UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION TO POWER GENERATION

INTRODUCTION

Whenever, we are going to study about the power plants, we must know about the sources of energy. In
this unit, we will be discussing the concepts of various power plants, their advantages and disadvantages.
Fuels used in the power plants. The important fuels used in the power plants like, coal, diesel, steam,
uranium, etc. are also clearly described here. Objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to

 understand the concept of power plant

,  understand the types of power plants,

 know the types of fuels, and

 describes the main components of power plants

SOURCES OF ENEGY – FUELS

There are many different ways in which the abundance of energy around us can be stored, converted, and
amplified for our use. To help understand the key energy sources that will play an important role in the
world‘s future, it is required to familiarize with some of the history, theory, economics, and problems of
the various types of energy. The energy sources have been split into three categories: fossil fuels,
renewable sources, and nuclear sources. The fossil fuels here are coal, petroleum, and natural gas. The
renewable energy sources are solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, and geothermal power. The nuclear-
powered sources are fission and fusion.

Types of Fuels

Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels have been a widely used source of energy ever since the Industrial Revolution just before the
dawn of the 20th century. Fossil fuels are relatively easy to use to generate energy because they only
require a simple direct combustion. However, a problem with fossil fuels is their environmental impact.
Not only does their excavation from the ground significantly alter the environment, but their combustion
leads to a great deal of air pollution.
Theory

The theory behind fossil fuels is actually quite simple. Burning coal, natural gas, and petroleum releases
energy stored in the fuel as heat. The energy contained by the fuels is derived from the energy of the sun.
The heat that is recovered upon combustion of the fuel can be used by us in several ways. Industrial
processes that require extremely high temperatures may burn a great deal of very pure coal known as
―coke‖ and use the energy released to directly heat a system. Some people make use of clean burning
natural gas to heat their homes. Combustion of fossil fuels can also be used to generate electricity; the
fuel is burned to heat water, and the steam from the boiling water spins turbines that power a generator,
thereby manufacturing electricity:

COAL\

About 300 million years ago, enormous ferns and other prehistoric plants were common on the swamp-
like earth. When those plants died and fell to the ground, they were covered with water and they slowly
decomposed. As decomposition took place in the absence of oxygen, much of the hydrogen content of the
matter was eroded away, leaving a material rich in carbon. The material was compressed over the years
by sand and dirt, leaving the form of carbon known as coal.

Types
 The nature of coal is such that the higher the carbon content, the more cleanly and brilliantly the coal
burns. Thus ―peat‖, which is the state of the decomposing plants before being compressed, is a weak,
impure substance. The other states of coal from lowest carbon content to highest are lignite, bituminous
coal, and anthracite coal. If the coal is heated and compressed even more, the result is graphite, almost
completely pure carbon. Nearly all the different forms of coal are used in some way or another. For
instance, peat has been used for burning in furnaces, whereas bituminous coal is used extensively for the
generation of electricity. ―Coke‖, a very pure form of coal with high heat content is used primarily in the
steel industry, where high temperatures are required.

POLLUTION

Global Warming

Scientists believe that global warming is caused by the Greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect
describes the accumulation of carbon dioxide in our earth‘s atmosphere. A layer of gas forms that traps
heat inside the atmosphere, thereby acting as the glass ceiling of a greenhouse. Because heat is trapped by
the carbon dioxide, it is believed that the earth is slowly warming. A potential danger of global warming
is the melting of the so-called polar ice caps at the north and south poles. This occurrence would cause the
ocean level to rise and perhaps flood many coastal cities.

