excess pore

water pressures around cone, commonly behind cone (u2).
19
Cone Penetration Test

Source: [Geologische Dienst NL TNO]. (2012, Nov 06). Cone penetration test movie
[Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cvu9iBSnQYo 20
Cone Penetration Test

Multi-functional cone

Seismic piezocone: Shear wave velocity (VS)

Electrical resistivity cone
pH cone
Temperature cone
Visual cone
...and so on

Download the pdf and click the image to watch the video. 21
Cone Penetration Test: Seismic Cone Penetration Testing

Source: [Vertek CPT]. (2014, Apr 25). Seismic CPT via VTK and HT Cones [Video file].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s6Rm_zHICXI&t=1s 22
Cone Penetration Test: Push Equipment Examples
Here are a few examples of the pushing equipment used to perform CPT on land.

Source: Courtesy of Prof An-Bin Huang, National Chiao Tung University

23
Cone Penetration Test: Cone Family
The images below show the different kinds of cones and penetrometers used to perform CPT.

T-bar and ball: Full flow penetrometers

Standard T-bar Ball

10 cm2 penetrometer penetrometer
cone 100 cm2 100cm2

Source: Guide to Cone Penetration Testing for Geotechnical

Engineering, Figure 8

24
Cone Penetration Test: Offshore

Source: [SEES media]. (2013, June 12). Offshore geotechnical tests, Cone Penetration Test
(CPT) [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=maJc_YrvovQ 25
Cone Penetration Test: Vision Cone Penetrometer
The Vision Cone Penetrometer (VisCPT) was developed to visually observe the soil during CPT. The
tools shown here are used for VisCPT.

Source: http://www-personal.umich.edu/~romanh/viscpt/viscpt.htm

26
Cone Penetration Test

Courtesy of Prof Tong L.

27
Cone Penetration Test

Partially Silty
Saturated Fine
Sand Sand

Saturated Silty
Sand Clay

Silty
Sand Silt

Courtesy of Prof Cai G.

VisCPT

28
Cone Penetration Test

CPT on the Moon, courtesy of Prof Huang A.-B.

29
Cone Penetration Test

CPT is a quick and relatively cheap in-situ testing method. This method does not leave a large void
in the ground.

CPT data is most effective at ‘filling in the gaps’ between widely spaced boreholes.

It is much more sophisticated than Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and Field Vane Test (FVT) as
they can only measure a single parameter. CPT measures more than two independent parameters
(qc, fs, u2, Vs).

Unlike SPT, FVT or Pressuremeter Test (PMT), where measurements are only taken at discrete
points, CPT measures continuously, by using interpolated soil profile. It may also help to determine
the complete variation of correlated soil properties with depth.

30
Cone Penetration Test
Determine a wide range of geotechnical parameters,
Identify stratigraphy and materials for example, strength, stiffness, state and consolidation
present in ground. parameters directly in design of deep foundations.

Thrust
machine
(CPT truck)

Push rods
20 mm/s

Penetrometer Friction sleeve

Cone
31
Cone Penetration Test

(MPa) (kPa) 2 (kPa)

0 1 2 3 4 5
00 50 100 150 200 00 500 1000 1500
0 0
Crust layer
2 2 2
2
4 4 4
Site A Site A Site A 4
Site B Site B 6 Site B
6 6 6
Site C Site C Site C
8

Depth (m)
8 8 8 Muck layer
Depth (m)

10 10 10
10
12 12 12
12
14 14 14
14
16 16 16 Silt layer
16
18 18 18 Clay layer
18
20 20 20
(a) (b) (c)

32
Cone Penetration Test

Different types of soil exhibit different

proportions of fs to qc
For example, gravels have low fs and high
qc, while clays have high fs and low qc

Robertson (1990) proposed a chart to

identify soil types based on normalised
versions of these parameters (Qt and Fr)

= + (1 )
: area correction factor, 0.5 – 0.9
33
Cone Penetration Test

As per Robertson (1990) chart,

boundaries between zones 2–7 are close
to being circular arcs with an origin
around top left corner of the plot.
Robertson and Wride (1998) quantified
the radius of these arcs by Ic.

