Full
Geography
Notes
Formal housing (Features) (8.1)
build by government or by private developers
support amenities e.g. swimming pools, roads, hawker centres
only sold to citizens and permanent residents. (government built)
plot of land sold or lease to private developers which then develop it
into private housing projects
Sold to anyone who wishes to buy it (built by private developers)
legal rights to occupy land
individuals can freely obtain, use, and possess land at their own
discretion without affecting other residents
individuals feel more secure about their homes
access to basic services
Residents have easy access to basic services such as water,
electricity and proper sanitation as infrastructure to support these
services.
Services often built together with housing projects.
high quality building materials
high quality building materials such as metal, concrete, and hard
wood are used to withstand elements such as floods from heavy rain
and threats such as fires.
Informal housing (features) (8.1)
self built
built in a haphazard manner
may appear along roads, rivers and railways even though plans have
been made.
does not own the land
build informal houses out of necessity on any available and
accessible land. They also build it in desperate need of shelter.
may face the threat of eviction.
lack of access to basic services
lack of electricity, water and proper sanitation
residents resort to illegally tapping into electrical grids and water
pipes
build with low quality building materials
built with zinc sheets and recycled lumber
build with inferior building materials which lead to getting flooded
by heavy rain and catch fire easily
Where formal housing is located? (8.2)
found on any desirable land, houses near greenery, near water
bodies and near amenities (must state general before going into
detail e.g. houses found near amenities like the red hill
supermarket south of community centre)
*may change according to question and based on map or picture
given
Where informal housing is located? (8.2)
found on any unwanted land-use e.g. hills
prone to floods
may have potential health hazards such as landfills, sewage
treatment plants and large pollutive industries
Factors affecting location of housing (8.3)
land use planning
each parcel of land is carefully planned and zoned
regulate the built environment and balance the many land-
use in the city
developers can only build formal housing in areas
designated as “residential”
Developers
(government)
Consider people’s needs more than profit
(private developers)
Pick sites that are most commercially viable
Informal housing
found near industrial developments, near large housing,
existing infrastructure or services (transport)
How housing affects the natural environment (9.1)
Extraction of Natural Resources
Space is needed for housing for cities, therefore forestland
needs to be cleared.
Resources like building materials are extracted from the
environment to meet the demand for housing.
Forest is cleared for wood and steel through mining before used
for building houses.
Over-extraction will lead to resource depletion in the long
run.
Hence this is a problem for both formal and informal housing.
land pollution
introduction of foreign substances onto land areas. High
concentration will lead to harmful effects to plants, animals
and humans.
General waste is disposed of on the ground due to lack of basic
services like proper disposal systems.
This leads to long-term damage to land , which makes it unsafe
for sustainable human use.
Hence this is a problem for informal housing.
water pollution
introduction of foreign substances into water bodies. High
concentration of it will lead to harmful effects for plants,
animals and humans.
Groundwater and surface water gets contaminated by landfills,
untreated sewage, due to the lack of basic services such as a
proper sewage system in informal housing.
This limits the amount of clean water available for future use.
Hence this is a problem for informal housing.
How access to housing affect people? (Formal housing) (9.2)
1. Provision of Basic Needs
Formal housing provides residents with basic needs such as
access to sanitation and shelter for improving people’s
quality of life.
Reduce outbreak of diseases and improve the well-being and
overall health of individuals.
Helps improve quality of life
Hence, this is an impact of formal housing.
2. Presence of amenities ( HARDWARE )
Desirable or useful features of a place that provides comfort,
convenience, enjoyment for the residents such as clinics,
markets, grocery shops provided as part of formal housing
developments.
Helps improve quality of life.
Hence, this is an impact of formal housing.
3. Presence of communities ( HEARTWARE <3 )
Formal urban housing meets the social needs of the residents.
Space for social gatherings are developed to foster
interactions and community spirit among neighbours.
Leads to a sense of belonging and inclusivity for residents.
Improve quality of life by helping to create a sense of
belonging for residents.
Hence this is an impact of formal housing.
Housing strategies (target formal housing)(9.3)
1. Integrated land use planning (more of function)
Social needs
Leisure - Malls
Tourism - Hotels, Attractions
Education - Schools
Transport - Roads, Bus
Industries - Factories (economic needs)
Greenery - Water bodies, Park (environment need)
Housing - HDB, Condo, Landed Property
Stakeholders
→
Industries provide jobs
→
Planning authorities (URA) government
*URA stands for Urban Redevelopment Authority
Commercial businesses
→
Property developers Private developers
Involves different stakeholders in cities coming together to make
decisions on how the city should be developed and managed in a
sustainable manner.
Coordinate their activities so that amenities and support infrastructure
are built within or around housing projects.
This meets the economic, social and environmental needs of the residents.