The Advent of Fossil Fuels

Before humans were around on the earth, there was a relatively even recycling of carbon dioxide and
oxygen. Plants require carbon dioxide to live, and they emit oxygen in return. Animals, on the other hand,
need oxygen, but exhale carbon dioxide. But as humans began to burn fossil fuels to create energy
(especially beginning just before the 20th century during the Industrial Revolution), more and more
carbon dioxide was emitted into the air until the balance was slowly destroyed. How Do Fossil Fuels and
Biomass Pollute? All fossil fuels and biomasses consist of carbon and hydrogen atoms. When these fuels
are burned, or combusted, carbon atoms unite with oxygen in the air to form carbondioxide :

Other Polluting

Byproducts of Fossil Fuel and Biomass Burning Carbon dioxide is not the only byproduct of direct
combustion of fuel. Small particulates that can become imbedded in the human respiratory system are
also emitted. Particulates can cause coughing and damage to the lungs. Further, they can lead to cancer
and lung disease.
Carbon monoxide is produced when less oxygen is available in the immediate area. Carbon monoxide is
more directly harmful to humans because it is odorless, colorless, and reduces the body‘s ability to
transport oxygen. This leads to fatigue, nausea, and headaches.

The Spectrum of Pollution

Materials on the low end of the energy scale such as wood and charcoal create the most pollution. Sources
on the high end of the energy scale, such as natural gas burn very cleanly resulting in less air pollution.

HYDROELECTRIC

Man has utilised the power of water for years. Much of the growth of early colonial industry can be
attributed to hydropower. Because fuel such as coal and wood were not readily available to inland cities,
settlers were forced to turn to other alternatives. Falling water was ideal for powering sawmills and grist
mills. As coal became a better-developed source of fuel, however, the importance of hydropower
decreased.

Theory

Hydroelectric systems make use of the energy in running water to create electricity. In coal and natural
gas systems, a fossil fuel is burned to heat water. The steam pressure from the boiling water turns
propellers called turbines. These turbines spin coils of wire between magnets to produce electricity.
Hydro powered systems also make use of turbines to generate electrical power; however, they do so by
using the energy in moving water to spin the turbines. Water has kinetic energy when it flows from higher
elevations to lower elevations. The energy spins turbines like as shown in Figure 1.3. In larger scale
hydroelectric plants, large volumes of water are contained by dams near the generator and turbines. The
―forebay‖ is a storage area for water that must be deep enough that the penstock is completely submerged.
The water is allowed to flow into the electricity-generating system through a passage called the penstock.
The controlled high-pressure water spins the turbines, allowing the generator to produce an electric
current. The powerhouse contains and protects the equipment for generating electricity. The high-pressure
water exits the system through a draft tube. The fish ladder attempts to minimise the environmental
impact of hydroelectric systems by providing a path for migrating fish to take
Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants

Micro-Scale

As their name implies, micro-hydroelectric plants are the smallest type of

hydroelectric energy systems. They generate between one kilowatt and one

megawatt of power. The main application for these hydro systems is in small,

isolated villages in developing countries. They are ideal for powering smaller

services such as the operation of processing machines.

Small-Scale

Small hydropower systems can supply up to 20 megawatts of energy. These

systems are relatively inexpensive and reliable. They have the potential to provide

electricity to rural areas in developing countries throughout the world. Small

systems are especially important to countries that may not be able to afford the

costs of importing fossil fuels such as petroleum from other countries.

Run-of-the-River

In some areas of the world, the flow rate and elevation drops of the water are

consistent enough that hydroelectric plants can be built directly in the river. The

water passes through the plant without greatly changing the flow rate of the river.
In many instances a dam is not required, and therefore the hydroelectric plant

causes minimal environmental impact on its surroundings. However, one problem

with run-of-the-river plants is the obstruction of fish and other aquatic animals.

This and other problems are discussed in the next section.

Problems with Hydroelectric Power

Although hydroelectric power is admittedly one of the cleanest and most

environmentally-friendly sources of energy, it too has the capability to alter or

damage its surroundings. Among the main problems that have been demonstrated

by hydroelectric power is significant change in water quality. Because of the

nature of hydroelectric systems, the water often takes on a higher temperature,

loses oxygen content, experiences siltation, and gains in phosphorus and nitrogen

content.

Another major problem is the obstruction of the river for aquatic life. Salmon,

which migrate upstream to spawn every year, are especially impacted by

hydroelectric dams. Fortunately, this problem has been dealt with by the

production of fish ladders. These structures provide a pathway for fish to navigate

past the hydroelectric dam construction.

