General Chemistry (Chem1012)

Chapter One
 Chemistry in Context
 Throughout human history, people have tried to convert
matter into more useful forms.

 Our Stone Age ancestors chipped pieces of flint into useful

tools and carved wood into statues and toys.

 But as our knowledge increased, humans began to change the

composition of the substances and used for different
purposes.
 Humans began to practice chemistry when they learned to
control fire and use it to cook, make pottery, and smelt
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  Chemistry as the Central Science
 Chemistry is sometimes referred to as “the central
science” due to its interconnectedness with a vast array of
other STEM disciplines (STEM stands for areas of study in
the science, technology, engineering, and math fields).

Figure 1.1: Knowledge of chemistry is central to understanding a wide range of scientific disciplines. This diagram shows
just some of the interrelationships between chemistry and other fields.

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 The Scientific Method

 Chemistry is a science based on observation and

experimentation.

 Doing chemistry involves attempting to answer questions and

explain observations in terms of the laws and theories of
chemistry, using procedures that are accepted by the
scientific community.

 There is no single route to answering a question or explaining

an observation, but there is an aspect common to every
approach:

 Each uses knowledge based on experiments that can be

reproduced to verify the results.
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The Scientific Method

•What is the scientific

method?
•It is a process that is
used to find answers
to questions about
the world around us.

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 The Scientific
Method
The Steps to Success

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Steps of the Scientific Method
• 1. Choose a problem: State the problem as a
question.
• 2. Research your problem: Read, get advice,
and make observations.
• 3. Develop a hypothesis: Make a prediction
about what will happen.
• 4. Design an experiment: Plan how you will test
your hypothesis.
• 5. Test your hypothesis: Conduct the experiment
and record the data.
• 6. Organize your data: Create a chart or graph of
your data.
• 7. Draw conclusions: Analyze your data and
summarize your findings.
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Introduction to the Scientific Process
Identify a Gather Formulate a
problem Information hypothesis

Record and Design and

Analyze Data
Organize Data Experiment

Draw Use conclusions to develop a new hypothesis

Conclusions
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Scientific Method
QUESTION – What do you want to know?
RESEARCH – Gather information
HYPOTHESIS – An educated guess as to the answer to the question
EXPERIMENT – written and carefully followed step-by-step procedure
designed to test the hypothesis
ANALYSIS – written description of information obtained and
observations made during the experiment
CONCLUSION – Was the hypothesis correct or incorrect? What did you
learn?

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Scientific Vocabulary

Facts – things that are observable and indisputable

Data – any piece of information; usually gained through observation
and experimentation
Laws – statements that describe patterns in nature with no known
exceptions.
Theories – explanations usually based on evidence (may be wrong)
Models – man-made representations to help us visualize scientific
concepts

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Hypothesis and Theory
 An idea can become a
Hypothesis – tentative or untested explanation
Theory – tested, confirmed, supported hypothesis
Scientific Method
Ask a question
Gather facts through observation
Formulate hypotheses
Test hypotheses to formulate theories
Analyze you data
Draw conclusions based on results

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Science Methods
Scientific knowledge is gained through following systematic steps:
State a problem or question to be answered
Collect facts
Develop a hypothesis
Conduct experiments
Analyze data
Reexamine the hypothesis and accept, modify or reject it

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 The domain of Chemistry

 Chemists study and describe the behavior of matter and

energy in three different domains:
1) Macroscopic- Large (things that are large enough to be
sensed directly by human sight or touch. Eg: Food you eat
and the breeze you feel on your face.

2) Microscopic- small (often visited in the imagination and

some are visible through standard optical microscopes. Eg:
Many biological cells.

3) Symbolic-The specialized language used to represent

components of the macroscopic and microscopic domains.