How to ensure sustainability
1. Need of the different groups and their competing demands can be resolved
2. Housing is not built independently and away from other city functions.
3. Amenities, infrastructure and other support services need to be built
Pros
(+) Needs of different social groups can be met since housing developments
consider various function of the city (industries, entertainment,
infrastructure) during the planning process
(+) Less conflicts between stakeholder since they work together to meet
their different needs (economic, social & environmental needs)
Cons
(-) Difficult to achieve as it require coordination of many stakeholders with
different aims and perspectives
(-) Costly. Cities in less developed countries(LDCs) may not have the
financial means to support all the different needs in cities.
Housing strategies (target formal housing)(9.3)
1. Integrated land use planning (more of function)
Social needs
Leisure - Malls
Tourism - Hotels, Attractions
Education - Schools
Transport - Roads, Bus
Industries - Factories (economic needs)
Greenery - Water bodies, Park (environment need)
Housing - HDB, Condo, Landed Property
Stakeholders
→
Industries provide jobs
→
Planning authorities (URA) government
*URA stands for Urban Redevelopment Authority
Commercial businesses
→
Property developers Private developers
Involves different stakeholders in cities coming together to make
decisions on how the city should be developed and managed in a
sustainable manner.
Coordinate their activities so that amenities and support infrastructure
are built within or around housing projects.
This meets the economic, social and environmental needs of the residents.
How to ensure sustainability
1. Need of the different groups and their competing demands can be resolved
2. Housing is not built independently and away from other city functions.
3. Amenities, infrastructure and other support services need to be built
Pros
(+) Needs of different social groups can be met since housing developments
consider various function of the city (industries, entertainment,
infrastructure) during the planning process
(+) Less conflicts between stakeholder since they work together to meet
their different needs (economic, social & environmental needs)
Cons
(-) Difficult to achieve as it require coordination of many stakeholders with
different aims and perspectives
(-) Costly. Cities in less developed countries(LDCs) may not have the
financial means to support all the different needs in cities.
2. Provision of Inclusive housing (targeting formal housing) (feelings of the
residents)
Inclusive housing in a sustainable city means that the population has
access to housing that meets their varying needs.
People of different physical conditions as well as different age
groups(such as youth, adult, toddler and elderly)/ different groups
(based on figure**) are considered.
Pros
(+) Since communities feel that their needs are met, they feel at ease in their
housing estates.
(+) Since communities feel that their needs are met, this creates a strong
sense of belonging to the estates as they spend quality time and create
memories there.
Cons
(-) More time and effort are needed to understand the needs of the community
to customise town design
(-) Building inclusive housing is costly and cities in less developed
countries(LDCs) may not be able to afford the construction cost.
3.Improvements to condition of slums (targeting informal housing)
Informal housing is a necessity if slum-dwellers are to survive in the
city as demolishing slums and resettling the occupants may not be
practical.
In slum upgrading, the government provides slum-dwellers with access to
basic services and upgrades the construction quality of slums.
Pros
(+) Informal settlers have better levels of health and reduction in spread of
waterborne diseases since they have access to basic services.
(+) With better access to basic services such as clean piped water/ proper
sanitation facilities/ proper waste disposal system, upgraded slums are less
likely to contribute to water and land pollution.
Cons
(-) Slum improvement schemes are not a long-term solution since some of the
areas where informal housing is built may not be in places that are
zoned/intended for housing.
(-) May not improve the quality of life of slum-dwellers as crime rates and
unemployment still remain high.
Transport Systems (10.1)
Movement between locations that require transport network (describe)
Transport network consists of sets of nodes and routes (describe)
Node- represent a location that provides entry to the transport
network
Route-represent the path of travel between nodes e.g. (lines between
train station)
connects with people between different locations, providing
opportunities for social interaction and economic trade
1. Density of Transport Networks
Network density refers to the number of nodes and routes in an area.
The more nodes and routes there are in an area, the denser the transport
network.
Cities have a higher network density compared to rural areas.
Dense transport networks makes it:
easier and faster for people to reach locations
easier for people to participate in different activities
How different are the transport networks across different scales?
Local, regional, global
1. Local
transit system, street network
2. Regional
Commuter Rail, Regional Air Network, National Highway System, National
Railway System, Short Sea Shipping/Feeder
3. Global
International Air Network, Maritime Shipping Network
2. Quality of transport infrastructure
high quality infrastructure ensures efficiency of movement of people &
goods.
Indicators of high quality of transport infrastructure.
Wide Coverage - wide availability and reach of infrastructure
Large capacity - allow high number of goods or people to be moved
High frequency - service arrive on high frequency basis/short waiting
time
Convenience - easy movement during travel
Environmental - low environmental impact of infrastructure
3. Variety of TRANSPORT MODES
Wide variety of transport modes that travel through air land water
Customised point-to-point services eg taxi
Motorised modes like public transport: move along fixed routes & stop at
specific nodes according to a time schedule.