Advantages

 Inexhaustible fuel source

 Minimal environmental impact

Viable source--relatively useful levels of energy production

 Can be used throughout the world

Disadvantages

 Smaller models depend on availability of fast flowing streams or

rivers.

 Run-of-the-River plants can impact the mobility of fish and other

river life.

Note : Building a fish ladder can lessen this negative aspect of hydroelectric

power

SOLAR

The name solar power is actually a little misleading. In fact, most of the energy known to

man is derived in some way from the sun. When we burn wood or other fuels, it releases

the stored energy of the sun. In fact, there would be no life on earth without the sun,

which provides energy needed for the growth of plants, and indirectly, the existence of

all animal life. The solar energy scientists are interested in energy obtained through the

use of solar panels. Although the field of research dealing with this type of solar power

is relatively new, one should bear in mind that man has known about the energy of the

sun for thousands of years.

Theory

The energy of the sun can be used in many ways. When plants grow, they store the

energy of the sun. Then, when we burn those plants, the energy is released in the

form of heat. This is an example of indirect use of solar energy.

The form we are interested in is directly converting the sun‘s rays into a usable
energy source : electricity. This is accomplished through the use of ―solar

collectors‖, or, as they are more commonly known as, ―solar panels‖.

There are two ways in which solar power can be converted to energy. The first,

known as ―solar thermal applications‖, involve using the energy of the sun to

directly heat air or a liquid. The second, known as ―photoelectric applications‖,

involve the use of photovoltaic cells to convert solar energy directly to electricity.

There are two types of solar thermal collectors. The first, known as flat plate

collectors, contain absorber plates that use solar radiation to heat a carrier fluid,

either a liquid like oil or water, or air. Because these collectors can heat carrier

fluids to around 80oC, they are suited for residential applications. The second type

of solar collectors is known as concentrating collectors. These panels are intended

for larger-scale applications such as air conditioning, where more heating potential

is required. The rays of the sun from a relatively wide area are focused into a

small area by means of reflective mirrors, and thus the heat energy is concentrated.

This method has the potential to heat liquids to a much higher temperature than

flat plate collectors can alone. The heat from the concentrating collectors can be

used to boil water. The steam can then be used to power turbines attached to

generators and produce electricity, as in wind and hydroelectric power systems.

Photovoltaic cells depend on semiconductors such as silicon to directly convert

solar energy to electricity. Because these types of cells are low-maintenance, they

are best suited for remote applications.

Solar power has an exciting future ahead of it. Because solar power utilizes the

sun's light, a ubiquitous resource (a resource that is everywhere), solar panels can

be attached to moving objects, such as automobiles, and can even be used to

power those objects. Solar powered cars are being experimented with more and

more frequently now.

Problems with Solar Power

Solar power is actually one of the cleanest methods of energy production known.

Because solar panels simply convert the energy of the sun into energy that

mankind can use, there are no harmful byproducts or threats to the environment.

One major concern is the cost of solar power. Solar panels (accumulators) are not

cheap; and because they are constructed from fragile materials (semiconductors,

glass, etc.), they must constantly be maintained and often replaced.

Further, since each photovoltaic panel has only about 40% efficiency, single solar

panels are not sufficient power producers. However, this problem has been offset

by the gathering together of many large panels acting in accord to produce energy.

Although this setup takes up much more space, it does generate much more power.

Advantages

 Inexhaustible fuel source.

 No pollution.

 Often an excellent supplement to other renewable sources.

 Versatile is used for powering items as diverse as solar cars and

satellites.

Disadvantages

 Very diffuse source means low energy production – large numbers of

solar panels (and thus large land areas) are required to produce useful

amounts of heat or electricity.

 Only areas of the world with lots of sunlight are suitable for solar

power generation.

WIND

Mankind has made use of wind power since ancient times. Wind has powered boats and

other sea craft for years. Further, the use of windmills to provide power for the
accomplishment of agricultural tasks has contributed to the growth of civilization. This

important renewable energy source is starting to be looked at again as a possible source

of clean, cheap energy for years to come.