Proper care must be taken as the

quantified radius will not correctly
identify types 1, 8 and 9.

= 3.47 + + 1.22

34
Cone Penetration Test

The different types of soil experience

different u2.
Coarse-grained soils exhibit little u2 due to
high permeability while fine-grained soils
exhibit larger u2, heavily over consolidated
soils may exhibit negative u2.

Using Robertson (1990) chart, pore water

pressure measurement provides a third
continuous parameter to identify soil types.

35
Cone Penetration Test: Interpretation

Coarse-grained soils

It is not necessary to correct qc for pore pressure

effects (qc t).

The fs is small and of little use in the interpretation

of soil properties.

The correct qc for overburden stresses can be

calculated by using qc v0)0.5 from which ID can be
estimated using empirical correlation:
qc
ID D E log 0.5
'
vo

'
qc and vo are in kPa, D and E are empirical coefficients,
related to soil compressibility
36
Cone Penetration Test: Interpretation

Coarse-grained soils

For silica sands of average compressibility, D = –1.21

and E = 0.584.

For highly compressible silica sands, D may be as

high as –1.06, while for very low compressibility
soils D may be as low as –1.36.

The value of E is insensitive to soil compressibility.

qc
ID D E log 0.5
'
vo

37
Cone Penetration Test: Interpretation

Coarse-grained soils

CPT data can be correlated against Ø'max.

Data related to NC silica sands from Mayne (2007)

shows very low scatter for soils with low fines
content. Best-fit lines for use in interpretation:

' qc
max 6.6 11log 0.5
'
vo

'
max in degree
'
qc and vo kPa

38
Cone Penetration Test: Interpretation

Fine-grained soils

CPT is most commonly used to assess

in-situ cu of clay.
It should always be calibrated against
other tests (for example,
Unconsolidated-Undrained (UU) test,
FVT) in a given material.

Once calibration has been done, CPT can be directly

used to determine cu at other locations within the same
geological unit.

For basic CPT: =

: Calibration factor
39
Cone Penetration Test: Interpretation

Fine-grained soils

For CPTU, qt replaces qc, Nk replaces Nkt: =

Nkt is a function of pore

=
pressure parameter Bq:

The reference value of cu is that from UU triaxial

compression tests.

40
Cone Penetration Test: Interpretation

Fine-grained soils

CPTU can estimate effective stress strength parameter, max.

Mayne and Campanella (2005) suggested that max can be correlated to normalised cone
resistance Qt and Bq:

= =

.
29.5 0.256 + 0.366 + log

41
Cone Penetration Test: Interpretation

Fine-grained soils

CPT can be used to estimate the over-consolidation

ratio (OCR).

Based on a large database of test data for non-

fissured clays, Mayne (2007) suggested:

= 0.33

For fissured clays, the coefficient should be between

0.66 and 1.65 which should always be supported by
other tests (For example, Oedometer test).

42
Cone Penetration Test: Interpretation

Fine-grained soils

CPT may help to estimate the in-situ horizontal

stresses.

The ratio of in- h0)

v0) is expressed by:

coefficient of lateral earth pressure (at rest)

Kulhawy and Mayne (1990) presented an empirical

correlation for K0:
This should only be used if no
= 0.1 other data is available
(considerable scatter).

43
Cone Penetration Test: Interpretation

SCPTu allows the discrete seismic

soundings to be made during CPT test.

It helps to determine the shear

wave velocity, Vs.

Small-strain shear modulus (G0) can be determined

for both coarse-grained and fine-grained soils:

=
is the bulk density of soil

44
Cone Penetration Test: Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

Delivers fast and continuous Requires skilled operator for

profiling of strata field use
Is economic and productive Should have electronics calibrated
Shows operator-independent results and protected in field

Provides strong theoretical basis for Has no soil samples

interpretation
Is unsuitable for gravels and
Is particularly suitable for soft to stiff cobbles, cemented soils
and loose to dense soils

Disadvantages

45
Topic 3: Field Vane Test (FVT) and
Plate Loading Test (PLT)
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Field Vane Test: Suitability and Components
Rotational drive unit and
rotation measurement

T FVT is particularly suitable for saturated soft clays with

cu<100 kPa.