 These domains provide different ways of considering and

describing chemical behavior.
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 State and Classification of Matter

Composition of Matter
• Matter - Everything in
universe is composed of
matter
• Matter is anything that occupies space or
has mass
• Mass – quantity of matter
an object has
• Weight – pull of gravity
on an object
• The force that
gravity exerts on an
object

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States of Matter
• Atoms are in constant motion
• The rate at which atoms or molecules in a
substance move determines its state

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States of Matter

•Solid
• Molecules are tightly linked.
• Little energy

•Liquid
• Molecules are not as tightly
linked
• Medium amount of energy

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 States of Matter
•Gas
•Molecules have little or no attraction to each
other
•Fill the volume of the occupied container
•Move most rapidly

• Tocause a substance to
change state, thermal energy
(heat) must be added to or
removed from a substance

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 Classification of Matter

Figure : Depending on its properties, a given substance can be classified as a homogeneous

mixture, a heterogeneous mixture, a compound, or an element.

 Reading Assignment:
 Physical and Chemical Properties
 Extensive and Intensive Property

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 Measurements and Units
 Measurements provide much of the information that informs the hypotheses,
theories, and laws describing the behavior of matter and energy in both the
macroscopic and microscopic domains of chemistry.

 Every measurement provides three kinds of information:

1. The size or magnitude of the measurement (a number)
2. A standard of comparison for the measurement (a unit)
3. An indication of the uncertainty of the measurement.

 The number in the measurement can be represented in different ways, including

decimal form and scientific notation.
 Without units, a number can be meaningless, confusing, or possibly life
threatening.

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 Measurements and Units

 Reading Assignment:
 SI Base Units (Length, Mass, Temperature, and Time).
 Derived SI Units (Volume, Density)

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Significant Figure
• The digits in a measurement that you know with certainty
• Includes one “doubtful digit”
Rules for Counting Significant Figures

1. All non-zero digits are significant.

Example: 123.7 has 4 significant figures

2. All zeros between non-zero digits are significant.

Example: 1207 has 4 sig. figs., 120.007 has 6 sig. figs.

3. All zeros at the left of the number are NOT significant.

Example: 0.00032 has 2 sig. figs, 0.03 has 1 sig. fig.

4. When zeros are at the right of the number:

a) If there is no decimal, the zeros are NOT significant.
Example: 300 has 1 sig. fig., 25400 has 3 sig. figs.

b) If there is a decimal, the zeros ARE significant.

Example: 60.0 has 3 sig. figs., 0.00045300 has 5 sig. figs. (the 4 zeros at the left of the
number do not count, but the 2 zeros at the right of the number do count).
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 Rules for Counting Significant Figures

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Rules for calculating with sig. figs.

add/subtract 14.3
+ 220.75
235.05 = 235.1
1. Keep everything to the left of the decimal
2. Keep only the places in common to the right of the decimal
3. Use the last digit dropped to round

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Rules for calculating with sig. figs.

multiply/divide 6.2 = 1.1376146…

5.45
= 1.1

1. Count the number of sig. figs. in each measurement

2. The answer has as many as the least precise measurement
(fewest)
3. Use the last digit dropped to round

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Daily question
• What is the difference between
accuracy and precision?

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 Accuracy

• Accuracy – Compares a measurement to the

true value

• Accuracy: the closeness of a measurement to

the true value of what is being measured

• Accuracy - how close the measurement

is to the true value

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 Example: Accuracy

• Who is more accurate when measuring a book that

has a true length of 17.0 cm?
Susan:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm

Amy:
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm

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 Precision
• Precision = how exact a measurement it
• Precision = describes how closely measurements are to each other
and how carefully measurements were made
• precision: describes the closeness, or reproducibility, of a set
of measurements taken under the same conditions
• Which set is more precise?
18.2 , 18.4 , 18.35
17.9 , 18.3 , 18.85
16.8 , 17.2 , 19.44

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 Accuracy vs. Precision

High Accuracy
High Precision High Precision
Low Accuracy

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 Can you hit the bull's-eye?

Three
targets
with three
arrows each
to shoot.
Both Precise Neither
How do
accurate but not accurate
they
and accurate nor
compare?
precise precise

Can you define accuracy vs. precision?

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 Exit Quiz: Evaluate whether the following are
precise, accurate or both.