Theory

Differences in atmospheric pressure due to differences in temperature are the main

cause of wind. Because warm air rises, when air fronts of different temperatures

come in contact, the warmer air rises over the colder air, causing the wind to blow.

Wind generators take advantage of the power of wind. Long blades, or rotors,

catch the wind and spin. Like in hydroelectric systems, the spinning movement is

transformed into electrical energy by a generator.

The placement of wind systems is extremely important. In order for a

wind-powered system to be effective, a relatively consistent wind-flow is required.

Obstructions such as trees or hills can interfere with the rotors. Because of this,

the rotors are usually placed atop towers to take advantage of the stronger winds

available higher up. Furthermore, wind speed varies with temperature, season, and

time of day. All these factors must be considered when choosing a site for a windpowered

generator.

Another important part of wind systems is the battery. Since wind does not always

blow consistently, it is important that there be a backup system to provide energy.

When the wind is especially strong, the generator can store extra energy in a

battery.

There are certain minimal speeds at which the wind needs to blow. For small

turbines it is 8 miles an hour. Large plants require speeds of 13 miles an hour.

Remote

Remote systems are small, relatively cheap sources of energy. They are best suited

for rural environments because they can be left unattended for long periods of
time. Further, they can operate under harsh conditions, and thus have potential for

powering extremely remote regions

Hybrid

The very nature of wind-powered generators makes them ideal to use in

conjunction with other sources of energy. Wind and solar generators have been

extremely successful as supplements to one another. The presence of the wind

generator means that the other energy source does not have to be producing as

much of the time.

Grid Connected

Grid Connected systems are already in wide use in areas that are already hooked

up to a utility grid. Their main use is as a supplement to other forms of energy.

This is important because average wind turbines only generate electricity about

25% of the time

Utilities

Because individual wind-powered systems by themselves do not produce a great

deal of energy, so-called wind farms have been developed. These collections of

many wind generators gathered in one place provide a source of relatively high

energy output.

Problems

One of the main problems with wind power is the space that is used up by the socalled

wind farms. In some cases, the space taken up can seriously alter the

environment.
The good news is that although wind farms require a great deal of square mileage,

there is quite a bit of space between the actual wind machines. This space can be

used for agricultural purposes.

Another problem with wind power is that relatively speaking, it does not generate

very much energy for the price. Perhaps this setback is made up for in friendliness

to the environment.

Advantages

 Inexhaustible fuel source.

 No pollution.

 Often an excellent supplement to other renewable sources.

Disadvantages

 Very diffuse source means low energy production – large numbers of

wind generators (and thus large land areas) are required to produce

useful amounts of heat or electricity.

 Only areas of the world with lots of wind are suitable for wind power

generation.

 Relatively expensive to maintain.

GEOTHERMAL

The center of the earth can reach 12000 degrees Fahrenheit. Just imagine if we could tap that heat for our
own use. Well, geothermal systems do just that. Convection (heat) currents travel quite near the surface in
some parts of the world.

Theory

The earth‘s crust is heated by the decay of radioactive elements. The heat is carried by magma or water
beneath the earth's surface. Some of the heat reaches the surface and manifests itself in geysers and hot
springs throughout the world. Geothermal power can be used to directly heat buildings. Further, the
pressurised steam from superheated water beneath the earth‘s surface can be used to power turbines and
thus generate electricity.
Although geothermal power seems ideal in that it is naturally occurring and does not require structures to
trap or collect the energy (as in solar panels or windmills), it does have limitations. The greatest drawback
is that naturally occurring geothermal vents are not widely available. Artificial vents have been
successfully drilled in the ground to reach the hot rocks below and then injected with water for the
production of steam. However, oftentimes the source of heat is far too deep for this method to work well.
Nor can geothermal power realistically generate enough electricity for the entire country or any large
industrialised nation. A good-sized hot spring can power at most a moderate sized city of around 50,000
people. And there just isn‘t enough viable hot springs to power all the cities in any large country.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

 Theoretically inexhaustible energy source.

 No pollution.

 Often an excellent supplement to other renewable sources.

 Does not require structures such as solar panels or windmills to

collect the energy – can be directly used to heat or produce electricity

(thus very cheap).