This method is not suitable for coarse-grained soils. For silts

and glacial tills, reliability is more questionable and should be
supported with other test data.

Vane, see inset (b)

It consists of a stainless steel vane of four thin rectangular
blades at 90°to each other.

The vane length is equal to twice its overall width, typical

dimensions being 150 mm by 75 mm and 100 mm by 50 mm.

47
Field Vane Test: Process

Measuring unit
Vane and rod are pushed into the soil to the
bottom of a borehole. The test area at the
bottom of a borehole should be at a depth of at
least three times the borehole diameter. Protection
sheath

Torque is applied gradually to the upper end of

the rod until clay fails in shear due to the
rotation of the vane. The rotation rate is about Vane

6–12°per minute.

48
Field Vane Test: Process

Diagrammatic
representation of the FVT
process

49
Field Vane Test: Process

Shear failure takes place over the surface and at

the ends of a cylinder with a diameter equal to
overall width of the vane. The shear strength is
calculated from the expression: A T

A
= +
2 6
where is torque at failure, is overall vane width
and is vane length

After the initial test, vane is rotated rapidly

through several revolutions. cu of remoulded can
be determined. The ratio of initial and fully
remoulded values of cu is the sensitivity.

50
Field Vane Test: Interpretation

Vane strength, Suv (kPa) Sensitivity, St

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0

Peak
5 5
Remoulded

10 10
Depth (metres)

Depth (metres)
15 15

10 10

15 15

30 30

51
Field Vane Test: Interpretation

cu measured by FVT is generally greater than average

strength mobilised along a failure surface in field
construction. The discrepancy is greater in clay with
higher plasticity index.

It is primarily due to different loading rate: minutes

(FVT) vs weeks or months (field construction). The
secondary factor may be anisotropy.
Knappett & Craig 2012

Bjerrum (1973), Azzouz et al. (1983) presented

IP:
=

52
Field Vane Test: Interpretation

FVT can further be used to estimate over consolidation ratio

(OCR), with empirical factor, FV, Mayne and Mitchell (1988): OCR =

After considering a large database of test results: .

22( ) where is in percent

The relationship between FV and IP is similar in shape to that between and IP:

Mayne and Mitchell (1988) demonstrated a good agreement between this method and
results of conventional oedometer tests to determine OCR over a range of IP = 8–100%.

53
Field Vane Test: Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
Assesses undrained shear strength of clays
Uses simple test and equipment
Measures in-place sensitivity
Has history of use in practice, particularly
embankments, foundations and cuts

Is limited to soft to stiff clays and silts with cu<100 kPa

Is slow and time-consuming
Needs empirical correction for raw cuFV
Can be affected by sand seams and lenses

Disadvantages 54
Plate Loading Test
q
Applied stress, q

Plate Loading Test (PLT), also commonly used, Classic range

E =k 1 v l B
is a field test to determine the bearing
capacity of soil.
q k =
q

Settlement,
(Initial tangent modulus
of subgrade reaction)
A load test is performed on a small plate which
is essentially a shallow foundation model and is B

most commonly used to derive soil data for

foundation works due to the close similarity of
the test procedure to the ultimate construction.

Soil parameters are then back-calculated using

standard techniques for analysing shallow
foundations.

55
Topic 3: Selection of In-situ Test Methods
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
In-situ Test Methods: Soil Properties

Derivation of key soil properties from in-situ tests

Parameter SPT FVT PMT CPT DMT PLT
Consolidation characteristics: mv' Cc
Stiffness properties: G, G0 G G0* (SCPTU) G, G0* YES
Drained strength properties: Ø', c' YES YES YES YES YES
Undrained strength properties: cu (in-situ) YES YES YES YES YES YES
Soil state properties: ID, OCR, K0 ID K0 (via h0) ID' OCR (K0) ALL
Permeability: k YES YES