Shared mobility through bike sharing & car sharing
Non motorised transport modes like walking and cycling which are more
environmentally friendly
Where are transport nodes located (10.2)
Terminal: start & end points of a journey
Interchange: important points of transfer within or between transport
networks
1. High concentration of activities
Located in areas with high concentration of activities such as finance,
manufacturing, retail, leisure (*depends on question*)
2. High level of accessibility
Accessibility : Whether places can be reached easily within reasonable
time and cost
High cost + long travel time = low level of accessibility
Low cost + short travel time = high level of accessibility
Major transport nodes are found in areas with high level of
accessibility
Why transport systems located in cities? (10.3)
1. Movement of people
Transport systems allow people to commute to work. This is because
residential areas are usually located away from each other.
Workplaces tend to be concentrated in the city centre while most
residential areas are found further away as housing near the city centre
is very costly, so there is a need for transport systems for people to
commute regularly to their workplace.
2. Movement of goods and services
Transport systems facilitate economic activities by supplying goods and
services from places of production to place of consumption.
With the rise of e-commerce where goods and services are bought or sold
over the internet, there is an increase in demand for door to door
delivery of goods.
3. Variety of TRANSPORT MODES
Wide variety of transport modes that travel through air land water
Customised point-to-point services eg taxi
Motorised modes like public transport: move along fixed routes & stop at
specific nodes according to a time schedule.
Shared mobility through bike sharing & car sharing
Non motorised transport modes like walking and cycling which are more
environmentally friendly
Where are transport nodes located (10.2)
Terminal: start & end points of a journey
Interchange: important points of transfer within or between transport
networks
1. High concentration of activities
Located in areas with high concentration of activities such as finance,
manufacturing, retail, leisure (*depends on question*)
2. High level of accessibility
Accessibility : Whether places can be reached easily within reasonable
time and cost
High cost + long travel time = low level of accessibility
Low cost + short travel time = high level of accessibility
Major transport nodes are found in areas with high level of
accessibility
Why transport systems located in cities? (10.3)
1. Movement of people
Transport systems allow people to commute to work. This is because
residential areas are usually located away from each other.
Workplaces tend to be concentrated in the city centre while most
residential areas are found further away as housing near the city centre
is very costly, so there is a need for transport systems for people to
commute regularly to their workplace.
2. Movement of goods and services
Transport systems facilitate economic activities by supplying goods and
services from places of production to place of consumption.
With the rise of e-commerce where goods and services are bought or sold
over the internet, there is an increase in demand for door to door
delivery of goods.
How transport systems impact the environment in cities? (11.1)
1. Changes to the physical environment
Development to the transport system require physical space which often
results in changes to physical environment
Natural vegetation may be cleared to build roads
Forest may be divided into small fragments, reducing the size of the
animal habitat and restricting animal movement to move freely and find
food.
When animals try to cross the busy road to the other side of the forest,
they become victims of roadkill
Landforms such as mountains, slopes, river channels have to be modified
for construction to enable movement over different topographies and
terrains.
River channels may be diverted to create transport infrastructure for
direct pathways to specific locations
1. Increased carbon footprint
All transport activities consume some form of energy such as
electricity, biofuel, petroleum. When petrol is burnt to provide energy,
carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases are produced. This contributes to
carbon footprint.
Carbon footprint is the measure of greenhouse gases emitted to support
human activities.
Greenhouse gases keep the earth warm but excessive concentrations of it
as a result of human activities lead to enhanced greenhouse effect and
global warming.
As cities are set to grow, transport infrastructure is set to expand.
In transport systems, fossil fuels are used to power motorised transport
modes. When these fossil fuels are used, greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide and methane are added to the atmosphere
How are transport systems sustainably managed? (11.3)
1.Laws and policies
Implemented to manage transport provision such as by implementing road
pricing.
Road pricing helps manage traffic congestion as road users are required
to pay an additional sum of money to use specific roads such as those
within the CBD.
Usually done so at certain times of the day especially during peak hours
(+) Additional profit/revenue earned by transport authorities which can be
used to improve the public transport system
(+) Creates faster travel times along road-priced roads. This discourages
vehicles to use roads which reduces traffic congestion which allow for
smoother travel around CBD
(-) Overall, traffic congestion is still not solved. Traffic is diverted to
roads without road-pricing resulting in traffic congestion in these areas
(-) Can be expensive for some cities(esp in LDCs) there is a lack of financial
means to put in proper systems to enforce regulations and collect fees
For example in 2012, there were as many as 72 electronic road pricing(ERP)
gantries set up in Singapore.
2.Research and development in technology
Done to develop environmentally-friendly transport infrastructure to
improve the provision of transport
Green technology is developed for transport systems such as electric
vehicles(EVs) which uses less fossil fuels
(+) EVs gave a smaller carbon footprint than conventional vehicles which
reduces greenhouse gas emissions by vehicles present on the road
(+) EVs help reduce noise pollution due to the use of greener technology
(-) Evs are more expensive than conventional vehicles. An EV cost twice as
much as a conventional diesel bus
(-) Lack of charging points for EVs reduces convenience for drivers result
them in less likely to switch to environmentally-friendly transport
infrastructure
The first fleet of electric buses were rolled out in 2020 in Singapore