Disadvantages

 Not available in many locations.

 Not much power per vent.

OCEAN ENERGY

Tidal Energy

Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the

moon and sun, and the rotation of the earth.
Near shore, water levels can vary up to 40 feet.
Only a few locations have good inlets and a
large enough tidal range- about 10 feet- to produce
energy economically. The simplest generation
system for tidal plants involves a dam, known
as a barrage, across an inlet. Sluice gates on the
barrage allow the tidal basin to fill on the
incoming high tides and to empty through the
turbine system on the outgoing tide, also
known as the ebb tide. There are two-way
systems that generate electricity on both the
incoming and outgoing tides.
Tidal barrages can change the tidal level in the basin and increase turbidity in the water. It can also affect
navigation and recreation. Potentially the largest disadvantage of tidal power is the effect a tidal station
can have on plants and animals in the estuaries. Tidal fences can also harness the energy of tides. A tidal
fence has vertical axis turbines mounted in a fence. All the water that passes is forced through the
turbines. They can be used in areas such as channels between two landmasses. Tidal fences have less
impact on the environment than tidal barrages although they can disrupt the movement of large marine
animals. They are cheaper to install than tidal barrages too. Tidal turbines are a new technology that can
be used in many tidal areas. They are basically wind turbines that can be located anywhere there is strong
tidal flow. Because water is about 800 times denser than air, tidal turbines will have to be much sturdier
than wind turbines. They will be heavier and more expensive to build but will be able to capture more
energy

Wave Energy

Waves are caused by the wind blowing over the surface of the ocean. There is tremendous energy in the
ocean waves. The total power of waves breaking around the world‘s coastlines is estimated at 2-3 million
megawatts. The west coasts of the US and Europe and the coasts of Japan and New Zealand are good sites
for harnessing wave energy. One way to harness wave energy is to bend or focus the waves into a narrow
channel, increasing their power and size. The waves can then be channeled into a catch basin or used
directly to spin turbines. There are no big commercial wave energy plants, but there are a few small ones.
Small, on-shore sites have the best potential for the immediate future; they could produce enough energy
to power local communities. Japan, which imports almost all of its fuel, has an active wave-energy
program.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

In a universe, energy and matter have a common origin. None the energy nor the matter can be created or
destroyed; instead they just change their state. As well, they are convertible to each other. Albert Einstein
was the first man who explained this relation by the well known formula : E = mC2 This equation defines
: E (Energy) equals to m (mass) times C 2 (C stands for speed of light). By looking in close, we may find
the enormous energy exist in a small piece of material. The name of atom comes from Greek language,
referring to smallest part of nature.

Nowadays we have a better knowledge on atom structure, and we know a nucleus,

surrounded by electrons, form the atoms. This structure is somehow similar to our solar
system.

Nuclear Fission

Any try for splitting a part a nucleus will cause a tremendous energy be released.
This energy would be released in both forms of heat and light.
In a harnessed, controlled way of doing this, a useful energy for producing
electricity is possible. Doing this at once would result to a big explosion, as seen
in an automatic bomb.
In a nuclear power plant, uranium is the element used as fuel. Uranium is found in
many parts of the world but in a low quantity. It is loaded in to the reactor in a tiny
pallet form inside long rods.
Fission meaning splitting a part is what happens in a reactor. Here uranium atoms
are split in a paced controlled chain of reactions.
Inside a reactor the intensity of crashes are harnessed by inserting-taking of
control roads.
In an atomic bomb a different process occurs, by using almost pure pieces of
elements-uranium 235 or plutonium, in a precise mass and shape, burning them
together in a great force. As we see there is no requisite like this in a reactor.
Byproducts of such reactions are radioactive materials. If released, they would be
gravely harmful. Knowing this, strong structures must keep the materials in the
case of any accident.
The released heat energy would be used for boiling water in the core of reactor. So
instead of burning fuel, we may use the heat of reactor core.
By sending the hot water around the nuclear to the heat exchanger section, water
filled pipes produce steam needed for steam turbine.