High
Accuracy
Low Accuracy Low Accuracy
High
Low Precision High Precision Precision

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 GOLF

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Accuracy,
3. Precision, and Error
1

•Accuracy and Precision

• Accuracy is a measure of how close a
measurement comes to the actual or true
value of whatever is measured.
• Precision is a measure of how close a series
of measurements are to one another.

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Accuracy,
3. Precision, and Error
1

•To evaluate the accuracy of a measurement, the

measured value must be compared to the correct
value. To evaluate the precision of a
measurement, you must compare the values of
two or more repeated measurements.

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Accuracy,
3. Precision, and Error
1

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Accuracy,
3. Precision, and Error
1
•Determining Error
• The accepted value is the correct value based on reliable
references.
• The experimental value is the value measured in the lab.
• The difference between the experimental value and the
accepted value is called the error.

• The percent error is the absolute value of the error divided by the
accepted value, multiplied by 100%.

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Accuracy,
3. Precision, and Error
1

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 SUMMARY

• measurement: a quantitative description that includes

both a number and a unit

• scientific notation: an expression of numbers in the form

m x 10n, where m is equal to or greater than 1 and less
than 10, and n is an integer

• accuracy: the closeness of a measurement to the true

value of what is being measured

• precision: describes the closeness, or reproducibility, of a

set of measurements taken under the same conditions

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 SUMMARY
• accepted value: a quantity used by general agreement of
the scientific community

• experimental value: a quantitative value measured during

an experiment

• error: the difference between the accepted value and the

experimental value

• percent error: the percent that a measured value differs

from the accepted value

• significant figure: all the digits that can be known precisely

in a measurement, plus a last estimated digit
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 Conversion Factors and Dimensional Analysis

• A conversion factor is a ratio of equivalent measurements.

Example:1 m
= 100 = 1 or 1m = 100 = 1
1 m cm1m 100 cm
100
cm cm
conversion factors

 The measurement in the numerator (on the top) is equivalent

to the measurement in the denominator (on the bottom).

 The conversion factors shown below are read “one hundred

centimeters per meter” and “one meter per hundred
centimeters.”

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 • Conversion Factors
1 meter 100 centimeters

Smaller number 1 m Larger unit

Larger number 100 cm Smaller unit

• The figure above illustrates another way to look at

the relationships in a conversion factor.
• The smaller number is part of the measurement with the
larger unit.
• The larger number is part of the measurement with the
smaller unit.

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• Conversion Factors
• Exercise the conversion factors from your module!!!!

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 Dimensional analysis is a way to analyze and solve
problems using the units, or dimensions, of the
measurements.

Example: Using Dimensional Analysis

1. How many seconds are in a workday that lasts exactly
eight hours?
2. The directions for an experiment ask each student to
measure 1.84 g of copper (Cu) wire. The only copper wire
available is a spool with a mass of 50.0 g. How many students
can do the experiment before the copper runs out?

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Dimensional Analysis

• Exercise the conversion factors and give dimensional analysis

from your module!!!!

 How many  g are in 0.0134 g?

 Express the density 5.6 g/cm3 in kg/m3.
 Express 750 dg in grams.
 What is the volume of a pure silver coin that has a mass of
14 g? The density of silver (Ag) is 10.5 g/cm3.

 The diameter of a sewing needle is 0.073 cm. What

is the diameter in micrometers?
 The density of manganese (Mn), a metal, is 7.21
g/cm3. What is the density of manganese
expressed in units of kg/m3?

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 Dimensional Analysis

Simple Unit Conversions

• In chemistry, as in everyday life, you often need to

express a measurement in a unit different from the
one given or measured initially.

Summary: Dimensional analysis is a powerful tool for solving

conversion problems in which a measurement with one unit is
changed to an equivalent measurement with another unit.

Summary: Conversion factor: a ratio of equivalent

measurements used to convert a quantity from one
unit to another

Dimensional analysis: a technique of problem-

solving that uses the units that are part of a
measurement to help solve the problem
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