Notes
*Using a seismic instrument (i.e. SCPTU or SDMT)
Via a dissipation test on a piezocone (CPTU or SCPTU) – i.e. stopping penetration and measuring decay of u2
By stopping DMT expansion and measuring decay of cavity pressure

57
In-situ Test Methods: Selection

Modern design approaches

It is expected that over
Relied on strength coming years CPT and
Require both stiffness and
parameters only and applied PMT will become more
strength parameters to
highly empirical global popular in general use as
verify that an appropriate
factors of safety to ensure they can provide reliable
level of performance will be
adequate performance. data on both strength
achieved in a rigorous way.
and stiffness.
Older 'traditional' approaches

58
In-situ Test Methods: Selection

Shallow
foundations PLT is useful as this test procedure is a representative of final construction
(particularly in terms of defining an appropriate stiffness).

Deep
foundations CPT is usually preferred due to close analogy between a CPT probe and a
jacked pile.

Retaining PMT or DMT are preferred as it is very important to accurately define the
structures lateral earth pressures in such problems. These tests are most reliable for
these structures.
59
Planning a Site Investigation
Different phases of site investigation

Project assessment Detailed planning Synthesis of data

Laboratory testing
and office/desk study of SI task and interpretation

Field reconnaissance Subsurface exploration Groundwater

or site visit or drilling, sampling exploration and
and in-situ testing monitoring

60
Topic 5: Groundwater Monitoring
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Groundwater Monitoring: Importance

Groundwater monitoring

Helps to determine:
• Groundwater level (GWL) and existence of
artesian condition
Sand
• Variation of level or pore water pressure
over a given period of time
Hydrostatic condition
Clay
Is particularly important for deep excavation
Sand projects
Artesian condition
Sand Clay
GWL can also be determined from the location of
Groundwater water level in a borehole.
Table (GWT) is
Water levels may take considerable time to stabilise
also known as
and the response time may vary.
Perched water table phreatic surface.
62
Groundwater Monitoring: Piezometer

Backfill
or grout
Piezometer is used to It consists of element
determine the pore filled with de-aired water,
water pressure in a porous tip and a pressure
Seal
particular stratum. measuring system. (bentonite)

Open standpipe piezometer is Casing

the simplest instrument for
measuring pore water Plastic tube
pressures in ground. It is used in
Vibrating wire
case of boreholes. It is suitable Porous tube
piezometers
if soil is fully saturated and
permeability is relatively high. Sand

Open standpipe piezometer

63
Groundwater Monitoring: Observation

Backfill
or grout
104 Instrument Borehole Ground
No. No. level, RL (m)
103 WSP-1 2BH40 104.04m
WSP-2 2BH4 103.66m Seal
WSP-3 2BH10 103.22m (bentonite)
102
Groundwater level, RL (m)

WSP-4 4BH1 103.56m

WSP-5 4BH18 103.64m
WSP-6 2BH58 103.63m
101
Casing
100

99 Plastic tube

98 Porous tube
27/02 09/03 19/03 29/03 08/04 18/04 28/04 08/05 18/05
Time
Sand

Open standpipe piezometer

64
Planning a Site Investigation
Different phases of site investigation

Project assessment Detailed planning Synthesis of data

Laboratory testing
and office/desk study of SI task and interpretation

Field reconnaissance Subsurface exploration Groundwater

or site visit or drilling, sampling exploration and
and in-situ testing monitoring

65
Borehole Log

A borehole log consists of:

Summary of the SI results

Soil layering delineated by legend

Sampling depth and type of sampling

Groundwater table

Enable rapid appraisal of soil profile

Source: Knappett, J.A. and Craig, R.F., “Craig’s Soil Mechanics”

8th edition, Spon Press, 2012. Page 217 66
Acknowledgement

The materials for the lecture notes have been

adapted from Prof Teh Cee Ing, Prof Huang An-bin
and Prof Goh Teck Chee.

Their kindness is highly appreciated.

67
68
 2 3
d h d
T cuFV
2 6
cuFV
OCR FV
v0

0.48
FV 22( I p )

69