Nuclear Fusion

In another form of nuclear reaction, joining of smaller nuclei makes a larger

nucleus. Such a process in sun changes the hydrogen atoms to helium. The result
heat and light we receive in earth.
In a more detailed explanation, two different types of atoms, deuterium and
tritium, combine to make a helium plus and extra particle called neutron.
There has been a fierce competition among scientists, but to their frustration, they
have yet trouble in controlling reaction in a closed space.
The advantage of fusion is its abundance of supply (hydrogen) as well as its less
radioactive material than fission

MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC (MUD) POWER

GENERATION

When an electrical conductor is moved so as to cut lines of magnetic

induction, the charged particles in the conductor experience a force in a
direction mutually perpendicular to the B field and to the velocity of the
conductor. The negative charges tend to move in one direction, and the
positive charges in the opposite direction. This induced electric field, or
motional emf, provides the basis for converting mechanical energy into
electrical energy. At the present time nearly all electrical power generators
~tilize a solid conductor which is caused to rotate between the poles of a
magnet. In the case of hydroelectric generators, the energy required to
maintain the rotation is supplied by the gravitational motion of river water.
Turbogenerators, on the other hand, generally operate using a high-speed
flow of steam or other gas. The heat source required to produce the.
high-speed gas flow may be supplied by the combustion of a fossil fuel or by
a nuclear reactor (either fission or possibly fusion).
It was recognized by Faraday as early as 1831 that one could employ a
fluid conductor as the working substance in a power generator. To test this
concept Faraday immersed electrodes into the Thames river at either end of
the Waterloo Bridge in London and connected the electrodes at mid span on
the bridge through a galvanometer. Faraday reasoned that the electrically
conducting river water moving through the earth's magnetic field should
produce a transverse emf. Small irregular deflections of the galvanometer
were in fact observed. The production of electrical power through the use of a
conducting fluid moving through a magnetic field is referred to as magnetohydrodynamic,
or MHO, power generation. One of the earliest serious
attempts to construct an experimental MHO generator was undertaken at the
Westinghouse laboratories in the .period 1938-1944, under the guidance of
Karlovitz (see Karlovitz and Halasz, 1964). This generator (which was of the
annular Hall type-see Fig. 20) utilized the products of combustion of
natural gas, as a working fluid, and electron beam ionization. The experiments
did not produce the expected power levels because of the low
electrical conductivity of the -gas and the lack of existing knowledge of
plasma properties at that time. A later experiment at Westinghouse by Way,
OeCorso, Hundstad, Kemeny, Stewart, and Young (1961), utilizing a liquid fossil fuel .. seeded" with a
potassium compound, was much more successful
and yielded power levels in excess of 10 kW. Similar power levels were
achieved at the Avco Everett laboratories by Rosa (1961) using arc-heated
argon at 30OQoK .. seeded" with powdered potassium carbonate. In these
latter experiments .. seeding" the working gas with small concentrations of
potassium was essential to provide the necessary number of free electrons

required for an adequate electrical conductivity. (Other possible seeding materials having a relatively low
ionization potential are the alkali metals cesium or rubidium.) During the decade beginning about 1960
three general types of MHD generator systems envolved, classified according to the working fluid and the
anticipated heat source. Open-cycle MHD generators operating with the products of combustion of a
fossil fuel are closest to practical realization. In the United States, operation ora 32 MW alcohol-fueled
generator with run times up to three minutes was achieved in 1965 (see Mattsson, Ducharme, Govoni,
Morrow, and Brogan, 1965). In the Soviet Union tests on a 75 MW (25 MW from MHD and 50 MW
from steam) pilot plant burning natural gas began in 1971. Closed-cycle MHD generators are usually
envisaged as operating with nuclear reactor heat sources, although fossil fuel heat sources have also been
considered. The working fluid for a closedcycle system can be either a seeded noble gas or a liquid metal.
Because of temperature limitations imposed by the nuclear fuel materials used in reactors, closed-cycle
MHD generators utilizing a gas will require that the generator operate in a nonequilibrium mode. We
shall have more to say later about some of the difficulties that nonequilibrium operation entails. The
subject of liquid metal MHD generators lies outside the scope of our discussion. An MHD generator, like
a turbogenerator, is an energy conversion device and can be used with any high-temperature heat source-
chemical, nuclear, solar, etc. The future electrical power needs of industrial countries will have to be met
for the most part by thermal systems composed of a heat source and an energy conversion device. In
accordance with thermodynamic considerations, the maximum potential efficiency of such a system (i.e.,
the Carnot efficiency) is determined by the temperature of the heat source. However, the maximum actual
efficiency of the system will be limited by the maximum temperature employed in the energy conversion
device. The closer the temperature of the working fluid in the energy conversion device to the
temperature of the heat source, the higher the maximum potential efficiency of the overall system. A
spectrum of heat source temperatures are currently available, up to about 3000oK. However, at the
present time large centralstation power production is limited to the use of a single energy-conversion
scheme-the steam turbogenerator-which is capable of operating economically at a maximum temperature
of only 850oK. The over-all efficiencies of present central-station power-producing systems are limited
by this fact to values below about 42 percent, which is a fraction of the potential efficiency. It is clear that
a temperature gap exists in our energy conversion technology. Because MHD power generators, in
contrast to turbines, do not require
the use of moving solid materials in the gas stream, they can operate at much higher temperatures.
Calculations show that fossil-fueled MHD generators may be capable of operating at efficiencies between
50 and 60 percent. Higher operating efficiencies would lead to improved conservation of natural
resources, reduced thermal pollution, and lower fuel costs. Studies currently in progress suggest also the
possibility of reduced air pollution. In this section an elementary account of some of the concepts
involved in MHD power generation is presented. A more complete discussion may be found in the book
by Rosa (1968). The essential elements of a simplified MHD generator are shown in Fig. 15. This type of
generator is referred to as a continuous electrode Faraday generator. A field of magnetic induction B is
applied transverse to the

CLASSIFICATION OF POWER PLANTS

Power plants are classified by the type of fuel and the type of prime mover installed.
By Fuel

 In thermal power stations, mechanical power is produced by a heat engine,which transforms thermal
energy, often from combustion of a fuel, into rotational energy
 Nuclear power plants use a nuclear reactor‘s heat to operate a steam turbine generator.
 Fossil fuel powered plants may also use a steam turbine generator or in the case of Natural gas fired
plants may use a combustion turbine.
 Geothermal power plants use steam extracted from hot underground rocks.
 Renewable energy plants may be fuelled by waste from sugar cane, municipal solid waste, landfill
methane, or other forms of biomass.
 In integrated steel mills, blast furnace exhaust gas is a low-cost, although low-energy-density, fuel.
 Waste heat from industrial processes is occasionally concentrated enough to use for power
generation, usually in a steam boiler and turbine.

Prime Mover

 Steam turbine plants use the pressure generated by expanding steam to turn
the blades of a turbine.
 Gas turbine plants use the heat from gases to directly operate the turbine.
Natural-gas fuelled turbine plants can start rapidly and so are used to supply
peak energy during periods of high demand, though at higher cost than
base-loaded plants.
 Combined cycle plants have both a gas turbine fired by natural gas, and a
steam boiler and steam turbine which use the exhaust gas from the gas
turbine to produce electricity. This greatly increases the overall efficiency
of the plant, and most new base load power plants are combined cycle
plants fired by natural gas.
 Internal combustion Reciprocating engines are used to provide power for
isolated communities and are frequently used for small cogeneration plants.
Hospitals, office buildings, industrial plants, and other critical facilities also
use them to provide backup power in case of a power outage. These are
usually fuelled by diesel oil, heavy oil, natural gas and landfill gas.
 Microturbines, stirling engine and internal combustion reciprocating
engines are low cost solutions for using opportunity fuels, such as landfill gas, digester gas from water
treatment plants and waste gas from oil
production.

Steam Turbine Power Station

The conversion from coal to electricity takes place in three stages :

Stage 1
The first conversion of energy takes place in the boiler. Coal is burnt in the
boiler furnace to produce heat. Carbon in the coal and Oxygen in the air
combine to produce Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and heat.

(a) The heat from combustion of the coal boils water in the boiler to produce steam. In modern power
plant, boilers produce steam at a high pressure and temperature.
(b) The steam is then piped to a turbine.
(c) The high pressure steam impinges and expands across a number of sets of blades in the turbine.
(d) The impulse and the thrust created rotate the turbine.
(e) The steam is then condensed and pumped back into the boiler to repeat the cycle.

n the third stage, rotation of the turbine rotates the generator rotor to
produce electricity based of Faraday‘s Principle on electromagnetic
induction.
Gas Turbine Power Station
The schematic arrangement of a gas turbine power plant is shown in Figure 1.8.
The main components of plants are :
 Compressor
 Regenerator
 Combustion Chamber
 Gas Turbine
 Alternator
 Starting mot

Compressor
The compressor used in the plant is generally of rotatory type. The air at atmospheric pressure is drawn
by the compressor via the filter which removes the dust from the air. The rotatory blades of the
compressor push the air between stationary blades to raise its pressure. Thus air at high pressure is
available at the output of the compressor

Regenerator
A regenerator is a device which recovers heat from the exhaust gases of the turbine. The exhaust is passed
through the regenerator before wasting to atmosphere. A regenerator consists of a nest of tubes contained
in a shell. The compressed air from the compressor passes through the tubes on its way to the combustion
chamber.
In this way compressor is heated by the hot exhaust
Combustion Chamber
The air at high pressure from the compressor is led to the combustion chamber via the regenerator. In the
combustion chamber, heat is added to the air by burning oil. The oil is injected through the burner into the
chamber at high pressure ensure atomisation of oil and its thorough mixing with air. The result is that the
chamber attains a very high temperature. The
combustion gases are suitably cooled and then delivered to gas turbine.

Gas Turbine
The products of combustion consisting of a mixture of gases at high temperature and pressure are passed
to the gas turbine. These gases in passing over the turbine blades expand and thus do the mechanical
work.
The temperature of the exhaust gases from the turbine is about 900oF.

Alternator
The gas turbine is coupled into the alternator. The alternator converts the mechanical energy of the
turbine into electrical energy. The output of the alternator is given to the bus-bars through transformers,
isolators and circuit breakers.

Starting Motor
Before starting the turbine, compressor has to be started. For this purpose, an electric motor is mounted on
the same shaft as that of the turbine. The motor is energised by the batteries. Once the unit starts, a part of
the mechanical power of the turbine drives the compressor and there is no need of the motor now.

Internal Combustion Engines Plant

It is a plant in which the prime mover is an internal combustion engine. An

internal combustion engine has one or more cylinders in which the process
of combustion takes place, converting energy released from the rapid
burning of a fuel-air mixture into mechanical energy. Diesel or gas-fired
engines are the principal types used in electric plants. The plant is usually
operated during periods of high demand for electricity.

Cogeneration
 Simultaneous production of electricity and thermal energy
 President Carter coined the phrase cogeneration in the 1970s
 Also called Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
 Thermal demand can include hot water, steam, space heating, cooling, and refrigeration

Cogeneration Technologies\
 Steam or gas turbines
 Engines
 Fuel cells
 Micro turbines
Cogeneration Fuels
 Natural gas
 Coal
 Biomass
o Bagasse (waste product from sugar cane processing)
 Waste gas
o Sludge gas from sewage treatment plant
o Methane from landfills and coal bed methane
 Liquid fuels (oil)
 Renewable gases

Cogeneration Fuels

Bagasse
14%
Coal
14%

Natural gas
Waste gas 55%
10%

Liquid fuels
Renew able gases
6%
1%

CO2 Emission by Fuel Type

1.4

1.2
missions (t/MWh)

1.0

0.8

0.6
Cogeneration Schematic

Piping and instrumentation diagram

A piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) is a detailed diagram in the process industry which shows
the piping and vessels in the process flow, together with the instrumentation and control devices.

Superordinate to the piping and instrumentation flowsheet is the process flow diagram (PFD) which
indicates the more general flow of plant processes and equipment and relationship between major
equipment of a plant facility.